The Shakespeare Book

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 149

Unable to sleep, the At Gaultree Forest, In Gloucestershire, Newly crowned,
king worries about Prince John leads the Pistol brings news that Henry V rejects
further rebellion. Henry IV is dead and Falstaff, while Prince
rebels to believe a John mentions future
compromise is Hal at last is king. war with France.
possible, before

arresting them
for treason.

3.1 4.1 5.1 5.4

Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

2.4 3.2 4.3 5.2

Ensign Pistol’s swaggering Falstaff Thinking his sleeping Hal promises the
brings chaos to the tavern, reminisces with father dead, Hal takes worried Lord Chief
Shallow and Silence the crown and, when Justice that he will
and Hal overhears in Gloucestershire rebuked, reassures his make the law his
Falstaff malign him. and then recruits the father he will prove a
means of rule.
weakest men. noble king one day.

financial, keeps him in London. Sensing his own mortality, Falstaff believing the king has died, the
There the Lord Chief Justice seeks comfort from Doll Tearsheet king is all the more convinced his
rebukes him for dishonorably before departing for duty. He is son desires his death. Hal assures
misleading Prince Hal, and tasked with a recruiting drive in his father that he dreads that event,
Mistress Quickly has him arrested Gloucestershire. But since Falstaff and promises that, when it comes,
for debt. He mollifies her with takes bribes to exempt certain it will herald a just reign.
further empty promises and conscripts, his fighting force retains
borrows more; and then maligns the poorest men in every sense. Henry dies, and Falstaff hopes
Prince Hal, who overhears these for influence at court. But Hal keeps
potential words of treason. Amid At court, the wakeful king is his word. Promising the Lord Chief
the rising noise and chaos of the troubled by his betrayal of those Justice to defend the law, he
Eastcheap underworld, a sudden same warlords who helped him dismisses Falstaff when his old
call to his father’s sickbed delivers to the crown, and by fears for the friend hails him at the coronation.
a timely rebuke to the wayward future once the unpredictable Hal As Falstaff is arrested for debt,
Prince for this irresponsible is king. He asks that the crown lie Prince John mentions a rumored
waste of time. on his pillow as he sleeps. When war with France and we know that
Hal arrives and takes the crown Agincourt beckons. ❯❯

150 HENRY IV PART 2 F alstaff remembers hearing O thoughts of men accursed!
London’s church clocks Past and to come seems best;
IN CONTEXT chiming midnight when, as
a student at the Inns of Court, he things present, worst.
THEMES burned the candle at both ends. In Archbishop of York
Time’s decay, loyalty and those days, the lateness of the hour
betrayal, misremembering signaled a young man’s liberty. Act 1, Scene 3
Now, remembered in old age, it
SETTING marks the end of things. With their The play appears to have been
Court of Henry IV; Boar’s blend of warmth and wistfulness written for an audience that has
Head Tavern, London; Falstaff‘s words capture perfectly seen Part 1, and it therefore uses
Gloucestershire; Gaultree the bittersweet quality of this similarities between the two in
Forest, Yorkshire play, in which for king, rebels, narrative and structure to make
and common folk alike, midnight the differences stand out. While
SOURCES chimes finality and judgment. this play looks forward to the
1587 Holinshed’s Chronicles of coronation of Henry V, its main
England, Scotland, and Ireland. The title Henry IV Part 2 leads focus is retrospective. It revisits
us to expect a sequel to Part 1, and issues and relationships from Part 1
1594 The Famous Victories to a degree it is. As the title page to and reflects on them at a slower
of Henry V, an anonymous the 1600 quarto promises, we are pace and in a more nuanced way.
play probably known to to see again the comic knight John
Shakespeare. Falstaff, meet his new companion, Subjects to time
Pistol, and follow the history to The three worlds of Part 1—the
1595 Samuel Daniel’s poem Henry’s death and the coronation court, the tavern, and the rebels—
“The First Four Books of the of the hero-king Henry V. It was now feel the debilitating effects
Civil War Between the Two a winning combination for the of time and mortality. Plump Jack
Houses of York and Lancaster.” Elizabethan audience who had Falstaff, Hal’s father-substitute and
delighted in Part 1. But while there tavern-king, is in physical decline:
LEGACY is comedy in Part 2, the mood is his first words in Part 2 are to
Since Henry IV Part 2 is rarely darker, and the historical events inquire about the health of his
played as a solo drama, most are less valiant, tainted as they urine. The king himself swaps the
of the performance history is are with political trickery. robe of majesty for a nightgown as
shared with Part 1. sleepless anxiety about rebellion
and his inheritance contributes to
Early 1700s Actor-manager his deteriorating health. And the
Thomas Betterton’s adaptation rebels, too, admit that their long
extends the popular role of dispute with the king has made
Falstaff on the London stage.
In an intriguing theatrical dynamic,
1821 The play is performed a dotard Falstaff was played by British
as part of the coronation actor Timothy West alongside a cynical
celebrations for George IV. Prince Hal, played by West’s son
Samuel, at the Old Vic, London, in 1997.
1945 Laurence Olivier plays a
memorable Justice Shallow at
the New Theatre, London.

