Inventions - A Visual Encyclopedia

The device was made of Prosthetic legs IN GOOD HEALTH
aluminum and plastic.
■■ What? Flex-Foot
Artificial heart ■■ Who? Van Philipps
■■ Where and when? US, 1996
■■ What? Jarvik 7
■■ Who? Robert Jarvik Lightweight and flexible, modern artificial or
■■ Where and when? US, 1982 prosthetic limbs enhance the mobility of the
user. The American bioengineer Van Philipps,
In 1982, an American dentist suffering from who had lost a leg below the knee at the age
heart failure became the first person to be of 21, invented a range of prosthesis called
fitted with an artificial heart—allowing him Flex-Foot. Among these is the Flex-Foot Cheetah,
to live for another 112 days. Named after which is made of a carbon-fiber “blade,”
its inventor, the Jarvik 7 heart was the first and is aimed at athletes. It flexes on
of many to be created over the following impact with the ground, helping
decades. In some cases, an artificial heart an athlete move quickly.
may buy time for a patient until a real
heart becomes available for transplant. ▶ BLADE RUNNERS

A long jumper competes in
the 2011 World Para Athletics
Championship. Athletes’
prosthetic legs act like springs,
allowing them to run and
jump at high speeds.

Spikes on the bottom
of the blade help to
grip the track.

Bionic hand FAST FACTS

■■ What? I-Limb ■■ Around the 10th century, the Chinese
■■ Who? David Gow were using magnifying lenses to read.
■■ Where and when? UK, 2007 ■■ Hearing aids evolved out of telephone
technology—transmitters that amplified
Invented at a Scottish hospital, the I-Limb the sound in telephones were adapted
was the world’s first fully functioning bionic for use in early hearing aids.
(electronically controlled) hand. Its fingers ■■ The British surgeon Sir John Charnley
can move independently according performed the first successful hip
to muscle signals sent from the replacement operation in the early 1960s.
patient’s arm. Patrick Kane (right)
was the first person to be fitted 249
with the device, aged 13.

SPACE SPACE

Astronauts now live SPACE
and work in space,
robotic probes explore
other planets, and
telescopes reveal distant
galaxies. Where will our
inventions take us next?

Studying the stars

People have been fascinated by stars and planets since prehistoric times, but
for thousands of years they could only study them with their unaided eyes.
In the 17th century, telescopes opened up new ways of seeing the universe,
and astronomers have been building bigger and better instruments ever since.

SPACE Reflector Photo of Orion nebula, 1883 Infrared camera view, 2010
telescope, 1724

WHAT IS A TELESCOPE? ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY

Telescopes use a large lens or mirror to After the invention of photography in the 19th century,
collect light, and a smaller lens called the astronomers soon attached cameras to telescopes. Cameras
eyepiece to create images of distant objects can collect light over long periods, creating bright images
that are brighter and larger than those that reveal much more detail than human eyesight can
formed by our normal eyesight. The detect. Modern electronic cameras can detect types of
principle was discovered by the Dutch light, such as infrared, that are invisible to human eyes.
lensmaker Hans Lippershey around 1608.

TYPES OF TELESCOPE

Refractor telescopes were the first telescopes to be invented. They use large lenses to ▶ THE VERY LARGE
bend light rays so they cross at a focal point. Reflector telescopes use curved mirrors TELESCOPE (VLT)
to bounce light rays to a focus. As the light rays spread apart again, one or more lenses
in the eyepiece alter their paths to create a magnified, or enlarged, image. This is one of four
huge telescopes built
2. Objective lens 1. Light rays 4. Light passes 3. Secondary by the European
gathers light from source through the mirror reflects light Southern Observatory
to the eyepiece in Chile’s high desert.
and focuses it at eyepiece lens, Each telescope contains
the focal point which magnifies a mirror that is 26 ft
(8 m) wide and weighs
the image 24 tons. Using the VLT
reveals images that are
Focal point 1. Light rays four billion times fainter
from source than the unaided eye
3. Light passes through can detect.
the eyepiece lens, which 2. Primary mirror reflects
magnifies the image incoming light rays to the
secondary mirror
Refractor telescope
Reflector telescope

252

SPLITTING LIGHT

The spectroscope was invented in 1814 by the German physicist
Joseph von Fraunhofer. It spreads light rays from stars onto different

paths depending on their color or energy. Fraunhofer discovered
dark, narrow lines in the sun’s spectrum, which later scientists linked
to light being absorbed by particular chemicals. Astronomers today

use spectroscopy to study what celestial objects are made of.

Light from the Dark absorption
sun enters here lines are created
by star’s chemicals

absorbing light

Laser beams projected from Overall pattern of
the VLT produce artificial spectrum from
stars in the upper atmosphere, infrared up to
which the telescope uses to
monitor its performance ultraviolet reveals
and create sharper images. temperature of star

Solar spectroscope, Spectrograph
1881 of a star

SPACE TELESCOPES

Visible light is just one part of the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by cosmic objects. Things too cool
to shine visibly still emit infrared radiation (heat), while
very hot objects and violent events release high-energy
ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. Earth’s atmosphere

blocks most of this radiation, so astronomers use
space-based telescopes to map the sky.

Chandra X-ray Observatory Nested mirrors
deflect and focus
X-rays from distant
exploding stars.

SMART TELESCOPES

All modern large telescopes are reflectors. Some have
huge one-piece mirrors made of thin, lightweight
materials, but most use interlocking honeycomb grids
of smaller mirrors to reduce their weight. Computer-
controlled motors behind the mirrors can adjust their
overall shape to correct distortions and ensure perfect
focus for whichever direction the telescope is pointing.

253

Galileo’s Telescopes
original
telescope Telescopes have come a long way in the four centuries
since the lensmaker Hans Lippershey assembled two
SPACE lenses at either end of a long tube around 1608. Today,
they have become huge machines capable of detecting
galaxies at the edge of the universe and invisible
radiation from gas and dust between the stars.

Early telescope William Giant reflectors
Herschel’s
■■ What? Galileo’s telescope 40-ft (12-m) ■■ What? The first giant telescope
■■ Who? Galileo Galilei telescope ■■ Who? William Herschel
■■ Where and when? Italy, 1609 ■■ Where and when? UK, 1789

Several astronomers built their own The German-born astronomer William
telescopes after hearing of Lippershey’s Herschel built the best reflecting telescopes
invention, but the most successful was the of the time after settling in the UK. After
Italian Galileo Galilei (see pp.258–259). his 1781 discovery of Uranus, he was
Through careful study, he increased the
power of his telescopes from three times financed by King George III and
magnification (3x) to 20 times (20x), which built an enormous telescope with
allowed him to make important discoveries a 4-ft (1.2-m) mirror, mounted on a
about the universe. huge turntable that allowed it to point
in different directions.

Mirrors for magnification Radio telescope and focus them. In the 1950s, the British
astronomer Bernard Lovell built the first
■■ What? Newton’s reflector ■■ What? The Lovell Telescope large “dish” telescope at Jodrell Bank
■■ Who? Isaac Newton ■■ Who? Bernard Lovell and Charles Husband near Manchester.
■■ Where and when? UK, 1668 ■■ Where and when? UK, 1957
While studying the properties of light
in the 1660s, the English scientist Isaac The science of radio astronomy began in
Newton realized that a curved mirror the 1930s when astronomers discovered
could bend light to a focus just as well radio waves coming from celestial objects
as a lens. His “Newtonian” telescope other than the sun. Because radio waves
avoided the are longer than visible light waves, they
distortions that need much larger telescopes to capture
plagued early
lens-based designs. Reflecting metal dish 250 ft (76.2 m)
across gathers radio waves
Eyepiece
Antenna is focal point for
Replica of radio waves, which then
Newton’s telescope
254 generate electrical signals

Lovell Telescope
near Macclesfield,

Cheshire, UK

Observing from orbit Insulation protects the Primary mirror
telescope from harsh inside is 7.9 ft
■■ What? Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) sunlight in space. (2.4m) in diameter
■■ Who? NASA
■■ Where and when? Low Earth Orbit, 1983 SPACE

From the late 1940s, rocket-borne radiation
detectors revealed that space was filled with
invisible rays that are absorbed by Earth’s
atmosphere. Ultraviolet satellite observatories
launched since the 1960s study some
of these rays, while infrared satellites,
pioneered by IRAS, use specially cooled
telescopes to detect weak heat radiation
and map the night sky.

Sunshade helps The solar panels
protect and cool convert sunlight
IRAS telescope into electricity to
run the spacecraft
and its instruments.

Large space telescope Communication
antenna

■■ What? Hubble Space Telescope Telescope was finally launched in 1990
■■ Who? NASA and has a crystal-clear view of deep
■■ Where and when? Low Earth Orbit, space. Named in honor of the American
astronomer Edwin Hubble, it has delivered
launched 1990 some of the sharpest pictures of celestial
objects and made discoveries ranging
In 1946, the American astrophysicist from previously unknown moons in our
Lyman Spitzer was the first to suggest solar system to distant galaxies at the
putting a telescope in space to orbit edge of the universe.
above the distortions of Earth’s
atmosphere. The Hubble Space

Future telescope The main mirror
is made up of 798
■■ What? European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT) hexagonal segments.
■■ Who? European Southern Observatory
■■ Where and when? Chile, c. 2024 Cameras and
spectrographs
Currently under construction, the next generation are housed on
of telescopes will be even larger and more an instrument
powerful. The European Extremely Large platform.
Telescope (E-ELT) in the Atacama Desert
in Chile will use a honeycomb network European
of mirrors whose positions are constantly Extremely Large
adjusted by computer. With a total diameter Telescope (E-ELT)
of 129 ft (39.3 m), the telescope will gather
100 million times more light than a human 255
eye. This will enable astronomers to see
planets that orbit other stars and study the
most distant galaxies in the universe.

The main deck supports the
telescope’s weight and can

rotate to turn it around.

ATACAMA OBSERVATORY

The world’s largest observatories are linked “arrays”
of radio telescopes such as the Atacama Large Millimeter
Array (ALMA) in Chile’s Atacama Desert. Here, 66
movable radio antennae have their signals combined
to generate the same detail as a single 10-mile
(16-km) telescope.

SPACE

SPACE

SPACE Galileo Galilei

Born in Pisa, Italy, in 1564, Galileo Galilei is best known for
discovering evidence that planets orbit the sun, not Earth,
but he was also a polymath—a scientist and inventor in many
fields. Having first trained in medicine at the University of Pisa,
Galileo is said to have become fascinated by physics after
watching the pendulum-like motion of a swinging chandelier.

THROUGH THE TELESCOPE

After hearing reports of the newly invented
telescope, Galileo built his own much improved
versions around 1609. His telescope revealed the
phases of the planet Venus and a family of moons

orbiting Jupiter. These features convinced
him that the heliocentric (sun-centered)

model of the universe put forward in
1543 by Polish astronomer Nicolaus

Copernicus must be correct.

Large, heavy objects only fall more quickly
than small, light ones because their ratio
of weight to surface area is greater.

TESTING GRAVITY Galileo’s sketches
of the moon
Galileo studied the properties of falling
objects and realized that, if it weren’t for ▶ THE ITALIAN POLYMATH
air resistance, bodies with different masses
would fall toward the ground at the same This Italian portrait of Galileo shows
rate. He is said to have demonstrated this him with the tools of his trade,
to pupils around 1590 by dropping two including his telescope and a
things with different masses from the celestial globe on the table.
top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

LIFE STORY c. 1581 1592 1609

1564 At the University of Pisa, he studies Galileo becomes professor of He builds his first
medicine but also takes up mathematics mathematics at Padua. While telescopes and uses them
Galileo is born in Pisa, and natural philosophy, and applies there, he invents the to make observations of
to parents Vincenzo mathematical analysis to the study thermoscope and a the skies.
(a noted musician) of physics. military compass.
and Giulia.

