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17.
Expanding Imagination Through Audio-Visual: Application Of New
Technology In Teaching Of English
Suman Sirohi*
*Associate Professor of English, Government College for Women, Ambala City
Days have changed and so has life. We are preparing ourselves for the post-COVID
world. The new normal is emerging: caged at home but connected to the world; sitting at home
but the home converted to office. The classroom has taken a new shape with new dimensions
bathed in a new aura which underlines the importance of new tools for online teaching in the
present scenario. The lockdown has turned out to be the unlocking of locked-up mental and
imaginative powers of the modern man.
Gone are the days of the teacher-centric chalk and talk method. For motivating his
students, the only driving force available to the teacher earlier was the chastising cane which he
used religiously and profusely, never forgetting the motto ‘Spare the rod and spoil the child’ to
carve gentlemen out of the ‘beasts’ admitted to his class. In the pre-COVID era, the teacher and
the taught were largely confined to the classroom with limited pedagogic tools available to them
in the form of the chalk, the blackboard and the textbook. Out of all the tools available, the one
was sure-shot to work: the potent weapon, the chastising cane that could awaken the student
from the deepest of slumbers even in the wee hours at 4 a.m. The ‘motivated and charged’
student read and rote whatever had been assigned to him by the great Master, cramming from
dusk to dawn, till it was the time to rush to school. You miss a word here or a punctuation mark
there, Hell will let loose upon you and there you are, dashed to the ground in front of the whole
class, rather the school, since the class would be held in the open, under the trees where all eyes
and all souls present on the campus were witness to the event of humanizing a beast by the great
Tutor - the glorious, the noble.
It is a paradigm shift today. The need of the hour is to be prepared for the ‘new normal’,
which requires the teacher to engage students online in a meaningful communication wherein the
learner has gained endless freedom and autonomy. Sitting in his attic and sharing knowledge
with his pupils through online resources, the teacher, the Guru has to play a vital role in instilling
certain skills in his students. For communication and instructional purposes, it is essential for the
teacher to reach out to the students and, hence, the need of online teaching. He requires
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instructional materials, in the form of audio, visual and audio-visual both,1 to drill knowledge
and skill in students in a given time.
Digital literacy is the topmost priority of a teacher today. The ‘3 Rs’ - Reading, Writing
and Reciting - are to be supplemented with Realign, Restructure and Rejuvenate. The teacher, as
facilitator, must be equipped with digital expertise. He must be like a supercomputer, constantly
mending and improving, storing information and correcting it to surpass the limitations caused
due to COVID-19. There is a need to revive and realign one’s talents as well as ideas,
respectively, for effective teaching. A successful teacher is one whose students eventually
become more learned than himself. English teachers, in particular, will be remarkably good at
using technology as they are good now at using texts to help liberate the imagination of their
students.2
The lockdown has proved a blessing in disguise for teaching-learning; a journey from
authoritarian and non-interactive instruction to network technology-based e-learning.3
Classrooms have been classified into 4 types:
1. Traditional: In such a classroom, 0% content is shared online. Course material without online
technology is shared by the teachers in a limited environment. It is a face-to-face situation in toto.
2. Web Facilitated: In such classrooms, less than 30% content is shared online. Course material
is used mostly in a face-to-face situation with the occasional use of web-based technology.
3. Blended/ Hybrid: In such classrooms, most of the course material, about 80%, is shared online,
with limited face-to-face interaction.
4. Online: In such classrooms, more than 80% content is shared online. There is no face-to-face
teaching-learning situation.
For students beginning to learn a new language, it is essential that teaching be augmented
by audio-visual aids to make it more meaningful and effective. It has been demonstrated that a
topic can be taught effectively if the teacher supplements his spoken or written materials with
audio-visual materials in the form of pictures, diagrams, charts, et cetera. Audio-visual aids
mostly used in a classroom are audio clips of native speech, songs, sound phonemic charts, vivid
images, short videos and documentaries. In teaching of English, audio-visual aids such as
PowerPoints, songs, activities in Language Lab enhance the imagination of the students.
Graphic organizers help the readers visualize verbal statements. There are graphic
organizers in the form of cognitive and advanced organizers, concept maps and diagrams and
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knowledge and story maps that help learners see visual representation of knowledge.4 It is a
clearly established fact that these aids can work wonders in English composition classes and can
motivate the students immensely towards becoming proficient in the second language. In a
traditional classroom, the students write only memorized essays. There is no creative writing due
to the rote learning. The learner’s cognitive development level remains the same. During online
teaching, through the use of audio-visual aids, the learner’s creativity is enhanced. It is a fact that
the language is culturally constructed. With the help of technology, the culture and its language
can be created and introduced in the classroom using the media, the television, the internet,
social sites and other such tools. The learners are exposed to the second language in an online
class with the help of multimedia pre-writing tools. They come across new ideas, issues,
information, sentence structures and vocabulary when they watch, listen and experience the
second language in their minds.5
Audio-visual aids like Suggestopedia developed by Georgie Lozanov, a Bulgarian
psychiatrist educator, are very effective in teaching the second language because a comfortable
and relaxing learning environment is created in the classroom,6 which is quintessential for the
enhancement of imagination, creativity and ideological evolution. Among other audio-visual aids,
Skype is a very effective online tool in teaching of English poetry. It is good for teaching of
English speaking and listening and rules of grammar. The teacher can give listening exercises to
the students and with the help of playback periods and forecast provide opportunity to the
students. Through reading poetry, the students can improve upon the fluency and pronunciation
of their language. Reading poetry and literature online would be of great help. The students can
see that poetry can be silly, fun and creative, too. The walls of resistance start coming down with
the effective use of digital resources and students fall in love with literature.
Our society today is blessed with the trendy modern communication. Teachers are well
equipped with the materials which allow the students opportunity to relive the past, visit foreign
lands, hear the speeches of great men or view planets of outer space. The resourcefulness of the
teacher decides the number of devices used to teach a subject. Another pedagogical tool is a
literary virtual world which is a computer-based simulated environment, interpreting a literary
source or text(s). It provides an opportunity for students, ranging from casual book group
conversation to careful literary criticism. It may be described as a ‘textual riff’ which is an
inviting and open forum promoting student research and creativity.7 There is another interactive
3-D virtual world, namely Second Life, which is beneficial for teachers in acquiring digital skills
to promote educators’ use of new technology.8 Angela Thomas, a literary researcher at the
University of Tasmania, developed educational sites in Second Life such as Foul Whisperings
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and Strange Matters at Macbeth Island. Such sites provide a chance to the learner to have a
profound understanding of the play by Shakespeare by participating as a character in the play,
which leads to the enhancement of critical reading and thinking capabilities of the students.
Through the use of such virtual worlds, teaching-learning acquires a new dimension, giving the
learner autonomy and ideological freedom to attain new heights of human imagination and
experience. Some educators feel a dire need of implementation of ‘liquid curricula’, though it is
to be seen as risky with regards to the facilitation of effective learning and assessment strategies.9
The best learning takes place when the greatest number of senses are stimulated. It is
affected by the audio-visual aids used by good teachers. The basis for all learning is experience.
Teachers cannot give first-hand experience to the students; therefore, they resort to written and
oral words. Only words cannot provide a vivid learning experience; therefore, good teachers
devise methods to make learning meaningful. A device is an incentive to stimulate the pupil’s
curiosity and enhance his understanding through experiencing. At present, the employment of
newer strategies and methods by teachers in the form of audio-visual aids is essential to improve
the quality of teaching-learning.10 They wisely use a variety of instructional devices, audio-visual
materials to give real experience to students to develop their understanding. The virtual
classroom enhances the imagination of the students in learning. Such experiments have been
conducted and learning through audio-visuals has been advocated by earlier thinkers and
educators also; Erasmus, Comenius and Rousseau, to name a few.
The digital education tools available today have given 100% autonomy to the students,
changing the classroom from being teacher-centered to student-centered. They have helped in
improving the administration of academic purposes. Above all, they have facilitated
communication between the teacher and the learner. Such digital education tools are numerous:
1. Edmodo is useful in online dissemination of information to groups of students, evaluation of
their knowledge and communication with their parents along with other functions.
2. Socrative is a wonderful tool which allows teachers to create exercises and educational
games.
3. Projeqt assists users in the creation of online presentations, quizzes and interactive maps that
can be shared on a variety of platforms.
4. Thinglink helps create interactive digital media with photographs, text and sounds. This can
be shared on Twitter, Facebook and other social networks. It offers the possibility for
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teachers of creating learning methodologies that awaken the curiosity of the students through
interactive content and expand their knowledge.
5. Ted-Ed is quite convenient in providing unlimited freedom to learners of various disciplines.
6. CK12 is a website for creating books and thus it lessens economic burden on the teacher and
the taught. It has an open-source interface.
7. Class Dojo helps monitor students’ behaviour. Students are provided with instant feedback so
that a good disposition in class is rewarded with points. It is helpful in creating a receptive
attitude towards the learning process among students. It provides real time notifications.
8. Edu Clipper is a convenient storehouse of online teaching material.
9. Story Bird promotes writing and reading skills using interactive and artistic books online.
Such stories can be embedded in blogs, sent by email and printed, among other options.
Teachers can create projects with students, give constant feedback and organize classes and
grades.