1966 Orson Welles’ film The
Chimes at Midnight focuses on
Hal’s father-son relationship
with Falstaff and the King.

2012 BBC’s “Hollow Crown”
series casts Simon Russell
Beale as a melancholy Falstaff.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 151

From the medieval kings to Elizabeth I

King Edward III Queen Philippa of Hainault
(1312–77) (1314–69)

Edward the Joan of John of Gaunt Blanche of Edmund of Isabella of
Black Prince Kent Duke of Lancaster Lancaster Langley Castille
(1345–68) (1355–92)
(1330–76) (1328–85) (1340–99) Duke of York
(1341–1402) Edward Duke
King Mary de King Henry IV of Aumerle
Richard II Bohun (Bolingbroke) Richard Earl of 2nd Duke
(1367–1400) (1368–94) Cambridge of York
(1366–1413) (1375–1415) (1373–1415)

Owain Catherine King Thomas Duke John Duke Humphrey Richard
Tudor of Valois Henry V of Clarence of Bedford Duke of Plantagenet
(1400–61) (1401–37) (1386–1422) (1387–1421) (1389–1435)
Gloucester 3rd Duke
(1390–1447) of York
(1411–60)
King
Henry VI
(1421–71)

Edmund Tudor Margaret Elizabeth King George Duke King
Earl of Richmond Beaufort Woodville
(1441–1509) (1437–92)
(1430–56)

Edward IV of Clarence Richard III

(1422–83) (1449–78) (1452–85)

King Henry VII Elizabeth King Shakespeare was familiar
(Richmond) of York Edward V with complex royal genealogy
(1430–1509) (1470–83) connecting the Houses of
(1466–1503) Plantagenet, Lancaster,
York, and Tudor.
Katherine King Anne Boleyn
of Aragon Henry VIII (1507–36)
(1485–1536) (1491–1547)

Queen Queen Plantagenet Lancaster
Mary I Elizabeth I York Tudor
(1516–58) (1533–1603)

them ill: “we are all diseased, / And in its twilight years where elderly scoundrel has become harder since
with our surfeiting and wanton men ponder sheep prices and tally his father’s illness, and the prince
hours / Have brought ourselves into the deaths of old friends. confides to Poins that his heart
a burning fever, / And we must “bleeds inwardly” (2.2.41) for the
bleed for it” (4.1.54–57). Even Not even Hal is untouched by king. He is concerned, too,
when the central scenes take us this pervasive malaise. He admits about how his friends perceive him.
to Gloucestershire, where pippin when he first appears that he is He knows that Falstaff hopes for
apples and fine game are on the “exceeding weary” (2.2.1) and seems future influence at court, but now
menu, England appears as a society bored with his wastrel life. Keeping he learns that Poins, his close ❯❯
up the image of the wayward

152 HENRY IV PART 2

from the lies we tell ourselves:
“smooth comforts false, worse than
true wrongs” (Induction.40–41).

Sir John, Sir John, I am well Looking back God knows, my son,
acquainted with your manner Characters spend much time By what bypaths and indirect
of wrenching the true cause revisiting and revising the past in
this play, and almost unthinkingly crook’d ways
the false way. rework history to suit the present. I met this crown
Lord Chief Justice For example, the barons justify
their continued rebellion with King Henry
Act 2, Scene 1 reference to the death of Richard II,
and promises made but not fulfilled Act 4, Scene 3
companion, might have misused by Henry since becoming king.
their friendship by claiming that They overlook their own complicity itself warns Falstaff that time is
his sister Nell and Hal will marry. in Henry’s rise to power and short and judgment inevitable.
Though Poins dismisses this as dangerously underestimate how far At the play’s end this same Justice
Falstaff’s lie, there is a new unease the king will go to “wipe his tables will imprison Falstaff for debt.
in Eastcheap. clean” (4.1.199). Fearful and unable
to sleep, Henry also looks back The rebels also find that time is
Time is running out, flesh is at that time and marvels at how not on their side. Northumberland
weak, and dreams decay. This easily the barons seem to switch hears the falsehood of his son’s
vulnerability to time and its allegiance. In doing so, he forgets victory before learning of his death,
deceptions is described in the how he, too, betrayed a king. and news of his own departure for
Induction to the play, which is Scotland reaches his fellow barons
spoken by the figure of Rumour, Meanwhile, profiting from the lie too late for remedy. Prince John
possibly wearing a robe decorated that he killed Hotspur, Falstaff has takes timely advantage of this
with tongues. He not only reveals recast himself as a gentleman and weakened position to spring his
the lie about Hotspur’s death, but adopted airs and graces he can ill trap. Although Morton is uneasy, the
says that the greater danger comes afford. He is confronted in the street other rebel leaders trust the Prince’s
by the Lord Chief Justice who is word and rashly dismiss their forces
unamused by the wit with which
the fat knight usually extricates
himself from trouble. Now Justice