258

GALILEO’S SPACE
THERMOMETERS

Around 1600,
Galileo invented a
“thermoscope.” This
temperature-measuring
device relied on his
discovery that fluids
change their density
when they grow warmer
or colder. His followers
later used the principle
to design a thermometer
in which weighted glass
balls rose or sank to
reveal the temperature.

Replica of Galilean
thermometer

CLASH WITH AUTHORITY

Galileo’s teaching of a sun-centered
universe put him in conflict with the
powerful Catholic Church, which
insisted on Biblical teachings that
Earth was the center of everything.
In his later years, Galileo was forced
to defend his teachings when he
was put on trial by the Inquisition
(a church court). Found guilty of
heresy, he spent the last 9 years
of his life under house arrest near
Florence, and died in 1642. In 1992,
the Church formally recognized that
Galileo was right.

1610 1615 1633 1642

Galileo publishes The Starry Messenger, At a Church inquisition After publishing his Dialogue Galileo dies near Florence.
a book outlining his discoveries with the (trial) in Rome, Galileo is Concerning the Two Chief Despite suffering blindness for
telescope. He argues for Copernicus’s ordered to stop teaching World Systems, Galileo is the last 4 years of his life, he
heliocentric (sun-centered) system rather the Copernican theory tried at another inquisition, had continued to write and
than a geocentric (Earth-centered) one. of the universe. and is sentenced for heresy. invent until his final year.

259

SPACE Satellites

A satellite is a natural or artificial object that FIRST
orbits another. Just as the moon orbits Earth, SATELLITE
so do man-made satellites that are launched
into space on a trajectory where they move Although some earlier rockets had briefly reached
at high speed but are held on more or less space before falling back to Earth, the first object
circular paths by the tug of Earth’s gravity. to stay in orbit was Sputnik 1, launched by Russia
Since the 1950s, satellites have revolutionized in October 1957. A simple, football-sized sphere
many aspects of our everyday lives and equipped with antennae and a battery-powered radio
improved our knowledge of Earth and the transmitter, it heralded the start of the space age.
wider universe.

REACHING ORBIT ANIMALS IN ORBIT

Putting a satellite into orbit Some early satellites carried animals on
required new, more powerful board to test how spaceflight might affect
rockets, such as the R-7 missile. humans. Launched in 1957, Sputnik 2
Today, satellites such as the Insat 3 carried a small dog called Laika. She was
weather satellite are launched by sent into space with no hope of return,
towering multistage rockets. After but most later animal astronauts wore
the lower stages of the rocket have specially made spacesuits and returned
placed the satellite in an initial orbit, safely—including two chimpanzees sent
an upper stage motor fires to boost into space by NASA in 1961.
it to its final trajectory.

Streamlined cover called
a “fairing” is lowered over
satellite prior to launch

Loading the Insat 3D satellite, 2013
260

POWERING SATELLITES Solar “wing” is a 76-sq-ft
(7.1-sq-m) array of three
Early satellites relied on solar panels, generating
batteries that drained rapidly in up to 2,300 watts of power
the cold of space, giving them
SPACE
a limited lifetime. The US’s
second satellite, Vanguard 1,

was launched in 1958 and
tested the idea of using solar
panels to generate electricity
from the sun. Today, almost all
satellites rely on solar power.

Camera gathers
information about
Earth from above
in an activity known
as “remote sensing”

NASA’s Phonesat 2.5 uses Illustration of a Sentinel-2 remote-sensing satellite
smartphone components

powered by solar cells.

Antenna for SATELLITE ORBITS
radio and
GPS signals Satellites follow different orbits depending on their function. Those that

SMALLER AND CHEAPER simply need to be above Earth’s atmosphere—such as communication

Advances in electronics have made satellites satellites (comsats) for satellite phones—use a low Earth orbit (LEO),
smaller, cheaper, and more robust. Miniature
“cubesats” are built from standardized units that 120–1,200 miles (200–2,000km) up. Other comsats often use geostationary
slot together, and weigh far less than conventional
satellites but have many of the same abilities. They orbits, which means that they stay fixed above a point on the equator, while
can be quickly built and their small size means
they can be launched cheaply, “hitching a lift” some specialized satellites use highly elliptical (elongated) orbits. Satellites
on a larger satellite’s launch.
observing Earth use polar orbits, which allow them to cover large areas of

the rotating globe in close-up.

Highly elliptical orbit Geostationary orbit (comsats,
(high-latitude comsats) weather satellites, and others)

Polar orbit
(remote sensing)

LEO (satellite phone systems,
Hubble Space Telescope,
manned spacecraft)

261

Watching over Earth

From their orbits high above Earth, dozens of satellites keep watch
over our planet. They range from surveillance satellites photographing
enemy territory to weather satellites providing accurate forecasts and
remote-sensing satellites that use advanced technology to map Earth’s
geology, land use, and changing climate.

SPACE LANDSAT 1 WOW!

Few people guessed how useful it would In 1967, American spy
be to study Earth from space until early satellites monitoring
astronauts reported seeing tiny details nuclear tests discovered
with the unaided eye and space agencies blasts of gamma rays
investigated further. The first satellite from galaxies billions
of light-years away.
designed specifically for “remote sensing”
of Earth was NASA’s Landsat 1. Launched ▼ MONITORING GLACIERS
in 1972, it used a camera system and
a multispectral scanner to study Earth’s False-color and infrared imaging
landmasses, including their agriculture, highlights ice-free ground (red) around the
forestry, mineral resources, and water.
Petermann Glacier (blue) in Greenland.

SPIES IN THE SKY MULTISPECTRAL IMAGING

Spy satellites from the late 1950s onward paved the way One of the most useful forms of remote sensing involves
for remote sensing. They used cameras with telephoto photographing the landscape through different colored
lenses to photograph enemy territory, returning reels of
film in capsules that were parachuted back to Earth and filters, known as multispectral imaging. The brightness of
snatched from midair by retrieval aircraft. When digital the ground at different wavelengths can reveal information
imaging improved to match the quality of film images, ranging from soil conditions and crop growth to the location
pictures could be sent by radio waves.
of mineral resources and underground water.
262

WEATHER WATCHERS

The first weather satellite, TIROS-1, was launched

in 1960, and by the 1970s, satellites were placed

in high orbits where they could photograph

weather patterns across large areas of Earth.

Today, remote-sensing instruments can monitor

wind speeds, temperature, and other conditions in

the atmosphere and oceans, measuring large-scale

patterns and changes to Earth’s overall climate.

Satellite map of ocean temperatures False color shows
during the 2017 El Niño climate event central Pacific Ocean
waters are warmer
Color-coding reveals elevation than usual.
of the peaks: green is lowest,
▼ RADAR COMPOSITE rising through yellow, red, SPACE
and pink to white, the highest.
Satellite radar can help map details
of features in inaccessible areas,
such as these Russian volcanoes,
in any weather, day or night.

RADAR MAPPING

Modern radar satellites map Earth’s surface with

high precision by firing beams of radio waves at

the surface and measuring their reflections. The

time the signal takes to return indicates the distance

to the reflecting surface, while changes to the reflected

waves reveal other details such as surface texture and

mineral composition. The German space agency’s

TanDEM-X mission used two satellites to create the

most detailed three-dimensional map of Earth so far.

Twin TerraSAR-X and
TanDEM-X satellites

in polar orbit

Communication

SPACE Two everyday uses of satellite technology are FAST FACTS
telecommunications and navigation. The location of
satellites high above Earth makes them ideal for sending ■■ Comsats (communication satellites) relay
and receiving radio signals between widely separated signals for cell phones, the Internet,
regions. Signals from a network of satellites also allow podcasts, TV, radio, and more.
navigation systems to pinpoint our position on the ■■ Geostationary satellites orbit Earth above
ground and show us the best route to our destination. the equator and cannot relay signals near
the poles, so comsats for high-latitude
regions follow elliptical orbits.
■■ Satnav (satellite navigation) systems rely
on signals from dozens of satellites in orbit.

BOUNCING Curved antennae
RADIO SIGNALS receive satellite
commands
The simplest way of communicating via from Earth.
satellite is to use a reflector that simply
bounces a beam of radio waves back to
Earth. NASA’s Echo 1A satellite of 1960
was an early test of this principle—a
huge metallic balloon that orbited at
heights of up to 994 miles (1,600 km)
and provided a target for bouncing
radio signals.

Total mass Inflated satellite Solar cells generate 14 watts of
of satellite is is 100ft (30.4m) power—less than a light bulb,
in diameter but enough to run the satellite.
just 400 lb
(180 kg) Equatorial antennae relay
signals and keep Earth in view
SATELLITE NAVIGATION COMMUNICATIONS
as the satellite spins. SATELLITE
Scientists quickly realized that radio
signals from orbiting satellites could be Solar panels Active communications satellites
used to pinpoint locations on Earth. An have electronics on board to receive
early test was the US Navy’s TRANSIT signals from one antenna on Earth and
system, launched in 1960. This used transmit them toward another. Telstar 1
five separate satellites in low orbits was the first of these “comsats” to be
that could provide a receiver on launched. It entered low orbit a few
board a ship or submarine hundred miles above Earth in July 1962,
with their location and carried the first television broadcasts
once per hour.
across the Atlantic Ocean.
Antenna

Transit 5 satellite, part of the
first satellite navigation system
264

HOW GPS WORKS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) and similar navigation systems
rely on networks of satellites in precisely known orbits. Each satellite
carries a super-accurate atomic clock and transmits a time signal
continuously. A computerized receiver measures how long it takes
signals from different satellites to arrive, and uses that information
to calculate the distance between itself and each of the satellites.
Together, the measurements pinpoint the receiver’s exact location.

SYNCOM Satellite in Signals take different SPACE
precise orbit times to reach receiver.
Science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke realized in
1945 that satellites in high “geostationary” orbits sends out
would be able to relay global communication time signal.
signals. They would hang in a fixed position over
the equator, so antennae could bounce signals Receiver At least four
over a large area via a satellite without having to calculates visible satellites
track it. The first satellite to put Clarke’s idea into distance to are required for
practice was Syncom 3, which relayed live television each satellite. an accurate fix.
coverage of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.

CALLS TO ORBIT External antenna
boosts signal
Most international telephone calls travel under the sea in
fiber-optic cables, avoiding the time delays introduced when
relaying signals over a long distance through ground stations

via comsats in high orbit. But what if you are in a remote
location with no link to a cell or landline network? Satellite
telephones send signals directly to a satellite in low orbit,
enabling communication from almost everywhere. They were

originally designed for ships at sea, by the Inmarsat
organization in the 1980s.

WOW!

GPS navigation
receivers can pinpoint
your location to within
16 ft (5 m)—Europe’s
Galileo system can do

it to the nearest
centimeter!

▶ SATELLITE HANDSET

Today, satellite phones are
widely used by explorers and

rescuers in isolated regions.

SPACE

SPACE

SPACE DEBRIS

Orbits around Earth have become crowded with space
junk ranging from old rocket stages to tiny chips of
paint. Traveling at high speed, this debris could be
a major hazard for new satellites and spacecraft, so
engineers are looking at how to remove the clutter
before space becomes too dangerous to explore.

Rockets

SPACE A rocket is a propulsion device that works through the PIONEER OF ROCKETRY
principle of action and reaction. It burns fuel to create
expanding gases. As the gases escape at one end, the
rest of the rocket is thrust forward in the opposite
direction. First used as fireworks in China in the 13th
century, rockets now produce enough thrust to launch
satellites and spacecraft into orbit high above Earth.