10. Animoto helps in creating and sharing audiovisual instructional material.
11. Kahoot! makes online teaching lively and friendly through online quizzes, games and tests.
The challenge of online teaching and learning has been successfully dealt with by the
teaching fraternity. In the world of academia, endless possibilities have been unleashed and the
forces of energy, creativity, knowledge and imagination have been let loose. The new normal
today has freed the learners as well as the pedagogues from the captivity of the traditional
classroom and its conventional tools in its limited resources. There is no stern schoolmaster
stuffing the brains of the students with his limited acquired knowledge using the obsolete tools of
the blackboard, chalk, duster and of course, the cane.
With the onset of this brave new world, the fear of “spare the rod and spoil the child” has
vanished. The new digital education tools, which are endlessly democratized and student-centric,
have ensured more autonomy for the learner with the free flow of imagination, curiosity and
enthusiasm.
The revolution has begun. Though it is premature to be prophetic about the final effects
on human imagination of these new found audio-visual aids, one thing stands certain: human
creativity will only tread uphill.
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Works Cited
Bello, S., and Umar Goni. "Relationship between Audio-Visual Materials and Environmental
Factors on Students Academic Performance in Senior Secondary Schools in Borno State:
Implications for Counselling." Journal of Education and Practice 7.24 (2016): 173-177.
Goodwyn, Andrew. English in the Digital Age: Information and Communications Technology
(ITC) and the Teaching of English. A&C Black, 2000.
Galy, Edith, Clara Downey, and Jennie Johnson. "The effect of using e-learning tools in online
and campus-based classrooms on student performance." Journal of Information
Technology Education: Research 10.1 (2011): 209-230.
Bromley, K. et al. 50 Graphic organizers for reading, writing and more. New York:
Scholastic. (1999).
Shams, Anam et al. “The impact of audio-visual aids and graphic organizers on the writing
skills of ESL learners at AMU +2 girls.” Global Journal of Interdisciplinary Social
Sciences 5.5 (2016): 15-36
ML Mamun, Md. Effectiveness of audio visual aids in language teaching in tertiary level.
Diss. BRAC University, 2014.
Webb, Allen, ed. Teaching literature in virtual worlds: Immersive learning in English studies.
Routledge, 2012.
Guzzetti, Barbara J., and Mary Stokrocki. "Teaching and learning in a virtual world."
E-Learning and Digital Media 10.3 (2013): 242-259.
Steils, Nicole, et al. "Implementing the liquid curriculum: the impact of virtual world learning
on higher education." Technology, Pedagogy and Education 24.2 (2015): 155-170.
Asma, L. The Impact of Using the Audio Visual Aids to Improve Students’ Speaking Skill:
The Case of Third Year Students of English at Mohamed Kheider University of Biskra.
Diss. Thesis. Department of Foreign Language Division, University of Mohamed
Kheider Biskra University, 2016.
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18.
Integrating Technology With English Literature, Language And Creativity
Dr. Suchitra*
*Assistant Professor (English), MDU-CPAS, Gurugram
Abstract: The paper delineates the inter-relationship between technology, creativity,
teaching and learning of English literature and language. It examines how the proper use of
various technologies in the teaching and learning of English has the potential of helping learners
to develop their creativity. Technologies can provide an ambience under which language skills
can be broadened. They can help in developing the ability to work out the language issues at
hand and enable learners to investigate, analyse and interpret expressions in different contexts.
Furthermore, an attempt has been made to see how with technology, learners can use an untried
and investigational approach to deal with cultural specific and context-specific aspects of
literature and language; taking up selected works. It studies how this in turn will lead to
inference, supposition, prototype finding, examples and counter examples; providing the literary
curious readers the opportunity to go beyond the physical limits of teaching, helping them
envision the world virtually while sitting in the confines of class rooms; providing them the
fluidity of experience through visual and auditory paraphernalia, enriching their literary
understanding and providing a four dimensional vision. The paper looks how if used efficiently,
technology can help in improving learners’ rational facility by providing a vast, varied and
evolving framework encouraging an indispensable curiosity and creativity that is fluid and
vibrant. An effort has been made to see how technology opens up huge vistas adding new
dimensions to language and literature giving wings to creativity and imagination.
Key Words: Inferences, Vistas, Context-specific, framework, literature
Introduction: Literature has existed and evolved since the time humans have learned to
communicate - from the oral folklores, biblical verses, classical hand written texts, printed texts
to the e-books of the current scenario. We have come a long way from learning language and
writing literature. The world, too, has undergone huge transformation and today we find
ourselves in the middle of a paradigm shift as a global society. The present age is the age of
ideas, inundating information, communication and interconnectivity between the remotest
corners of the world. The present phase of human development can be said to be so far the most
visually enthused phase and the present generation of youth the most visually enthused
generation to teach. The current generation has not seen a world without technology. And to
cater to the literary needs of this generation, born with and groomed with technology all-round, it
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is only pertinent that in the field of literature we integrate teaching with technology. Having
grown up with smart TVs, smart Phones, video games, computer software, internet connectivity,
this generation of youth needs to be taught the way they see and comprehend the world around.
We will have to let the visual stirred nature of the current set of students to percolate into our
teaching techniques and instructional strategies.
When discussing learning and teaching, it is essential to be aware of the very basics of
learning and understanding. Different psychologists have given different perspectives on human
understanding, nature and learning. Carl Jung, a contemporary of Sigmund Freud, developed a
pioneering personality theory that brought in two attitudes: extroversion and introversion (1933a).
He also analysed human behaviour as a mixture of four psychic features: thinking as against
feeling and intuition as against sensation (1933b). Many theorists have divided these patterns
into different groupings over the time. David Kolb presented the "experiential learning" model
which emphasised that we keep learning continually, building particular strengths or personal
preferences. He named these four learning styles as Accommodating, Converging, Diverging,
and Assimilating. Another educational psychologist Walter Burke Barbe and his colleagues gave
the VAK theory; proposing three "modalities" of learning: Visual, Auditory,
and Kinaesthetic (movement and touch). According to the VAK theorists, learners use all three
modalities to gain new knowledge preferring one style of learning for one activity, and a blend of
others for a diverse activity. So, as educationist we need to present information using all three
styles allowing all learners the prospect to get involved whole heartedly in the learning process.
No matter what the different theorists say, one thing is sure that we humans have layers of
understanding which unfold when we get engrossed into a subject or idea with all our senses;
and then we appreciate the idea better. For example, one can’t understand Keats without
reaching a level of sensory imagination. One will have to imagine and visualise the beauty and
expressions of Keats’ poems.
As educationist, the sculptors of the future (the youth) of any nation, we chisel the raw
talents of students making them better learners and perceptive human beings. This will be
possible only when we as teachers utilise the resources available to us in a creative manner and
involve students in the learning process unequivocally. Only then will we be able to do full
justice to the necessities of teaching and create an ambience of learning. In this age of
technology, the proper use of various technologies in the teaching and learning has the potential
of helping learners to develop their creativity. Technologies can provide environs under which
learning skills can be broadened.
Technology in Literature: Talking specifically of literature and language, the inter-
relationship between technology, creativity, teaching and learning of English literature and
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language can’t be underestimated. Incorporation of visual aids and other technologically
advanced features as teaching techniques in literature and language has become increasingly
important. Literature is a form of expression where we look into, narrate, convey, enthuse or
envisage. And when we want to express, experience, communicate or envision, we use some sort
of a tool; in case of literature this tool is a pen. Whether it is a pen, a camera, a paint brush or
canvas; each of the methods whether we are writing, reciting, taking a photograph or painting,
has its own set of expectations, criteria and checks. Teaching literature in class has its own
charm and challenges. In literature classroom, students often face problems in reading and
understanding the assigned literary texts. The students may not feel motivated to read literary
texts due to lack of language proficiency or inadequate supply of teaching materials or their
inability to relate the abstract concepts or they may find the concepts, philosophical or cultural
specific as unreal table. Thus there is a need to introduce a way in the students concerns can be
taken into consideration. Technology comes as a helping tool in such a situation. Such a situation
demands the use of visual aids in teaching literature in order to trigger students’ motivation in
reading literary texts and make them see for themselves and thereby relate to the concepts
narrated in the text.
But the fundamental issue here is how the use of visual aids can be integrated in teaching
literary texts. The need is to be innovative. A blended approach of the traditional teaching and
with the aid of ICT, multimedia will create wonders in creating a learning environment in the
classroom and open up huge vistas adding new dimensions to language and literature, giving
wings to creativity and imagination. If a teacher of literature while explaining some rural scene
in India wants to explain the scene of “the hour of cow dust” or “gaudhuli vela” to a student who
has never seen such a scene; how she will wish that she could show them the “goudhuli vela.”
This need to find a source of reference will be all the more strong when the hour of cow-dust set
in rural India is explained to a student from some foreign culture who is not familiar to the
Indian culture. If one has to smell and feel the “gaudhuli vela” then one has to be there - smell,
feel and breathe the scent of sun baked dust rising to reach the horizon. Here, technology can
come in handy. Through Augmented Reality (AR) we can present visual 4D images capturing
the scenic beauty of ‘the hour of cow-dust’ to the students. This will make the visualization and
annotations better. Though pictures can’t beat the real but they can give a stepping stone to the
students who had had not an iota of an idea of “goudhuli vela.” And from this stepping stone
they can give wings to their imagination - visualising and feeling the scent and smell of the real
“goudhuli vela.”
