The Shakespeare Book

THE KING’S MAN 249

The plotter Iago plays on
Othello’s jealousy
Iago to further his own
Cassio has been preferred to him as lieutenant, plan. He wreaks his
and Iago suspects that it is Cassio’s friendship revenge not only on
with Desdemona that swung Othello’s decision. Othello, but also on
Desdemona and
Iago now has the motive to ruin all three. Cassio. He exploits
Desdemona’s
Key victims youthful naivety,
and the character
flaws in Othello
and Cassio.

Othello Desdemona Cassio
He is ready to believe the She is loyal to her husband, Young and handsome, with an
words of his trusted comrade but Iago exploits her youth eye for women, he has all the
Iago. He is already suspicious qualities Iago needs to make
and insecure by nature. to drive Othello mad
with jealousy. Othello jealous of him.

Control Jealousy Naivety Lechery

He requests that she pray so that Villainy, villainy, villainy! The handkerchief
he can preserve her immortal I think upon’t, I think. I smell’t. Othello’s handkerchief, which is
soul despite killing her body. embroidered with strawberries,
This suggests that the murder O villainy! is a key instrument of his marital
is, in Othello’s mind at least, Emilia downfall. By attaching emotional
an honor killing rather than a significance to this small object,
vengeful killing. Act 5, Scene 2 Othello makes himself vulnerable
to Iago’s scheming, and readily
Honor is a word that creeps into “hellish villain” (5.2.378). Iago accepts the theory that Desdemona
the world of the characters. How might have survived this tragedy, handed over this treasured gift
can Othello be honorable but his torment will begin now, first to her “lover.” The fact that
if he is also a murderer? When through earthly torture and then Desdemona lies about misplacing
the truth is eventually known in everlasting hellfire. Survival may it affirms her husband’s suspicions
to Othello, he calls for his own be his punishment. about her infidelity.
damnation, claiming that
Desdemona is a “heavenly sight” This tiny prop comes to
while he is a “cursèd, cursèd represent the tension and mistrust
slave” (5.2.283). The question on in Othello and Desdemona’s
everyone’s lips at the close of the marriage. So weighted is this
play relates to Iago. What will object that, in 1693, the historian
happen to him now? Othello Thomas Rymer argued that the
accuses him of being a “demi-devil” play ought to be called “The
(5.2.307) and Lodovico calls him a Tragedy of the Handkerchief.” ■

A MAN MORE

SINNED

AGAINST

THAN SINNING

KING LEAR (1605–1606)



252 KING LEAR

DRAMATIS Lear shares power Edmond stages a fight Lear discovers
PERSONAE between Goneril and between himself and Kent’s shameful
Regan. He disowns Edgar. He tells treatment and rages
King Lear King of Britain. Cordelia and banishes Gloucester that Edgar
at both his
Goneril Lear’s eldest the Earl of Kent. was plotting Gloucester’s daughters.
daughter, married to Albany, murder and has now fled.
but becomes adulterously
involved with Edmond. 1.1 2.1 2.2
Act 1 Act 2
Duke of Albany Goneril’s 1.4 2.2
husband.
Lear and Goneril Kent attacks
Regan Lear’s middle quarrel, and Lear Oswald and is put in
daughter, married to Cornwall,
later pursues Edmond as her departs for the stocks. Edgar
second husband. Regan’s house. determines to disguise

Duke of Cornwall Regan’s himself as the mad
husband. beggar, Poor Tom.

Cordelia Lear’s youngest K ing Lear renounces his Edgar. In a plot contrived by the
daughter, later becomes the throne and divides the illegitimate Edmond to steal his
Queen of France. kingdom among his three brother Edgar’s inheritance,
daughters. He asks each to profess Gloucester is tricked into thinking
Duke of Burgundy Cordelia’s her love for him, so that he may that Edgar seeks to kill him and
first suitor. decide who will gain the larger seize his land. Edgar is pursued
share. Goneril and Regan play by the law, but disguises himself
King of France Cordelia’s along, but Cordelia refuses to as the beggar Poor Tom.
second suitor. flatter. She is banished, along with
the Earl of Kent. The King of France Lear takes up residence at
The Fool Lear’s court jester, offers marriage to Cordelia, and the court of his eldest daughter,
very close to Cordelia, whose they depart for France. Kent adopts Goneril, and her husband, Albany,
absence he mourns. the disguise of the servant Caius. but she accuses her father of rowdy
behavior. Lear curses her with
Earl of Kent One of Lear’s Shortly after Cordelia’s barrenness and leaves for Regan’s
most loyal followers. Later banishment, the Earl of Gloucester house, only to find that she and her
disguises himself as a is estranged from his elder son, husband, Cornwall, are away from
servant named Caius.

Earl of Gloucester Another
loyal follower of Lear, father to
Edgar and Edmond.

Edmond The illegitimate son
of Gloucester.

Edgar The eldest son and
legitimate heir of Gloucester,
later disinherited. Adopts a
succession of disguises,
including that of the mad
beggar, Tom o’ Bedlam.

Oswald Goneril’s servant.

THE KING’S MAN 253

Cornwall takes Gloucester Edgar kills Oswald The battle is Lear enters with the dead
prisoner and plucks and discovers a letter fought. Edgar tells Cordelia in his arms, and
out his eyes. Gloucester that Lear dies of grief. Kent promises
in which Goneril and Cordelia have to follow after Lear, leaving
asks Edmond to been defeated, and
the crown to Edgar.
kill Albany. they go to
join them.

3.7 4.5 5.2 5.3

Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

3.2 4.1 5.1 5.3

A demented Lear Edgar encounters Edgar, disguised as a Lear and Cordelia
rages on the heath. his blinded father peasant, gives Albany are taken to prison.
Kent forces him and the wandering on the a letter, and arranges a
Fool to take shelter. heath. He agrees to single combat if the British Edgar and Edmond
take him to Dover army is victorious over fight a duel and
Cliff so that he may
jump and end his life. the invading French. Edmond is fatally
wounded. Regan is
found to have been
poisoned by Goneril,

who kills herself.

home, and that they have put Kent servant). Edgar leads the blinded erupts into murder and suicide—
in the stocks. After a furious Gloucester to what he pretends to Goneril poisons her sister, and
confrontation with both daughters, be the edge of Dover Cliff so that he then stabs herself. Edmond urges
Lear rushes into a thunderstorm. may end his life. When Gloucester Albany to rescue Lear and Cordelia,
Deranged with fury and grief, he falls forward onto level ground, but it is too late. Lear enters,
and his Fool befriend Poor Tom. Edgar convinces him that he has carrying the dead Cordelia in his
miraculously survived the jump. arms. Broken with grief, the King
Goneril and Regan plot to have slips back into madness, failing to
their father killed, but Gloucester Cordelia takes Lear into her recognize Kent when he finally
has the king secretly conveyed to protection. A battle ensues. Lear reveals his true identity. Just at the
safety at Dover, in the knowledge and Cordelia are defeated and moment when Lear thinks that
that Cordelia is returning with a imprisoned. Disguised as a knight, Cordelia might still be alive, he
French army to avenge her father. Edgar challenges Edmond to single dies. Albany offers to divide the
When Gloucester’s actions are combat. When Edmond is fatally kingdom between Kent and Edgar,
discovered, he has both his eyes wounded, Edgar reveals his but Kent says that he will follow his
plucked out by Cornwall (who is identity. The jealousy between master, leaving the crown to Edgar. ❯❯
fatally wounded by his own Goneril and Regan over Edmond

254 KING LEAR W hile King Lear is often as a dangerously volatile figure,
considered the height tyrannizing his daughters in the
IN CONTEXT of Shakespeare’s initial love test, and later stabbing
achievement in tragedy, it the Fool to death in a frenzied
THEMES also undermines many of the attack. But neither in this
Love, betrayal, assumptions upon which his production nor in the play as
bereavement, and death other tragedies were built. It lays written is there any sense of
waste to our ideals, producing a how Lear’s physical strength or
SETTING vision of nihilistic despair not rhetorical power might ever have
Ancient Britain, unlike the plays of 20th-century served his subjects’ interests, or
approximately 800 BCE Irish playwright Samuel Beckett. indeed how he might once have
In this way, King Lear is both inspired admiration and love.
SOURCES ancient (it is set in 800 BCE) and Goneril and Regan suggest that
12th century Geoffrey remarkably modern. his lack of judgment in banishing
of Monmouth’s Historia Cordelia is not a single tragic error,
Regum Britanniae (History From the start, Shakespeare associated with “the infirmity of
of British Kings). conceived of Lear in a mold that his age,” but a personality trait:
is significantly different from his “he hath ever but slenderly known
1587 Raphael Holinshed’s other tragic heroes. Where the himself” (1.1.292–293). Without any
Chronicles of England, sources give the King’s age as sense of Lear’s former greatness,
Scotland, and Ireland. in his sixties, Shakespeare his descent into madness loses
emphasizes Lear’s decrepitude, something of the grandeur and
LEGACY insisting that he is more than 80
1681 Nahum Tate’s The years of age and ready to “crawl Lear divides his kingdom between
History of King Lear … toward death” (1.1.41). Modern his three daughters. In this production
Reviv’d with Alterations productions often cast a at the Bad Hersfeld Festival, Germany
adapts the play so that significantly younger actor (2012), Volker Lechtenbrink plays Lear
Cordelia survives and is in the role. In 2014, a 53-year-old and Kristin Hoelck is Cordelia.
betrothed to Edgar. Simon Russell Beale played Lear

1851 In his novel Moby Dick,
Herman Melville’s Captain
Ahab rages in the storm, a
scene inspired by King Lear.

1957 The ballet The Prince of
the Pagodas by choreographer
John Cranko, with music by
Benjamin Britten, borrows plot
elements from King Lear.

1985 The film Ran, by director
Akira Kurosawa, turns Lear
into a samurai warlord.

1987 Lear’s Daughters, a
play by Elaine Feinstein, is
a prequel to King Lear.

1991 Jane Smiley’s novel
A Thousand Acres moves the
play’s action to a farm in Iowa.
The story is told from the
perspective of Ginny (Goneril).

plot pauses whenever it encounters THE KING’S MAN 255
the protagonist. Nothing that Lear
does after the opening scene has Paul Scofield
any real impact on the action.
In a 2004 poll of RSC actors,
Meantime we shall express Sins of the father Paul Scofield’s Lear was voted
our darker purpose. So what “sins” might Lear be the greatest Shakespearean
blamed for in that opening scene? performance of all time. Then
Give me the map there. For Shakespeare’s audience, his aged 40, Scofield appeared in
Know that we have divided act of “unburdening” himself by Peter Brook’s 1962 staging
giving up his throne would have of King Lear. Critic Kenneth
In three our kingdom been deeply suspect. In a society Tynan described Brook’s
King Lear with no expectation of retirement, production as revolutionary
the voluntary renunciation of power in its depiction of Lear not as
Act 1, Scene 1 would have seemed to undermine “the booming, righteously
the respect for age and male indignant Titan of old, but
sense of waste that it might authority that was so deeply an edgy, capricious old man,
have possessed in another embedded in the culture. Kingship intensely difficult to live
Shakespearean tragedy. was also believed to be divinely with.” Scofield’s Lear was a
appointed—hence it was an act very human depiction of the
Lear as tragic hero of sacrilege to attempt to sever king, for whom our pity is not
Lear’s description of himself king from crown. Also potentially automatically to be granted.
as “a man / More sinned against damaging is Lear’s decision to
than sinning” (3.2.59–60) hints divide the kingdom. Myths In 1971, Scofield played
at his passivity in the play. abounded about the catastrophic Lear in Brook’s film adaptation
In comparison to Edmond, who consequences of such division, of the play, and in 2002,
plots his father’s death and orders leading to bloody civil war and having himself reached the
the deaths of Lear and Cordelia, fratricide, and Shakespeare was age of 80, he starred in an
Goneril, who will use her lover to writing during the reign of James I, acclaimed radio version.
kill her husband and who poisons a king seeking to strengthen ties
her sister, and Cornwall, who between his two hostile kingdoms, Lear was one of many
plucks out Gloucester’s eyes, England and Scotland. Shakespearean roles that
Lear’s acts of banishment (although Scofield took on in a career
they constitute a kind of social Ultimately, however, it is Lear’s that spanned 65 years.
death) will come to seem relatively disavowal of Cordelia that brings He appeared infrequently
mild. Throughout acts three and the King to his knees. Lear on screen, despite many
four, when Hamlet or Macbeth estranges himself from the one ❯❯ approaches from Hollywood,
are acting furiously to bring about preferring the relative
their own destruction, Lear exists O madam, my old heart is anonymity of the stage and
on the margins of the plot, in the cracked, it’s cracked. radio, but won an Academy
liminal space of the heath. In his Gloucester Award for his portrayal of
mental confusion, he identifies Sir Thomas More in the 1966
the behavior of a mad beggar as Act 2, Scene 1 film A Man for All Seasons.
the pattern for his own paternal
betrayal, and muses on the dangers
of female sexuality and the
hypocrisy of the powerful. In this
respect, King Lear is a remarkably
philosophical tragedy, in which the

256 KING LEAR

infectious, Gloucester fails to see
through the deception and fatally
places his trust in the wrong son.
But in a larger sense, the tragedy
sees suffering as something that
exists outside any simple process
of cause and effect, and as a
fundamental part of the human
condition. To be “a man / More
sinned against than sinning” is
not some kind of cosmic injustice,
but the norm.