Framework of LIQUID-FUELED ROCKET The Russian schoolteacher Konstantin
pipes supports Tsiolkovsky laid much of the groundwork
rocket engine at Steam and internal combustion engines burn for 20th-century rocketry in a series of
fuels with oxygen from Earth’s atmosphere, books and scientific articles. He was
top of frame but early 20th-century rocket pioneers the first to suggest using liquid fuel for
discovered liquid fuels that could be mixed increased thrust, and building rockets
with a separate chemical “oxidizer,” allowing in stages. Although he built models to
them to burn beyond Earth’s atmosphere demonstrate his ideas, he was never
able to put them into practice.
while also generating far more
thrust. The American engineer WOW!

Robert Goddard tested the
first liquid-fueled rocket
in 1926.

Robert Goddard at the The first object launched
first flight of his liquid into space by a rocket was
propellant rocket, 1926 a small missile fired from

Fuel tank with the top of an adapted
protective nose cone V-2 rocket by American

engineers in 1949.

SPACE RACE

After World War II, Russia and the United States raced
to develop powerful ballistic missiles—rockets that
could carry weapons to high altitude and then drop
back to Earth, delivering weapons across thousands
of kilometers. Space scientists on both sides realized
that missiles could also be used peacefully to launch
satellites. The launch of the first satellite, Sputnik 1, on
a converted Russian R-7 missile named Semyorka in 1957
began the “space race” that lasted almost two decades.

R-7 rocket carrying Sputnik 1, 1957

268

Apollo 11 SATURN V
spacecraft at
The most powerful rocket ever built, the Saturn V, was masterminded
top weighs by the German scientist Werner von Braun in the United States and was
97,000 lb used to launch the Apollo astronauts on eight missions to the moon between
(44,000 kg) 1967 and 1972. Later versions of the rocket were used to launch Skylab—

the first American space station—and the American part of the
Apollo-Soyuz joint mission.

Third stage, with ▼ FALCON 9 LANDING
single engine burning
liquid hydrogen The first stage of a SpaceX rocket makes a vertical
and liquid oxygen
touchdown after completing its role in a satellite launch.

SPACE

Second stage, with REUSABLE ROCKETS
five engines burning
liquid hydrogen The enormous cost of rocket stages destroyed or lost during
with liquid oxygen launch is a major barrier to space exploration. NASA’s Space

Tower holds rocket Shuttle (see p.273) had some reusable elements. Since
upright before launch 2016, the SpaceX company has made huge advances in
recovering the stages of its Falcon rocket for future missions.

MULTISTAGE ROCKET

First stage, Firing multiple rockets in sequence is the most efficient way to get heavy
with five loads into space. As each rocket stage uses up its fuel supply, it detaches
engines and falls back to Earth, reducing the amount of empty weight the rest of the
burning rocket has to push forward. The cargo that eventually reaches orbit is known
kerosene with as the rocket’s payload.
liquid oxygen
5. Third stage places the payload Payload
(a satellite) in its final orbit

3. Second stage now has 6. Payload’s
less mass to push into orbit protective
casing
Total launch falls away
vehicle with
three separate 4. Second stage
rocket stages falls away
is 363ft
(110.6m) high

2. First stage falls away
once its fuel is exhausted

1. Booster rockets help get the first
stage moving, then fall away

269

SPACE Rocket race

Rockets come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes,
from fireworks to battlefield weapons and long-range
missiles. However, the largest and most powerful
rockets are those used to launch satellites and
manned spacecraft into orbit and beyond. Although
the first experiments with liquid-fuel rockets took
place in the 1920s, it took military interest in rockets
to make spaceflight a reality.

Military rockets Launch of the Explorer
satellite on Juno 1
■■ What? V-2 rocket
■■ Who? Werner von Braun Satellite launchers
■■Where and when? Germany, 1942

In the 1930s, the development of rockets
was mostly confined to amateur engineers.
In Germany, however, a team led by
Werner von Braun was ordered to develop
them for the Nazi war effort. The result

was the V-2 long-range missile. Its
steering and guidance systems were
a huge technical advance for rocketry,
and in 1942, it became the first man-
made object to enter space—but the
V-2 was also a terrible weapon of war,

responsible for an estimated 9,000
deaths by the end of World War II
in 1945.

■■ What? Juno I
■■ Who? Werner von Braun
■■ Where and when? US, 1958

After the Russians’ launch of Sputnik 1
into orbit in 1957, American scientists were
further demoralized by the explosion of
their Vanguard rocket. Anxious to catch up,
they turned to Werner von Braun, who was
now working for the US Army. Within a
month, his team launched the Explorer 1
satellite on a missile adapted into a
four-stage rocket called Juno 1.

Space workhorse Rocket-powered aircraft

■■ What? Soyuz rocket Ion engines ■■ What? SpaceShipOne SPACE
■■ Who? OKB-1 design bureau ■■ Who? Burt Rutan, Scaled Composites LLC
■■ Where and when? ■■ What? Deep Space 1 ■■ Where and when? US, 2004
■■ Who? NASA
Russia, 1966 ■■ Where and when? US, 1998 Carrier aircraft have transported small
rocket-powered vehicles for release
The most successful rocket Most rockets burn fuel explosively to at high altitude since the 1950s. American
in the world today is the generate thrust and overcome gravity. Ion engineer Burt Rutan’s SpaceShipOne was
Soyuz. In use since 1966 engines use electricity from solar cells to the world’s first private, rocket-powered,
for manned and unmanned eject a stream of charged particles (ions). manned spaceship. Adopted by Virgin
launches, Soyuz has flown The thrust from an ion engine is tiny, but Galactic, its wing design allows it to float
more than 1,700 times, operating over months rather than seconds slowly back to Earth after briefly reaching
with relatively few failures. they can achieve tremendous speeds. space without going into orbit around Earth.
Since the retirement of the NASA first tested ion propulsion on its
Space Shuttle, Soyuz has robotic space probe, Deep Space 1. SpaceShipOne,
been the only means of carried by
sending astronauts to the
International Space Station. twin-hulled plane

▶ SOYUZ TMA-15 Future rockets Orion
crew
Blasting off in 2009, ■■ What? SLS “Block 1” vehicle
this Soyuz rocket took ■■ Who? NASA
three astronauts to the ■■ Where and when? US, 2019 (planned)

International Space Since its decision to retire the Space Shuttle
Station to begin a in 2011, NASA has been developing the
most powerful rocket ever built. The Space
six-month stay in space. Launch System (SLS) should pave the way
for new crewed missions to the moon,
The lower stage Mars, and beyond. Commercial companies
consists of four such as SpaceX and Blue Origin have
booster rockets equally ambitious plans.
clustered around
the core rocket. SLS will be taller
than the Statue of
FAST FACTS Liberty and produce
30 times more thrust
■■ The first flight of Robert Goddard’s
liquid-fueled rocket in 1926 lasted than a 747 jet.
about 20 seconds and reached a height
of just 41 ft (12.5 m). Illustration of
■■ The first stage of a Saturn V burns Space Launch
4.7 million lb (2.1 million kg) of fuel in System in flight
just 161 seconds, boosting the rocket
to a speed of 6,164 mph (9,920 km/h).
■■ Ion engines use their fuel 10 times
more efficiently than chemical rockets,
which means they require far less fuel to
lift a rocket off the ground and into orbit.

271

Manned spaceflight

SPACE Putting humans into space and bringing them back alive WOW!
is the ultimate spaceflight challenge. Crewed spacecraft
are heavier and more complex than most satellites, since The crews of
they must carry equipment to keep astronauts alive Gemini 6A and
for the duration of their missions, and protect them Gemini 7 steered their
during the potentially hazardous return to Earth. spacecraft to within
12 in (30 cm) of each
other in orbit.

Spherical Rocket used to put
crew capsule spacecraft in orbit

Protective panels Thrusters for
made from maneuvering
and returning
heat-resistant to Earth
metal alloy
◀ GEMINI 7
VOSTOK 1
Flown by Frank
The first crewed spacecraft, Vostok 1, was tested Borman and
with several unmanned launches before its first Jim Lovell, this
manned flight. Backward-firing “retrorockets” spacecraft spent
were used to return Vostok to Earth after a 14 days in orbit.
single orbit, and a heat shield protected the
capsule from burning up as it re-entered Exit hatch
the atmosphere at high speed. Inside the (removed
capsule was Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. after flight)

GEMINI Ejector seats for
use in emergencies
The first manned spacecraft were single-
person vehicles, and mostly followed
short, preset flight plans. NASA’s
Gemini spacecraft of the mid-1960s
was a major advance on both
fronts: it could carry two
astronauts for missions of up to
two weeks, and it could adjust its
orbit with a system of thrusters—small
rockets capable of pushing the spacecraft
in various directions.

272

Illustration of ◀ LAUNCH OF SPACE SHUTTLE SPACE
Leonov’s first ATLANTIS ON STS-129 MISSION
spacewalk
One of five operational orbiters, Atlantis
SPACE WALKERS flew 33 missions, including this one to
the International Space Station in 2009.
Early astronauts wore flight suits and
helmets for emergencies, but did not SPACEPLANE TO ORBIT
expect to leave their capsules. In March
1965, Voskhod 2 cosmonaut Alexei The Space Shuttle, flown by NASA from
Leonov wore a specially designed suit to 1981 to 2011, took a totally new approach
carry out the first walk in space. A few to spaceflight. Crews of up to seven flew
months later, astronaut Ed White made aboard a planelike orbiter spacecraft with
the first American spacewalk, steering a large cabin and cargo hold. Its engines
himself with a gunlike personal thruster. drew fuel from a huge tank during launch.
On reaching orbit, the fuel tank fell away
Buzz Aldrin’s footprint on the moon, and the spacecraft continued on its journey.
photographed on the Apollo 11 mission At the end of its mission, it glided back to
Earth like a giant paper plane and could
then be reused on other missions.

The crew module is
16.4 ft (5 m) in diameter

and 10 ft (3 m) long.

Orion capsule

Solar panels
provide power
during a mission.

MISSION TO THE MOON FUTURE MISSIONS

The Apollo moon missions of the late Scheduled to fly in the 2020s, NASA’s
1960s used a complex three-part spacecraft. Orion spacecraft features an Apollo-
An orbiting command module carrying like craft with a conical crew module
three astronauts was attached to a service
module that carried supplies for missions attached to a cylindrical service
of up to 12 days, while a lunar module module. However, Orion is far larger,
carried two of the astronauts from the
command module to the moon’s surface and the reusable crew module will
and back. In July 1969, Apollo 11’s Neil be able to carry crews of four to six
Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the
first men to set foot on the moon. on missions of up to 6 months in
order to explore Mars and asteroids,

conduct experiments, and service
the International Space Station.

273

Manned missions

SPACE In the course of six decades, the idea of human spaceflight WOW!
has gone from the unthinkable to the almost routine
(though still inevitably risky). So far more than 550 people In 1961, when President
have flown into space, the vast majority of them aboard Kennedy committed the US
either the United States’ Space Shuttle or Russia’s Soyuz to reaching the moon by the
spacecraft. In future decades, tourism may see at least
brief trips into space become commonplace. end of the decade, NASA
had just 15 minutes of
human spaceflight
experience.

Americans into orbit

■■ What? Mercury program
■■ Who? Seven US astronauts (six
of whom flew on Mercury missions)
■■ Where and when? US, 1958–1963

Hampered by less powerful
rockets, NASA’s Mercury
program lagged behind the
Russians. The first American in
space, Alan Shepard, could only
make a “hop” into space that
failed to reach orbit in May 1961.
In February 1962, the Atlas
rocket was ready to take John
Glenn into orbit aboard the
Mercury capsule Friendship 7.