Language and place The Eastcheap tavern is a place seasons than by man. Falstaff
of transit through which pass contaminates this English
characters whom Shakespeare idyll. In a telling moment,
identifies by their idiosyncrasies Feeble, a woman’s tailor,
of speech: Ensign Pistol’s empty speaks out against Falstaff’s
bombast; Mistress Quickly’s corrupt recruiting practices and
sentimental picturing of the declares that he is proud to die
past; Bardolph’s monosyllabic for King and country: “No man’s
utterances, and Doll’s abuse. too good to serve’s prince…
Faith, I’ll bear no base mind”
In contrast, Gloucestershire (3.2.234–235,238). Feeble’s
folk are rooted to and identified by simple integrity puts Falstaff’s
place: John Doit of Staffordshire; enterprise to shame. It also
Will Squeal, a Cotswold man; rejects the calculating baseness
Clement Perkes o’th’Hill. Unlike of mind that ultimately derives
Eastcheap, there is a deep sense from the very king whom Feeble
of continuity in the country, would give his life for.
and of events driven more by the

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 153

Thinking his sleeping father (David
Yelland) dead, Hal (Tom Mison) tries
on the crown for size in this 2011
production directed by Sir Peter Hall.

before establishing the details of his also shares his father’s cold- away. In his earlier words, he
promised redress. Once the lords are bloodedness, has warmed it with described his father as using the
powerless, John condemns them all the wine of tavern life. crown like armor, to serve himself.
to death. Timing is everything. As Now he says to the king that it is
Lord Hastings puts it, “We are time’s Hal shows his ability to sidestep he, the king, who has protected the
subjects, and time bids be gone” the kind of confrontation that his crown and suffered in its service.
(1.3.110). Thanks to Prince John’s brother seems to relish when he Henry takes up this flattering
tactics, by the middle of the play, eventually meets the king. Henry falsehood when he describes
all of Henry’s enemies are gone. has placed the crown beside him himself as meeting rather than
on his pillow and, mistaking sleep seizing the crown, as if he took no
Inheritance for death, Hal has briefly tried it on. active part in usurping Richard II.
Shakespeare alters history to Now it sits between them as they And Hal confirms the fiction that the
implicate the king in this deception talk. The prince tells Henry what he crown has rightfully passed to
by tasking his son with the trick. wants to hear, but he does so by Henry when he casts himself as its
The chronicles ascribe it to one reworking slightly what happened true inheritor: “You won it, wore it,
of his nobles. In political terms, when he briefly took the crown kept it, gave it me; / Then plain
John has acted wisely in avoiding and right must my possession be”
bloodshed. Yet, as the scene closes, My father is gone wild (4.3.350–351). This revision by father
his insistence that “God, and not into his grave and son of the central problem
we, hath safely fought today” Prince Harry of Henry’s reign exemplifies
(4.1.347) recasts his political Shakespeare’s major theme in the
stratagem as a battlefield victory Act 5, Scene 2 play—that of re-reading the past.
by infusing it with honor that it
hardly deserves. John has evidently Having placated his father with
inherited his father’s calculation. this promise of loyalty, the prince
He is, in Falstaff’s words, a “sober- receives his advice. Once king, says
blooded boy” (4.2.84–85), lacking a Henry, Hal should bring the people
sense of humor or taste for drink. In together in a foreign war.
his lengthy praise of sack, or sherry,
the fat knight says that Hal, who Somber finale
Shakespeare closes the play in
the minor key. Falstaff is finally
dismissed when Hal establishes
his power in the rule of law. His
rejection of his old friend is the
final playing out of that promised
moment from the comic tavern play
in Part 1. Hal’s new regal style now
silences Falstaff’s familiar greeting:
“I know thee not, old man” (5.5.47).
And when John mentions rumors
of war, we remember Henry’s
deathbed advice to his son. We
know this war will end with victory
at Agincourt and see Hal fulfill his
father’s project of uniting the nation
under the crown, however briefly. ■

OUT ON THEE

SEEMING!

I WILL WRITE

AGAINST IT

MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING (1598–1599)



156 MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING

DRAMATIS Leonato learns that The villainous Don John Don Pedro leads the
PERSONAE Don Pedro and his men plots to disrupt the men in convincing
festive mood. Benedick that Beatrice
Leonato Governor of Messina are to arrive shortly secretly loves him.
and father of Hero. in Messina after a
victorious war.
Hero Leonato’s daughter and
only heir. 1.1 1.3 2.3
Act 1 Act 2
Don Pedro Prince of Aragon, 1.1 2.1
returned from war, possibly
against Don John. Benedick and Beatrice At the masked ball, Don
renew their war of words John tells Claudio that
Don John Illegitimate brother Don Pedro woos Hero for
of Don Pedro to whom he’s and Don Pedro agrees to
grudgingly reconciled. woo Hero for Claudio. himself. The lie is
exposed, the
Claudio A young count who
has distinguished himself in marriage agreed,
military action. and the date set.

Benedick A lord of Padua N ews comes to Leonato, Benedick, as if seeking reassurance.
also serving under Don Pedro; Governor of Messina, that But while Benedick, the avowed
a professed bachelor. the victorious Don Pedro of bachelor, ridicules idealized love,
Aragon will shortly return from war Don Pedro offers to win Hero’s
Beatrice Niece of Leonato and that Claudio, a young member hand for Claudio at that evening’s
and cousin to Hero. of his company, has distinguished masked ball. With their identities
himself in battle. Beatrice’s playful disguised, the maskers indulge
Borachio A follower of inquiry after another officer, in innuendo, sexual banter,
Don John who invents a Benedick, sets the theme of their retribution, and deceit. And Don
plot to thwart Claudio’s love-hate relationship. The couple’s John, seizing the chance to play
marriage to Hero. witty banter cuts through the mischievously on Claudio’s
welcoming formalities and sharply insecurities, insinuates that Don
Margaret A gentlewoman contrasts with Claudio’s nascent Pedro is wooing Hero for himself.
attending on Hero who adoration of Hero, Leonato’s only
plays a dubious role in heir. Claudio confesses this The lie is exposed, the match is
Borachio’s plot. infatuation to Don Pedro and made and, delighted, Leonato gives
his blessing. All that remains is for
Ursula A gentlewoman
attending on Hero, who helps
to trick Beatrice into admitting
her love for Benedick.