Lear is accompanied by his Fool It can certainly be argued that The basest beggar
during the storm, illustrated here by Lear’s actions in the first scene Where Hamlet only pretends to
Scottish artist William Dyce (1806–64). set a destructive precedent. By consider “What a piece of work is a
The Fool is the only character allowed failing to value the genuine love of man,” King Lear offers a profound
to speak the truth to the king. Cordelia over the insincere flattery meditation on this subject, and its
of her sisters, Lear encourages a conclusions are as melancholy as
daughter whose love and reverence character like Edmond to pursue Hamlet might have wished them.
will be unaffected by his loss of his inheritance by faking filial love, Blinded Gloucester describes the
status, unlike Goneril and Regan and by slandering his brother. mad Lear as a “ruined piece of
whose respect for their father As though Lear’s blindness were nature,” and when he tries to kiss
exists only while he has power. Lear’s hand, the King advises:
If the kingdom had been divided Blow, winds, and crack your “Here, wipe it first; it smells of
in three, Cordelia might have cheeks! Rage, blow, mortality” (4.5.128–130). The play
served as a buffer between her relentlessly confronts man’s
two elder and ambitious sisters. You cataracts and hurricanoes, physical needs. Lear’s madness
Furthermore, banishment results King Lear coincides with the assault upon
in her becoming Queen of his body of extreme cold, wind,
France, which leads her to seek Act 3, Scene 2 and rain. It is no coincidence that
to depose the rightful rulers his wits are only restored once
of Britain with French troops. he has been brought into shelter,
Although Shakespeare makes clear given fresh clothes, and allowed
that her motive is “love, dear love, to sleep. Earlier on in the play,
and our aged father’s right” (4.3.28) Lear had appeared to glimpse the
rather than ambition, the fact troubling physical similarities that
remains that Lear has made define all men, if they are deprived
his kingdom vulnerable. of the external trappings of class
and wealth. When his daughters try
to take away his knightly retinue,
he counters: “O, reason not the
need! Our basest beggars / Are in
the poorest thing superfluous. /
Allow not nature more than nature
needs, / Man’s life is cheap as
beast’s” (2.2.438–441).

But King Lear at this point has
no idea what the life of the basest
beggar might be, and it is with a
kind of redemptive sadism that

THE KING’S MAN 257

Unaccommodated man is no sense of fellowship in the discovery I have no way, and therefore
more but such a poor, bare, that in his nakedness he is no more want no eyes.
forked animal as thou art. than “such a poor, bare, forked
animal, as thou art” (3.4.101–102). I stumbled when I saw
King Lear In this respect, King Lear has Earl of Gloucester
often been seen as a socialist
Act 3, Scene 4 play, in that it forces the king to Act 4, Scene 1
acknowledge his similarity to the
Shakespeare casts him out into lowest social class (even though upon which humanity is founded.
the wilderness to encounter one. Edgar is actually an earl’s son) and, This “something” is the capacity to
Poor Tom represents a misery more importantly, to acknowledge feel pity. The play’s most virtuous
that Lear has never imagined—a his own responsibility for Poor characters, Edgar and Cordelia,
vagrant, tormented by demonic Tom’s condition: “O, I have ta’en / repeatedly tell us of their emotional
voices, clothed only in a blanket, Too little care of this” (3.4.32–33). In reaction to other people’s suffering.
and drinking from puddles mixed a radical challenge to contemporary Edgar wonders at both Gloucester
with horse urine. Lear’s response, politics, the play features both a and Lear: “O thou side-piercing
which is to take off his own clothes, king and an earl calling for a sight” (4.5.85); “my heart breaks at
signifies his final descent into redistribution of wealth, “So it” (138); while Cordelia repeatedly
madness. He now conspires in distribution should undo excess, / voices her pity for the father who
the destruction of his familial and And each man have enough” wronged her. Both characters
social identity. But there is also a (4.1.64–65). also attest to the efficacy of pity,
with Edgar being driven to rescue
More’s the pity his father from despair, and
If the play is initially driven by Cordelia using her tears to gain
the need to strip man down to an army, before using the same
his bare essentials, as anticipated restorative drops to bring Lear
by Cordelia’s destructive use of back to his senses.
the term “Nothing,” it then begins
to move toward the “something” By contrast, evil is defined
in the play as the absence of
pity, which leads in turn to an
absence of pitiful action. Goneril
and Regan allow Lear to wander
on the heath in a thunderstorm,
drawing forth language that
defines pity as that which
separates man from beast.
Thus, Cordelia observes, “Mine ❯❯

The blind Gloucester (right, Geoffrey
Freshwater) meets with the now-mad
Lear (left, Greg Hicks). Without his
sight, Gloucester finally realizes his
previous blindness toward Edmond.

258 KING LEAR

enemy’s dog, though he had bit acted, good triumphs over evil in Howl, howl, howl, howl!
me, should have stood / That night the final battle and Lear is restored O, you are men of stones.
against my fire” (4.6.30–31). to his throne. He dies of old age and
is succeeded by Cordelia. Audience King Lear
That the play has limits to reactions must certainly have
its own capacity for pity, however, echoed Kent’s sentiments “Is this Act 5, Scene 3
is something critics have recently the promised end?” (5.3.238), when
pointed out with regard to the not only do Lear and Cordelia lose The double plot is a feature of
treatment of Goneril and Regan. the battle, but Cordelia is murdered, comedy, usually allowing a broader
But perhaps the most violent causing her father to die of grief. perspective and the exploration of
reaction against the play has alternative themes—although the
focused on the way in which its A problematic end? similarity of Gloucester’s plight to
supposedly redemptive experience Subsequent critics, including that of Lear only serves to render
of suffering, and the value it places Samuel Johnson, put on record the play more claustrophobic. The
on pity, comes to nothing. their dismay with the play’s ending. combat between the older and
The 17th-century Poet Laureate the younger generation, with the
When Shakespeare’s audience Nahum Tate felt compelled to draft latter attempting to free itself from
went to see King Lear, they were a new ending in which Cordelia parental oppression particularly
expecting, at worst, to endure the survives. In Tate’s version, a love in matters of the heart, is also the
grief of his daughters’ ingratitude story develops between Cordelia stuff of comedy. The movement
and the physical deprivations of and Edgar, to whom she is of exiled characters into a green
his homelessness. Gloucester’s betrothed at the end. It was this
blinding was an added turn of version of the tragedy that would
the screw, derived from Sir Philip be performed for nearly 150 years,
Sidney’s prose romance, The to the detriment of Shakespeare’s
Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia original version.
(1593). However, in all the other
versions of the Lear story, including Tate was partly responding
an earlier play The True Chronicle to the fact that much of the
Historie of King Leir (c.1594), in structure of King Lear is comic.
which Shakespeare may even have

Married to Lear’s tangled web

Cornwall Poisons sister

Cordelia Plots against Regan Plots against Goneril
Daughter sister Daughter sister Daughter

Earl of Kent Banishes King Lear Married to
Friend
Taunts Both sisters Albany
Fool lust after

Loyal to

Edgar/Poor Tom Earl of Edmond
Legitimate son Gloucester Bastard son

Kills brother

THE KING’S MAN 259

In Jean-François Sivadier’s 2007
production, the play was translated
into tough, contemporary French. A
physical production, its action was as
uncompromising as its language.

world where they discover a truer
relationship to nature and to their
own humanity, before returning
to civilization, is also a staple of
the pastoral genre. Even the Fool
naturally belongs in a play like As
You Like It rather than a tragedy.

Agony of grief him artistic control so that he may cannot rescue Lear from his agony of
But these romantic, comic leave a final impression of greatness, grief. No other play by Shakespeare
expectations endure only to be but Lear dies in the middle of a offers such a bleak perspective on
smashed to pieces. When Lear thought—and not about himself but the tragic fact of human mortality.
enters, carrying dead Cordelia, about Cordelia, whose death is so
some fantasy about how the world painful as to be incomprehensible: Shakespeare’s society was
works is finally destroyed. It is not “Why should a dog, a horse, a rat deeply Christian, with a system of
just the futility of it—after all their have life, / And thou no breath at all? religious practices a part of everyday
suffering, Lear and Gloucester Thou’lt come no more. / Never, never, life. Yet no one can comfort Lear,
cannot make use of anything they never, never, never” (5.3.282–284). other than to will that he be spared
have learned, and are denied the Pity is revealed to be something further pain by not feeling. It is in
chance to make amends to their that no one feels enough (“O, you this respect that King Lear remains
children—it is rather that the play are men of stones” (232)), and that perhaps Shakespeare’s most
confronts the unavoidable destiny devastating play. ■
of bereavement and death, with no
offer of consolation.

At the end of a Shakespearean
tragedy, the hero’s demise is usually
carefully stage-managed, offering

A feminist reading In 1817, the English literary critic psychological depth to her
William Hazlitt argued that character, and to make her
“that which aggravates the an object of pity. Similarly, the
sense of sympathy in the reader, incestuous intensity that defines
and of uncontrollable anguish in Lear’s possessiveness over
the swol’n heart of Lear, is the Cordelia at the start of the play
petrifying indifference, the cold, was a theme explored by the US
calculating, obdurate selfishness writer Jane Smiley in her novel
of his daughters.” Since the late A Thousand Acres (1991). This
20th century, however, feminist retells the story from the
critics have taken issue with this perspective of Goneril. Ginny
reading, arguing that the childless (Goneril) suffers flashbacks that
Goneril at least has plenty of reveal how her relationship with
motivation to act as she does her father has been shaped by
against her father. Lear’s curse the sexual abuse she and her
of sterility upon her in 1.4 has sister Rose (Regan) experienced
allowed actors to give greater from him in childhood.

THE MIDDLE OF

HUMANITY

THOU NEVER KNEW’ST BUT THE

EXTREMITY

OF BOTH ENDS

TIMON OF ATHENS (1606)



262 TIMON OF ATHENS

DRAMATIS Merchants and artists Apemantus berates Servants are sent to
PERSONAE gather at Timon’s house Timon for being vain Timon’s “friends”

Timon A prodigal Athenian to benefit from the and blind to the to ask for money. They
lord who showers gifts upon Athenian lord’s sycophancy of all leave empty
his visitors. He falls into debt his “frends.” handed.
and discovers that no one is generosity.
prepared to help him. He
leaves the city to live alone 1.1 1.2 2.2
in the woods. Act 1 Act 2

Apemantus A misanthropic 1.2 2.2
philosopher with a talent for
sarcasm. He warns Timon Timon pays a Creditors call upon
about the fickle flatterers friend’s prison bail, Timon to receive
feasting on his generosity. and provides money for payment. Timon
his servant to marry. is enraged but is
Flavius Timon’s faithful certain that his
steward, who is troubled by friends will help
his master’s prodigality, and
tries to warn him about his him with
changing fortune. his debt.