But what is required is a blending in of creativity while using technology. The role of
teacher is extremely important here. The teacher, especially of literature and language, has to
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play the role of choreographer and facilitators of the learning process. The teacher has to feel the
feelings of the students, notice the effort they are making to grasp the nuances of their subject
gripping with the connotations and then glancing towards the teacher to seek his intervention
without saying anything; for they are took engrossed to utter a word. It’s for the teacher to see
and perceive the shades of expressions on their faces and hold their hands and make them tread
the deep layers of meanings in the lines that have baffled them or halted their flow of
imagination. The visual teaching through multimedia or other channels can be used very
aesthetically here to engross the students. It can happen only when the teacher leads students,
feeling their presence mental and physical in their collective/ common journey to grasp the
inherent ideas of the subject.
Such creative and appropriate use of technology will make students to have full
concentration leading to an enhanced comprehension of the story and flow of the texts. Thus,
using visual aids like pictures, videos and projectors in teaching literature creates strong
engagement between students and the texts. These aids motivate students to read texts with
curiosity, giving them the much needed confidence to move further after gaining some
familiarity with the connotations of words, culture specific references and context specific
mentions making it easier for them to understand the abstract ideas in the texts. Thus
technological aids can be used as tools to enrich and enhance the reading and learning of
literature.
Technology and Language: Alike, in the use of multimedia applications for language teaching
the insertion of visual aids in teaching enables authentic improvements in language knowledge.
For example if a foreign student takes up to read Nirmal Verma’s The Last Wilderness then he
may find certain words and expressions to be very culture specific and find them difficult to
understand. Hindi origin words like ‘Teepay’ used instead of stool, ‘Chowkidar’ instead of
watchman, ‘Deodar’ instead of Indian Pine, ‘Jharoke’ instead of window will be difficult for him
to understand. The teacher can make the understanding easy with the help of visual images and
pictures of these things and can even familiarise the student with the Indian culture a bit through
some documentary and videos in order to give a cultural feel of source culture.
The cultural specific words in any text add authenticity to it in respect of its cultural feel,
however, such words creates a difficulty for the student who is not familiar to the language and
culture of the text. Therein the teacher can seek the help of technology in providing notes,
glossaries and links to relate to for understanding the connotations of the words in a specific
culture. One of the basic issues discussed time and again in discourses on literary readings is the
need of understanding the culture specific connotations of words in any text; words commonly
having culture specific connotations are names of food items, dresses, places, religious terms,
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names of institutions etc. which are particular to the culture and more abstract terms. Besides, a
literary text may also have features elucidating social customs, traditions such as ‘purdah’ etc. It
is distinguishing of a fine educator that he should takes into account the lexical and grammatical
features of such custom specific words and familiarise his students with them as some of these
may not be similar to the mother tongue of the reader. Learners can face difficulty in determining
meaning for unfamiliar words in a text, mainly because they could not identify the meaning of
the word or have restricted knowledge of the words or are not familiar to the connotations of
words.
Connotations of words ensue from contexts and contexts are usually culture specific. For
instance, for words anghoocha, saree, pallu, dhabha, lota etc. used in The Last Wilderness there
are no exact words in English. The understanding of the essence of these terms and their
relevance in the text is essential for an accurate understanding of the cultural connotations of the
text itself. In another instance when the narrator while analysing the situation on the morning
after Mehra Sahib’s death, while collecting his mortal remains uses the expression, “The bones
that had turned into flowers at the touch of the sun.” (Verma trans. Kanjilal. 261). This
expression has got specific religious and cultural connotations. A student unfamiliar with the
Indian last rites of Hindus will fail to grasp the philosophy behind the scene as some ideas are
not even known or practiced in other cultures.
To overcome this problem, a teacher can use visual vocabulary to assist students in
comprehending the connotations of the words indigenous to a language and culture. With such
aids the reader would be able to construct images in his mind of the underlying phrasing he
comes across in the story. Students will be able to expand the expression used in the text for its
complexities by examining its relevance and will be able to translate the abstract to the concrete.
I would be apt here to make reference to Wright (1990) who was of the belief that students can
make more sense out of the visuals and hence the learning experience of a language under
consideration would turn out to be more remarkable and useful with the incorporation of visuals,
Conclusion: As teachers, we are constantly in search of the best approach to teach our students
and give wings to their imagination by igniting the spark of curiosity and incessant search for
knowledge in them. This can be done by identifying the strengths of the students and then
finding ways to tap into them. Undoubtedly, fast advancement of technology integration in
teaching has brought forth better prototype of teaching pedagogy. As a result, technology has a
key role to play in learning and teaching language skills and literature in the times to come. The
integration of technology to generate a framework to teach and learn language has a lot of
benefits. Multimedia such as audio or voice clips of poems, animation of texts and graphics
novels, Augmented Reality (AR) etc. allows one to transport an entity or idea into a certainty
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that is otherwise only imagined and hence difficult to grasp. The blending in of the traditional
teaching with visual or ICT aids help the students to inference, supposition, prototype finding,
examples and counter examples; providing the literary curious readers the opportunity to go
beyond the physical limits of teaching. It helps them envision the world virtually while sitting in
the confines of class rooms; providing them the fluidity of experience through visual and
auditory paraphernalia, enriching their literary understanding and providing a four dimensional
vision.
Works Cited
Barbe, Walter Burke. Swassing, Raymond H.; Milone, Michael N. Teaching through Modality
Strengths: Concepts Practices. Columbus, Ohio: Zaner-Bloser. 1979. ISBN 0883091003.
OCLC 5990906.
Jung, C. G. Modern Man In Search of A Soul. New York: Harcourt, Brace.1933b.
Jung, C. G. Psychological Types. New York: Harcourt, Brace.1933a.
Kolb, David A. Experiential learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. 2015
[1984]. ISBN 9780133892406. OCLC 909815841
Verma, Nirmal. Trans. Pratik Kanjilal. The Last Wilderness. New Delhi: Indigo Publishing
Pvt. Ltd.
Wright, A. (1990). Pictures for language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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19.
The Way Forward - Scope of Blended Learning in Post-Covid Scenario
Harneet Kaur*
*Assistant Professor, Indira Gandhi National College, Ladwa, Distt Kurukshetra
The exploded spread of the virus Covid-19 throughout the world has brought unexpected and
conspicuous changes in all the spheres of life. As a result, education - the basic component of
human civilization - is swaying under the impact of this pandemic in India just like many other
parts of the world. With lockdown and social distancing in our country, once it seemed as if the
teaching-learning process has come to a halt. But no; as it is commonly known that every
problem has a solution! This pandemic has opened up new avenues in the field of education and
teaching-learning process. It has become possible with the sincere efforts of the teaching
fraternity, who boldly accepted the challenges despite limited means. Teachers are trying hard to
make the mare go by adopting various teaching-learning approaches. And this input has resulted
in the marvellous boom of online classes, courses, webinars, conferences, workshops and so on.
A great transformation can be seen in the entire strata of classroom and face to face teaching that
has given place to online teaching-learning. Education system in India has always been changing
as per the requirements and it always keeps pace with the technological advancements.
Online education or use of ICT is not a new concept in India. “The E-Gyankosh, a National
Digital Repository of learning resources, project was started by Indira Gandhi National Open
University, in 2006.” (Imran, 34) The teaching fraternity had been using Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) tools even before that. But here the vantage point of
discussion is the transformation of the traditional classroom teaching i.e. the centuries’ old chalk
and talk platform of teaching and the budding of online and virtual classroom.
Due to the pandemic, all the schools, colleges and universities across India were abruptly
closed for an indefinite period and there was an immediate need to reconsider the teaching-
learning and pedagogical methods. Technology, which has always been a part of effective means
of teaching, came to the forefront to aid the teaching - learning fraternity. Though it was seen as
a boon by the tech-savvies, but it was a compulsion for the tech-phobics. Willing or not willing,
it has become necessary for each and every teacher and taught to adopt the technology. In the
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pandemic, the Indian education system has been wrapped with those changes which would have
taken decades otherwise. The pandemic has forced almost all the educational sectors to establish
and develop the online pedagogy as now the situation is of ‘Do or Die’. The government’s
initiation of the ‘Digital India’ campaign and e-learning platforms launched by the government,
MHRD and UGC in this regard are commendable. And the advantages, for the learner as well as
the teacher, are of course discernible.
One major advantage of e-learning is that students can learn and practise anytime and
anywhere, sitting comfortably wearing loose garments, and free from the fear of being infected
by the pandemic, as it is remote learning. The basic tools required are computers, laptops,
smartphones or any such device able to access the internet. The teacher and the learners
communicate through online classes, web meets, e-chats, video conferencing, e-mails, i-
messaging, document sharing, Moodle, LMS etc. Secondly, it encourages self-learning and
enhances critical thinking. Moreover, students are more engaged and independent. Internet
facilities help them explore the core of the content. Freedom from the classroom hassle and
restrictions of staying home due to the pandemic has provided the learners ample time for self
study. Online teaching also saves time, energy and money consumed in commuting from home
to educational institute and vice-versa. E-teaching is cost-effective in one more way as larger
groups can be dealt with at a stretch and with great ease as compared to classical teaching.
One more basic advantage of online learning over conventional classroom teaching is that it
is learner-centric. A learner can run at his own pace. In a classroom there are every kind of
students - advance, average and slow learners; everyone has to follow the lessons at the same
pace as it is a collective activity. Through online learning, reading materials, course materials
(audio, video etc) as well as assignments are provided to learners; students can follow these
study materials as per their comfort, capabilities and capacities. They can take their own time
according to their potential. They can revise and repeat these course materials as per their needs
without having the teacher to explain the same material; again and again. Thus they can go
through and dive deep into their course materials. It is contrary to the classroom teaching where
lecture is delivered to all kind of students once and at a definite period of time. Students take
more interest in online learning and new kind of assignments like quizzes and games. Education
gone online has made learning easier for physically handicapped students.