Friar Francis He arranges
for Hero to fake her death.

Antonio Leonato’s brother.

Conrad A follower of Don
John, he is arrested with
Borachio and forced to confess.

Dogberry Master Constable
of the Watch, he tries to
imitate his betters.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 157

Don John’s second On the wedding morning, Benedick challenges Claudio, Claudio’s bride is
plot offers to show Dogberry tries to and Borachio confesses revealed to be Hero,
Claudio and Don the plot. Claudio promises and Benedick and
Pedro that Hero inform Leonato of the to make amends.
plot, but fails. Beatrice’s love is
is unchaste. made public. Now
the weddings can

take place.

3.2 3.5 5.1 5.4

Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

3.1 3.3 4.1 5.3

Hero and her women The Watch overhear At the altar, Claudio Claudio mourns
let Beatrice Borachio bragging rejects Hero, her father Hero’s “death.”

overhear their about the plot. disowns her, and the
discussion of Priest proposes a means
Benedick’s secret
of restoring her good
love for her. name. Benedick and
Beatrice privately
declare their love.

Claudio and Hero to speak to one Borachio feeds Don John’s Overwhelmed by emotion, he and
another for the first time. While malevolence with a plot to Beatrice confess their love. She
they whisper together, Beatrice thwart the marriage. He’ll then asks him to kill Claudio.
fends off a throwaway marriage speak to Margaret, dressed as
proposal from Don Pedro. Hero, at her window the night The duel does not take place
before the wedding, while Don because by chance the bumbling
Until the wedding, Don Pedro John ensures that Claudio and watchmen have overheard Borachio
takes up matchmaking. Detecting Don Pedro witness the encounter. bragging about the plot. They bring
compatibility in opposites, he At the altar, Claudio cruelly rejects the truth to light and clear Hero’s
decides to trick Beatrice and Hero, claiming that she’s no longer name. Believing her to be dead as
Benedick into admitting they love pure. Hero faints. Claudio and the Priest suggests, Claudio agrees
each other. Two scenes are set: Don Pedro leave. Unlike Leonato, to mourn at her “tomb” and to
Benedick eavesdrops as Don Pedro, the Priest believes in Hero’s marry her “cousin,” sight unseen.
Claudio, and Leonato discuss innocence and proposes a rescue When this lady unveils, she is, in
Beatrice’s feelings. Meanwhile, plan. Benedick stays behind, fact, Hero. The play ends with news
she overhears Hero and Ursula concerned for Hero and Beatrice. of Don John’s arrest, and a dance
revealing Benedick’s love. before the double wedding. ❯❯

158 MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING

IN CONTEXT M uch Ado About Nothing And there shall appear such
presents “seeming” in seeming truth of Hero’s
THEMES several guises. The
Social codes and status, wordplay on nothing/noting in the disloyalty that jealousy shall
love, marriage, deception title would have alerted the play’s be called assurance.
first audience to the theme of Borachio
SETTING observation. And the messenger’s
Messina, a port city in reports in the first scene make it Act 2, Scene 2
Sicily under Spanish rule clear that Messina is a society
where appearances matter. But
SOURCES what’s built on appearance, report,
There are no direct sources. and hearsay is fragile, open to
The Hero plot, based on an old conflicting interpretations, and
tale, is indirectly indebted to: easily destroyed.

1516 Ludovico Ariosto’s Appearing and observing traits in the young woman;
Orlando Furioso (Italian verse Both love stories in the play hinge Claudio’s noting, however, marks
translated into English, 1591) on appearance and observation. her as priceless: “Can the world
Claudio has fallen in love with Hero buy such a jewel?” (1.1.171).
1554 Matteo Bandello’s because she seems to him a sweet, With no assurance for his budding
Novelle (Italian prose adapted modest young woman. But he’s love from Benedick, Claudio is
into French, 1569). unsure of his own judgment and reluctant to reveal his admiration
seeks confirmation from the older for Hero to Don Pedro. Only when
LEGACY Benedick and Don Pedro. Benedick the Prince insists that he’s serious
1613 The play is staged to differentiates between noting Hero in thinking “the lady is very well
celebrate the marriage of King and looking at her. His replies draw worthy” (1.1.207–208) does
James’s daughter Elizabeth. attention to the subjectivity of Claudio admit his love.
perception, as simply looking at her
1662 William Davenant’s The does not reveal any extraordinary The courtship of Claudio and
Law Against Lovers combines Hero follows a very formal pattern.
parts of Much Ado About Friendship is constant First the lovers admire each other
Nothing and Measure for in all other things from a distance. Claudio does not
Measure. The play influences even woo Hero himself, but leaves
many Restoration comedies. Save in the office and this to the Prince. The lovers do
affairs of love. not speak to each other until their
1861 Hector Berlioz’s opera elders have agreed on the marriage
Béatrice et Bénédict portrays Therefore all hearts in love and Leonato has given his blessing.
the witty sparring of the use their own tongues. Even at this point, Hero doesn’t
eponymous older couple in Let every eye negotiate have any lines, although the text
sparklingly jazzy syncopations. for itself, suggests that she takes the liberty
And trust no agent. of kissing Claudio in public.
1993 Kenneth Branagh’s film Claudio
moves the play to the Tuscan Constrained by the formality
hills, giving it an easy-going Act 2, Scene 1 of their courtship, Claudio and
holiday atmosphere. Hero hardly know each other.
It’s not surprising, therefore, that
1996 Michael Boyd’s RSC Claudio’s faith in Hero is easily
production makes great use of shaken when Don John tells him
mirrors, frames, and portraits that his brother has wooed her
to bring out the theme of for himself. Claudio does not
appearance versus reality. doubt for a minute that Hero