The first man in space Mercury Seven
astronauts
■■ What? Vostok 1
■■ Who? Yuri Gagarin Soyuz modules
■■ Where and when? Russia, 1961
■■ What? Soyuz spacecraft
Until the 1950s, no one knew what effect ■■ Who? OKB-1 design bureau/Energia Corp.
spaceflight might have on a human being. ■■ Where and when? Russia, 1967–present
Before risking a cosmonaut, Russia had to
prove that it was possible to survive by First launched in 1967 (on a disastrous
launching several spacecraft with dogs mission that killed its pilot), the Soyuz
on board. Yuri Gagarin’s first record- spacecraft was nevertheless a major
breaking flight was limited to a single advance. It was the first with three modules,
orbit of Earth lasting 108 minutes. In including specialized capsules for working
1963, the first woman in space, Valentina in orbit and returning to Earth. Thanks to
Tereshkova, orbited Earth 48 times for several generations of updates, it has been
more than 70 hours in Vostok 6. the backbone of the Russian space program.

274 A Soyuz capsule in 2015, docked
to the International Space Station

▼ MOON BUGGY

NASA’s lunar rover could
carry two astronauts and their
rock samples at speeds of up to

11.5 mph (18.6 km/h).

SPACE

Exploring the moon on the moon wore special spacesuits The first space tourist
designed to supply them with oxygen,
■■ What? Apollo program protect them from the hazards of the lunar ■■ What? ISS EP-1 mission
■■ Who? NASA surface, and allow them to set up scientific ■■ Who? Dennis Tito
■■ Where and when? US, 1968–1972 instruments and collect rock samples. ■■ Where and when? Russia, 2001
In July 1969, Apollo 11 was the first Later Apollo missions carried Lunar Roving
of eight historic missions that landed Vehicles (LRVs) so that astronauts could Faced with a cash shortage in the late
astronauts on the moon. The Apollo moon explore a far greater area. 1990s, the Russian space agency offered
landings presented many new challenges to take paying passengers to orbit. The
for NASA. The 12 astronauts who walked Historic handshake first, American millionaire Dennis Tito,
visited the International Space Station
Commanders of Apollo and Soyuz ■■ What? Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 2001. Several other tourists flew in
spacecraft shake hands in space ■■ Who? Apollo/Soyuz 19 the 2000s, but plans for widespread
■■ Where and when? US/Russia, 1975 space travel have now been left to
commercial promoters.
In July 1975, Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft
met in orbit and used a special docking
module to link the two incompatible
systems. This marked the end of the
space race between the United States
and Russia, but it was not until the 1990s
that rendezvous between the Space
Shuttle and the Mir space station
became regular events.

Dennis Tito (middle)

275

Space Soyuz T-14
stations docked to station

Space stations allow astronauts to live and work Work
in orbit for long periods of time. From simple compartment
laboratories made from adapted rocket casings, they on Salyut 7
have grown into permanent communities of scientists
who carry out experiments, manufacture materials, Salyut 7
observe Earth, and study the effects of long-duration
SPACE spaceflight on the human body. Advanced Salyuts

Salyut 1 ■■ What? Salyut 6 and 7
■■ Who? Soviet Space Agency
■■ What? Salyut 1 ■■ Where and when? Russia, 1982–1991
■■ Who? Soviet Space Agency
■■ Where and when? Russia, 1971 The Salyut 6 and 7 space stations had
a docking port at both ends, allowing a
The first space station, Salyut 1, was new crew to arrive before the old one
launched by Russia in 1971. This simple departed. Salyut 7 also tested the idea of
cylindrical laboratory had a docking port “hard docking”—extending the working
for a Soyuz spacecraft, and was visited by area of the station by permanently
the three-man crew of Soyuz 11 for 23 attaching an unmanned tug spacecraft
days in June 1971—the longest spaceflight to one end.
up to that time. However, the station was
abandoned after the Soyuz 11 crew died in
an accident during their return to Earth.

Interior of Salyut 1 space station

Telescope Solar panel Skylab
mount
Skylab ■■ What? Skylab
276 ■■ Who? NASA
■■ Where and when? US, crewed

1973–1974

Skylab, the first American space station,
was constructed from an empty Saturn
rocket stage and hosted three crews
during nine months of operation. It
carried an ultraviolet telescope for
observing the sun, as well as equipment
modules for carrying out a range of
experiments into life and chemistry
in the weightless environment of space.

Modular space station Core module with Inflatable modules
five others attached
■■ What? Mir ■■ What? BEAM
■■ Who? Energia ■■ Who? Bigelow Aerospace SPACE
■■ Where and when? Russia, 1986–2001 ■■ Where and when? US, 2016

A significant advance, Russia’s Mir station The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module
was built in orbit by “hard docking” several (BEAM) is an inflatable, lightweight habitat
distinct units. The core was launched in that was attached to the ISS in 2016. It
February 1986, followed by modules for keeps its shape because of air pressure
scientific research and power generation, inside it. Experiments are being carried
and a new docking port to allow visits by out to test conditions on board, and
NASA’s Space Shuttle. In 1995, Valeri engineers hope BEAM could pave the way
Polyakov completed 437 days on board for other inflatable modules in the future.
Mir—the longest continuous
stay in space.

Mir space station as
viewed from the Space
Shuttle Endeavour

The International Space Station

■■ What? International Space Station ambitious collaboration with Solar panels
■■ Who? NASA, Roskosmos, ESA contributions from the US,
■■ Where and when? International, Russia, Europe, Brazil, Japan, ▼ ISS MODULES
and elsewhere. Finally
launched 1998 completed in 2011, it is The ISS’s typical crew of six
expected to remain in astronauts live and work in
Built in segments since 1998 and operation until at least 2028. a series of connected modules
with a total volume similar to
continuously manned since 2000, the that of a Boeing 747 aircraft.

International Space Station (ISS) is an

SPACE Backpack containing Living in space
life-support systems
Pressure Keeping astronauts fit and healthy as spaceflights
helmet with have become longer and more complex is a
huge challenge, and has required considerable
protective visor inventiveness. And not only do astronauts
have to live and work in cramped
Gloves lock conditions, they also have to be kept
onto suit safe when they leave their spacecraft.
at wrists
Controls for
Main suit in life-support systems
two parts
that join SPACE CLOTHES WOW!
at waist
The first astronauts wore All waste water on the
White material protective spacesuits throughout ISS is recycled by passing
reflects sunlight their missions but, by the through a series of filters
mid-1960s, safety improvements
and heat and larger spacecraft allowed and chemical reactions.
Layered fabrics them to spend most of their time It ends up cleaner than
in more comfortable flight suits.
trap air and By the 1990s, the spacesuits worn our drinking water
protect wearer by NASA astronauts for working on Earth.
outside the Space Shuttle (left) had
278 developed into self-contained
personal spacecraft.

Astronaut Cady Coleman KEEPING CLEAN
washes her hair with a
water-saving shampoo. Personal hygiene in space can be a
problem—water is too precious to
KEEPING FIT waste and, if it is sprayed around, it
forms weightless drops that interfere
As missions have lengthened with delicate electronic systems on
from mere days to months, board. Instead of showers, astronauts
it’s become more important to use small pouches of liquid soap,
keep astronauts in shape for
their return to Earth. Weightless water, and “no rinse” shampoos.
conditions in zero-gravity space
weaken muscles and bones,
so astronauts take a variety
of supplements and exercise
regularly, often using elastic
straps to mimic the pull of gravity.

Astronaut Sunita GROWING PLANTS
Williams enjoys
chicken and rice Long missions beyond Earth orbit will need to be
aboard the ISS self-sufficient, so space agencies are carrying out
experiments to understand how exposure to space

conditions affects plants and their seeds. Crops
grown in water and nutrients (hydroponics) or in

the soil of other planets could one day provide
food and help to refresh air supplies.

Seedlings SPACE
can grow well
even with very

little gravity
in space.

EATING DINNER

Food arrives at the ISS on unmanned cargo
spacecraft, usually in sealed packs that can be
rehydrated from water valves in the station’s service
module. Ovens reheat canned or packet food, but
their temperature is limited for safety reasons.

Astronaut T. J. Creamer tends
tree seedlings on the ISS

LIFE ON MARS

Future explorers on Mars will face unique
challenges, and engineers are already
testing solutions on Earth. Astronauts will
need lightweight, flexible spacesuits to
work in Martian gravity. They will also
have to be protected from dangerous
radiation, perhaps by living and working
mostly in underground habitats.

FAST FACTS ▲ SIMULATING LIFE ON MARS

■■ The changing alignments of the planets American researchers in the Utah desert
as they orbit the sun mean that crewed wear prototype spacesuits and practice
missions to Mars would have to wait for procedures for a future exploration
about three years before Earth was close mission on the surface of Mars.
enough for them to return home.
■■ Russian cosmonauts set an unbroken
series of records for long-duration
spaceflight aboard the Mir space station
in the 1990s.

SPACE Space agencies

Space agencies have been at the forefront of space exploration and
technological innovation since the dawn of the space age in the
1950s. These government or internationally funded organizations set
long-term goals, develop the equipment needed (often alongside
commercial businesses), train astronauts, manage the missions,
and encourage new ways of using space and space technology.

Illustration of WHAT IS NASA?
ESA’s two Galileo
navigation satellites The US National Aeronautics and Space
detaching from Administration (NASA) was founded in
Soyuz upper stage 1958 and given overarching control of
in 2014 many different laboratories and facilities
working on the American space program.
EUROPE’S SPACE AGENCY Its success in putting Apollo astronauts on

The European Space Agency (ESA) was the moon by 1969 encouraged other
founded in 1975 from a merger of two earlier countries to create their own agencies.
organizations. Its Ariane rocket series is now
on its sixth generation, and the agency has 21-ft (6.5-m)
launched increasingly ambitious space probes mirror designed to
and satellites, as well as contributing to the capture infrared
International Space Station. radiation

WORKING TOGETHER James
Webb Space
Space agencies frequently collaborate to pool Telescope
funding and expertise for major projects. ESA
has contributed to the NASA-led Hubble and
James Webb Space Telescopes, while Japan’s

JAXA and Russia’s Roskosmos agencies are
also frequent NASA partners.

SPACE AGENCIES TIMELINE

1958 1959 1961

NASA is established in NASA launches its first President John F. Kennedy
order to counter the Pioneer space probes into (right) tasks NASA with
Russian lead in satellite near-Earth space. Throughout landing a crewed mission
and space technology. the 1960s, space probe missions on the moon, a goal which
become more ambitious. is achieved in July 1969.

280

SPACE

▲ TRAINING FOR SPACE

Since the 1960s, NASA has used huge water
tanks to mimic the weightlessness of space, mostly
at the agency’s Johnson Space Center in Texas.

1979 1992 2003 2014

ESA debuts its Ariane 1 Russia establishes Japan’s space agencies unite as The Indian Space Research
rocket, and soon becomes Roskosmos, an agency that the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Organization (ISRO) reaches
a major launch provider unites the many different Agency (JAXA). Other national Mars on its first attempt, with
for the commercial design bureaus of the former space agencies exist in India (1969), its Mangalyaan space probe.
satellite industry. Soviet space program. Canada (1989), and China (1993).

281

Space Remains of old
technology stone fort at
for Earth
Shisr, Oman.

SPACE Although some people see space exploration SATELLITE ARCHAEOLOGY
as purely scientific research or even a waste
of money, in reality space technology has Remote sensing has found a huge range of
transformed all our lives. Aside from the many uses (see pp.262–263), but one of the most
benefits brought by satellites, the challenge of surprising is in archaeology. Researchers using
getting humans into space and returning them satellite photos can identify ancient tracks and
safely to Earth has inspired countless engineers disturbances that reveal the presence of buried
to make advances that have later found
applications on Earth. ruins such as a lost city, nicknamed the
Atlantis of the Sands, at Shisr in Oman.

CMOS DIGITAL IMAGING
sensor
Early space probes and satellites used
either television cameras or photographic
film to capture images. In the early 1990s,

NASA scientist Eric Fossum invented
an improved sensor to capture images
as digital electronic data. These CMOS

sensors are now widely used in cell
phones, digital cameras, and other
imaging systems.