But as a popular saying goes, ‘every coin has two sides’. Online learning is not free from its
own hassles and disadvantages. On one hand it provides comfortable environment but on the
other, there is lack of learning environment too. The process of learning might slow down in
some cases. Being in their comfort zone, students may waste and kill their time in counter-
productive activities. Since the internet provides a vast and unlimited area to explore, students
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easily get distracted. Though it is very useful for exceptionally motivated students having
intrinsic urge of learning, remote learning is not everybody’s cup of tea. There will be a dearth of
discipline in a student’s life. Moreover the voices, noise and aroma of homely place might be
another cause of distraction and disturbance. Also, there are various health hazards posed by this
method of learning, since students are constantly sitting in their places and staring at their
screens. It causes a risk to their eyesight as well as their fitness since physical activities are
highly barred. Such lifestyle also affects their attitude and mental health to some extent. Besides
physical education, an online classroom also lacks aesthetic activities like music, dance and fine
arts, which are otherwise common in many educational institutes in the country. Hence online
classroom, in most cases, cannot provide over-all development to the students.
Without proper accessibility of internet, all the teaching process shatters badly. Teachers
spend a lot of time and energy in creating online study materials. There is no doubt that constant
practice will enable teachers to get used to online tools and use them efficiently, and in the long
run it might save a lot of time and energy. But as of now, most of them are not dexterous in
handling the ‘new’ deal of technology being used.
Face to face teaching provides scope for better queries and content clarity. Under the direct
guidance of teacher, students are more attentive and participate actively. Classroom also
provides motivation and competitive spirit. Interaction among students is very useful; there is
growth of multiple ideas. Moreover, external check is generally essential to keep the learners on
the right track.
It becomes so much time consuming for the not-so-tech-savvy whenever there are bugs,
glitches and technical faults. Time is wasted in abundance whenever there are distractions due to
various undesirable online suggestions by different sources because of internet connectivity.
Especially the younger generation is attracted towards colourful images and videos. Moreover,
internet provides numerous games which may provoke the students to play instead of studying.
This means that they can continue to play these games without their parents having any
objections, if they disguise the play time as their studying hours. In the absence of an educator,
their attentions can be easily diverted.
Taking into view the disadvantages of digital teaching, the physical classrooms seem
necessary. Physical classrooms have some specific features which are totally absent in the virtual
classroom or e-learning. A teacher not only teaches the students, he/she nurtures their inner spirit;
the commendable and the chiding words as well as personal touch of a teacher is very precious
for the real growth of students as these words motivate and nurture them. The direct and eye-to-
eye contact of the teacher and the taught cannot be compensated through digital learning. A
physical classroom also inculcates values of discipline, punctuality, integrity and morality.
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Creative thinking, problem solving attitude and skills; feeling of responsibility, power of
respecting and affection; holistic development of body, mind and soul, and time management are
some of the virtues that are gained and encouraged only in the peer group and classroom
teaching. Swami Vivekananda once said, “Our real awakening takes place when we dedicate our
life to extended ideal”. And these extended ideals can be realized only in the true life situations
i.e. undoubtedly gained in the physical classroom.
Classroom learning is best for the students belonging to lower strata and rural background as
they can neither make arrangements nor can they create environment for online learning which is
not a good option for them at all. There is a lack of motivation, guidance and learning
environments where the primary concerns of parents is to work and earn a living. Online
classrooms are also not viable for students lacking hearing, sight, or mental stability, as it is quite
hard to find interactive material in sign language, Braille script, etc.
Though virtual classroom is an attempted replica of the classroom with a chalkboard and a
projector; they are not the better replacement. If on one hand online education has rescued the
learning from sinking, on the other it has also made us realize how important and irreplaceable a
physical classroom is!
The edition of ‘The Economist’ on 4 July 2020 states, “Covid-19 is here to stay. People will
have to adapt”. And actually the Post-Covid era would begin not when the virus disappears from
the face of the earth, but when people would adapt them accordingly. As the vaccine for the virus
is yet to be discovered, nobody knows how long the current state is going to remain. However, it
is quite clear that the Post-Covid era would definitely be different from the Pre-Covid era as far
as learning is concerned. The development of online learning in this pandemic period has opened
up new paths of learning and it would not be possible to stand again on the same step where we
left as it would be a backward motion. It is evident that e-learning tools are very much useful
and beneficial in the teaching-learning process. It is quite clear now that e-learning would
effectively go hand in hand with the classroom teaching. Oliver Wendell Holmes’s words make
sense here, “The great thing in this world is not so much where you stand, as in what direction
you are moving.”
We have experimented and learnt a lot in this Covid-era which has shown us pros and cons
of e-teaching and e-learning. And it has proved the value of blended learning which seems the
best strategy of teaching learning pedagogy. Blending learning can be described here as the
combination of traditional classroom teaching and online tools. The disadvantages of online
learning and classroom teaching can be strained through the sieve of blended learning. This
blended learning could also be called flipped learning where teacher-centric approach would be
replaced with learner-centric approach. Teacher would have to use engaging, involving and
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motivating tools instead of instructional and didactic tools so that students may learn by doing,
thinking, involving, practising, and connecting ideas. The role of the teacher would flip from the
instructor to the updated facilitator who would plan his sessions to make them effective for each
student and support individual learning. I would like to sum up with the words of Tony Zambito,
“Instead of using technology to automate the process, think about using technology to enhance
interaction.” And the result of this amalgamation of classroom facilitation and engaging online
tools would be exceptionally fruitful, enriching, interesting and enlightening.
Works Cited
Abbott, Kieran. Instead Of Using Technology To Automate Processes, Think About Using
Technology To Enhance Human Interaction | Dreamsight Internet Website Design, PPC &
Marketing Company Based in Gloucester. news.dreamsight.co.uk,
https://news.dreamsight.co.uk/software/instead-of-using-technology-to-automate-processes-
think-about-using-technology-to-enhance-human-interaction/. Accessed 9 July 2020.
Arshavskiy, Marina. ELearning Evolution - The 3 Biggest Changes in 5 Years and How to Adapt
to Them for Success. www.shiftelearning.com,
https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/elearning-evolution-the-biggest-changes. Accessed 10
July 2020.
Bezhovski, Zlatko, and Subitcha Poorani. “The Evolution of E-Learning and New Trends.”
Information and Knowledge Management, vol. 6, no. 3, 2016, pp. 50–57.
Imran, Sheikh Mohd. “Online Higher Education in India during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” BJIS,
Marília (SP), v.6, n.2, p.26-45, Jul./Dec. 2012. Available in:
<http://Www2.Marilia.Unesp.Br/Revistas/Index.Php/Bjis/Index>. ISSN: 1981-1640.
www.orfonline.org, https://www.orfonline.org/research/online-higher-education-in-india-
during-the-covid-19-pandemic-66768/. Accessed 15 July 2020.
Nanduru, Baker. “How Automation Can Enhance Personal Connections.” CMO.Adobe.Com.
https://cmo.adobe.com/articles/2016/3/automation-dilemma-how-do-you-connect-with-
customers-at-scale.html. Accessed 9 July 2020.
Nicholson, Paul. “A History of E-Learning.” Computers and Education: E-Learning, From
Theory to Practice, edited by Baltasar Fernández-Manjón et al., Springer Netherlands, 2007,
pp. 1–11. Springer Link, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4914-9_1.
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Picciano, Anthony G., et al. Blended Learning: Research Perspectives, Volume 2. Routledge,
2013.
Shenoy, Veena, et al. COVID 19 – Lockdown: Technology Adaption, Teaching, Learning,
Students Engagement and Faculty Experience. p. 5.
The Way We Live Now - Covid-19 Is Here to Stay. People Will Have to Adapt | Leaders | The
Economist. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/07/04/covid-19-is-here-to-stay-
people-will-have-to-adapt. Accessed 15 July 2020.
Toquero, Cathy Mae. “Challenges and Opportunities for Higher Education amid the COVID-19
Pandemic: The Philippine Context.” Pedagogical Research, vol. 5, no. 4, Apr. 2020, p.
em0063. DOI.org (Crossref), doi:10.29333/pr/7947.
www.ETGovernment.com. “COVID-19 Pandemic: Impact and Strategies for Education Sector in
India - ET Government.” ETGovernment.Com. government.economictimes.indiatimes.com,
https://government.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/education/covid-19-pandemic-
impact-and-strategies-for-education-sector-in-india/75173099. Accessed 14 July 2020.
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20.
Evolution And Extinction In Pedagogy: Scope Of Blended Learning
In Higher Educational Institutions
Dr. Komil Tyagi*
*Assistant Professor (II), Department of English and Research Centre
Mehr Chand Mahajan DAV College for Women, Chandigarh
One of the finest lines of vocations in the world, teaching, holds the supreme place amongst
all. Teachers are the architects of humankind that define the perceptions and ambitions of the
learner and, value academic and objective labour. The abrupt and traumatic advent of Covid-19
has re-shaped the world in draconian manners, terms and forms. The traditional course of
teaching and learning that always held a sacrosanct position is now undergoing a metamorphosis
and evolving into several forms with the sudden and forceful switch to online teaching since
March 2020. This diluted form of the original structure has led to the evolution and extinction of
varied frameworks of pedagogy. The scope of blended learning has brought newer forms to the
fore. Certain essential elements of teaching and learning are headed towards developing into
different moulds whereas some shall be rendered outdated. The results of both shall soon be
witnessed by the larger society. The present paper shall attempt to study the structures of
pedagogy involved in higher education that are either progressing towards fruitful progression or
thinning away into obsoleteness.