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 159

has accepted Don Pedro. The The formal, stylized nature of the appears to him is determined by
report is quickly revealed as false courtship finds its counterpart in what others want him to believe.
and laughingly dismissed by Claudio’s public rejection of Hero in So it’s no surprise that when,
the Prince and Leonato. But Don the disrupted wedding ceremony. eventually, Borachio confesses
John is still determined to prevent As in the scene at Hero’s window, the plot, Claudio instantly reverts
the marriage and, thanks to Claudio misinterprets what he to the first image he had of her.
Borachio’s plot, he makes it observes. Having rejected Hero
appear to Claudio and Don Pedro as a “rotten orange” (4.1.32), he’s Tricks and truths
that Hero entertained a man convinced that “Her blush is While appearances give the love
on the night before the wedding. guiltiness, not modesty” (4.1.42). story of Claudio and Hero an almost
Mistaking Margaret for Hero, Incapable of seeing her as the tragic turn, they are put to comic
Claudio is instantly convinced person she really is, Claudio falls use in the love story of Beatrice and
that she is unfaithful and his from one extreme: Hero as chaste, Benedick. Here are two people who
idolizing adoration quickly turns pure, and innocent, to another: Hero seem to detest nothing so much
into hatred and disgust. as loose and wanton. The way she as each other. Yet we cannot help
feeling that behind their battle of
words they are hiding wounds
caused by rejected love, hints of
which can be heard in their banter:
“You always end with a jade’s trick. /
I know you of old” (1.1.138–139).

Their friends are convinced that
they will make a perfect couple
and, in the two eavesdropping
scenes, use report and hearsay to
trick them into admitting their love.
Claudio, Don Pedro, and Leonato
paint the picture of a Beatrice
desperately in love. But they think
it best for her not to admit it for fear
of being mocked by an unfeeling
Benedick. Convinced that the
three men tell the truth, because
“The conference was sadly borne”
(2.3.210), Benedick is determined
that Beatrice’s love will be requited.
Even the prospect of being mocked
by his friends for changing his mind
about marriage does not deter him.

Hero and Ursula, in turn, praise
Benedick as “the only man of Italy”
(3.1.92). They reproach Beatrice for
being proud and disdainful since,
as a confirmed bachelor, she always
finds things to criticize in even ❯❯

For his 1993 film, Kenneth Branagh
cut the text to keep the action moving.
A star-studded cast included Kate
Beckinsale, Denzel Washington, Keanu
Reeves, and Branagh himself.

160 MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING

the most perfect of men. If she But manhood is melted into deeply rooted fear in Messina
learned of Benedick’s love, then she courtesies, valour into society of being cuckolded. Even
would “make sport at it” (3.1.59). Leonato jokes about the legitimacy
Sobered by this criticism, Beatrice is compliment, and men are of his daughter. Where marriage
prepared for “taming my wild heart only turned into tongue, brings fears of cuckoldry, Don John’s
to thy [Benedick’s] loving hand” accusation against Hero is readily
(3.1.112). Benedick can confirm that and trim ones, too. believed. In the wedding scene,
Beatrice is fair, virtuous, and wise, Beatrice the language switches from jests
and Beatrice does not need reports to calculated insults as Claudio
of Benedick’s merits to know that he Act 4, Scene 1 uses the very form of the marriage
is deserving. It is clear to us that, service to reject and humiliate Hero.
unlike Hero and Claudio, Beatrice The studied nature of his rejection
and Benedick know each other well. is matched in the formal mourning
ceremony at Hero’s tomb. The
Language and reality about Benedick’s mistrust of readiness with which Don Pedro and
The play’s language is characterized women and rejection of marriage: Claudio dismiss the musicians
by wordplay, banter, and repartee. “Don Pedro: ‘In time the savage and leave for a second wedding
Beatrice and Benedick are involved bull doth bear the yoke.’ can make us wonder how much of
in linguistic fencing matches from Benedick: The savage bull may, Claudio’s grief is merely “seeming.”
the moment they meet in the play: but if ever the sensible Benedick
“Benedick: What, my dear Lady bear it, pluck off the bull’s horns and Language is also used as a
Disdain! Are you yet living? set them in my forehead, and let me means of establishing social
Beatrice: Is it possible disdain be vilely painted…‘Here you may equality. In her conversations with
should die while she hath such see Benedick, the married man’” men, Beatrice uses witty repartee
meet food to feed it as Signor (1.1.243–250). This expresses the to meet them on an equal footing.
Benedick?” (1.1.112–115). Both Margaret and Dogberry see
Conversation between Don Pedro language as having the potential to
and his men is predominantly light- bring them level with their masters.
hearted, macho joking, especially Margaret’s brief conversation with
Benedick (5.2), a dialogue that