Alcibiades An Athenian A rtists and merchants Flavius, a servant, reveals privately
soldier who is banished gather at Timon’s home that Timon’s wealth has been
from Athens. He plans his to present him with gifts spent, and that he is running
revenge and encounters and seek his patronage. Timon is further into debt. Timon remains
Timon in the woods. well-known for his extravagant unperturbed, believing that his
generosity. A poet at the gathering friends will come to his financial
Phyrnia and Timandra has written a fable in which a aid. However, when three of his
Two prostitutes who patron like Timon falls from fortune “friends” are asked to lend money,
accompany Alcibiades when to find himself destitute. Timon they all refuse, making elaborate
he visits Timon in the woods. receives the poet’s work gladly, excuses to justify their lack of
Timon offers them gold to and pays bail to release one of his kindness. Hearing this news,
spread sexual diseases. friends from prison, but will not Timon flies into a rage and decides
accept any favors in return. to treat them to a feast. Believing
Poet and Painter Two Timon to be wealthy again, his
artists who visit Timon The satirist Apemantus tries to friends are shocked when he
hoping to receive payment. warn Timon that his “friends” are serves them stones and warm
They visit Timon in the simply feeding off his generosity.
woods when they hear that
he has discovered gold.

An old Athenian He
takes Timon’s money after
complaining that Timon’s
servant has been trying to
seduce his daughter.

A fool He exchanges
witticisms with servants.

THE KING’S MAN 263

Timon hosts a Timon leaves the Timon is visited Timon writes his epitaph
banquet at which city and determines by his old and dies alone by the sea
he serves his guests to live alone in the shore. Alcibiades returns
stones and warm woods, turning his “friends,” who have
back on humanity. discovered he is to Athens, but brings
water. peace rather than war.
wealthy once more.

3.7 3.7 4.1 4.3 5.3
Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

3.6 4.3 5.2

The soldier Timon chastises While digging for roots Timon’s faithful
Alcibiades is his dinner guests, Timon unearths steward Flavius
banished from
then chases them gold in the woods. makes the
Athens. from his home. Athenian lord
reconsider his
hatred for the whole
of humankind.

water and forces them from for the ingratitude he has been That what he speaks
his home, berating them for shown, Timon rails at his former is all in debt,
their falsity. friends, who now come to seek him he owes
(and his gold) in the woods. Timon
Timon leaves Athens for the provides the soldier Alcibiades For every word.
woods and prays for the city’s with money to finance his attack on Flavius
destruction. A vengeful soldier Athens, and gives money to whores
called Alcibiades enters the woods to spread disease among citizens. Act 1, Scene 2
at the same time, intent upon Both Apemantus and Flavius visit
destroying the city. He has been Timon, and the Athenian lord
banished for attempting to save reluctantly acknowledges Flavius’s
the life of a soldier who has been goodness, despite his hatred of
sentenced to death. When Timon humankind. He writes his epitaph
reaches the woods, he digs for and dies by the sea, as Alcibiades
roots, but discovers gold, and news enters Athens, spares the city, and
soon spreads to Athens that he is promises peace. ❯❯
rich once again. Hating humankind

264 TIMON OF ATHENS Timon is perhaps Th’unkindest beast more
Shakespeare’s most extreme kinder than mankind.
IN CONTEXT characterization. He swings Timon
from being a lover of humankind to
THEMES hating all of humanity. Timon’s Act 4, Scene 1
Love, pride, wealth, vanity, companion, the satirist Apemantus,
hate, revenge, misanthropy finds it remarkably straightforward be weary” (1.2.220–221). But once
to sum up the Athenian lord’s Timon’s debts are revealed, none of
SETTING experience of life: “The middle his friends is prepared to show him
Athens and woods outside of humanity thou never knewest, the same generosity of spirit.
the city but the extremity of both ends”
(4.3.302–303). Apemantus witnesses Blindness and vanity
SOURCES Timon’s transformation from Timon’s story is not simply a tale of
c.100 CE Plutarch’s Lives of the philanthropist to misanthropist, and riches to rags. It is true to say that
Noble Grecians and Romans. provides a satirical commentary on the play’s structure is schematic,
the transition. At first, Apemantus dividing into two contrasting parts,
1566 William Painter’s Palace watches as Timon showers the but Shakespeare’s presentation of
of Pleasure. visitors to his home with lavish gifts Timon himself is far from simplistic.
and banquets, but then sees him The faithful steward Flavius reveals
1602 An anonymous play hurling stones and gold at the early in the play that Timon’s coffers
called Timon. people he had once held so dear. are already empty, and that he
“owes” (1.2.198) for every word he
LEGACY In choosing to dramatize a life speaks. Timon’s extreme generosity
1678 English poet Thomas story that had previously been
Shadwell creates an adaptation alluded to in the works of Plato,
of Shakespeare’s play titled Aristophanes, Lucian, and Plutarch,
The History of Timon of Shakespeare created a play that
Athens, the Manhater. focused upon man’s relationship
with “Yellow, glittering, precious
1844 Karl Marx quotes the gold” (4.3.26). As a generous gift-
play in Political Economy and giver, Timon is never short of
Philosophy. He is drawn to “friends” – “Methinks I could deal
Shakespeare’s description of kingdoms to my friends, / And ne’er
gold as a “yellow slave.”
Philanthropy Misanthropy
1963 Duke Ellington composes
a jazz score for Michael Timon’s transformation from philanthropist
Langham’s production at into misanthropist marks the turning point in
Stratford, Ontario, Canada. the play. Feast becomes famine as food and
wine are turned into into stones and water.
1973 Peter Brook stages the
play in French at the Bouffes
du Nord Theatre in Paris.

1991 In a modern-dress
production at the Young Vic,
London, David Suchet’s
Timon hands out car keys
to his guests as gifts.

2004 Oxford University Press
publishes an edition of the play
recognizing Shakespeare’s
collaboration with Thomas
Middleton on this work.

is puzzling. On the one hand, he gorge at, this embalms and THE KING’S MAN 265
makes caring pronouncements, spices / To th’ April day again”
arguing that, “’Tis not enough to (4.3.34–42). Timon the banker
help the feeble up / But to support
him after” (1.1.109–110). However, Entrenched firmly at the other A 2012 production at the
he also declares that “there’s none / extreme of humanity, Timon’s National Theatre in London,
Can truly say he gives if he pronouncements are as savage and set Timon of Athens in the
receives” (1.2.9–10). How can bilious as they had once been naive financial district during
Timon’s guests ever repay his but well meaning. His hymns to the credit crunch. The action
generosity if he will not let them hatred possess a strange music that is imagined as a meltdown
do so? Flavius suggests that is both hypnotic and somewhat among the financial elite,
Timon’s “worst sin is he does overwhelming. Having looked to the played out to a backdrop of
too much good” (4.2.39), but gods and the mercenary soldier anti-capitalist protest. Timon’s
Apemantus is keenly aware of the Alcibiades to wreak vengeance on debts are a “liquidity crisis.”
glass-faced flatterers who circle Athens, Timon looks forward only to
around Timon like vultures, and is his own death: “My long sickness / Timon, played by British
frustrated by his blindness (and Of health and living now begins actor Simon Russell Beale, is
vanity): “It grieves me to see so to mend, / And nothing brings a vain philanthropist, who is
many dip their meat in one man’s me all things” (5.2.71–73). Rather fawned upon while his stock
blood; and all the madness is, he than remaining in a “dream of is high. He is a power player in
cheers them up, too” (1.2.39–41). friendship,” Timon prefers to rail a world where friendship is a
through his “sickness.” He dies at commodity with a cash value.
Retreat from humanity peace with himself, although still This production exemplified
Having learned that his “fortunes at war with humankind. Karl Marx’s characterization
’mong his friends can sink” of the play as about the power
(2.2.227), Timon turns his back on Few Shakespearean characters of money. Timon’s scorn is
society and heads for the woods, embody a nihilistic vision with the directed toward today’s elite:
where he concludes he will find same commitment as Timon. This “Your solemn masters are
“Th’unkindest beast more kinder is one of Shakespeare’s longest large-handed robbers and
than mankind” (4.1.36). Like roles, and it provides actors with a filch by law.”
King Lear, Timon discards his challenge: to avoid presenting “the
clothes, in an attempt to be free middle of humanity” and concentrate When Shakespeare wrote
from the “disease” of false on capturing the “extremity of both the play, England was going
friendship and sugar-tongued ends” while retaining psychological through a political crisis, and
sycophancy. Once outside the realism for audiences. ■ Guy Fawkes had recently
Athenian walls, Timon announces been executed for his part
that he will bear nothing but Here lie I, Timon, who alive in the Gunpowder Plot. In
nakedness from this detestable All living men did hate. Hytner’s production, protesters
town. As a cursing misanthrope, Pass by and curse thy fill, wear the Guy Fawkes masks
Timon grows in lyrical prowess, but pass popularized by the Internet-
spitting forth condemnatory verse, based Anonymous activist
shaped to shock: “This yellow And stay not here thy gait. movement, and the play feels
slave / Will knit and break religions, Timon’s epitaph as relevant as ever.
bless th’accursed, / Make the hoar
leprosy adored, place thieves, / Act 5, Scene 5
And give them title, knee, and
approbation / With senators on
the bench. This is it / That makes
the wappered widow wed again. /
She whom the spittle-house and
ulcerous sores / Would cast the

BLOOD

WILL HAVE

BLOOD

MACBETH (1606)



268 MACBETH

DRAMATIS King Duncan learns that King Duncan Duncan’s sons,
PERSONAE Macbeth’s heroism arrives at Malcolm and Donalbain,
has won the battle.
Duncan King of Scotland. Three witches give Macbeth’s castle. flee to England.
He is invited to Macbeth’s Macbeth a prophecy.
castle and is murdered in
his sleep. 1.2–3 1.6 2.3
Act 1 Act 2
Malcolm Duncan’s son. He 1.5
flees to England for fear of his 2.2
life when his father is slain, but
returns to defeat Macbeth, and Lady Macbeth Macbeth murders
to be crowned. resolves to murder the king in his sleep.
Duncan after being
Macbeth A noble warrior and told of the prophecy
Thane of Glamis. He murders
the king and begins a reign of in a letter from
terror. He is killed by Macduff Macbeth.
as the witches prophesied.
T hree witches assemble on News arrives that Duncan will visit
Lady Macbeth Macbeth’s a heath for an encounter the Macbeths’ castle, and Lady
wife. She encourages her with Macbeth. Returning Macbeth persuades her husband to
husband to kill the king, but from victory on the battlefield kill him that night. She lays plans
is later tormented by the part Macbeth and Banquo meet these to drug the king’s guards, so that
she played in his murder. “weird sisters,” who prophesy that Macbeth may slip into the king’s
Macbeth will become king and that chamber. As he makes his way
Banquo A close ally of Banquo’s heirs will reign thereafter. there Macbeth sees a vision of a
Macbeth. He is murdered Soon after, Macbeth receives word floating dagger signaling the way.
at Macbeth’s command, that he has been made Thane (clan Having murdered the king, Macbeth
but returns to haunt him. chief) of Cawdor, which leads him returns to his wife with the bloody
to give credence to the witches’ daggers still in his hands. Terrified
Fleance Banquo’s son, he foresight. He shares his news with that the murder has woken other
flees from the hired murderers. his wife, and she begins to plot sleepers, Macbeth begins to panic
to murder King Duncan so that until his wife calms him. As the
Macduff The Thane of Fife, Macbeth can become king. couple leaves to wash themselves
and faithful supporter of King
Duncan. He discovers the
king’s dead body, and incites
rebellion against Macbeth.

Lady Macduff Macduff’s
wife. She is murdered, with her
children, at Macbeth’s order.

Witches Bearded hags who
predict that Macbeth will
become king. They also tell
him the circumstances under
which he will lose the crown
and his life.

A Porter Keeper of the castle
gate. A drunken, witty, cynic.

THE KING’S MAN 269

Macbeth has Banquo Macbeth hears Macduff persuades Macduff kills
murdered. more predictions Malcolm to lead an Macbeth—the
from the witches, army against Macbeth.
prophesy is
including that complete. Malcolm
Banquo’s
becomes king.
descendants shall
reign after him.