The Centre cannot hold: The process or art of pedagogy is performed at many levels;
ranging from the learning phase (by teachers), to delivery and comprehension of instruction and
making a substantial relationship at all echelons. The ancient or primary form of learning was
teacher/Guru centric but with time and the onset of modern transformations, it progressed to
being learner-centric. However this sudden lockdown of the world has brought the teacher back
to the centre. The teacher accepted all the challenges with open arms for the stakeholder’s
(student) future was at risk. They acknowledged the digital revolution overnight, exposed their
own homes to public view, accepted cut in salaries, risked the judgement passed by every set of
parent eyes on them, answered queries while nothing was sure, appeared composed on the
surface while the tides of uncertainty hit quite often. They took it all, gracefully and deftly, and
explicitly held the hand of one and all. The time has brought along insecurities, unsettling
feelings and several doubts regarding career and future. No amount of online videos or
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discourses offering resolutions, free courses, psychological exercises and entertainment could
bring the same result as the consolation offered by the teacher, the confidant who stands with the
students through thick and thin and has done more of the same in these challenging times.
The students had been and are, dependent on their respective teachers to comb through the
massive amount of online material spread across government and private sites to give them the
requisite and relevant reference and textual material. It is akin to the traditional Guru who
collected the data from the cosmos through dhyana and then delivered it to the scholars who
recorded their shruti to produce significant texts. The pedagogical methods are evolving to be
Guru-centric again, for he/she is making sure (from March 2020 to present) that the light of
knowledge reaches even to the farthest corner of the planet, with the help of technology.
Teachers have reached out and stretched their paradigms to provide the requisite, even at the cost
of their own financial and mental well being. “In the midst of this digital shift, teachers also face
the additional pressure of converting all teaching material to digital formats, making worksheets,
taking classes on platforms like Zoom and Google Classroom, checking WhatsApp images of
home works, and reporting all of this information to both parents and principals...and still
manage their households” (Sankar 1). This amazing feat performed by more than a million
teachers across the world has made the pedagogical exercise teacher-centric once again.
The teacher faced a precipitous stepping into the other’s world and an unusual leap
towards modern technology. The current generation of higher education scholars belong to the
omega technology range, so much so that they consider the digital gadgets as an appendage.
Therefore, the emerging education system will weed out teachers (even students) who do not
upgrade themselves with the operations of technology. The online/blended/amalgamated/liquid/
combinations of teaching-learning methodologies that were always available but were yet not
practiced completely at all stages shall now be given a chance to be explored wholly. The
moment a new topic is introduced in a contact classroom, it is ‘googled’ up by the generation Z
students. The educator always has to compete with the information provided on the internet and
also ensure that the method of information transfer has to be more interesting than Google or
other sites and that makes the guide look for plenty of ways to incorporate technology into new-
fangled classroom activities. The spasmodic dive into online teaching turned the teacher into a
technocrat for s/he was either ‘zooming’ or ‘googling’ the classroom! Gaining triumph over
these major and minor labyrinthine challenges in classrooms everyday is giving the teacher a
scope to widen the breadth of her learning. Many teachers who were still practicing the
conventional (chalk and board) methods surged into the unknown waters of varied internet
handles and surfaced successfully. They approached it as a learning exercise and the otherwise
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hostile other’s world opened their arms to them. It could be seen as a bridge between the
technologically advanced and the technologically limited ones and this would help in improving
teacher- taught relationships.
However, the journey was and is an uphill task. Though the process of conceiving need-
based blended learning programs has been initiated by varied universities/HEIs across the
world, it is yet deficient in many ways. In countries like India, where the online teaching
methodologies are still in their teething stages (considering the number of lectures available on
Swayam Prabha, Swayam, e-PG Paathshaala and others), there was an immediate switch which
quavered one and all, for there was no preparation time for the same. The University World
News opines,
COVID-19 has created an atmosphere for technology-enabled learning in higher education
in India. It is time that policy-makers and educators took advantage of the current situation to
reform Indian higher education and create a resilient system that supports equity, excellence and
expansion. The UGC committee falls short of thinking beyond the current crisis and
recommends that, moving forward, just 25% of the syllabus should be taught online. We have to
rethink what kind of higher education we need in India. The Ministry of Human Resource
Development is in the process of formulating a national policy on education. It is therefore
timely that we discuss the nature of teaching and learning in the 21st century in India. (Mishra 1)
Are all Indian institutions equipped with facilities (cameras, recording studios, internet
connectivity with strong bandwidth, smart classrooms and much more)? Even the most
financially healthy higher education institutions are not technologically equipped for blended
learning. Rather than being dependent on governments to design plans for future trajectories of
the education system, higher education institutions will have to independently formulate modules
of the prescribed syllabus to be taught online. Newer systems have to evolve. Most
instructors/educators working in the higher educational institutions (colleges and universities) of
India are not trained to teach and therefore teaching skills have to be acquired through
everyday classroom experience. Since there is no formal training, and the orientation courses
come much later in the term, on-job training pursues. This could be seen as an opportunity to
create programs where teachers could learn as well. The governments should take initiatives to
train the teachers in creating need-based online learning platforms where the best of minds could
collaborate to create the finest of blended lessons, for all classes and contexts. And all this has to
be achieved with the limited number of resources available at hand.
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Teachers will have to open to ATM: Anytime Teaching-Learning Mechanisms. Training
of the teachers/instructors/tutors/coaches, especially the ones related to Higher Education
Institutions has become imperative in these times and the ones to come. There is a wide range of
technologically advanced teaching and learning platforms like Cisco-webex, Google classroom,
Google meet, etc. and the teachers have to be professionally trained in using them, as all of them
exercised the trial and error methods during the last few months. These learning programmes
should be made obligatory by the governments as they were completely missing from the
existing arrangement which only requires passing an objective type test (of the subject) offered
by the UGC. Institutions will have to learn to create learner-friendly, self-paced modules within
the limited resources in hand, which will pose itself as a mammoth challenge but has to be
structured as per the need of the hour. Not only the approved syllabus but pre and post-training
evaluation will also have to be patterned in the shape of multiple interactive assessments. The
blended mode of instruction is hypothetically more effectual than physical contact classes. By
incorporating blended learning methodologies into class projects, communication between
lecturers and learners can be improved, and students will be able to evaluate their course material
better. Teachers will have to organize pre-class preparation, exchange of notes and other reading
material and produce a ready repository of all reading and testing material. Therefore, teachers
will have to receive rigorous instruction regarding the same and should be ready to embrace the
change. Gurus love it when their students understand the academic curriculum and find ways to
apply it practically in real-world situations. They will have to do the same with themselves now
and the best part is that students could act as catalysts in the process.
Blended learning also has the prospective to reduce educational expenses. People may
disagree with the thought as digital infrastructure and added resources make it more expensive
than traditional classroom learning. Teaching in countries like India that see a tug of war
between resources and population, is like balancing on a tightrope as the challenges outnumber
the rewards. Apart from the discipline that is to be executed in the classroom by conducting
oneself as an example, the educator has to manage the strength as well, since the robust number
of pupils in Indian classrooms is another limitation. Our Ex-President and a teacher, Mr. A.P.J.
Abdul Kalam mentions his experience:
I had been enjoying my time in the large, tranquil campus, working with professors and
inquisitive students on research projects and teaching. The authorized strength of my class was
sixty students, but during every lecture, the classroom had more than 350 students and there was
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no way one could control the number of participants. My purpose was to understand the
aspirations of the youth, to share my experiences from national missions…When I finished, I had
to answer numerous questions and my class extended from a one-hour teaching session to two
hours. (9-10)
A regular Indian classroom cannot hold 350 students and the sessions cannot be that long
but with an online class both issues can be resolved. Blended learning can lower costs by putting
classrooms in the online space and it essentially replaces pricey textbooks, electronic devices
that students often carry to class with E-textbooks, which can be accessed digitally. Online
Webinars/ Faculty Development Programmes and conferences have helped in cutting the costs of
organizing, travelling, hospitality, boarding and lodging, manpower and other resources. It will
also lead to reduction of human labour as blended methodologies often includes software that
automatically collects student data and measures academic progress, providing teachers, students
and parents detailed students’ data in lesser time. Some institutions may also connect their
students to industry openings by conducting online consultations which can reduce the cost of
contact interviews and help in student progression and placement.
Pedagogy shall become an archipelago of sorts for even though blended learning is often
associated with the education sector only, the opportunities and benefits of using this concept
have seen a flourishing trend in all the possible fields. Apart from professional discipline/subject
teachers, gym instructors, yoga trainers, dance coaches, inspirational/motivational speakers,
religious and philosophical discourse presenters have all become online teachers in the present
pandemic conditions. Teaching has not been the primary choice of the young in India because of
the low financial remuneration that it offers but in the present times and with the benefits of
liquid/blended learning it has emerged as the most worthwhile professions in the world, for it is
keeping millions of people productively engaged.
Apart from evolving into varied moulds, blended learning will also cause the extinction of
specific frameworks. It will cause an interruption in the joy of continued delivery of lecture, for
the students will always expect a multi-layered lecture with technical support at all times which
may not be practically possible. The already complex act of teaching will now become more
multifaceted adding to the burden of the teacher, which in turn might act as a disincentive to the
young generation keen on joining this noble profession. The right learning mode will always be a
challenge and need-based student attention may not remain at the primary focus level.