True love finds a way Margaret

Friends

Beatrice Uncle to Leonato Father to Hero Her maids
Loves Governor of Loves Ursula
Claudio
Benedick Messina Co-conspirators
Conrad of Don John
Borachio Serving Serving under Serving
under under
Don Pedro
Prince of Aragon

Bastard brothers

Follower of Follower of

Don John

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 161

The banter between Benedick and
Beatrice is central to the play’s charm.
In the 2007 production at London’s
National Theatre, Simon Russell Beale
and Zoe Wanamaker played the pair.

condenses many of the play’s
concerns about class and gender
conflict, reveals her desire to move
up socially. In the RSC production in
1996, she was caught at this point
by Benedick with one of Hero’s
dresses. Access to these outward
signs of social status makes her a
threat in a society that depends so
much on signs. However, Constable
Dogberry’s efforts to sound like
his betters fail miserably. He
epitomizes a society distracted by
surfaces, where words are easily
divorced from their meaning.

Pairs and frames Messina’s values in their preference guards his silence: ”I am not of
The play is structured around pairs: for the bachelor life. Claudio and many words” (1.1.150). Refusing to
Leonato and his brother Antonio; Hero are easily reconciled once her perform, he is what he seems. News
Claudio and Don Pedro; Borachio innocence is proven. But Beatrice of his recapture darkens the festive
and Conrad; Dogberry and Verges. and Benedick seem determined mood. In the 1990 RSC production,
And Messina is a society where not to admit their love. In her final he stood at the edge of the stage,
marriage is the rule. Don Pedro’s lines, Beatrice hints that she might and stared at Don Pedro as if
scheme to make Beatrice and yet refuse to be neatly paired off. reigniting the conflict suggested
Benedick pair up, therefore, is not Most productions follow the at the beginning of the play. ■
purely comic. It brings firmly into editorial tradition and attribute
line two individuals who otherwise the reply, “Peace! I will stop your One Hero died defiled,
stand out uncomfortably against mouth” (5.4.97) to Benedick, as he but I do live,
kisses Beatrice. But the Quarto and
And when I lived Folio texts give this line to Leonato, And surely as I live,
I was your other wife; who may be using his patriarchal I am a maid.
And when you loved authority to bring Beatrice to heel. Hero
you were my other husband. Like The Taming of the Shrew,
there is ambiguity in the ending. Act 5, Scene 4
Hero
By the end of the play, Don
Act 5, Scene 4 Pedro is the only single man left.
Without an heir, he leaves his estate
vulnerable to the plotting of others
such as his bastard brother Don
John. A born outsider, John refuses
all efforts to be framed in Messina’s
codes. In a world of wordplay he

ONCE MORE UNTO THE

BREACH

DEAR FRIENDS

ONCE MORE

HENRY V (1599)



164 HENRY V

DRAMATIS The prelates resolve to Henry’s old drinking The French
PERSONAE support Henry V’s friends quarrel in the prepare for battle
claim to the throne pub as Falstaff lays dying.
Chorus Sets the scene for of France. with Henry.
each of the Acts.
1.1 2.1 2.4
Henry V Once Prince Hal, Act 1 Act 2
now a soldier monarch. 1.2 2.2

Duke of Exeter Henry’s uncle. Henry V firmly Henry uncovers a
rebuffs the mocking traitors’ plot.
Dukes of Gloucester and French approach.
Clarence The king’s brothers.
T he Chorus pleads with the old drinking pals meet in a tavern.
Duke of York, and Earls of audience to overlook the Bardolph stirs up trouble between
Salisbury, Westmorland, theater’s limitations and Nim and Pistol, now married
and Warwick English nobles. to picture the epic events to come. to Nim’s former betrothed, hostess
King Henry V, reformed from his Nell Quickly. Henry unmasks
Archbishop of Canterbury wild youth, is assured by the the traitors and sends them for
and Bishop of Ely Church Archbishop of Canterbury that his execution. Nell describes the death
prelates. claim to the French throne is just. of old Falstaff, broken by Henry’s
When the French ambassador rejection of him, and the three pals
Earl of Cambridge, Lord brings him a mocking gift of tennis embark for France with Henry.
Scroop, Sir Thomas Grey balls, Henry’s riposte is that he will
Traitors. strike the French crown out of play. In France, the French king,
Charles VI, and his son, the
Fluellen and Gower Officers In Southampton, the Chorus Dauphin, prepare for battle,
in Henry’s army. describes how the youth of England mocking the wild youth of Henry.
are eager to fight, but warns that Henry’s ambassador Exeter warns
John Bates, Alexander there are three traitors. Henry’s the French against resistance.
Court, and Michael
Williams English soldiers.

Pistol, Nim, and Bardolph
The Eastcheapers, former
drinking friends of Prince Hal.