Digital camera with lens removed

SPACE BLANKETS

The insulating foil blankets that
are provided after endurance

races and to keep people warm
in disaster areas originated from

insulation used on the Apollo
lunar landing module. Made
by applying a thin aluminum
coating to a plastic film, they

reflect infrared radiation and trap
heat close to the wearer’s body.

282

FREEZE-DRIED FOOD Fruit retains its FAST FACTS
appetizing color
Although the process of freeze-drying to preserve and flavor ■■ Although the principle of generating
food was invented in the 1930s, its unique benefits electricity from sunlight was discovered
were discovered by NASA scientists looking at in the 19th century, cheap and efficient
methods for storing food on long-duration Apollo solar cells originated in a NASA-
spaceflights. Freeze-drying removes water sponsored project to develop solar-
but preserves vitamins, minerals, powered aircraft.
and other nutrients that are ■■ Famous inventions that are often
restored when the meal wrongly attributed to the space race
is rehydrated. between the US and Russia include
Teflon™, Velcro®, and the integrated
circuit (microchip). SPACE

WOW! Freeze-dried strawberries Lightweight,
heat-resistant alloys
According to some FIRE SAFETY
estimates, each dollar reduce weight
invested in the US space Fire is one of the deadliest hazards for of equipment.
spacecraft and their crews, and space agencies
program results in
up to $10 of wider such as NASA have made some important
long-term benefits. breakthroughs in fire safety. Firefighters

use air bottles, face masks, and other
equipment made from a heat-resistant

aluminum composite that was first
developed for use in rocket casings, and
materials based on Apollo spacecraft heat
shields are used to insulate structural steel

supports in high-rise buildings.

Heat-resistant textiles
based on astronaut
flight suits

SPACE Steering Robotic probes
microjets
Solar Human exploration of space has so far been limited
cells to Earth orbit, but space agencies have sent dozens
of automated space probes to explore planets, moons,
Camera comets, and asteroids. Flyby missions offer a brief glimpse
window of these objects, orbiters carry out more detailed surveys,
and landers and rovers touch down on the surface to
measure conditions and analyze rocks.

Communications
antennae

LUNA 3 THE VENERA MISSIONS

Our closest neighbor in space, the moon Venus is the nearest planet to Earth,
was an obvious target for early exploration. but it proved a huge challenge to
The first successful probe, the Russian-built space probes. Several American and
Luna 3, flew past in October 1959 and sent Russian probes made fleeting flybys
back the first pictures of the far side of the or entered orbit, but early Russian
moon, which permanently faces away from landers were destroyed in Venus’s
Earth. Throughout the 1960s, both the US hostile atmosphere. In 1975, Russia’s
and Russia sent a variety of orbiters and heavily armored Venera 9 finally
landers to investigate further. sent back the first picture of the
volcanic landscape.
Illustration of
Venera 9 on Venus Dish antenna for
communicating
VOYAGER GRAVITY ASSIST with Earth

Even at high speeds, reaching the distant outer planets takes Camera
years. Fortunately, NASA engineers discovered a way of platform
shortening journey times by using the gravity of other planets
as a “slingshot” in a maneuver known as gravity assist. This
enabled them to send two Voyager space probes on a tour of
the outer solar system in the 1970s and 1980s.

Voyager 1 Voyager 2 Arrival at Model of the
launched, launched, Neptune, Voyager 1
September August 1977 August 1989
space probe
1977

Radioisotope
Thermal Generator

Voyager 2’s POWER WITHOUT THE SUN
flight path
Probes in the inner solar system can use solar panels to
Arrival Arrival Voyager 1’s make electricity, but missions venturing any further out from
at Jupiter, at Saturn, flight path
July 1979 August 1981 the sun than Mars need an alternative power supply. To
Arrival solve the problem, NASA developed Radioisotope Thermal
284 at Uranus,
January 1986 Generators (RTGs). These nuclear power supplies can
produce electricity by harnessing the gentle heat emitted by

small amounts of radioactive plutonium.

Camera Weather MARTIAN ROVERS
instruments
Since 1997, NASA has sent a series of increasingly ambitious robot
rovers to explore Mars, investigating its atmosphere and geology
and looking for signs of ancient life and water. Driving conditions
on the rocky, dusty surface can be treacherous, and the limited speed
of radio signals makes it difficult to direct the vehicles from mission
control on Earth. So, recent rovers use artificial intelligence systems
to make basic decisions—such as avoiding obstacles and recognizing
which types of rock to study—without human intervention.

Viking Lander 1 Cameras and a SPACE
chemical “sniffer”
Surface sampler arm
Antenna for
LANDERS ON MARS communicating
with Mars orbiters
Mars is easier to reach than most other planets,
but landing in its thin atmosphere is difficult.
In 1976, NASA’s pair of Viking orbiters put two
landers on the surface, using parachutes and
precisely fired retrorockets to control their
descent. While the orbiters mapped Mars from
space, the landers relayed the first images and
data from the ground.

Illustration of Galileo and Jupiter

PROBING THE GIANTS Arm with specialist
imaging systems for
Following its first brief flybys of the giant
outer planets, NASA has sent two orbiters to studying Martian
investigate Jupiter, and one to Saturn. Arriving geology in close-up
at Jupiter in 1995, Galileo released a smaller
probe that parachuted into the giant planet’s Front wheels swivel
atmosphere. The Cassini mission carried to change direction.
a European-built lander that touched down
on Saturn’s giant moon Titan in 2005.

▶ CURIOSITY ON MARS

NASA’s car-sized, solar-powered Curiosity rover
touched down on Mars in August 2012 and has

since driven more than 11.2 miles (18 km).

285

Pushing the Illustration of Giotto
boundaries and Halley’s Comet

SPACE Since the late 1950s, dozens of robot probes have Studying Halley’s Comet
ventured to all parts of the solar system. Early
missions concentrated on our moon in preparation ■■ What? Giotto
for the manned Apollo landings. Our first survey of ■■ Who? ESA
the major planets was completed by the late 1980s, ■■ Where and when? Europe, launched 1985
and since then probes have become ever more
complex and ambitious. In the mid-1980s, space agencies launched
probes to intercept Halley’s Comet as it
Orbiting Mars arrived at Mars in November 1971. flew past the sun for the first time in
When the probe arrived, a planet-wide 76 years. Russia, Japan, and Europe all
■■ What? Mariner 9 dust storm was in progress, but after that took part. Launched in French Guiana, the
■■ Who? NASA cleared, the images sent back transformed European Space Agency’s Giotto probe
■■ Where and when? US, launched 1971 flew within 370 miles (596 km) of the
our understanding of the Red Planet. comet’s icy nucleus.
After early flybys of both Venus
and Mars in the 1960s, Mariner 9 Antenna WOW!
became the first spacecraft to
orbit another planet when it Currently traveling
through space at a
Solar panel distance of 13 billion miles
(20.9 billion km) from Earth,
TV cameras Mariner 9 Voyager 1 is the most
distant man-made object

ever launched.

Asteroid explorers Illustration of NEAR Shoemaker
orbiting Eros
■■ What? NEAR Shoemaker
■■ Who? NASA
■■ Where and when? US, launched 1996

After several early flybys of small asteroids,
NASA’s Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous
Shoemaker (NEAR Shoemaker) probe spent
a year orbiting the near-Earth asteroid Eros
in 2000–2001, before eventually touching
down on the asteroid’s surface. More
recently, a NASA mission called Dawn has
investigated the solar system’s two largest
asteroids, Ceres and Vesta.

286

Orbiting Saturn Illustration of Racing to Pluto SPACE
Philae on Comet 67P
■■ What? Cassini/Huygens ■■ What? New Horizons
■■ Who? NASA/ESA Landing on a comet ■■ Who? NASA
■■ Where and when? US/Europe, ■■ Where and when? US, launched 2006
■■ What? Rosetta/Philae
launched 1997 ■■ Who? ESA Beyond the planets, the outer solar
Following its early flybys, NASA launched ■■ Where and when? Europe, launched 2004 system is encircled by a ring of small
orbiter probes to the giant planets Jupiter The European Rosetta probe took more icy objects, known as the Kuiper Belt.
and Saturn. The bus-sized Cassini reached than a decade to reach its target, a comet In 2006, NASA launched a high-speed
Saturn in 2004. It spent more than a known as 67P, before orbiting it for about probe to Pluto, one of the largest and
decade investigating the planet and two years. Shortly after arrival, Rosetta closest of these worlds. It became the
its rings and moons. It also released released a small lander called Philae, fastest object to leave Earth orbit, and
a European-built lander called Huygens which unfortunately bounced into a deeply after a slingshot (see p.284) at Jupiter,
that touched down on Saturn’s mysterious shadowed area where it could not charge it flew past Pluto in July 2015, before
giant moon, Titan. its solar cells. However, at the end of the continuing onward to new targets.
mission, Rosetta itself was steered to a
Close-up on Jupiter successful landing.

■■ What? Juno greater detail than ever before. On arrival in FAST FACTS
■■ Who? NASA 2016, Juno entered a polar orbit that delivers
■■ Where and when? US, launched 2011 views of Jupiter’s high latitudes for the first ■■ Unlike satellites, space probes need
Juno is NASA’s latest Jupiter orbiter. Part time. Unlike previous Jupiter missions, the sufficient speed to escape Earth’s gravity
of NASA’s New Frontiers program, it probe is solar powered, with three huge entirely—launch must achieve an “escape
is designed to study the giant planet in “wings” to harvest sunlight. velocity” of 7 miles per second (11.2 km/s).
■■ Voyagers 1 and 2 both carry a “golden
record” containing greetings in various
languages, music, birdsong, and other
sounds from life on Earth for future
spacefaring civilizations to play.

Bands of clouds and
storms swirl across
Jupiter’s southern
hemisphere in this
view from Juno.

Ingenious inventors

The background to how inventors came up with their ingenious ideas

is often fascinating and unexpected. Here are the stories of some very

well-known inventors, alongside others whose names are less

familiar—though you may well know their inventions!

REFERENCE ANDERSON, MARY BERNERS-LEE, TIM the Dyna-Tac, a small handheld
(1866–1953) (1955–) device on which Cooper and his
team had worked. Cooper’s other
In 1903, a snowy journey on a Berners-Lee is recognized as the inventions include the first radio-
streetcar (tram) inspired American inventor of the World Wide Web. controlled traffic light system and
inventor Anderson to sketch out The British software engineer and handheld police radios.
an idea for a windshield wiper. At computer scientist first came up with
the time, drivers had to lean out the idea of people around the world DA VINCI, LEONARDO
of the window and clear their sharing information in 1980, and by (1452–1519)
windshields by hand. Her device, 1989 he had developed the global
made from wood with rubber information system, or Web. As The Italian painter and sculptor is
blades, was controlled by a handle director of the Web standards agency, best known for his paintings “Mona
inside the vehicle. Anderson never the World Wide Web Foundation, Lisa” and “The Last Supper.” But he
found a backer for her invention, Berners-Lee says: “It has taken all of also had a passionate interest in
but in later decades others copied us to build the Web we have, and science, architecture, mathematics,
the idea and wipers became a now it is up to all of us to build engineering, and human anatomy,
standard feature on most vehicles. the Web we want—for everyone.” filling notebooks with sketches of
inventions way ahead of the times.
BABBAGE, CHARLES BRUNEL, ISAMBARD He wrote most of his accompanying
(1791–1871) KINGDOM (1806–1859) notes backward, in mirror writing.
A flying machine, armored vehicle,
This English mathematician and Brunel is credited as one of the most helicopter, parachute, and SCUBA
mechanical engineer is often called significant Britons of all time for his gear are among his many designs.
the “father of the computer.” Babbage contribution to civil and mechanical
worked on various prototypes of his engineering. The network of tracks FLEMING, SANDFORD
mathematical machines, including and bridges he built for the Great (1827–1915)
the Difference Engine of 1821, used Western Railway and pioneering work
for compiling mathematical tables, on steamships such as the SS Great In 1876, the Scottish Canadian railway
and later, the Analytical Engine, Britain, launched in 1843 (see p.106), engineer was traveling through
which even had a form of memory. are testament to his genius. Ireland when he missed his train.
His machines were not completed The timetable, or Fleming’s own
COOPER, MARTIN timing, may have been wrong but
in his lifetime, but (1928–) it made him consider the need for
his contribution standardized time. So, he came up
to computer The first public demonstration of a with the concept of worldwide
science is never portable cellular phone, or mobile, standard time. In 1879, Fleming
forgotten. was made by the American engineer proposed dividing the world into
Martin Cooper in April 1973. At that 24 time zones and, in 1884, clocks
time, Cooper was employed by were reset in line with his ideas.
Motorola and the call was made on