Handwriting concerns will never be an issue again! Plagiarism and credibility problems will
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always play a significant role in the composition of lectures and, originality of delivery and
amalgamation of impromptu thoughts may take a backseat.
Scientists create something new in every few years and the accomplishments of those
formations can be seen immediately but teachers have to create multiple novel intellects every
single instant and the domino effects come much later. As mentioned above, many procedures
will evolve and some shall wither away with time. This lockdown scenario and its intertwining
with blended teaching-learning methods shall prove to be an experimental procedure that will
bring us newer paradigms of learning and teaching and those shall be everlasting too.
Works Cited
Goswami, Kajari. https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/covid-19-
lockdown-how-the-pandemic-brining-change-in-indian-education-system-1674322-2020-
05-04
Kalam, A. P. J. Abdul. (2012) Turning Points: A Journey through Challenges. (Harper Collins
Publishers: New Delhi).
Mishra, Sanjay. “ Blended Learning is the Way forward after the Pandemic”. University World
News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20200528134934520. 30-05
2020.
Sankra, Apurva. Education in times of Covid: How Parents, Students and Teachers are Dealing
with it”. The Bastion. https://thebastion.co.in/politics-and/education-in-times-of-covid-how-
students-teachers-and-parents-are-dealing-with-the-pandemic/29-04-2020
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21.
The Integration of Multimedia Technology in English Language Teaching: A
Global Perspective
Kusum Bhatia*
*Assistant Professor, Govt. PG College Ambala Cantt. (Haryana)
The outbreak of Covid-19 pandemic is proved to be a global health crisis. It has
threatened millions of people across the world. The government of most countries have taken
huge initiatives to face the challenge of Covid-19. The government of India has also taken
necessary measures to protect its people from the threats caused by pandemic. ‘The Janta
Curfew’ was imposed and people were suggested to stay at homes during lockdown, schools and
colleges were suspended due to the speed spread of this virus. It is true to say that education
plays a vital role in nation-building. Education is considered as the foundation stone and the
backbone of a nation. Under these circumstances, educational institutions can be suspended but it
is impossible to put a halt to the flow of education itself. The 21st century is an era of
globalization and gigantic technological advancement. Technology has made a tremendous
change in making teaching more interesting and productive. It has brought a huge revolution in
the field of education, during this pandemic crisis. Multimedia technology is one of the
technological tools that have enabled the teaching and learning possible.
The word multimedia is derived from two words: ‘multi’ which refers too many, and
‘media’ is the plural of medium means conveying information through different means. So,
Multimedia is the computer-controlled integration of multiple forms of media, which includes
text, audio, still images, animation, video, graphics, drawings etc. Multimedia is an interactive
computer-based application that enables the users to integrate and manipulate data from two or
more forms of media (text, graphics, animation) and to present it effectively on desktop
computer. The exponential growth of Multimedia applications over the last decade has brought a
phenomenal change in the fundamental concept of information storage, transfer and presentation.
Multimedia technology plays a significant role in leveraging the learning capabilities of human
beings, as, this amalgamation of words and pictures stimulate the cognitive power of learner. In
order to keep education relevant to the present times, the academicians and professionals also
realized the utmost requirement of computer-based multimedia learning. Several studies have
shown that the use of multimedia materials in the classroom leads to tremendous improvement in
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learning and retaining abilities of students. The main reason behind this is, when a teacher use
multimedia material in the classroom, he/she thus presents information in two modalities-visual
and auditory. According to cognitive theory of multimedia learning, when the visual and verbal
material is represented coherently, it leads to better encoding and easy retrieval. Apart from this,
multimedia applications help in presenting a topic to the students in an interesting manner. It also
boosts the understanding of the students, as they are able to comprehend the complex topics with
the help of rich media material.
The use of Multimedia technology has also replaced the traditional classroom teaching.
In the traditional classroom lecture method, a teacher stands in front of the students and give
instructions to them by using equipment’s like chalk, blackboard etc. But the new technologies
have created the concept of multimedia classroom in present education system. There are many
advantages of multimedia classroom teaching. It makes the learning more interesting and playful
with the use of equipment’s like print texts, films, animated videos. Multimedia classrooms are
always livelier and more interesting. While the traditional classrooms are ‘teacher centred’, these
multimedia classrooms are ‘student-centred’. It provides a chance to the students to solve their
problem by themselves. But it can never be said that the use of multimedia can replace teachers
as well. A good teacher can facilitate learning by combining multimedia application and teaching
methodology. The use of multimedia provides a chance to the students to actively participate in
discussions. It also enhances the learning capability of students as they can practice and learn by
themselves through multimedia repeatedly.
At present the role of English language is so diverse that it has become a language
entrenched with social, political and cultural ideologies. It has also become an important medium
of curriculum and a language of imparting education. The present role and status of English has
also increased the number of English learners. This trend of English language teaching assigns
new challenges and duties on modern teachers. On the one hand, it is considered a matter of
honour and prestige to study in an English medium school. But on the other hand, there are a
huge number of students who are afraid to learn English. It is a huge challenge for the teachers to
make the learning of language interesting by introducing creative and interesting methods. The
language teachers make use of new technologies with an aim to make it more interesting and
productive. It is fair to assert that the technological innovations have facilitated the growth of
English language to a large extent.
Theoretical Foundation of Multimedia Assisted English Language Teaching:
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The theoretical foundation of teaching English through multimedia is based on
constructivist learning theory. This theory is an offshoot of Cognitive Learning Theory. The
Constructivist Learning theory is based on the concept of knowledge. The theorists are of the
view that the entire world is an objective reality, but its understanding is a personal decision.
They are of the view that knowledge can never be considered an ultimate truth. It keeps on
revolving and rechanging itself on the basis of individual perceptions. Constructivist theorist
believe that a learner can never be a passive recipient of information but an active receiver of
information who constructs meaning out of it on the basis of his/her experiences, background
and so on. Constructivist theorists also emphasize the importance of situation or context in
learning. Adequate learning is possible when the learner is put into real life situation. It is only
then the learner actively participates in a situation and explore new dimensions. On the basis of
his prior knowledge, he is able to construct something new. So, the constructivist theorists are of
the view that a teacher should perform the role of facilitator or helper rather than an imparter or
deliverer of knowledge. In recent times, with the colossal technological advancements, the
traditional English teaching methods have become outdated. The core concern of constructivist is
to encourage active learning, improve self-learning ability, reduce the gap between classroom
learning and real life. The series of ideas which are put forward by theorists can play a
significant role in reforming traditional English Teaching. Thus, the advancement of technology
has facilitated the multimedia assisted English teaching. There are two most important
characteristics of multimedia assisted English teaching. One is visualization and the other is
concretion. A brief of the above is as follows:
1. Visualization: In the tradition classroom, the language students find it boring to learn
English language. But the multimedia classroom provides such platform to the students
that they learn by doing. It provides a chance to the students to indulge in various
discussion, debates which ultimately enhance their vocabulary and also widen the
horizon of their knowledge.
2. Concretion: Earlier, teaching is always teacher-centred. But with the advancement of
technology, new equipment’s are used to make the learning more interesting and real by
putting the students in real-life situation.
Advantages of Multimedia Assisted English Teaching
According to the Ministry of Education, the main purpose of English language teaching
is to cultivate the ability to listen, express and comprehend English amongst students. There are a
number of advantages of Multimedia assisted English Teaching. A brief description of these is as
follows:
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There are a number of abstract concepts in English language which a teacher can only
explain to students. But with the use of multimedia tools, it becomes easy for the teacher
to turn these abstract concepts into concrete realities.
Multimedia technology cultivates the interest of students in English language learning by
providing them information in a lively way by crossing the time and space boundaries.
The students feel as if they are in real life situation and indulge themselves completely in
activities.
Multimedia aided classrooms also helps in enhancing the communication skills of
students. Through various audio-visual modes, the students participate in discussions and
debates and ultimately learn the structures and functions of a language.
Whereas, the textbooks provide limited knowledge to the students. The multimedia
courseware makes the students familiar with practical aspects of a language. It provides
an insightful understanding of the cultural background of a particular region through its
language.
Multimedia teaching also facilitates student-teacher interaction. In the traditional
classroom, the entire teaching is teacher-centred. A teacher keeps on giving the
instructions to the students, whereas, multimedia teaching provides a platform for the
exchange of ideas between a student and a teacher.
Multimedia technology also provides an opportunity to the teachers to enhance their
efficiency by employing new pedagogical strategies in their teaching.
This technological advancement provides a platform to students to enhance their
language skills by utilizing innovative ELT techniques like English songs, dramatic,
sports commentaries, movie clippings, advertisements etc.
The main purpose of English teaching is to cultivate the listening, speaking, reading and
writing abilities. Multimedia courseware provides a good opportunity to the Mute
English students to talk with virtual characters set by various technological tools. Thus,
the students are able to improve their communication skills and correct their mistakes by
participating.
According to the constructivist learning theory, a learner accumulates more knowledge if
a certain study scene is created before him/her, rather than just following chalk and talk
method. Multimedia classroom facilitates this constructive study environment.
The use of multimedia technology not only equips the students with the language itself
but also provides them huge amount of information about the real-life language material.
Multimedia classroom provides a conducive environment for language teaching. When
the teacher show pictures and audios of native speakers to students, the students feel
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motivated and participate enthusiastically in various activities. Thus, it makes the
language class livelier and more interesting.