3.3 3.4 4.1 4.3 5.10–11
Act 3 Act 4 Act 5
3.1 4.2 5.5

Macbeth is made king. Banquo’s ghost Macbeth orders the Lady Macbeth dies.
appears at Macbeth’s murder of Macduff’s Macbeth hears that

banquet. wife and children. Birnam Wood
appears to be
moving toward

his castle.

of the king’s blood, a knocking is holds that evening. Lady Macbeth terrible news reaches Macduff
heard at the gate. The porter ushers tries to distract their dinner guests in England and strengthens his
in Macduff, who finds the king’s from her husband’s strange resolve to be revenged.
body and raises the alarm. Macbeth behavior, especially when he
murders the guards in case they addresses an empty chair. Lady Macbeth’s guilt for
wake. On hearing of their father’s Duncan’s death leaks out when she
murder, the king’s sons, Malcolm Macbeth returns to find the is heard speaking of the murder in
and Donalbain, leave for England. witches and is told that his throne her sleep. While Macbeth believes
is secure until Birnam Wood that he can see a forest walking
Macbeth becomes king, although marches toward Dunsinane. He toward his castle, he hears that
Banquo harbors secret fears that he feels further reassured when told his wife has died. The moving
murdered King Duncan. Fearing that he cannot be killed by anyone wood is in fact an army carrying
Banquo’s suspicions, Macbeth born of woman. On hearing that the branches of trees. In the battle
arranges his murder, but Banquo’s Macduff has traveled to England that ensues, Macduff reveals that
son Fleance escapes the killers. to persuade Malcolm to lead a rebel he was ripped from his mother’s
Macbeth is terrified when Banquo’s army, Macbeth orders the murder of womb; the prophecy is complete,
ghost appears at a banquet he Macduff’s wife and children. This and Macbeth is killed. ❯❯

270 MACBETH T he Macbeths risk If it were done when ’tis done,
everything to become king then ’twere well
IN CONTEXT and queen of Scotland. In
murdering King Duncan they are It were done quickly.
THEMES committing the greatest of sins: Macbeth
Ambition, kingship, fate, regicide. The couple is fully aware
the supernatural, betrayal that their desire for the crown is Act 1, Scene 7
criminal and diabolical, and yet
SETTING they resolve upon this course of The audience’s relationship with
Scotland and England action that will bring calamity to Macbeth also darkens scene by
them both. Like Richard III, the scene as he falls from being a
SOURCES Macbeths discover to their despair trusted warrior to becoming
1587 Raphael Holinshed’s that gaining the throne will not a Machiavellian murderer.
Chronicles describes the reigns bring them contentment. Macbeth
of King Duncan and Macbeth is convinced that he will only rest Traces of humanity are
and features a woodcut easy once he knows that he is gradually stamped out as the
illustration of the weird sisters. safely in power: “To be thus drama progresses. Lady Macbeth
is nothing / But to be safely thus” calls upon “spirits / That tend on
LEGACY (3.1.49–50). To be “safely thus” mortal thoughts” (1.5.39–40) to
1664 William Davenant’s would mean that there are no “unsex” her, filling her with “direst
adaptation of Macbeth contenders for the throne left alive. cruelty” (1.5.42). In order to fulfill
includes flying witches. The Macbeths find themselves her murderous ambition, she must
trapped in a cycle of violence, in effect transform herself into a
1812 Famed Welsh actress haunted by their deed and the merciless monster. Shakespeare
Sarah Siddons performs Lady “horrible imaginings” (1.3.137) that draws attention to her womanliness
Macbeth for the last time. ensue: “Blood will have blood” in order to emphasize her fierce
(3.4.121). The killing must continue. rejection of her own femininity.
1847 Giuseppe Verdi’s opera Fearing that her husband is “too
Macbeth is first performed. Macbeth is literally and full o’th’ milk of human kindness”
symbolically a dark play. About (1.5.16), she encourages him to
1913 Arthur Bourchier directs two-thirds of it takes place at harden his heart and place
and stars in a German silent night, lending the drama an eerie ambition above consideration
film version of the play. intensity. Ghosts walk at night; for others: “I have given suck,
deadly deeds are committed and know / How tender ’tis to love
1957 Akira Kurosawa’s film under the cover of darkness; and the babe that milks me. / I would,
Throne of Blood, transposes nighttime brings nightmares for while it was smiling in my face, /
Macbeth to feudal Japan. those with a guilty conscience. Have plucked my nipple from his
boneless gums / And dashed the
1967 The sci-fi TV series Star So foul and fair a day brains out, had I so sworn / As you
Trek uses Macbeth as material I have not seen. have done to this” (1.7.54–59).
for two episodes. Macbeth
As the couple settle upon their
1976 Ian McKellen and Judi Act 1, Scene 3 homicidal plan, their dependency
Dench play the Macbeths at upon one another strengthens, but
Stratford-upon-Avon. so, too, does their sense of

2003 Vishal Bhardwaj
directs Maqbool an Indian
film adaptation of Macbeth set
in the Mumbai underworld.

2004 The film Harry Potter
and The Prisoner of Azkaban
film features a chorus of the
weird sisters’ incantation.

THE KING’S MAN 271

Laurence Olivier’s Macbeth was
acclaimed for its “dazzling darkness”
in 1955. The glamorous production had
Olivier’s wife, the film actress Vivien
Leigh, as a goading Lady Macbeth.

entrapment and claustrophobia.
The couple share a murderous
secret that simply cannot be
disclosed. The secret ultimately
devours them both and serves to
put distance between them.

Taunted to murder
Macbeth does not enter blindly
into the murder of Duncan,
although he does show some
unwillingness to commit.
Shakespeare complicates our
relationship with Macbeth by
voicing the character’s reluctance
to go through with the crime.
Having listened to his wife’s
reaction to the witches’ prophecy
that he “shalt be king hereafter”
(1.3.48), he states firmly that
“We will proceed no further in this
business” (1.7.31). For a moment
it looks as though Macbeth will
resist temptation and conquer his
“Vaulting ambition” (1.7.27). His
wife’s stinging taunts, however,
make him think again. Lady ❯❯

King James I Macbeth was written during the believed that he was a direct
reign of James I. When James took descendant of Banquo, and
to the throne in 1603, he became Shakespeare’s presentation of
the patron of Shakespeare’s this figure is duly honorable.
acting company, honoring them He may also have been
with the title of the King’s Men. pandering to one of the king’s
Shakespeare wrote plays for particular concerns: witchcraft.
audiences in London’s playhouses, The king had published a
but he was also writing to treatise on the subject in 1597
entertain his king. In the tale called Daemonologie, a fact that
of Macbeth, Shakespeare is would not have gone unnoticed
playing toward some of the king’s by the playwright. Although
interests. James I of England Macbeth’s dramatic ingredients
had previously sat on the Scottish would have entertained the
throne as James VI of Scotland, so king, they would of course have
the play’s Scottish setting would appealed to a much broader
have had royal appeal. James also public as well.

272 MACBETH

Macbeth launches into a targeted and valour / As thou art in desire? Macbeth’s male pride overpowers
emotional assault that offends, Wouldst thou have that / Which his questioning mind, resulting in
humiliates, and shocks her thou esteem’st the ornament of life, the defensive riposte “I dare do all
husband in equal measure: / And live a coward in thine own that may become a man” (1.7.46).
“Was the hope drunk / Wherein esteem, / Letting ‘I dare not’ wait How much did Macbeth actually
you dressed yourself? Hath it slept upon ‘I would,’ / Like the poor cat want the crown for himself, and to
since? / And wakes it now to look i’th’ adage?” (1.7.35–44). what extent does he carry out his
so green and pale / At what it did part in the murder to confirm and
so freely? From this time / Such I In the space of just 10 lines, maintain his understanding of
account thy love. Art thou afeard / Lady Macbeth questions her his own manhood? Typically,
To be the same in thine own act husband’s masculinity, honor, Shakespeare does not settle
ambition, courage, and love for her. upon a straightforward answer.
The audience’s responses to
Macbeth’s actions are further
complicated by the role played
by the witches throughout the
drama. Did Macbeth have a
choice? Was his fate always to
murder Duncan and become
king himself?

Macbeth’s “heat-oppressèd
brain” (2.1.39) comes to haunt
him as much as the witches’
prophecies. Paranoia practically
paralyzes Macbeth, and his
imagination proves a constant
torment. As he prepares to murder
Duncan, he sees a floating dagger
sign-posting his way to the
king’s bedchamber.

Has this dagger been conjured
by the weird sisters? Or is it merely,
as Macbeth suspects, a “dagger of
the mind” engendered through fear
and his reluctance to act upon his
ambitions? His imagination will not
be suppressed. Having murdered
the king, Macbeth imagines that
he will never sleep again:
“Methought I heard a voice cry
‘Sleep no more, / Macbeth does
murder sleep’—the innocent sleep, /
Sleep that knits up the ravelled
sleave of care, / The death of each
day’s life, sore labour’s bath, / Balm

English actress Ellen Terry played
Lady Macbeth in London, in 1888.
Society portraitist John Singer Sargent
was in the audience and painted her in
a dress made of iridescent beetle wings.

THE KING’S MAN 273

DEATH TOLL

Macbeth King Duncan Banquo is The Macduff Lady Macbeth
is beheaded. and his guards stabbed. family is mysteriously dies,
stabbed. wracked with guilt.
are stabbed.

of hurt minds, great nature’s Is this a dagger which At moments of extreme crisis or
second course, / Chief nourisher I see before me, violence, Shakespeare has Macbeth
in life’s feast” (2.2.33–38). voice some of the playwright’s most
The handle toward my hand? poetic reflections upon the nature
Infected minds Come, let me clutch thee. of existence itself. The murder of
The desire to unburden one’s self Macbeth Duncan prompts thoughts on the
of problems by telling others is all soothing qualities of sleep, while
too human. Shakespeare skillfully Act 2, Scene 1 Lady Macbeth’s death encourages
depicts the breakdown of a a meditation upon the transitory
marriage under stress, which disclosure puts her own life and nature of life: “Out, out, brief
leaves Lady Macbeth vulnerable her husband’s at risk. Shakespeare candle. / Life’s but a walking
psychologically. Lacking her draws a stark contrast between his shadow, a poor player / That struts
husband’s attention, she ruinously initial portrait of Lady Macbeth and and frets his hour upon the stage, /
divests herself of her troubles her final depiction. While she was And then is heard no more. It is a
while speaking in her sleep: once strong and controlling, she tale / Told by an idiot, full of sound
“Out, damned spot; out, I say. becomes a pitiful shadow of her and fury, / Signifying nothing”
One, two,—why, then ’tis time to former self. Her deadly secret has (5.5.22–27).
do’t. Hell is murky. Fie, my lord, drained the life from her, and she
fie, a soldier and afeard? What need is left to obsess about death. Her Banquo’s ghost
we fear who knows it when none own will follow soon enough. Having killed the king, Macbeth
can call our power to account? Yet faces a future of “restless ecstasy”
who would have thought the old (3.2.24). His mind is “full of
man to have had so much blood scorpions” (3.2.37) and his every
in him?” (5.1.33–38). thought is about the fact that he
has “scorched the snake, not killed
As the Doctor diagnoses, it” (3.2.15). While Banquo lives,
“infected minds / To their deaf Macbeth fears exposure. He is also
pillows will discharge their secrets” angered by the witches’ prophecy ❯❯
(5.1.69–70). Lady Macbeth’s

274 MACBETH

that Banquo’s sons will reign momentary. Upon a thought / He The witches become a chorus
after him. Banquo certainly will again be well. If much you in Guiseppe Verdi’s opera Macbeth.
suspects Macbeth of villainy: note him / You shall offend him, Here, the San Francisco Opera
“Thou hast it now: King, Cawdor, and extend his passion. / Feed, company performs a production
Glamis, all / As the weird women and regard him not” (3.4.52–57). in modern dress in 2007.
promised; and I fear / Thou
played’st most foully for’t” (3.1.1–3). In performance this moment Macbeth’s mind is, obsessed with
Macbeth’s decision to have his can be played to emphasize the thoughts of blood: “Blood hath been
friend murdered is taken alone; black humor. If the king’s “fit” is shed ere now, i’th’ olden time, / Ere
he is keen that his wife “Be particularly dramatic then it can human statute purged the gentle
innocent of the knowledge” (3.2.46). prove impossible for the diners to weal; / Ay, and since, too, murders
Banquo’s murder creates a rift “regard him not.” As the king’s have been performed / Too terrible
between husband and wife, and reactions to the ghost grow more for the ear. The time has been /
as a result produces one of the extreme, Lady Macbeth’s need to That, when the brains were out,
play’s most thrilling moments: take control of the situation becomes the man would die, / And there an
the appearance of Banquo’s ghost. pressing. She takes her husband end. But now they rise again / With
aside and tries to reason with him, twenty mortal murders on their
Bloody apparition crowns, / And push us from our
As Macbeth attempts to join his It will have blood, they say. stools. This is more strange / Than
guests at the banquet table, he Blood will have blood. such a murder is” (3.4.74–82).
cannot see a chair reserved for Macbeth
himself. Although his guests Shakespeare is retracing here
motion toward an empty seat, the Act 3, Scene 4 the dynamic between the Macbeths
king recoils in horror and begins to that he created just after the murder
address Banquo’s ghostly figure, of Duncan. Having killed the king,
visible only to himself: “Never Macbeth froze with bloody daggers
shake / Thy gory locks at me” in hand as a wave of nervous
(3.4.49–50). The king’s behavior is thoughts swamped his mind.
sufficiently alarming that it prompts Fortunately for the Macbeths they
his wife to placate the bewildered were in private, and Lady Macbeth
and discomfited diners: “The fit is had been able to shake her husband
from his terrifying thoughts.