288

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN HANNAH, MARC (1956–) KNIGHT, MARGARET REFERENCE
(1706–1790) (1838–1914)
Special effects in films such as
Franklin is a key historical figure Jurassic Park and Beauty and the Knight invented a machine to make
and one of the Founding Fathers Beast are partly thanks to African flat-bottomed paper bags. The patent
of the US. He also had an avid American electrical engineer and was awarded to Knight in 1871,
interest in science and invention. computer graphics designer Marc making her the first woman in the
Franklin began investigating Hannah. He cofounded the company US to be granted a patent, after a
electricity and, in 1756, by means Silicon Graphics Inc. (SGI) in 1982 lengthy legal dispute with a man
of a kite and a key, demonstrated and helped pioneer the 3-D graphics who tried to steal her idea. A prolific
that lightning is electricity—a technology used in many Hollywood inventor, she also created a machine
discovery that led to his invention blockbusters. More recently, Hannah for cutting shoe soles, a safety device
of the lightning rod. Later inventions has worked on multimedia plug-ins for cotton looms, a window frame,
included bifocal glasses, a cast-iron for listening to music on MP3 players and various devices for engines.
stove, and a glass musical instrument and handheld video-game players.
called an armonica.
HUYGENS, CHRISTIAAN KWOLEK, STEPHANIE
GOODE, SARAH E. (1629–1695) (1923–2014)
(1855–1905)
The 17th-century Dutchman is This US chemist and polymer scientist
This American inventor and regarded as one of the most nearly had a career in fashion, but
entrepreneur is believed to be important scientists and opted for chemistry. Hired by the
one of the first African American astronomers of all time. In the chemical company DuPont, in 1965
women to be granted a US patent. 1650s, he made improvements she discovered a new synthetic fiber
Not much is known about her life, to telescopes that enabled him to called Kevlar. Strong yet lightweight,
but she was freed from slavery see the rings and a moon orbiting this fiber is used to make body
and moved to Chicago where Saturn. Huygens put forward armor for the police and military
she ran a furniture shop with her groundbreaking theories about as well as airplanes, boats, and ropes.
carpenter husband. In 1885, she light waves and calculations for
was awarded the patent for her centrifugal force. He also excelled LAKE, SIMON (1866–1945)
folding, hide-away bed. Her nifty at invention, constructing the first
invention could double as a bed pendulum clock (1657), prototypes American marine engineer Simon
or a folding writing desk thanks for a small wristwatch, various Lake is remembered as the “‘Father
to a clever design that incorporated telescopes, and a combustion of the Modern Submarine.” In 1894,
hinged sections that could be engine that ran off gunpowder. he built his first submarine with a
raised or lowered into place. pressurized compartment, a vessel
JONES, ELDORADO built for shallow waters that he
GUTENBERG, JOHANNES (1860–1932) named Argonaut Jr. Lake went on
(c.1395–c.1468) to create Argonaut I, which could be
The American Eldorado Jones earned used at sea and moved on wheels
The German printer, whose “Forty- the nickname “the Iron Woman” along the ocean floor. In 1901, Lake
Two-Line” Bible (also known as the because she invented a small portable produced a military sub called
Gutenberg Bible) was the first book iron, but it could also have been for Protector, but it wasn’t until 1912
in Europe to be printed using her tough attitude on both work and that he first had a submarine
movable type, perfected his printing men (she refused to employ them). accepted by the US Navy.
press around 1439. Until Gutenberg She also invented a travel ironing
invented his metal type, printing board, an anti-damp salt shaker, and
had been a laborious task using a collapsible hat rack. The airplane
carved wooden blocks. Although muffler, patented in 1923, was her
his invention revolutionized most famous invention. It muffled
printing, he died a poor man. the tremendous sound of an aircraft
without causing loss of power.

289

REFERENCE LAMARR, HEDY (1914–2000) multimillionaire, she heads her own developing the
company, Ingenious Designs Inc. first Japanese tape
Best known as a Hollywood actress, In 2015, her story was made into the recorder, a transistor radio,
the Austrian-American Lamarr is film Joy, starring Jennifer Lawrence. and the Trinitron TV system. The
now recognized as an important Walkman of 1979 was inspired by
inventor. In 1941, with her business MARCONI, GUGLIELMO Ibuka’s love of listening to opera
partner George Antheil, she (1874–1937) on long flights and the need for a
received the patent for a wireless streamlined, lightweight, portable,
communication system (a forerunner The “father of radio” was a young personal player.
of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technology) Italian scientist called Guglielmo
to be used by the military. “Inventions Marconi. He was fascinated by MATZELIGER, JAN ERNST
are easy for me to do,” she later radio waves and, through tireless (1852–1889)
claimed. “I suppose I just came experimentation, pioneered long-
from a different planet.” distance radio transmission and Born to a Dutch father and a slave
radio telegraphy. In 1896, Marconi mother, the Surinamese inventor
LEIZU OR XI LING SHI demonstrated the first wireless developed an early interest in
(2nd MILLENNIUM bce) transmission between buildings machinery at his father’s shipyard.
in London, UK. The following year, By 1877, employed in a shoe factory
The Chinese teacher Confucius told his equipment could transmit across in Massachusetts, he began figuring
the story of how the ancient empress the English Channel and, by 1901, out how to attach a shoe sole to its
Leizu became the first person to across the Atlantic Ocean to the upper by machine. This job was done
discover silk. Around 2640 bce, the US. He shared the Nobel Prize by hand and even a skilled worker
young wife of Emperor Huangdi was for Physics in 1909. could complete only 50 pairs a day.
sitting under a mulberry tree when Matzeliger’s machine, patented in
the cocoon of a silkworm fell in her MASON, STANLEY 1883, raised shoe production to
teacup and she saw how it was (1921–2006) between 150 and 700 pairs a day.
formed of tiny threads. This revelation
inspired her to rear silkworms and The American businessman and MONTAGU, JOHN
experiment with the fibers to create inventor worked on a multitude of (1718–1792)
silk fabric using a loom—a process consumer items, including microwave
that became known as sericulture. cookware, plastic dental floss, baby In 1762, the British statesman and
wipes, sports bras, and surgical 4th Earl of Sandwich ordered a chef
MANGANO, JOY (1956–) masks. The squeezable ketchup bottle to make him something he could eat
and fitted disposable diaper are his with his hands so he could snack
American inventor Mangano has most famous creations. The diaper without going to the dinner table.
patents for hundreds of everyday came about when he had his own The result was the sandwich—meat,
products, from wheeled luggage and children: “I held up the cloth diaper, for instance, between slices of bread.
jewelry boxes to rubber platform and it was square. I looked at the
shoes and reading glasses. In 1990, baby, and it was round. I knew there OTIS, ELISHA (1811–1861)
she invented the Miracle Mop, a was a engineering problem.”
self-wringing plastic floor mop with The American inventor of the
a self-rinsing cotton head. Now a IBUKA, MASARU safety device for elevators was
(1908–1997) a self-taught mechanic who also
patented an automatic turner for
The Japanese industrialist started his making wooden bedframes, a steam
career in a photochemical laboratory, plow, and a railroad safety brake. The
where he showed early promise safety device, developed in the 1850s,
as an inventor with his modulated was simple, employing springs to
light transmission system—a kind
of neon. He founded the company
that would become Sony in 1949,

bring a falling elevator to a standstill perfected his technique of creating a expected the broken bits of chocolate REFERENCE
if the cables broke. In 1861, Otis calotype (early photograph) using in her cookie mix to melt. Whichever
patented his steam engine for a camera and paper treated with story is true, Wakefield’s “Toll House
elevators but died the same year. silver nitrate and potassium iodide. Chocolate Crunch Cookie” is the basis
of America’s favorite cookie.
RAUSING, RUBEN TOYODA, SAKICHI
(1895–1983) (1867–1930) WELLESLEY, ARTHUR
(1769–1852)
At lunch one day at home in Sweden, The Japanese industrialist and
Rausing’s wife Elizabeth suggested founder of the group that would The famous Wellington boot takes its
he invent something lightweight to become Toyota was also the inventor name from the British statesman and
transport liquids such as milk or juice. of the automatic power loom. Toyoda military leader Arthur Wellesley, the
Head of a struggling food packaging was 18 years old when he decided 1st Duke of Wellington. The war hero
company, Ruben rose to the to become an inventor. In 1891, he was often seen wearing his favorite
challenge. In 1944, he patented the patented his first invention—the leather boots. In the early 1800s,
sterile, tetrahedron-shaped, plastic- wooden handloom, which required he was given a pair of Hessian boots
coated carton he developed with just one hand rather than two. By by a group of German soldiers.
Swedish engineer Erik Wallenberg. 1896, he had developed Japan’s first Wellington asked his bootmaker to
The company moved to the square steam-powered loom. Throughout his copy the design, but remove the
design a few years later. Today, Tetra life, Toyoda made improvements to tassel and extend the front over the
Pak is one of the most successful his original design, with patents knee for added protection. The style
packaging companies in the world. granted all over the world. was copied by aristocrats everywhere
and nicknamed the “Wellington.” The
RITTY, JAMES SIKORSKY, IGOR rubber version was patented in 1852.
(1836–1918) (1889–1972)
WOODS, GRANVILLE
The cash register was the cunning The Russian-American inventor of the (1856–1910)
idea of Ritty, the proprietor of an helicopter had an early fascination
American bar. He came up against with flight. He believed the best way Woods was an African American
the problem of his takings to fly was to go straight up with a engineer who was granted more
disappearing without any record. horizontal rotor. In Russia, Sikorsky than 50 patents in his lifetime,
He got together with his mechanic came up with early unsuccessful many for inventions applying to
brother John and invented a machine prototypes for the helicopter. In 1919, the safety and improvement of
with keys that could be pressed to he immigrated to the US, formed an the railroads. In 1887, he invented
record the amount of money taken at aircraft company, and developed the the Synchronous Multiplex Railway
each transaction. In 1879, he patented first four-engine plane. Then, in 1939, Telegraph, which enabled contact
his machine “Ritty’s Incorruptible he developed the first helicopter, between a moving train and a
Cashier” and opened a factory the VS-300, which was used by the station. Thomas Edison took him
in Dayton, Ohio, to produce US military. to court, claiming he had invented
his invention. it first, but Woods won the case. He
WAKEFIELD, RUTH GRAVES also helped improve inventions like
TALBOT, WILLIAM HENRY (1903–1977) the safety circuit, telephone, and
FOX (1800–1877) phonograph, and invented an egg
Many inventions are a happy incubator and an automatic brake.
In 1835, Talbot made a photographic accident, and that is what happened
negative of the window of his home, when Wakefield baked cookies for
Lacock Abbey, UK—it is the earliest the customers at her Massachusetts
surviving negative in the world. roadside inn around 1938. Wakefield
Talbot’s love of drawing inspired him claimed the chocolate chip cookies
to find a different way of capturing she created were like that by design,
images on paper. In 1841, he but other stories suggest that she