It also provides an opportunity to teachers to teach English outside the classroom through
various asynchronous tools such as e-mail, conferencing system etc.
Disadvantages of Multimedia Teaching
Though multimedia technology facilitated the language teachers to improve their
efficiency and make learning more impactful and productive, but there are many
disadvantages of Multimedia assisted English Language Teaching:
One of the biggest disadvantages of multimedia English teaching is to neglect
cognitive laws. Sometimes a teacher makes an extensive use of flowery and fancy
courseware in order to prevent the student’s tiredness. But at the end, a teacher
neglects teaching objective as well as teaching content.
Sometimes a teacher makes use of multimedia teaching extensively without realizing
that this method is an auxiliary one and is not the whole of English teaching.
The teachers who feels helpless to adapt to the new technological tools, starts using
old bottles to new wines method. They are so impercipient that they were unable to
leave traditional habits and ideas. It ultimately reduces their quality and persuasion
of teaching.
Another drawback of technological advancement is that, at times a teacher is unable
to realize that these tools are to be used as supplementary instruments rather than as a
target.
The role of a language teacher is to cultivate the thinking and spontaneity of students
by framing questions based on real life situations. But this pre-arranged multimedia
courseware lacks real-time teaching. It does not give an opportunity to students to
explore real world.
Though the technological tools provide an opportunity to the students to understand
the content easily. Yet it restricts their abstract and logical thinking.
Recommendations:
The integration of language teaching with multimedia technology has contributed
immensely in effective learning. But there are many aspects of technology that hampered the
education. There are a number of recommendations that can be initiated to make language
teaching productive. A brief description of these recommendations is as follows:
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Multimedia technology should be adopted as an assisting tool by the teacher to make
his/her teaching more interesting. A teacher should play the leading role and should not
overuse these tools.
A teacher should integrate multimedia technology with traditional teaching tools.
Because traditional teaching aids are equally important and these can’t be completely
replaced by modern technological tools.
The role of teacher in classroom is not only to disseminate content through power point
presentations. A teacher should motivate the students to actively participate in various
activities and also encourage them to use their own mind and creativity.
An educationist said: “If a teacher uses undeveloped teaching idea and methods even
though he uses modern teaching media, we can say that the students are infused by teacher and
computer together instead of teacher.” So, it can be said that the modernization of teaching
media is not equal to teaching optimization. Technological advancement can provide better
teaching and learning platforms but it can’t replace a teacher. The need of the hour is that a
teacher should change their pedagogy using multimedia technology and enhance the interest of
students in English language.
Works Cited
Aloraini, Sara. “The Impact of using Multimedia on students’ academic achievements in the
college of Education at King Saud University” Journal of King Saud University-
Languages and Translation, Vol.24, no. 2, July, 2012, pp. 75-82.
Goodwin Jones, B. “Emerging technologies, language in action: From webquests to virtual
realities. Language learning and Technology.” Vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 9-14.
Heinze, A, and Procter. “Communication and Information Technology Education.”Journal of
Information Technology Education, vol. 5, 2006. pp. 235-249.
Incedayi, Necdet. “The Impact of using Multimedia Technology on students’ Academic
Achievement in the Bakirkoy Final College.” International Journal of Humanities Social
Science and Education, vol.5, no. 1, Jan.2018, pp. 40-47.
Warschauer, Mark and Carla Meskill. “Technology and Second Language Teaching.” Handbook
of Undergraduate Second Language Education. New Jersey: Lawrence Erilbaum, 2000.
Print.
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Wingard, R.G. “Classroom Teaching Changes in Web- Enhanced Courses: A Multi- Institutional
Study.” Educause Quaterly, vol. 27, no.1, 2004, pp. 26-30.
Young, Carl A. and Jonathan Bush. “Teaching the English Language Arts with Technology: A
Critical Approach and Pedagogical Framework.” Contemporary Issues in technology and
Teacher Education 4.1 (2004): 1-22, print.
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22.
Comparative Analysis of The Category of Uncertainty
in Germanic and Turkic Languages
Makhlie Nazarova*
*Research Scholar, Osh State University, Kyrgyzstan
The category of certainty-uncertainty belongs to the category of communicative-
grammatical categories that play an important role in ensuring the coherence of the text. In
Germanic and Romance languages, this category finds its expression in a special tool - the
article. In the Turkic languages, certainty-uncertainty is a functional-semantic field without a
universal grammatical core, namely, firstly, it functions as a category associated with
possessiveness, and secondly, it is expressed by a semi-grammatical article - the numeral ‘bir’.
Certainty - uncertainty as a grammatical category is represented in the trial "definite article -
indefinite article - zero article". The article examines the main functions of articles in English,
German and Russian and their functional equivalents in some Turkic languages, reveals the
similarities and differences in their functioning in combination with nouns of different
grammatical-semantic (lexical-grammatical) classes.
The category of certainty - uncertainty is a communicative-grammatical category of a
noun in Romance, Germanic and Turkic languages. The opposition "definite article:
indefinite article" acts as the most universal grammatical means of expression:
Eng. the: a / an, Germ. der / die / das: ein / eine / ein,. As for the Turkic languages,
although this category is described in the section of grammatical categories of a noun, it
cannot be qualified as a grammatical category and in the context of the theory of functional-
semantic fields, it can be defined as a functional-semantic category without a grammatical
core.
1. The use of the indefinite article may be due to communicative factors, i.e. only
within the text [1]. Within the framework of a single sentence, the decisive factor in the use
of the indefinite article is its theme-rhema-structure. The introduction of a new person, object
or phenomenon into the situation, in the field of view, the circle of interests of the
communicants is carried out using the indefinite article. The most typical can be considered
the antecedent nature of the use of the indefinite article in relation to the definite one. In this
case, the object introduced into the situation can be expressed by a noun with one or another
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definition or without it. In Turkic languages, uncertainty is often expressed by the word "bir",
and in Russian, the noun in such cases is accompanied by pronouns
engl. A short figure muffled in a hood stepped inside.
germ. Draußen stand ein kleiner Mann, das Gesicht von einer Kapuze verhüllt.
russ. Voshel kto-to nizen’kyi, zakutannyi bashlykom - Someone came in, short,
wrapped in a head.
kyrg. Кодойгон кимдир бирөө, башына оролгон кирди.
2. When further describing the external or other signs of an object introduced into the
situation, as a rule, the corresponding noun is also used with an indefinite article.
engl. The other, a broad-shouldered young man with curly reddish hair and a check
cap pushed back to the nape of his neck, was wearing a tartan shirt, chewed white trousers
and black sneakers.
russ. Vtoroi – plechistyi, ryjevatyi, molodoi chelovekv zalomlennoi na zatylok
kletchatoi kepke – byl v kovboike, jevannyh belyh bryukah i chernyh tapochkah. The
second – a broad-shouldered, reddish, wavy, a young man in a checkered cap tucked at the
back of his head - was in a cowboy shirt, chewed white trousers and black slippers.
3. In English, plural uncertainty is expressed, in addition to the zero article, by words
with an uncertain quantitative meaning some in affirmative and any in interrogative sentences,
for example, on the one hand this is a book and there are books (uncertainty is expressed in
the plural by the absence of an article); on the other hand, Is there a book on the table? and
Are there any books on the table ?; Yes, there’s a book on the table and There are some books
on the table. As A. Lamprecht notes, in such cases the indefinite article retains its
"relationship" with the numeral "one" [2, p. 76].
4. In all three languages there are lexical analyticisms, stable phrases, proverbs
and sayings in which it is impossible to vary the definite and indefinite articles,
A. Lamprecht stated that, in contrast to the German language, in English the indefinite
article is used in a number of stable phrases and expressions [2, p. 77]. In this case, we should
not talk about the fact that in the German language the indefinite article is not used in the
above types of linguistic structures, but about the fact that each language is characterized by
its own intra-systemic connections and traditions.
engl. to come to an end, to put an end to something, to be in a hurry, it’s a pity, to
express a desire to do sth., to have a headache, to make a noise and e.t.c. [2, с. 77];
5. The generalizing meaning of the indefinite article in proverbs and sayings is
especially clearly represented:
engl. It’s better to make a painful break than draw out the agony,
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germ. Besser ein Endе mit Schrecken als ein Schrecken ohne Ende,
kyrg. Азапты тартып алгандан көрө, кыйналган жакшы
As can be seen from the above examples, the use of the indefinite article is possible in
the composition of lexical analyticisms, phraseological units, etc. in all European languages
analyzed by us. The use of the article in such cases is in no way determined by the context,
but by well-established traditions.
6. When emphasizing the communicatively important component of a statement, as a
rule, the indefinite article is used, where in Kyrgyz language the pronoun “biz” is
characterized by the uncertainty in this dialogue.
engl. “Look, professor”, said Sherlock, with a forced smile, “With all respect to you
as a scholar we take a different attitude on that point”.
germ. “Sehen Sie, Professor”, erwiderte Sherlok und lächelte gezwungen,“Wir achten
Ihre großen Kenntnisse, aber in dieser Frage stehen wir auf einem anderen Standpunkt“ –
russ. Vidite li, professor, - prinujdenno ulybnuvshis’, otozvalsya Sherlok,- my
uvajaem vashi bol’shie znaniya, no my sami po etomu voprosupriderjivaemsya drugoi tochki
zreniya. You see, professor,” Sherlock responded with a forced smile,“ we respect your great
knowledge, but we ourselves adhere to a different point of view on this issue (Bulgakov M.)
kyrg. Көрдүңүзбү, профессор, - деди Шерлок аргасыз жылмайып, - биз сиздин
чоң билимиңизди сыйлайбыз, бирок биз бул маселе боюнча башкача көз карашка
карманабыз.