Macbeth’s strange behavior at the “I have lived long enough” THE KING’S MAN 275
banquet is played out in front of (5.3.24). The witches’ improbable
the puzzled guests. When the ghost prophecies all come to fruition, and The witches
appears before him for a second Macbeth leaves the stage fighting
time, he cannot contain his horror: despite the odds being against him: In Shakespeare’s time,
“It will have blood, they say. Blood “Though Birnam Wood be come to witchcraft was a serious
will have blood. / Stones have been Dunsinane, / And thou opposed matter. King James himself
known to move, and trees to speak, being of no woman born, / Yet I was a judge in the North
/ Augurs and understood relations will try the last” (5.10.30–32). Berwick witch trials of
have / By maggot-pies and choughs 1590–92, at which 70 people
and rooks brought forth / The It is only through the deaths of were tried and many burned
secret’st man of blood” (3.4.121–125). this “dread butcher and his fiend- at the stake; witch trials
like queen” (5.11.35) that the blood- would be held in England and
End of the bloodbath letting can be brought to a close. Scotland until the 18th century.
By the play’s close Macbeth’s world “The time is free” (5.11.21), says
has come crashing down, and he Macduff, and he hails the new king Shakespeare’s audience
finds little left in life to delight him: Malcolm, who can build a future for would have known of such
Scotland, free from tyranny. ■ events. The presence of
the witches in Macbeth is
Dagger – Macbeth’s Heart – the intense intended to be unsettling, and
murderous intent. relationship between their appearance, as described
Macbeth and his wife. by Banquo, emphasizes their
otherworldliness: “What are
Crown – Macbeth’s Sword – Macbeth’s these, / So withered, and so
determined ambition. prowess as a warrior. wild in their attire, / That
look not like th’inhabitants
Shakespeare dramatically combines a warrior’s courage as he o’th’earth / And yet are on’t?”
wields the sword, “vaulting ambition” in seeking the crown, the (1.3.37–40).
bond of hearts with Lady Macbeth, an evil intent in the form of a
dagger, and the power of prophecy to bring Macbeth to commit Shakespeare’s description
murder, several times over. encourages spectators to
use their imaginations to
see more than is before their
eyes—to see supernatural
and hideous figures. He
also creates an image that
troubles both the audience’s
and Macbeth’s minds.
Modern-day audiences tend
to see Macbeth’s psychological
state as more important than
the witches’ curses as a
driver of the action.

AGE CANNOT

WITHER

HER NOR CUSTOM STALE HER

INFINITE VARIETY

ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA (1606)



278 ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA

DRAMATIS News arrives in Egypt Antony agrees to Cleopatra strikes
PERSONAE that Antony’s wife marry Caesar’s and draws a knife on
sister Octavia. the messenger who
Antony A Roman general who Fulvia is dead. informs her of Antony’s
enjoys a passionate love affair
with the queen of Egypt, marriage.
Cleopatra. He is torn between
his duty to Rome and his 1.2 2.2 2.5
desire for Cleopatra. Act 1 Act 2
1.3 2.3
Cleopatra Queen of Egypt,
and former lover of Julius Cleopatra quizzes A soothsayer
Caesar. Her passion for Antony Antony about his prophesizes that Caesar
provokes displays of jealousy, love for her before he
anger, and compassion. returns to Rome. will ultimately triumph
over Antony.
Enobarbus Antony’s most
loyal and trusted soldier. R oman soldiers are Antony returns to Rome while
He enjoys life in Egypt and disgusted with their Cleopatra seeks comfort from her
understands Antony’s love general, Mark Antony, companions. Antony meets with
for Cleopatra. who has fallen for the charms of Caesar’s displeasure on his return.
the Egyptian queen, Cleopatra. He is criticized for ignoring his
Octavius Caesar Julius They fear that this love affair has responsibilities as a leader, and
Caesar’s great-nephew, who transformed one of the world’s most is encouraged to marry Caesar’s
governs Rome with Antony powerful men into a dishonorable sister Octavia, as a sign of his
and Lepidus. He is disgusted fool. When Antony hears that his commitment to Rome. Antony
by Antony’s life in Egypt. wife Fulvia has died, he recognizes agrees to the political marriage.
that he must return to Rome to When Cleopatra hears of Antony’s
Octavia Caesar’s sister, who help Caesar defeat Sextus Pompey. marriage she is enraged.
marries Antony. Cleopatra taunts Antony about
his love for her; she is jealous of Caesar and Antony meet with
Sextus Pompey A soldier other women, and of Antony’s the rebellious Sextus Pompey on
who plans a rebellion against duty to Rome. his boat to prevent civil war. Peace
the rulers of Rome, but is is agreed, although one of Pompey’s
persuaded to make peace.

Charmian and Iras
Cleopatra’s attendants.
Iras takes poison to avoid
witnessing Cleopatra’s own
death through suicide.

Lepidus Governs Rome
with Antony and Caesar. He
proposes the political marriage
between Antony and Octavia.

Dolabella Caesar’s attendant.
He warns Cleopatra that she
will be paraded through Rome.

Soothsayer He predicts that
Caesar will defeat Antony.

THE KING’S MAN 279

Cleopatra is pleased Antony takes Cleopatra’s Defeated in battle, Cleopatra commits
with news that advice, against his better Antony scorns suicide with the aid of
Cleopatra, who
Antony’s new bride is judgment, and fights sends word that an asp’s poisonous
shorter than her, but Caesar at sea. He loses. she has taken her bite. Caesar arrives to
angered by reports find the queen and her
that she is younger. own life.
maids all dead.

3.3 3.10 4.15 5.2
2.6
Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

3.6 3.13 4.16

A peace treaty between Octavia returns to A messenger from Antony dies in Cleopatra’s
Rome and Sextus Pompey Rome unaccompanied, Caesar tries to arms, having stabbed himself

is celebrated with a provoking Caesar to persuade Cleopatra believing that she is dead.
banquet aboard declare war upon to leave Antony.
Pompey’s boat. Antony. Antony has the

messenger whipped.

soldiers tries to persuade his master followed closely by Antony, News arrives that Cleopatra had
to murder his guests. Pompey bringing dishonor to his soldiers feigned her death and is sheltering
ignores this advice, and spends the and his own reputation. in a monument. Antony asks to
evening drinking with his former be taken to her and warns her
enemies. Enobarbus says that Antony’s soldiers begin to lose against Caesar before he dies.
Antony’s allegiance to Cleopatra faith in their general, and his loyal
will remain strong, despite his companion Enobarbus defects to Cleopatra discovers Caesar’s
political reunion with Caesar. Caesar’s side. Antony is defeated plan to parade her through Rome.
for a second time and blames She determines to take her own life,
Antony returns to Egypt without Cleopatra for the loss. Fearing for and calls for a poisonous snake to
his new bride. Caesar is angered her safety, she sends Antony news be brought to her. She dresses in
by Antony’s neglect of Octavia that she has died, not anticipating her majestic robes before placing
and declares war. Antony’s soldiers that Antony will respond by the snake to her breast, and dies
argue that they should fight seeking to commit suicide himself. in the company of one of her maids.
Caesar on land, but Cleopatra He fails to kill himself, and his Caesar arrives to find Cleopatra
persuades him to fight at sea. soldier Eros takes his own life dead, and orders that she and
She flees the battle, and is rather than aid his master’s death. Antony be buried together. ❯❯

280 ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA

IN CONTEXT A ntony and Cleopatra are Antony and Cleopatra’s passion for
not young “star-crossed one another can be overwhelming.
THEMES lovers” like Romeo and Shakespeare expresses their
Love, power, duty, honor, Juliet. These are mature adults, hunger, desire, and dependency
jealousy, betrayal, death, both past their “salad days” (1.5.72). upon each other in some of the
desire Antony is married to Fulvia, and most beautiful and heightened
yet he is drawn to spending time verse to be found anywhere in the
SETTING with his “Egyptian dish” (2.6.126) Shakespearean canon. “Age cannot
Rome, Alexandria, Athens away from his wife in Rome: “I’th wither” either of them, for in one
East my pleasure lies” (2.3.38). another’s eyes, they are like gods.
SOURCES Though she is unmarried, Cleopatra Even in death, Antony will remain
1579 Sir Thomas North’s has also loved before: “She made like Mars to Cleopatra; following
translation of Plutarch’s Lives great Caesar lay his sword to bed. / his suicide she declares that
of the Noble Greeks and He ploughed her, and she cropped.” “there is nothing left remarkable /
Romans. The play compresses (2.2.234–235). The intensity of Beneath the visiting Moon”
events that took place over the (4.16.69–70). However, their
space of a decade. Enobarbus The Egyptian court is portrayed relationship is far from idyllic.
speaks words taken directly in the play as luxurious and exotic, and As a pair, they are heroic, majestic,
from the source in his Antony is drawn inexorably toward and superhuman, but they are also
description of Cleopatra it. The court is imagined here by mean, monstrous, cowardly, and
sat on her barge. Italian artist Francesco Trevisani. drunken. Shakespeare presents

LEGACY
1765 The critic Samuel
Johnson writes that the play’s
events were “produced without
any art of connection or care
to disposition.”