291

Glossary

GLOSSARY Air resistance A force that pushes against Atom The smallest part of a chemical Bronze Age A historical period, between
an object that is moving through the air, element, made up of particles called the Stone Age and Iron Age, that is
slowing it down. This is also called drag. protons, neutrons, and electrons. defined by the use of bronze as the most
Alloy A mixture of two or more metals. Bacteria (singular: bacterium) important material for making weapons
Alternating current (AC) An electrical These are tiny, single-celled organisms. and tools. It began around 3000 bce
current that changes its direction of flow Some bacteria cause disease, while others in the Middle East and spread around
many times every second to allow the help and protect the human body. the world over about 2,500 years.
efficient use of electricity. Battery A portable container of chemicals Carbon An important chemical element
Altitude The height of an object relative that stores and supplies electricity to that comes in a variety of forms, from
to sea or ground level. a range of devices, from toys to cars. coal to diamonds. Carbon can also be
Ammonia A colorless gas made up of Bellows A device that expands to draw combined with itself and other elements
nitrogen and hydrogen. It is often used in air through a valve, then contracts to produce millions of different
to make fertilizers that aid plant growth. to force the air through a tube. compounds, from plastics to DNA.
Anesthetic A pain-relieving drug or Bipedal A human, animal, or something Cathode The negatively charged electrode
gas given to a patient before a surgical else—for example, a robot—that uses in a cell, such as a battery.
operation. It can be “local,” which affects two legs for walking. Celestial A way of describing an object
just one part of the body, or “general,” Bitumen This sticky, black substance or event that occurs in the sky or outer
so the person is made temporarily made from tar or gasoline is used mainly space, such as a comet or an eclipse.
unconscious before a major operation. to surface roads. Charcoal This gray-black porous solid,
Ancestor A relative—usually one more Bronze A yellow-brown metal alloy made by heating wood in the absence of
remote than a grandparent—from whom made up mostly of copper and tin. oxygen, is mostly carbon. It has several
a human is descended. An ancestor can It is a popular choice of material uses, such as burning to generate heat
also refer to animals and plants. for sculptures because it is strong, for warmth or to cook. It can also be
Anode The positively charged electrode hard-wearing, and rust-resistant. used as a material for drawing.
in a cell, such as a battery. Circuit A complete and closed path
Antenna This device is used to transmit that electricity flows around. All electric
or receive radio or television signals. It is and electronic things have circuits
also known as an aerial. inside them.
Antibiotic A medicine that kills—
or limits the spread of—bacterial Combustion A chemical reaction in
infections in the human body or which a fuel, such as wood or coal,
other animals. burns with oxygen from the air to
release heat energy.

Conductor A substance that lets heat
or electricity flow easily through it.

Antiseptic A substance that is put ▲ MID-19TH CENTURY CHINESE Contamination The process of polluting
on cuts to prevent an infection. OCEAN COMPASS or poisoning—for example, an oil spill
Archaeology The study of things that polluting the ocean, or harmful bacteria
show how people lived before there poisoning the human body.
were written records. Coolant A substance, usually a liquid,
Astronomy The study of objects used to reduce the temperature of
in space, including planets, stars, something, such as a car engine
and galaxies. or factory machine.

292

Copper One of the chemical elements, Fuse A safety device for electrical
copper is a soft, red metal that is an machines that stops the current
excellent conductor of electricity and heat. flowing if it is too strong.

Cosmic Something that belongs, Gasoline The North American term
or relates to, the universe. for petrol—a flammable liquid that
is mainly used to fuel different forms
Crankshaft A metal shaft in a engine of transportation, from cars to boats.
that changes the up-and-down motion of Gearbox The set of gears that connect
pistons into rotary motion to drive wheels. the engine of a vehicle to its wheels.
Generator A device that converts energy
Density The amount of matter stored from rotational motion into electricity.
within a known volume of a material. Geocentric A way of viewing or
measuring Earth by putting it
Differential A set of gears that revolve ▲ THOMAS EDISON AND HIS ASSOCIATES at the center. GLOSSARY
at different speeds, allowing a vehicle TESTING A LAMP Germ A microscopic plant or animal,
to go around corners smoothly. especially one that can cause illness.
Direct current (DC) An electrical Electronic ignition A system that needs Gravity The force of attraction that exists
current, such as that from a battery, that an electronic circuit to start a machine, between all objects, and is what pulls
flows in one direction to generate electricity. such as in a car. objects down toward Earth. In space,
Displace The action of moving something Element A pure substance that cannot gravitational forces are much smaller,
out of its normal position—for example, be broken down into any simpler which is why astronauts float.
an object in a glass of water can displace substances. Elements are the building Harpoon A barbed, spearlike missile
the water, causing a spill. blocks of all matter. There are 118 that is used for hunting large fish
Domesticate The process of improving elements, most of which occur naturally. and whales.
farming methods (of animals or plants) Energy The capacity to do work. It may Heliocentric A way of viewing
or living styles (such as dogs in houses) come from a source such as coal or the sun, or measuring the sun by putting
to help and develop the way humans live. and can be used to generate electricity. it at the center.
Efficient A machine or system that Engine A device that burns fuel and Hieroglyphics An ancient form of writing
reaches a high level of productivity. oxygen to release stored heat energy that uses pictures to represent sounds and
Elasticity A property of a material that can power a machine. words. The ancient Egyptians, and some
that allows it to stretch and bend when Equator An imaginary line that other civilizations, used this system.
you push or pull it, and then returns goes around the middle of Earth Hull The main body of a ship or
to its original shape. to divide the northern and southern boat, not including the masts, yards,
Electricity A type of energy caused halves of the planet. The equator is sails, or rigging.
by electrons inside an atom. Static often drawn onto maps and globes. Hydrogen The simplest, lightest, and
electricity is made by electrons building Force A pushing or pulling action that most abundant of all chemical elements.
up in one place, while current electricity changes an object’s speed, direction of This gas is one component of water and
happens when electrons move around. movement, or shape. can be used as a sustainable fuel.
Electrode An electrical contact in a Fossil fuel A substance that burns Ignition The system in a gasoline engine
circuit. Electrodes can have a positive easily, releasing heat that has formed that makes the mixture of gasoline and air
or negative charge. from the remains of ancient plants in the cylinders catch fire.
Electromagnet A coil of wire that and other organisms. Fossil fuels Incandescent A way of describing
generates temporary magnetism when include coal, natural gas, and oil. something that is very hot and glowing,
electricity flows through it. Friction This type of force occurs such as the filament in a light bulb.
Electron This is a particle inside an between two objects, where their
atom with a negative charge. Electrons surfaces rub against each other
orbit the atom’s nucleus (or core) in to slow down movement.
layers called shells.

293

Infrared A type of electromagnetic Navigation The process of finding the
radiation that carries energy in invisible position of a car, ship, or aircraft and
waves from hot objects. the best route from there to somewhere else.

Insulator A material that does not let Neutron A particle inside an atom
heat or electricity flow easily through it. that has no charge.

Intake The amount of food, water, air, Nuclear reactor A device designed to
or another substance taken into the maintain and control nuclear reactions.
body or a machine. They are used mainly for electricity
generation in nuclear power plants.
GLOSSARY Iron Age A historical period after the ▲ LASER SHOW AT A CONCERT Nucleus The center of an atom that is
Bronze Age that is defined by the use made up of protons (positively charged
of iron as the most important material Magnetic field The area surrounding particles) and neutrons (particles with
for making weapons and tools. It began a magnet that is able to attract objects no charge).
around 1200 bce in the Middle East, to itself. Nutrient A food or any nourishing
and spread around the world over Mesopotamia Present-day Iraq and substance that plants or animals need
about 1,500 years. its surrounding areas, between the to live and grow.
Laser The acronym for light amplification Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Orbit The path that an object takes
by stimulated emission of radiation. A Medieval A term that describes in space when it moves around a star,
laser can produce a very powerful beam something, such as a painting or planet, or moon.
of light by exciting atoms inside a tube. building, made during a period Ore A rock or mineral from which
LED An acronym for light-emitting of European history from about a useful element can be purified
diode. An LED is a device that produces 600–1500. and isolated.
light when an electric current passes Mezzotint An engraving technique Oscillate The act of moving in a
through it. The color of its light depends that involves scraping and polishing back-and-forth fashion, like that
on the compounds used in it. a copper plate. of a pendulum.
Lever A tool that increases a small force Microbe A living organism too small Patent A legal application to protect a
into a large force—for example, a person to be seen with the unaided eye. There product and the way it is made from being
exerts a small force on a nutcracker by are three main types of microbe: bacteria, copied by another person or company.
squeezing it and breaking a nut. viruses, and fungi. They can be beneficial Payload The amount of objects or people
Levitation The act of rising up or or harmful to plants and animals. on an aircraft or a spacecraft.
hovering in the air. Pendulum A weight suspended from a
Magnet A piece of iron that attracts fixed point that swings freely back and
metals with iron or steel in them. forth under the force of gravity. A
pendulum is commonly used to regulate
▼ JOHN Microwave A very short, electromagnetic movements, for example in clocks.
HARRISON’S wave used for radar, cooking food in Pesticide A chemical substance that
1735 MARINER’S a microwave oven, or for sending is used for destroying insects or other
CLOCK information by radio. organisms that are harmful to plants
Module (space) A self-contained part or animals.
of a spacecraft. Phonetic The use of written language
to represent different sounds made
Mold A soft growth that develops on in speech.
rotting food or on some items that are Pollution The introduction of a substance
left for a long time in humid conditions. into an environment that has harmful or
poisonous effects.
NASA An acronym for National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Based in the US, NASA studies space
and is responsible for space travel.

294

Polymer An organic molecule made Semiconductor A substance used in Torque A force that makes an object turn. GLOSSARY
from many identical units joined together. electronics that has the ability to switch Transistor A semiconductor device
Plastics are an example of polymers. from being an insulator that blocks made of crystals of silicon mixed with
Prehistoric A way of describing a time electricity to a conductor that carries it. tiny amounts of other elements that alter
before there were written records. Smelting The process of extracting metal its electrical properties. The result is
Probe An unmanned, robotic spacecraft from its ore. a device that can control the flow of
controlled and monitored from Earth. Solar A way of describing something electrical current very precisely.
A space probe may approach the moon, that is related to, or caused by, the sun. Turbine A machine designed to produce
land on a planet or comet, or travel out Solar system The sun and all the planets, continuous power. It includes a wheel
of the solar system. moons, and other celestial bodies that or rotor that turns fast due to the flow
Propeller A device with blades that is go around the sun. of water, steam, or gas that goes over it.
attached to a boat or an aircraft. The Spacecraft Vehicles used to explore the Vacuum An empty space that contains
engine makes the propeller spin around solar system. no air or material of any kind.
and causes the boat or aircraft to move. Virus An infectious particle that is much
smaller than bacteria and is responsible
Proton A particle inside an atom that Steel A hard, strong metal made from for lots of different diseases.
has a positive electric charge. The number iron and small amounts of carbon.
of protons in an atom determines its Steel is widely used in construction,
chemical properties. from making skyscrapers to bridges.

Prow The front part of a ship. Sumerian A way of describing something ▼ FOUR STAR-TRACKING LASER
Radiation The process by which heat that relates to the ancient Mesopotamian BEAMS EMERGE FROM A TELESCOPE AT
transfers through air or an empty space. (present-day Iraq) civilization of Sumer, THE PARANAL OBSERVATORY IN CHILE
Radioactive A material in which the or the Sumerian language.
nucleus of each atom is unstable and Synthetic Another word for artificial.
breaks apart, releasing high-energy Thrust A push or a force. When
particles in the form of nuclear radiation. something pushes or accelerates in
Renewable energy A type of energy that one direction there is a force (thrust)
will not run out, and is generated from just as large in the opposite direction.
sources such as the sun, wind, and water.

Resistor An electronic component that
reduces the electric current flowing
through a circuit.

Saltpeter This is another name for the
compound potassium nitrate. Saltpeter
is an active ingredient in many things,
from fertilizers to fireworks.