The general condition for the use of the indefinite article in English and German is that
nouns have the attribute "calculability" where in the Kyrgyz language this is reflected with
the numeral "bir"
The category of indeterminacy of nouns and the futural orientation of a proposition are
often interrelated
engl. …This evening a historic event is going to take place here at Patriarch’s Ponds
germ. Heute abend wird an den Patriarchen Teichen eine interessante Geschichte
passieren!
russ. Segodnya vecherom na naberejnoy budet interesnaya istoriya / There will be an
interesting story on the embankment tonight ( Bulgakov M. )
kyrg. Бүгүн кечинде жээктин жээгинде бир кызыктуу окуя болот
The use of the indefinite article is very controversial and depends on many factors, for
example, on the types of sentences for the purpose of the statement. The same noun in
declarative and interrogative sentences can be used with an indefinite or zero article.
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The same noun is used in other types of sentences with the indefinite article. In such
cases, the indefinite article resembles in Russian pronouns with an indefinite meaning "some",
"someone from", etc..
Some grammars of the German language indicate the fluctuation of the use of the
indefinite article before the designation of the person in the predicative function: Er ist (ein)
Englän-der. Sie ist (eine) Heidelbergerin [3, p. 339].
There are differences in the use of the indefinite or zero article in sentences even with
identical pro-positive semantics in different languages. So, when designating persons by
professional activity, national, party and confessional affiliation in the German language, the
article is usually absent.
When a prepositive or postpositive definition appears, the corresponding noun can be
used both with a definite and with an indefinite or zero article.
Unlike German, in English, nouns of semantic groups in the predicative function are
used with an indefinite article: I am a worker. My father is a pilot. My sister is an actress etc.
The appearance of a prepositive attribute does not affect the use of the article, if the adjective
in the superlative degree or ordinal number does not function as an attribute: His father is a
well-known actor. He is a brilliant producer, etc. The concretization of a name with a
definitive subordinate clause determines the use of a definite article in a passive construction
in English and German, and in Russian and Kyrgyz it is transmitted by a demonstrative
pronoun [ 10, p. 280 ]
engl. It’s the professor whom about we were told,
russ. Etot professor, o kotorom nam rasskazali / This is the professor we were told
about
kyrg. Бул профессор тууралуу бизге айтип беришти
germ. Das ist der Professor, von dem wir gesprochen haben.
The syntactic reasons for the presence or absence of a definite or indefinite article
include the following. So, when using the conjunction als "as" the article in one language
may be absent, and in another it may accompany the corresponding noun: eng. you’ve been
invited here as a consultant, have you, professor?
The presence or absence of an article sometimes changes the meaning of the
corresponding noun. So, in the German language the noun Schauspieler in the sentence Sein
Freund ist Schauspieler characterizes a person by professional activity “He is an actor
(artist)” and Er ist ein Schauspieler “he is an artist, a lyceum, a hypocrite”. In English, in
both meanings, the noun artist as a predicative is used with an indefinite article: he is an artist
(actor) (professional activity) and in the meaning of play-actor “1) negligible. comedian,
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actor; 2) insincere person, pretense"; Russian artist, actor. "1. a professional performer of
roles in theatrical performances or in films. 2. the one who pretends to be someone. or
whatever, hides true thoughts, feelings [5].
The individualizing and generalizing meaning of the definite and indefinite articles for
nouns that perform the function of a predicative in a sentence depends on the nature of the
qualifiers. So, in the opposition of the verbal name destructor on the basis of certainty-
indeterminacy, the opposition of iso-grammatical aspectual semantic features “perfect form -
imperfect form and “past-present” is also presented in a latent form [6; 7].
comp.: russ. Он разрушитель Карфагена ( он разрушил Карфаген)/ He is the
destroyer of Carthage ( he destroyed Carthage ) - kyrg. Ал Карфагенди кыйратуучу – engl.
He is the destroyer of Carthage ( he has destroyed Carthage) – germ. Er ist der Zerstörer
von Carthago ( er hat Carthago zerstört) и он разрушитель по натуре ( он имеет
склонность разрушать) – англ. He is a destroyer by nature ( It is his nature to destroy) –
germ. Er ist ein Zerstörer in Wesen ( er ist geschaffen zu zerstören; es liegt in seiner Natur
zu zer-stören).
The generalizing meaning is characteristic of all types of use of the article - definite,
indefinite and zero, comp.: Apples are red, plums are blue. Tigers are smart animals. The
horse is less to the Arab, than clay is to the Bursley man [8, p. 266].
The nature of syntactic structures plays a significant role in the use of articles. So, if
the role of a predicative in a sentence is played by a noun in combination with the
conjunction as in English, als in German and comme with the meaning "as", then in the
German language the article is absent: it. er ist als Mechaniker tätig, er verdient sein Brot als
Lehrer, als Sohn eines Arbeiters ...;
In English, a noun with as can be used with both a definite and a zero article, compare:
He works as teacher, but: it is regarded as an accident. "This is seen as an accident." [9, p.
253].
When an attribute appears indicating certain properties of an object, the corresponding
noun is accompanied by an indefinite article: comp. in russ. like an old friend of your father
engl: as a very old friend of your father – germ: als ein alter Freund Ihres Vaters.
The category of certainty-indeterminacy is also presented in the Turkic languages; it
cannot be qualified as a grammatical category. Unlike Germanic and Romance languages, it
can be defined as a functional-semantic field without a universal grammatical core. This
category finds its most consistent expression in conjunction with the category of
possessiveness of nouns. In the declension system of a noun, definiteness and indeterminacy
form an opposition in which definiteness is a strong (marked) member, since it is
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morphologically expressed by a special affix of possessiveness integrated into the structure of
the noun between the forms of number and case. In the Turkic languages, the possessive type
of declension is especially distinguished. So, in the Kyrgyz language "differences from the
form of simple declension take place only in the dative case (for I, II, III person)" [9, pp. 30-
34 ]: them. (I sheet) ata - “father”, atam - "my father"; ataga - " to father", - atama "to my
father"; ataga " to a father" - atana - "to your father", ataga - " to show/give/go/take/ to a
father ", - atasyna - " to his/her father".
In Turkic languages, in addition to the semi-grammatized article / numeral "bir",
which is the most common means of expressing uncertainty [ 9 ], the category of certainty-
uncertainty finds its expression in opposing the main and accusative forms as an object, cf.
Kyrgyz magician kitepti ber “give me a book, situationally specific, given)” and maga bir
kitep ber “give me any book”. The authors of the TG point to the following specificity of this
category: the criterion for establishing the meaning of certainty in nouns with the affix of
belonging and in proper nouns and kinship terms is that all of them in the meaning of a direct
object are formalized in the accusative case. kyrg. Bala enesin zhakshy korot - "A child loves
a mother", kyrg. Kadriyany kutup zhatam "I'm waiting for Kadriya" [12, p. 55-56]. N.K.
Dmitriev said about this category in the Turkic languages that the first case (i.e. nominative)
should be called the indefinite case. He writes: “This name is justified both from the outside
and from the inside. From the outside, the indefinite case is characterized by the fact that it is
not determined by any special affixes, like other cases, but coincides with the stem of the
name. From the inside, or from the side of content, the indefinite case indicates a special
category of indefiniteness, which "in Western languages is realized with the help of an
indefinite term (article)" [13, p. 66].
The use of the article is closely related to the semantics of nouns, namely, to which
grammatical-semantic (lexical-grammatical) class they belong - common noun, proper,
abstract, real, etc. "Full" functioning of the triad "definite article-indefinite article-zero
article" is possible only in the group of nouns that form the core of objectivity, ie. countable
nouns, which include specific common nouns with the exception of real ones. Proper names,
by virtue of their individual denotative correlation per definition, exclude the semantic
features of “calculability and uncertainty” [13].
In conclusion, it should also be noted the ability of the indefinite article (as well as the
definite one) to form a framework construction of a substantive group:
English Shakespeare's will, which was made on March 25, 1616, is a long and detailed
document [9, p. 254]. An extremely successful professional man, a good-humored old man, a
little out-of-the-way place "wilderness";
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Thus, the indefinite article in combination with nouns of different lexical and
grammatical categories is polyfunctional. The use of the indefinite article is often due to the
syntactic distribution of the corresponding noun. Comparative analysis of the category of
certainty in different languages allows us to state the following. First, there is parallelism
in the use of the indefinite article in different languages; secondly, there are significant
differences in stable phrases, phraseological units and paremic structures.
Works Cited
Beutsche Sprache. Zeitschrift für Theorie, Praxis, Dokumentation. Mannheim. Berlin, 1994, 1.
pp. 66-86.
Biyaliev K.A. Grammar of Kyrgyz language. Bishkek, 2013. pp.30-34
Dictionary of the Russian language. 2000.
Dmitriev N. K. Grammar of the Bashkir language. Moscow: Nauka, 2008, p.262
Dornseiff Fr. Antike und alter Orient. Leipzig, 1956. p. 444 Received July 21, 2016
Duden Bd. V. Die Grammatik. Dudenverlag. Mannheim. Leipzig. Wien. Zürich, 2005.1342.
p.339
Lamprecht A. Grammatik der englischen Sprache. Berlin, 1972.
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