1890 Actress Lillie Langtry
plays Cleopatra at the
Princess’s Theatre, London.

1922 Poet T. S. Eliot adapts
Shakespeare’s description of
Cleopatra for The Waste Land.

1934 Soviet playwright
Alexander Tairov’s Egyptian
Nights draws heavily on
Shakespeare’s play.

1966 US composer Samuel
Barber’s operatic version of
the play opens in New York.

1972 American star Charlton
Heston plays Antony in a
heavily adapted film of the play.

1999 Mark Rylance plays
Cleopatra at the Globe, London.

THE KING’S MAN 281

Give me some music— Husband and wife Laurence Olivier “The barge she sat in, like a
music, moody food and Vivien Leigh took on the title roles burnished throne / Burned on the
in a 1951 production. Olivier’s Antony water. The poop was beaten gold; /
Of us that trade in love. was reckless, while Leigh played the Purple the sails, and so perfuméd
Cleopatra queen as sensuous yet regally aloof. that / The winds were love-sick
with them. The oars were silver, /
Act 2, Scene 5 such as Enobarbus find themselves Which to the tune of flutes kept
reaching for the finest poetic stroke, and made / The water
these characters, individually and descriptions to communicate her which they beat to follow faster, /
as a pair, in a rich and memorable appeal to those who have not been As amorous of their strokes. For
manner—audiences are shown the in her presence: “Age cannot wither her own person, / It beggared all
good, the bad, and the ugly. her, nor custom stale / Her infinite description. She did lie / In her
variety. Other women cloy / The pavilion—cloth of gold, of tissue—
Cleopatra the seductress appetites they feed, but she makes O’er-picturing that Venus where
Cleopatra is one of Shakespeare’s hungry / Where most she satisfies. we see / The fancy outwork nature.
greatest dramatic creations. She For vilest things / Become On each side her / Stood pretty
can also prove for some people themselves in her, that the holy dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids,
one of his most exhausting and priests / Bless her when she is / With divers-coloured fans whose
irritating characterizations. riggish” (2.2.241–246). wind did seem / To glow the
Shakespeare went to great lengths delicate cheeks which they did
to impress upon his audience Enobarbus’s words serve cool, / And what they undid did”
Cleopatra’s charm and vitality. We in some respects to justify (2.2.198–212).
hear throughout the play of how Antony’s obsession with this
men have fallen for her charms, and “lass unparalleled” (5.2.310). Enobarbus’s speech serves like
even the priggish Roman, Octavius How could anyone fail to be a hymn to Cleopatra. The imagery
Caesar, notes that in death she intrigued by a woman who must have wooed Shakespeare
looks “As she would catch another encompasses such infinite variety himself, for this speech owes much
Antony” (5.2.341). Men see her as a of mood and behavior? It would to Shakespeare’s source, Thomas ❯❯
powerful seductress, a witch even, seem that everyone, from priests
who holds them under her spell. to world leaders, finds something
She is first described in derogatory extraordinary about Cleopatra.
terms; she is, according to two She does not need to be in a scene,
of Antony’s soldiers, a lusty or even on the stage to create a
“strumpet” and “gypsy.” Angered lasting impression. From memory,
by their general’s newfound Enobarbus conjures her stately
domesticity, the soldiers speak of a appearance in one of the play’s
woman who can transform a former most richly poetic passages:
“pillar of the world” (1.1.12) into a
“strumpet’s fool” (1.1.13). For them, I have offended reputation;
her allure is intoxicating and A most unnoble swerving.
dangerous, destroying Antony’s
sense of duty and commitment Antony
to Rome. Other hardened soldiers
Act 3, Scene 11

282 ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA

North’s 1579 translation of “O, whither hast thou led pain of punishment the world to
Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble me, Egypt? weet—/ We stand up peerless.”
Grecians and Romans. Thomas Antony (1.1.35–42).
North describes among other
things, “the sails of purple,” the Act 3, Scene 11 Antony’s words suggest the
“pavilion of cloth of gold of tissue,” extent to which he has fashioned
and the “pretty fair boys apparelled and the next she wishes to himself as a convert to the
as painters do set forth god Cupid, draw blood from a messenger. Egyptians’ way of being. The
with little fans in their hands, with Cleopatra is predictable only Roman Antony is a builder of
the which they fanned wind upon in her changeability. empires, one for whom expansion
her.” By adapting his source and growth are key goals and
material, Shakespeare added to the Love or duty motivations. But in this early
variety of images of Cleopatra, both In their first interaction, Cleopatra speech, which serves to establish
in print and paint, that have been badgers Antony to quantify his Antony’s state of mind, his focus
created since her death in 30 BCE. love for her. His response plays is upon contraction and reduction
to her taste for hyperbole: rather than extension. His
In Antony’s eyes, Cleopatra is “Let Rome in Tiber melt, and the conquering ambitions have been
a woman whom “everything wide arch / Of the ranged empire narrowed to the point at which he
becomes” (1.1.51); her magnificence fall. Here is my space. / Kingdoms can say “Here is my space”
shines through tantrums, laughter, are clay. Our dungy earth alike / (1.1.36)—here being in Egypt, by
and tears. For Antony she is the Feeds beast as man. The nobleness the side of, or in the arms of
personification of the country that of life / Is to do thus; when such a Cleopatra. Egypt and its queen
she commands; she is an “Egyptian mutual pair / And such a twain have transformed Antony’s Roman
dish” (2.6.126), and a “serpent of old can do’t—in which I bind / On understanding of honor and
Nile” (1.5.25). She is however also nobility, and have changed him
labeled as being a “wrangling from a conquering warrior into a
queen” (1.1.50), a “triple-turned man whose ambition is to be part
whore” (4.13.13), and “this false soul of a “mutual pair” (1.1.39). Nothing
of Egypt” (4.13.25). Her temperament could be more romantic, or more
is as fluid as the Nile itself: “If you self-centered, depending upon one’s
find him sad, / Say I am dancing; if point of view.
in mirth, report / That I am sudden
sick” (1.3.3–5). One moment she In order to appreciate Antony’s
wishes to hop around the streets, commitment to a life of pleasure,
Shakespeare presents its

Parallel Lives Shakespeare’s main source of Plutarch says of Demetrius and
knowledge about the ancient Antony that both “abandoned
world was a translation of themselves to luxury and
Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble enjoyment.” However, he judges
Greeks and Romans (also known Antony more severely. When
as Parallel Lives). Written in the preparing for war, Demetrius’s
1st century CE, the work is a “spear was not tipped with ivy,
collection of biographies of Greek nor did his helmet smell of
and Roman figures, arranged in myrrh.” By contrast, Antony
pairs. In each pair, a Roman from was “disarmed by Cleopatra,
the recent past is compared to a subdued by her spells, and
Greek figure from the remote past. persuaded to drop from his
Plutarch paired Antony with hands great undertakings and
Demetrius, a military leader who necessary campaigns, only to
ruled Macedon from 294–288 BCE. roam about and play with her
Demetrius died exactly 200 years on the sea-shores by Canopus
before the birth of Antony. and Taphosiris.”

THE KING’S MAN 283

This foul Egyptian hath
betrayèd me. My fleet hath
yielded to the foe, and yonder
They cast their caps up and

carouse together
Like friends long lost.
Triple-turned whore!

Antony

Act 4, Scene 13

antithesis in his depiction of Erotic Egypt Octavius, depicted here in a statue in
Octavius Caesar, and life in Egypt is characterized as a place Rome, stands for Roman martial values
Rome. In so doing, Shakespeare of excessive appetites, where eight in the play. The historical Octavius
structured his play around wild roasted boars can be shared would go on to be proclaimed emperor
contrasting worlds, filling his between 12 people for breakfast. of Rome following his defeat of Antony.
drama with a variety of voices Caesar’s stomach churns at such
and viewpoints. Caesar’s rhetoric extravagance: he would “rather fast duty? As ever, Shakespeare
is cold and clinical; he speaks from all, four days, / Than drink presents a variety of questions,
with the politician’s tongue. so much in one” (2.7.98–99). The but provides few answers. They
Lacking the Egyptian’s taste Egyptians’ appetite for sexual are questions for actors to interpret
for poetic indulgence, Caesar’s pleasure is also insatiable, but in and audiences to decide. Life
speeches tend to be purely Rome covetousness and eroticism in Egypt has encouraged Antony
functional, short, and succinct are substituted for marriage. to celebrate and feed his appetites,
in expression. Caesar’s sense of Caesar’s sister Octavia functions but ultimately his decision to
rigorous discipline leads him to like a pawn in a political game act against his natural “Roman”
view Antony’s behavior in Egypt when Antony takes her as his wife. instinct comes at great personal
as dishonorable; in Caesar’s The marriage symbolizes a reunion loss. As his devotion to Cleopatra
judgment, Antony simply “fishes, between Antony and Rome, although leads to his defeat in battle,
drinks, and wastes / The lamps of many presume that “He will to his Antony complains: “Authority
night in revel; is not more manlike / Egyptian dish again” (2.6.126). melts from me of late. When
Than Cleopatra” (1.4.4–6). Caesar I cried ‘Ho!,’ / Like boys unto a
is too rash in his judgement of his Did Shakespeare intend his muss kings would start forth, /
fellow triumvir: “’tis better playing audiences to side with Antony? And cry ‘Your will?’” (3.13.90–92). ❯❯
with a lion’s whelp / Than with an Is love more important than
old one dying” (3.13.94–95). Like
Cleopatra, Antony resists easy
labeling; Shakespeare varies his
presentation throughout the play,
so that audiences see glimpses
of the “plated Mars” (1.1.4) as well
as the “strumpet’s fool” (1.1.13).

284 ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA

Duty Passion

Honor Burden Sensuality Indulgence

Soldier Lover

Antony is torn between his
duty toward Rome and his love
for Cleopatra. In the end, he
cannot resist the allure of
Egypt and its queen.

Burden of duty conscience, and blames Cleopatra something of a surprise to hear her
Like King Lear, Antony wishes for his own weakness when he rhapsodize upon someone other
to be free of his duties, but still deserts a battle in pursuit of her: than herself. Her emotional tribute
desires to hold on to the authority “Egypt, thou knew’st too well / My to Antony, following his failed
and accolades that such power heart was to thy rudder tied by th’ suicide, serves to augment her
brings. He battles with his strings, / And thou shouldst tow lover’s reputation, encouraging
me after. O’er my spirit / Thy full a personal rather than political
Give me my robe. Put on supremacy thou knew’st, and that / assessment of the man’s life.
my crown. I have Thy beck might from the bidding
of the gods / Command me” Through Cleopatra, Shakespeare
Immortal longings in me. (3.11.56–61). ensures that our final memory
Now no more of Antony is not of a strumpet’s
Although Cleopatra does fool, but of a Herculean god:
The juice of Egypt’s grape much to endanger Antony, he “His legs bestrid the ocean; his
shall moist this lip. remains devoted to her right up reared arm / Crested the world.
Cleopatra to the end. Having experienced His voice was propertied / As all
her infinite variety of moods to the tunéd spheres, and that to
Act 5, Scene 2 the full, he wards off impending friends; / But when he meant to
death to lay the “poor last” of quail and shake the orb, / He
“many thousand kisses” (4.16.21) was as rattling thunder. For his
upon her lips. bounty, / There was no winter in’t;
an autumn ’twas, / That grew the
Tribute to Antony more by reaping. His delights /
Cleopatra is one of Shakespeare’s Were dolphin-like; they showed
most self-absorbed and self-seeking his back above / The element
characters, and thus it can come as they lived in. In his livery / Walked

Take up her bed, are often made public. Having THE KING’S MAN 285
And bear her women from listened to Antony declare his
undying love for her, Cleopatra Death of Cleopatra
the monument. turns to those around her to ask,
She shall be buried by “Why did he marry Fulvia and not Shakespeare saves Cleopatra’s
love her?” (1.1.43). Shakespeare greatest performance until
her Antony. perhaps alludes to Antony’s the end of the play. She
No grave upon the earth distaste for Cleopatra’s attention- orchestrates her death scene,
seeking showiness when he which is full of theatricality,
shall clip in it ventures that “Tonight we’ll ritual, and ceremony. The
A pair so famous. wander through the streets and final Act, in which Cleopatra
note / The qualities of people” prepares for death, can often
Caesar (1.1.55–56). prove one of the play’s most
powerful passages in
Act 5, Scene 2 There is the slightest of performance. Shakespeare
suggestions here that Antony shrinks the scope of his play.
crowns and crownets. Realms and desires Cleopatra’s private Audiences are no longer
islands were / As plates dropped company, away from the crowds invited to imagine movement
from his pocket” (5.2.81–91). before whom she is constantly between continents, but are
performing. Shakespeare also uses asked to feel Cleopatra’s grief
The wonder of Cleopatra’s this line to make the extraordinary and loneliness.
elaborate and rather fanciful tribute seem familiar. Though Antony and
should have the effect of wiping all Cleopatra are powerful leaders Cleopatra calls for
previous remembrances of Antony surrounded by wealth and luxury, Charmian and Iras to fetch her
from one’s mind: “The crown o’th, they also value love’s simple best attire, so that she may
earth doth melt” (4.16.65). pleasures enjoyed by lovers rich dress for death. Shakespeare
and poor. ■ ensures that our final image of
Cleopatra is of the queen in all
Putting on a show of her greatness. Her language
The Egyptian Queen is a is sexually charged, and in her
consummate performer, who flows final moments she makes an
from one mood to another with the ecstasy of death itself. She
ease of an accomplished actress. talks of “immortal longings,”
She wears many faces during the and figures that “the stroke of
course of the play, expressing a death” is as a “lover’s pinch, /
wide range of emotions: love, hate, Which hurts and is desired”
fear, jealousy, suspicion, and pride. (5.2.290–291). While Antony’s
Many of her conversations with botched suicide attempt is
Antony are in fact played out in awkward and inelegant,
front of an audience of attendants. Cleopatra remains in control
The most private of conversations of herself, her image, and her
reputation in death as in life.
In Shakespeare’s time, Cleopatra
would have been played by a boy actor.
In a 1999 production at the Globe,
London, that aimed for authenticity,
Mark Rylance took on the role.