Satellite An object in space that travels
around another object in a path called
an orbit. Scientists have sent artificial
satellites into Earth’s orbit to take
photographs, transmit data, and
help people navigate on Earth.

Semaphore An early system of signaling
that is used to communicate information
from a distance. The position of two
pivoting arms or blades represents
different letters or numbers.

Index

3-D films 161 atoms 57, 139, 183, 225, 227, 235
3-D games 209 audion valves 150
3-D printing 74–75 axles 13
3-D televisions 165
INDEX A B
acetaminophen 232 Babbage, Charles 170, 176, 177, 288
adhesive tape 72 bacteria 233, 234, 235, 237, 241, 242 cancer 227
Agricultural Revolution 10 Baird, John Logie 162 cannons 29
agriculture 9, 10–11, 44–47 Bakelite 63 can openers 194
AIBO 78 balers, self-tie 47 caravels 104
airbags 93 ballbarrows 202 carbolic acid 236, 237
Airblade 203 ballpoint pens 166 carbon fiber 85
air-conditioning 196, 197 banknotes, plastic 69 Carothers, Wallace 63, 219
aircraft 114–123 barbed wire 47 carracks 19
barcodes 67 carriages 15
rocket-powered 271 batteries 187, 190–191 cars 54–55, 92–97
aircraft carriers 114–115 Bauhaus Building 49
airlocks 112 Bell, Alexander Graham 142, 145 Car Tower 98–99
airships 122 bells, bicycle 84 headlights 182
air taxis, electric 123 Bermuda rig 105 carts 13, 14, 37, 94, 126, 200
Alexanderson Alternator 150 Berners-Lee, Tim 174, 288 cash dispensers 67
Allen wrenches 43 bicycles 84–87, 119 cash registers 66
alphabets 35 Bigelow Expandable Activity Module Cassini probe 285, 287
alternating current 60, 61, 187 cathode ray tube (CRT) 162, 224
amalgam fillings 247 (BEAM) 277 cathodes 191
Amazon 70–71 billboards, electronic 168–169 CAT scanners 225
ammonia 45 Bitcoin 67 cat’s eyes 102
analog 117, 163 bitumen 102 cell phones 143, 144, 145, 282
Analytical Engine 176, 177 block printing 35 celluloid 62
Anderson, Mary 288 blood-glucose meters 229 chariots 14, 15
anesthetics 230–231 blood transfusions 238, 239 checkouts, self-service 67
anodes 191 Bluetooth 145, 207 chess, computer 209
anthrax 244, 245 BMX bikes 86 chiaroscuro 33
antibiotics 233, 241 board games 208, 209 chips 147
antiseptics 236, 237 boats 108–109 chloroform 231
Apollo spacecraft 269, 273, 275, 280, 283 chocolate bars 198
apps 146 see also ships cholesterol 233
archaeology, satellite 282 body parts, artificial 248–249 cinema 160–161
Archimedes 20–21, 106 bottle-making machinery 53 circular saws 40
Archimedes screw 20 bottles, plastic 63 clocks 138–141
arc lamps 180 braces, dental 247 clothing 218–221
arc welding 41 Braille 167 CNC milling machines 43
Ariane rockets 260, 280, 281 bras 218 coaches 100–101
arithmometer 66 breakfast cereals 199 Cochran, Josephine 192
armillary spheres 36 broadcasting 162 cockpits, glass 117
arquebuses 30 Bronze Age 9 coffee machines 194
artemisinin 233 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 41, 106, 108, 288 Colossus 170–171
artificial intelligence (AI) 76, 77, 285 bubble gum 199 color photography 157
aspirin 232 bubble wrap 73 color televisions 163, 164
assembly lines 96 buckles 220 combine harvesters 47
asteroids 286 Buddhism 13
astrolabes 17 bullet trains 129
astronauts 78, 269, 272–279 buses 100–101
astronomy 36, 37, 252–279 buttons 220, 221
astrophotography 252 C
Atacama Large Millimeter Array calculating machines 66
calculators 73
(ALMA) 256–57 camera obscuras 156
atomic clocks 139, 265 cameras 156–159
296

comets 286, 287 drugs 232–233 fizzy drinks 199 INDEX
communications satellites 264–265 DVDs 161 flash freezing 197
compact discs (CDs) 207 dynamite 50, 51 flash photography 157
compasses 17, 258 dynamos 187 flat-screen televisions 165
compound microscopes 234, 235 Dyna-Rig 105 Fleming, Sandford 139, 288
computer programming 171, 177 Dyson, James 201, 202–203 flight 116–123
computers 148–149, 170–177, 209, 210–211 E flintlock firearms 31
consoles, handheld 210, 211 earthquake indicator 36, 37 flu viruses 243
construction 48–49 Edison, Thomas 57, 60, 61, fluorescent lights 181, 183
construction kits 209 flushing toilets 212–213
contact lenses 248 180–181, 186–187, 204, 206 Flyer 118–119
contactless cards 69 educational robots 79 flying boats 116–117
container ships 109 Egyptians 8–9, 12, 15, 16, 18, 24, FM radio 152
Cooper, Martin 288 folding bicycles 87
Copernicus, Nicolaus 259 34, 35, 102, 138, 208, 248 food 44–45, 194–199, 283
cordless phones 145 electric bicycles 86
crankshafts 93 electric cars 94, 95 in space 279
credit cards 67, 68 electric drills 42 food processors 195
crops 10, 44–45 electricity 61, 182, 185, 187 Ford, Henry 92, 96–97
crystal radios 150–151 fossil fuels 58
cubesats 261 animal 190 Franklin, Benjamin 190, 289
cuneiform writing 34 batteries 190–191 freeze-dried food 283
Curie, Marie 226–227 generating 57, 181 frozen food 197
Curiosity rover 285 high voltage 188–189 G
curtain walls 49 public supply 57 Gagarin, Yuri 272, 274
cyclonic vacuum cleaners 201, 202–203 sending messages by 137 Galilei, Galileo 254, 258–259
D electric razors 215 Galileo space probe 285
daguerreotype images 156 electrocardiographs 229 Galvani, Luigi 190
da Vinci, Leonardo 26–27, 113, 288 electromagnets 136, 137 games 208–211
Davy, Humphrey 132, 180 electron microscopes 235 gaming 210–211
DDT 45 electrons 162, 181, 183, 235 gamma rays 253, 262
Deep Space 1 271 elliptical orbits 261 gas lights 182
defibrillators, portable 233 emojis 147 gas power 56
delivery bots, self-driving 79 Empire State Building 48–49 Gates, Bill 170
dentistry 246–247 endoscopes 224 gears 27, 86, 93
detergents 193 energy-generating roads 103 gelignite 51
diagnoses, medical 228–229 engineering 48–49 Gemini spacecraft 272
diesel-electric locomotives 128 erasers 72 geocentric universe 259
Difference Engine No. 2 170 Eros 286 geostationary orbits 261, 264, 265
digital cameras 159, 282 escalators 49
digital imaging 282 ether 230–231 297
digital radios 151, 152, 153 European Extremely Large Telescope
digital recording 205 (E-ELT) 255
digital televisions 163 European Space Agency (ESA) 280,
digital watches 141 281, 286, 287
direct current 60, 61, 187 F
disaster-relief robots 79 facial recognition 147
dishwashers 192 factories 52–53, 54–55
displacement 21 false teeth 246
diving 113 farming 9, 10–11, 44–47
dollars, US 68 fasteners 220–221
domestication 10, 11 Fertile Crescent 10
drag 117 fertilizers 45
drawlooms 24 filaments 181
drills fillings, dental 247
films
dental 247 cinema 160–161
electric 42 photographic 157
driverless cars 95 fingerprint scanners 147
drones fire chariots 30
crop-spraying 47 fire-lances 29
delivery 124–125 fire-making 8
passenger 123 fire safety 283
photography 159 fireworks 28, 268
fitness, in space 278

INDEX geothermal power 58 hydroponics 44–45 kinetoscopes 186
germs 234–237, 244 hygiene, hospital 236 kitchen devices 194–195
Giotto probe 286 I Knight, Margaret 289
glass, laminated 64 Ibuka, Masaru 207, 290 Kuiper Belt 287
gliders 119, 121 icebreakers 106–107 Kwolek, Stephanie 65, 289
GM (genetically modified) crops 45 ice cream 198 L
gold 21 incandescent light bulbs 181 Laika 260
Goode, Sarah E. 289 Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Lake, Simon 112, 290
Gore-Tex 219 Lamarr, Hedy 290
GPS (Global Positioning System) 85, 95, 281 Landsat 1 262
induction motors 61 laptop computers 172–173
145, 159, 261, 265 industrialization 22–23, 52–53 laser cutters 43
granaries 11 Industrial Revolution 40, 52–53, 56, 102, laser eye surgery 239
gravity 117, 258 laser levels 43
SS Great Britain 41, 106 176, 218 laser lights 183
SS Great Eastern 108, 137 industrial robots 76 latitude 110
Greek fire 29 infrared 252, 253 laughing gas 231
Greeks, ancient 16, 20–21, 22, 106, 112, Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) 255 laundry 192–193
instruments, surgical 237 LED 168, 181, 183
190, 198, 228 insulators, glass-based 65 LEGO bricks 209
Greenwich Mean Time 139 intaglio printing 33 legs, prosthetic 249
grenades 30 internal combustion engines 94, 268 Leizu 290
gunpowder 28–29 International Space Station (ISS) 277, Lenoir, Étienne 94
guns 30–31 lenses 234, 248, 249
Gutenberg, Johannes 32–33, 289 278, 279 life jackets 104
H Internet 153, 163, 174–175, 264 lift 116, 117, 122
hair spray 215 Internet banking 69 lifts 49
Halley’s Comet 286 Internet cafés 175 light 180–183
handguns 31 ion engines 271
handlooms 24 Iron Age 9 electronic billboards 168–169
hands, bionic 249 Iron Bridge 48 splitting 253
Hannah, Marc 289 iron lungs 232 light bulbs 180–181, 182, 183, 186, 187
Harrington, John 212 irrigation 11, 20 lighthouses 16
harrows 10–11 J Linoleum 64
HD televisions 163 James Webb Space Telescope 280 Lippershey, Hans 252, 254
headphones, Bluetooth 207 Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency lipstick 215
health 222–249 liquid fuels 268, 270, 271
hearing aids 248, 249 (JAXA) 280, 281 Lister, Joseph 236, 237
hearts, artificial 249 Jenner, Edward 242 lithography 33
helicopters 122 jet injectors 243 local anesthetics 231
heliocentric universe 258, 259 jet planes 120–121 Locomotion No 1 132
helmets, bicycle 85 jet-propelled boats 107 long-playing records 206
Herschel, William 254 jigsaw puzzles 208 longships 18
hieroglyphs 34, 35 Jones, Eldorado 289 looms 24, 53, 218
highlighter pens 73 junks, Chinese 18 Lovelace, Ada 176–177
highways 103 Juno probe 287 Lovell, Bernard 254
home computers 172–173 Jupiter 258, 285, 287 Luddites 52
Homo habilis 8 K Lumière Brothers 161
Hooke, Robert 234 Kevlar 65 Luna 3 284
hooks and eyes 220 kidney dialysis 238 lunar rovers 275
Hoover vacuum cleaners 201 M
Hopper, Grace 171 Mackintosh coats 218
hot-air balloons 122 Madar City 59
Hubble Space Telescope 255, 280 maglevs 129
humanoids 77 magnetic tape 205
hunting 8 malaria 233
Huygens, Christiaan 141, 289 Mangano, Joy 290
Huygens lander 287 man-made materials 64–65
hybrid cars 95 maps 16, 263
hybrid vessels 107 Marconi, Guglielmo 150, 290
hydraulic chairs 246 Mariner 9 286
hydraulic presses 53 Mars 279, 281, 285, 286
Mason, Stanley 63, 290
298