Nell Quickly A tavern
hostess, wife of Pistol.

Charles VI King of France.

Louis the Dauphin Son
of Charles VI.

Montjoy French herald and
envoy to Henry at Agincourt.

Ambassador He delivers the
gift of tennis balls to Henry.

Isabel Queen of France.

Catherine The King of
France’s daughter.

Alice Catherine’s attendant.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 165

Bardolph is caught As the battle begins, Pistol is beaten by Fluellen Henry woos
looting and executed Henry orders the with a leek, and mourns Catherine of France.

on Henry’s orders. killing of the on hearing of Nell’s death.
French prisoners.

3.6 4.6 5.1 5.2

Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

3.1 4.1 4.8 5.2

Henry V lays siege On the eve of battle, The English win The French sue Henry
to Harfleur with dire Henry walks the the battle. for peace and accede to

threats, while the English camp his claim.
French king orders incognito.
Henry’s capture.

In France, Henry launches persuade him to withdraw. Henry, 10,000 French slain and only three
an attack on Harfleur and disguised as Henry Le Roy, argues English lords. Henry prepares to
threatens dire repercussions the rights and wrongs of the battle return to England victorious.
if the townspeople do not yield. with the soldier Williams. The
Meanwhile, Bardolph and his next morning, Henry, his army In the French palace, Charles
associates argue about joining outnumbered 5 to 1, gives a speech receives Henry. Henry agrees to
the fight. In the French palace, the pledging that those who fight with peace only if his demands are
French king’s daughter Catherine him will be forever remembered on met—including the hand of
tries to learn French. The king rails this, St. Crispin’s Day. Princess Catherine. Henry starts
against Henry while the Dauphin to woo the French princess in a
condemns French women for As the French attack again, conversation made difficult by his
fraternizing with the English. Henry orders the slaughter of poor French and her poor English.
French prisoners to free up the men It ends with Henry kissing her.
In the English camp, Bardolph guarding them. Gower reports that The Chorus recounts how destiny
is caught looting and executed the French have slain English boys, unfolds as Henry and Catherine’s
on Henry’s orders. Henry refuses and Henry swears the French no son becomes Henry VI and how
an embassy from the French to mercy. Henry wins the day, with his courtiers lost France again. ❯❯

166 HENRY V H enry V is often described “band” of Englishmen defeated a
as Shakespeare’s war play. large army of the cream of French
IN CONTEXT Unlike most of his plays, knighthood. At the center of it all is
there is no unfolding of complex an uplifting portrait of a matchless
THEMES personal journeys or relationships. hero, leading his men to an unlikely
War, patriotism, kingship It appears to be a simple, thrilling victory. Speeches have often been
story of how the heroic young culled from the play to inspire
SETTING soldier-king Henry V triumphs at troops at moments of crisis. Most
London and Southampton Agincourt against all the odds, famously, British Prime Minister
in England; the palace of packed with stirring war poetry. Winston Churchill echoed Henry’s
the French king; Harfleur speech “We few, we happy few…”
and Agincourt in France In the past, many regarded it (4.3.60) in his broadcast telling the
as Shakespeare’s most patriotic public of the debt owed to the “few”
SOURCES play—a glorification of a high point fighter pilots who saved the country
1577 Edward Halle’s Union of in England’s history, when a small in the Battle of Britain of 1940.
the Two Noble and Illustrious
Families of Lancaster and York. Consideration like an Changing perspectives
angel came Attitudes towards the play have
1587 The key source is changed considerably through
the Chronicles of England, And whipped th’offending time, along with attitudes to war
Scotland, and Ireland edited Adam out of him and nationalist fervor. Critics and
by Ralph Holinshed. Archbishop of theater directors now treat the play
Canterbury much more warily than in the past.
LEGACY They often look for a subversive
1738 The first performance Act 1, Scene 1 political message that parodies
of the full play in 130 years is militarism—staging the play not
staged in London as Britain
goes to war with France again. Laurence Olivier’s morale-boosting
film, made during World War II, left
1897 Frank Benson plays a out some of Henry’s more vicious acts,
heroic Henry in Stratford-upon- such as the hanging of Bardolph, to
Avon, notably pole-vaulting portray Henry as a heroic figure.
onto the walls of Harfleur.

1944 Laurence Olivier directs
and stars in a film version of
the play. Partially funded by the
British government, it stresses
the patriotism of the play.

1986 Michael Bogdanov tours
with a left-leaning version for
the English Shakespeare
Company, portraying Henry
as a cold cynic.

1989 Kenneth Branagh’s film
adaptation brings a gritty
reality to the battle scenes.

2003 Nicholas Hytner makes
his debut as National Theatre
Director setting Henry V in
contemporary Iraq.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 167