THE WEB OF OUR LIFE IS OF

A MINGLED YARN

GOOD

AND ILL TOGETHER

ALL’S WELL THAT ENDS WELL
(1606–1607)



288 ALL’S WELL THAT ENDS WELL

DRAMATIS Bertram leaves his As the lords leave for The Duke of Florence
PERSONAE widowed mother to join the wars, Bertram is welcomes the French
angry at being forced
Helen Orphan under the care the King of France. to stay behind. Helen lords who have
of the Countess of Roussillon. appears in disguise volunteered to fight.
She is in love with Bertram, before the King and
son of the countess.
offers to cure him.
Bertram, Count of
Roussillon An ambitious 1.1 2.1 3.1
young man, ward of the King. Act 1 Act 2
1.3 2.3
The Countess of Roussillon
Bertram’s widowed mother, The Countess The King is cured. Helen chooses
also guardian to Helen. discovers Helen’s Bertram as her husband, much to
love for Bertram. Bertram’s disgust. He decides to
The King of France Helen reveals her
He begins the play suffering plan to cure the run off to the Florentine wars.
from an incurable illness. King using one of
her father’s drugs.
Lafeu An elderly lord, who
struggles to understand the F ollowing the death of his Lafeu introduces a disguised Helen
younger generation. father, Bertram must leave to the court. She promises that if
for the court. The Countess she fails to cure the King, she will
Paroles Bertram’s friend, a and Lafeu discuss the King’s willingly be put to death, but if she
renowned soldier, but secretly illness, and wish that the physician succeeds, the King must give her
a coward and a liar, who is Gérard de Narbonne, was still alive a husband of her choice. The King
revealed to be ready to betray to cure him. Narbonne’s daughter, is restored to health, and presents
everyone to avoid torture. Helen, weeps—but for Bertram’s Helen with four lords as potential
departure not for the death of her husbands. She chooses Bertram,
Lavatch A gloomy, bad- father. The Countess learns of who is disgusted at the idea of being
tempered clown, servant to Helen’s passion for her son. married to a physician’s daughter.
the Countess of Roussillon. Bertram capitulates, but he refuses
War has broken out between the to consummate the marriage. He
The Duke of Florence dukedoms of Florence and Siena. The runs off to the Florentine wars with
At war with his brother, the King of France refuses to send troops, Paroles. In letters to his mother and
Duke of Siena. but gives permission for his young Helen, he insists that he will only
noblemen to fight on either side.
Diana A Florentine virgin,
pursued by Bertram.

The Widow Diana’s mother,
who is eager to help Helen.

Reynaldo The Countess’s
steward, who prepares a letter
from the Countess to her son
in Paris.

The Dumaine brothers
French lords who ambush and
interrogate Paroles, making
him believe that he has been
captured by the enemy.

THE KING’S MAN 289

Helen arrives in Paroles is captured The wars are now Bertram agrees to marry
Florence disguised as by the fake enemy soldiers over, and Bertram is Lafeu’s daughter, but
a pilgrim and lodges planning to return to
and blindfolded. He France, having been when he is found to be in
with a Widow. She immediately offers to told that Helen is dead. possession of Helen’s
learns that Bertram betray the Florentine side.
has been trying to ring, the King accuses
seduce the Widow’s him of murder. Helen
comes back to say that
daughter, Diana. she has met Bertram’s

conditions. He asks
forgiveness.

3.5 4.1 4.3 5.3
Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

3.2 3.7 4.2 4.5

The Countess reads Helen reveals Bertram declares his The Countess grieves
Bertram’s letter telling herself as Bertram’s love for Diana. She for the death of
wife. She persuades
her that he has run the women to arrange persuades him to give up Helen, but she supports
away. Helen reads a a sexual encounter a ring that has been in his Lafeu’s plan to marry
letter setting down with Bertram, where family for generations and
impossible conditions she will secretly take arranges a secret liaison. Bertram to his daughter.
for their being man and
wife. Helen decides to Diana’s place.

leave France.

acknowledge Helen when she has Helen reveals her true identity to the ring Diana gave him, the King
a ring he never removes, and when the Widow. She offers money for recognizes it as belonging to Helen.
she has conceived their child. Helen help in satisfying the conditions of Bertram is arrested on the charge of
travels to Florence, where she Bertram’s letter. Diana will arrange murdering his wife. Diana arrives,
takes lodgings with a Widow. She a sexual liaison with Bertram, but and accuses Bertram of breaking his
discovers that Bertram has won favor Helen will take her place. Bertram promise to marry her. She produces
for his bravery, and has been trying tries again to seduce Diana. He gives the ring Bertram gave her, which the
to seduce the Widow’s beautiful her his ancestral ring, and after their Countess recognizes as the family
daughter, Diana. assignation, she gives him another heirloom. Diana refuses to explain
ring in return. Bertram is informed how she got the ring, and is arrested.
The other lords in the Florentine that Helen is dead, and leaves for She sends for someone to stand bail,
army pretend to be enemy soldiers, France to be reconciled to the King. and Helen enters. She declares that
take Paroles captive, and blindfold the conditions Bertram set have
him. Paroles reveals everything he The King forgives Bertram and been met. Bertram asks for her
knows about his fellow soldiers. supports his proposed marriage to forgiveness, and promises to love
When the blindfold is removed, Lafeu’s daughter. However, when her in the future. ❯❯
Paroles’s reputation is ruined. Bertram offers as a betrothal gift

290 ALL’S WELL THAT ENDS WELL

IN CONTEXT T he title of Shakespeare’s T’were all one
comedy All’s Well That That I should love a bright
THEMES Ends Well could arguably
Love, betrayal, end with a question mark. As particular star
bereavement, and death American author John Jay Chapman And think to wed it, he
wrote in 1915: “Melancholy
SETTING moulders in the very title of it; for is so above me.
Roussillon and Paris, we feel that all is not well, nor ever Helen
France, and Florence, Italy has been nor can be well again.”
Act 1, Scene 1
SOURCES The play’s “mingled yarn” is one
1353 Italian poet Giovanni reason for the uncertain reactions Shakespeare’s “problem plays,”
Boccaccio’s Decameron is the it has provoked. Although it makes along with Measure for Measure,
main source of the play. use of a number of fairytale and Troilus and Cressida, and even
folkloric conventions, including sometimes Hamlet. This is not
1566–67 Shakespeare the hero who is set a series of a term that Shakespeare would
probably read Boccaccio’s impossible tasks and the bedtrick have recognized, as it was
story in English translator (where one woman substitutes for invented in the 19th century to
William Painter’s Palace another to secure a husband), the describe Norwegian playwright
of Pleasure. psychological insight with which Henrik Ibsen’s plays, but it is still
the characters are written, and the a useful way of thinking about
LEGACY realistic setting in which they All’s Well. The features of a problem
1741 The first recorded are placed make these elements play include the interweaving
performance of the play opens highly problematic. Indeed, All’s of fantastic plots with realistic
at Drury Lane, London, with Well has often been labeled one of
Peg Woffington as Helen.
On learning of Helen’s passion
1981 US playwright Don Nigro for her son, the countess (Janie Dee,
writes Loves Labours Wonne, right, at the Globe, 2011) supports
a play about Shakespeare’s Helen’s (Ellie Piercy) plan to prove
life. In the play, Anne her worthiness by curing the King.
Hathaway resembles
Helen, in that she wins
Shakespeare in marriage
by curing his father, John.

2000 In US children’s author
Gary Blackwood’s novel
Shakespeare’s Scribe, an
apprentice, Widge, helps
Shakespeare to write
All’s Well.

2012 All’s Well That Ends
Well, translated into Gujarati,
is performed by the Mumbai-
based company Arpana at
Shakespeare’s Globe in
London. The action is
relocated to northwest
India in 1900.

THE KING’S MAN 291

Helen (Joanna Horton, in this 2013
RSC production) cures the king (Greg
Hicks) using her father’s drugs. As a
reward, Helen is offered a choice of
husbands. She chooses Bertram.

characters, the struggle to
resolve an ethical dilemma, and
the experience of emotional
suffering including grief. All’s
Well fits all of these criteria. Its
mingling of comedy and tragedy
is beautifully exemplified by Helen
when, having been declared dead,
she reappears on stage “quick,”
which means both alive and
pregnant. Yet even this joyful
conclusion has often been felt
to be overshadowed by the
darker undercurrents of the play.

Ambivalent virtue Adonis, Bertram is still young, and revenge himself upon Bertram,
The first problem is Bertram. If we in the process of becoming a man. which would place Bertram in
are to delight in Helen’s achieving The desire of a woman like Helen the role of Juliet.
her ambition to marry him, we have threatens to confine him in the
to believe that he is worthy—and feminine domestic space he has This all matters less if we
this is where audiences have only just succeeded in escaping. can believe that the marriage of
struggled. In general, the play Bertram also falls foul of the Bertram and Helen will prove a
sees human beings as deeply institution of wardship. This good thing for him as well as
ambivalent: “Our virtues would was a system, much criticized in for her. But the play struggles
be proud / if our faults whipped Shakespeare’s time, that gave an to reconcile the forceful and
them not, and our crimes would / elder guardian control over the manipulative Helen with
despair if they were not cherished young man’s marriage, usually to contemporary ideals of female
by our virtues” (4.3.75–77). He his/her own advantage. In All’s modesty and submissiveness. ❯❯
demonstrates courage and loyalty Well, we might argue that it is
as a soldier, but at the same time, unfair on Bertram that he should I think not on my father,
he is trying to seduce a young be married to pay the King’s debt, And these great tears grace
virgin with false promises. In the and especially to a woman whom
final scene, he expresses remorse he declares he cannot love. Equally his remembrance more
for Helen’s loss and even claims to troubling is the emasculation that Than those I shed for him.
love her, but then shows himself is built into this process. The
to be incapable of telling the truth, King’s wards are paraded in front What was he like?
slandering Diana, whom he had of Helen so that she may “send I have forgot him.
also professed to love. forth [her] eye” (2.3.53) and choose
one. By this means, Helen adopts Helen
We might defend Bertram on the traditionally masculine role
the grounds that he is suffering of wooer, while Bertram is Act 1, Scene 1
from the crisis of masculinity that placed in the role of passive
occurs elsewhere in Shakespeare. female. There is even an echo of
Like Adonis, who prefers hunting Capulet in Romeo and Juliet in
the boar over Venus’s seductions in the King’s threats to exile and
Shakespeare’s poem Venus and

292 ALL’S WELL THAT ENDS WELL

Helen registers what an impossible
situation she is in when she has to
choose Bertram: “I dare not say I
take you, but I give / Me and my
service ever whilst I live / Into your
guiding power” (2.3.103–105).

If Bertram was not enamored
with Helen before, he certainly
will not be now. It is no
coincidence that the woman he
does actively desire, Diana, is
named after the goddess of
chastity. She inspires his lust
precisely because she seems
impervious to love herself.
Furthermore, the play implies
an unflattering parallel between
Helen and Paroles. Both are
ambitious, lower-class characters
whose designs on Bertram promise
to be socially advantageous to
them. More specifically, Helen’s
use of the bedtrick is morally
suspect, in that she forces
Bertram to have sex with
someone against his will, and
uses Diana as a public scapegoat
for her own desires.

Social mobility degraded, by uniting with the Held up high by his comrades,
A further ethical debate centers lower-class Helen. The King Bertram (Alex Waldmann in a 2013
around the meaning and argues that all titles were once RSC production) wins praise for his
importance of class distinctions. bestowed for worthy service, bravery in war. By contrast, the war
Bertram insists that he will be and so he can make Helen reveals Paroles to be a coward.
shamed, and his noble lineage Bertram’s social equal on the
basis of her virtue. What the play tries to do toward the
Wars is no strife end is to argue that, rather
To the dark house and Although this sounds very than jeopardizing Bertram’s class
progressive, it is at odds with status, Helen actually preserves
the detested wife. assumptions elsewhere in the it. He carelessly gives away his
Bertram play, and beyond it. One of the few ancestral ring, but Helen takes
guidelines for wardship was that it into her own safe-keeping.
Act 2, Scene 3 the ward was not supposed to be Equally, Bertram thinks he is
married to anyone socially beneath wasting his noble seed in an
him. Furthermore, the King may illicit sexual encounter, but
argue that everyone’s blood is Helen takes possession of this,
ultimately the same, but he would too, and nurtures it into an heir
hardly be in his own position of to honor him.
royal privilege were that the case.

’Tis only title thou disdain’st the couple, or as a long-awaited THE KING’S MAN 293
in her, the which expression of Helen’s rage against
her husband. The braggart soldier
I can build up. Strange is
it that our bloods, Ultimately, the understanding For Shakespeare’s audience,
that life is like a “mingled yarn, Paroles would have been an
Of colour, weight, and heat, good and ill together” is reserved instantly recognizable comic
poured all together, for the older generation. When type. The braggart soldier,
she discovers Helen’s love, the whose much vaunted courage
Would quite confound Countess reflects on her own past on the battlefield turns out
distinction, yet stands off lovesickness, and concludes that it to be a sham, had been a
In differences so mighty. is an essential part of being young: popular figure in classical
“this thorn / Doth to our rose of comedy, and appears
King of France youth rightly belong” (1.3.125–126). elsewhere in Shakespeare’s
She also questions the value of plays in the guise of Pistol in
Act 2, Scene 3 young love: “Such were our faults— Henry IV Part 2 and Falstaff
or then we thought them none” (131). in Henry IV and Henry V.
Problematic reconciliation? The character’s popularity
The final reconciliation scene However, it remains to be seen in the 17th century was
can be read and performed in a whether Helen’s idolatrous passion such that King Charles I
number of different ways. Bertram for Bertram or his “sick desires” wrote “Monsieur Paroles”
may be transfigured by the return for Diana will be assuaged by next to the title in his private
of dead Helen, sometimes dressed marriage, and indeed whether they copy of All’s Well That Ends
in white like an avenging angel will be able to put these events Well, and the play was
or the Virgin Mary. He may be behind them. Can we imagine subsequently adapted to
filled with gratitude as she Bertram and Helen a few years on, expand his part.
releases him from his arrest for teasing one another about the fact
murder and exonerates him from that Bertram was once accused of For all his shocking
any crime against Diana. hating his wife so much he might betrayal of his friend Bertram
have killed her? Or is that part of and his fellow soldiers,
Freed from the influence of the weave always likely to bring Paroles gains a certain amount
Paroles and his hyper-masculine Helen sorrow because Bertram of sympathy from his obvious
ethos, Bertram may give way to never fulfils his promise to “love relief at abandoning the
an attraction to Helen that he her dearly, ever, ever dearly” pretense: “Simply the thing
has always secretly felt. Equally, (5.3.318)? The difficulties that have I am / Shall make me live”
Helen’s reaction to Bertram takes to be overcome may be too great (4.3.334–335). In the 2013
on many different hues. A review for the ending to feel anything RSC production, as played
of the 1992 RSC production, other than bittersweet. ■ by Jonathan Slinger, Paroles
directed by Sir Peter Hall, drops the Sandhurst accent
describes how, “With a pained, A young man married is a that he had used to ingratiate
dignified ‘et cetera’ (uttered after man that’s marred. himself, and finally accepts
a beautifully pointed pause), she Paroles his homosexuality.
spares both of them a full recital,
and then determinedly rends the Act 2, Scene 3
paper in two.” We might interpret
this action as a fresh start for

THIS WORLD TO ME

IS BUT A CEASELESS

STORM

WHIRRING ME FROM

MY FRIENDS

PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE (1607)



296 PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE

DRAMATIS Gower narrates the Still fleeing from Thaliart, Thaisa seemingly
PERSONAE story of Pericles, Pericles is shipwrecked, dies giving birth en
beginning with the washing up on the shores
John Gower The narrator, incestuous King route to Tyre. The
who also delivers the epilogue. Antiochus. Pericles of Pentapolis. superstitious sailors
insist that her body be
Pericles, Prince of Tyre works out Antiochus’s thrown overboard.
Husband of Thaisa, father riddle but the king
to Marina. secretly orders
his murder.
Thaisa Daughter of King
Simonides, wife to Pericles, 1 5 11
and mother to Marina. Scenes 1–5 Scenes 7–11

Antiochus King of Antioch, 3 7&9
intent on having Pericles
killed when Pericles discovers The hired villain Thaliart Disguised for fear of his
Antiochus’s incestuous arrives in Tyre to poison life, Pericles takes part
relationship with his daughter. Pericles, who manages
to escape to Tarsus. in a tournament for
Thaliart Villain hired by the suitors of King
Antiochus to murder Pericles. Simonides’ daughter.
After winning the
Helicanus Loyal advisor tournament, Pericles
to Pericles. marries Thaisa.

Simonides King of Pentapolis T he medieval poet Gower Arriving in Tarsus, Pericles
and father to Thaisa. Allows acts as the narrator relating relieves the famine-struck city
Pericles to marry his daughter. the story of Pericles, Prince with corn, earning the gratitude
of Tyre. His story begins with King of the governor Cleon and his wife
Marina Daughter of Pericles Antiochus whose daughter’s suitors Dioniza. After setting sail again in
and Thaisa, born at sea. must answer a riddle in order to a storm, Pericles is shipwrecked on
Dogged by misfortune, her win her hand. Pericles solves the the shores of Pentapolis, losing all
virtue and chastity ensure riddle, which exposes Antiochus’s his possessions except his armor.
her safety. incestuous lust and forces Pericles He is rescued by fishermen and is
to flee back to Tyre for safety. King taken incognito to the court of
Cleon Governor of Tarsus. Antiochus sends the villainous King Simonides, who is celebrating
Indebted to Pericles, he Thaliart to murder Pericles. Pericles his daughter Thaisa’s birthday
pledges to protect and hears of Thaliart’s murderous plans with a tournament. Pericles wins
raise Marina. and escapes on a ship to Tarsus, the jousting competition and the
leaving his trusted counselor king grants him the hand of
Dioniza Wife of Cleon, she Helicanus to govern Tyre. Princess Thaisa.
is jealous of Marina and plots
to murder her.

Cerimon A physician in
Ephesus who helps restore
Thaisa to life when she
washes up on the shore.

Lysimachus Governor
of Mytilene.

Diana Goddess of chastity.

THE KING’S MAN 297

The governor of

Mytilene, Lysimachus,

Thaisa’s body is frees Marina from the
washed up onto the
brothel. When Marina
shores of Ephesus
where a physician sings for the prince he
revives her from a
deathlike sleep and eventually realizes Gower explains how the
takes her to the Temple villainous are punished
of Diana where she Dioniza’s plans to murder that she is his
serves as a priestess. and the virtuous
Marina are thwarted when daughter. Pericles rewarded, pointing to the
honorable Pericles and his
the girl is kidnapped by agrees to Marina’s family as good examples.

pirates and sold to a betrothal to

brothel at Mytilene. Lysimachus.

12 15 & 16 19 & 21 22

Scenes 12–16 Scenes 19–22

11 15 18 21

Pericles decides to take the Gower narrates the Pericles is told that Marina Pericles has a vision
newborn child, Marina, to events of Marina’s has died. Grief-stricken, he of the goddess Diana
youth. She is now a
Tarsus to be raised by the young woman and, vows to never speak again and who tells him to
governor Cleon and his wife. Cleon’s jealous wife to spend the rest of his life in travel to Ephesus
Dioniza arranges where he is reunited
for her murder. mourning on the seas.
with Thaisa.

Meanwhile, King Antiochus has Gower recounts how 14 years have while she is there she is able to
died so Pericles is safe to reveal his passed during which time Marina convince the governor Lysimachus,
identity as Prince of Tyre and return has grown into a virtuous young who has visited the brothel in
home with his now pregnant wife. woman, attracting the envy of disguise, to help her. When
On the way to Tyre, they encounter Dioniza, who conspires to have Pericles’ ship arrives by chance at
a tempest, during which Thaisa her murdered. Marina flees, but is Mytilene, Lysimachus tries to cheer
appears to die giving birth to a abducted by pirates who sell her the sorrow-drowned Pericles by
daughter and, at the insistence of to a brothel in Mytilene. Pericles sending Marina to sing to him.
the sailors, is buried at sea. Pericles has returned to Tarsus to find
sails to Tarsus where he entrusts Marina but is falsely told that she Hearing Marina’s life’s story,
his daughter, now named Marina, is dead, causing him to pledge Pericles joyfully realizes she is
to the indebted Cleon and Dioniza. himself to a lifetime of silent his daughter. The goddess Diana
mourning sailing the seas. appears to Pericles in a dream
Thaisa’s coffin is washed ashore telling him to visit her temple at
at Ephesus where a physician Marina has steadfastly clung Ephesus. Pericles journeys there
revives her and sends her to be a to her chastity, to the annoyance with Marina and is miraculously
priestess at the Temple of Diana. of her bawd (brothel madam), but reunited with his wife, Thaisa. ❯❯

298 PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE

IN CONTEXT S hakespeare shaped his plays Why, as men do a-land—the
to satisfy his audience’s great ones eat up the little ones.
THEMES expectations. People
Life’s journey, love, fate, attending a tragedy would expect Master fisherman
family, endurance, reunion to see a tableau of death by the
play’s close; those attending a Scene 5
SETTING romance or comedy anticipated
Antioch, Tyre, Tarsus, marriages and reunions. Pericles, is emotionally exhausted. Grief
Pentapolis, Ephesus, Prince of Tyre is no exception. In has transformed the voyager; as
Mytilene (Mediterranean) this romance, Shakespeare Helicanus suggests, when he draws
separates his protagonist from his back a curtain to reveal Pericles
SOURCES wife and daughter in order to build with an overgrown beard, “This
1390s Shakespeare used John toward their reunion at the close. was a goodly person / Till the
Gower’s Apollonius (Pericles) Pericles is tossed upon the seas disaster of one mortal night / Drove
of Tyre included in Confessio of the Mediterranean from shore him to this” (21.29–30). Separated
Amantis. Gower expanded to shore and must endure life’s from his wife and daughter, Pericles
on the popular Greek story. “ceaseless storm” (15.71) in order, at all but withdraws from society.
the end of the story, to appreciate
1576 Shakespeare also took fully the pleasures of reconciliation. Emotional reunion
some details from Laurence Shakespeare’s presentation of
Twine’s novella The Pattern Believing his wife and daughter Pericles’s reunion with his daughter
of Painful Adventures. to be dead, Pericles slips into a near Marina is a moving moment. The
comatose state. Twenty scenes into couple’s gradual realization that
LEGACY the drama Shakespeare asks his they are father and daughter is
1623 Pericles is not included audience to imagine that Pericles developed across the space of some
in the First Folio, leading to “for this three months hath not hundred lines. Marina begins
persistent doubts surrounding spoken” (21.18). The protagonist by telling Pericles that she has
its authorship. “endured a grief” (21.76) that may
equal his own. By this point in the
1659 The play is one of the play, audiences will be acutely
first staged after the reopening aware of the misfortunes that have
of the theaters by Charles II. befallen both characters. They will
also be aware that Pericles believes
1738 George Lillo puts on an his daughter to be dead. Having
adaptation of the play called listened to Marina’s opening words,
Marina at Covent Garden. Pericles shares his private thoughts
with the audience in an aside that
1983 The BBC film the play
with Mike Gwilym as Pericles, John Gower, illustrated in this
and Juliet Stevenson as Thaisa. 14th-century manuscript, was a popular
poet and storyteller. Shakespeare drew
2003 Yukio Ninagawa’s on his retelling of the Greek tale and
Japanese production creates a made Gower the narrator in the play.
fairy-tale world using human
puppet shows. It played at the
National Theatre, London.

2012 The National Theatre of
Greece produces the play as
part of the Shakespeare World
Festival running alongside the
Olympic Games.