I see you stand like Proclaiming Henry Historical Agincourt
greyhounds in the slips, The Chorus that opens the play
Straining upon the start. The puts the illusory theater experience The focus of Henry V is
at the forefront, with its evocative the Battle of Agincourt, a
game’s afoot. mentions of “this wooden O”—the landmark English victory in
Follow your spirit, and upon term often used for the round, a series of conflicts known as
timber-framed playhouses of the Hundred Years War, which
this charge Shakespeare’s time, one of which lasted from 1337 until 1453.
Cry, ‘God for Harry! England has been accurately reconstructed It was fought between the
today in the form of the Globe English and French ruling
and Saint George!’ Theatre. The Chorus apologizes for families, the Plantagenets
Henry V the theater’s limitations in staging and the Valois, for control
such an epic story, but the apology of the French throne.
Act 3, Scene 1 is uplifting: “O for a muse of fire
that would ascend / The brightest The battle took place on
in historical England, for instance, heaven of invention: / A kingdom October 25, 1415 near present-
but in charged contemporary for a stage, princes to act, / And day Azincourt in northern
situations, such as the war in Iraq. monarchs to behold the swelling France. Henry V did indeed
Or they look to focus on the human scene” (Prologue-1–4). fight in the battle. The
cost of war implicit in the play. outnumbered English forces
Many critics have gone further, and The Chorus may be saying possessed both technology
suggested that Henry V has been sorry, but at the same time, he is and luck. Henry’s archers
misread. Far from glorifying war, whipping up the crowd for the could shoot up to six arrows a
they say, the play is a complex coming event with no less fervor minute using the longbow,
exploration of the miseries of war than Henry will do when he later whereas the French possessed
and the power of propaganda. rouses his troops with his famous the slower, heavier crossbow,
Crispin’s Day speech. “Can this and, weighed down with
What is clear is that the play is cockpit hold / The vasty fields armor, had chosen a muddy
by no means a simple narrative of of France?” the Chorus asks field for their attack.
Henry’s big moment. It tells the (Prologue.11–12). The words conjure
story from at least four different the same illusion as Henry will The battle was not as
perspectives. Not only is there the when he, beginning with the one-sided as Shakespeare
straight sequence of scenes that same false modesty, rouses his makes out, although the killing
places Henry at the thick of things; men with the promise of great of the prisoners did take place.
there is also the Chorus, which memories for the future. ❯❯ Neither was the impact of the
prepares us for each act; there are battle as decisive as the play
the trials and tribulations of the Would I were in an alehouse suggests. It took five more
Eastcheapers; and there are the in London. I would give years of war before Henry
tough experiences of the ordinary reached a settlement with the
soldiers. There is even a French all my fame for a pot of ale, French. He died at the age of
perspective. These multiple and safety. 35 before ever becoming king
viewpoints suggest there is much Boy of France.
more going on than merely Henry’s
heroism, as each interweaves with Act 3 Scene 2
the central Henry narrative.

168 HENRY V

O God of battles, steel my of a necessary display of kingship? Ruthless leader
soldiers’ hearts. We never actually see Henry on the The picture presented of Henry is
battlefield, nor do we ever hear of far from simply heroic. Shakespeare
Possess them not with fear. any strategic skill. Instead, Henry shows him to be not just an
Take from them now. dazzles with rhetoric. inspiring leader, but a tough,
Henry V even brutal, one too. His way with
Henry the orator justice is ruthless. The traitors are
Act 4, Scene 1 Two speeches in particular show tricked into urging their own death
Shakespeare’s language at its most sentence, while Henry brusquely
Beyond the banner muscular. The first is when Henry confirms the death sentence on
What follows the Chorus’s prologue urges his men on outside the walls his drinking friend Bardolph for
is not scenes of heroism but a of Harfleur: “Once more unto the stealing from a church, despite
shady debate between England’s breach, dear friends, once more, / pleas for clemency. Indeed, Henry’s
two church leaders. These men Or close the wall up with our old Eastcheap pals—Bardolph,
of the cloth do not discuss high English dead” (3.1.1–2). The second Nim, and Pistol—are as unheroic
moral matters, but a back-alley is his address before the battle, an image of soldiering as can be.
collusion to escape taxes by when he promises: “And Crispin Disreputable, lazy, cowardly, and
supporting Henry’s claim to Crispian shall ne’er go by / From argumentative, very often they
the French throne. If the church this day to the ending of the world / seem to parody Henry’s rhetoric,
leaders’ motives are so venal, But we in it shall be rememberèd, / with Bardolph proclaiming, “On,
maybe one should question their We few, we happy few, we band of on, on, on, on! To the breach!
assessment that the erstwhile brothers” (4.3.57–60). To the breach!” (3.2.1–2). In the
tearaway Prince Hal has had an
almost religious conversion to the
straight and narrow on becoming
king: “Consideration like an angel
came / And whipped th’offending
Adam out of him” (1.1.29–30).
Throughout the narrative, Henry
presents himself as a Christian
king, armed by God. After the
seemingly miraculous triumph
on the battlefield at Agincourt, he
declines to take credit, offering the
victory to God—“Take it God, / For
it is none but thine” (4.8.111–112).
But is this all image-building, part

In Kenneth Branagh’s film version,
the Battle of Agincourt takes place
on a rain-drenched, muddy battlefield.
In contrast to Olivier’s earlier film,
Branagh stressed the horrors of war.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 169

prequel, Henry IV, these were Nobles KEY Soldiers
entertaining characters, a comic Knights
counterpoint to the main action
led by the irrepressible Sir John The Battle dead:
Falstaff. But in Henry V, much of the 10,000 French, including
humor has drained away and the 126 nobles, 8,400 knights,
lovable rogues of the earlier play 1,600 common soldiers;
become victims, bearing the cost of 29 English, including
war more than the other characters. 4 nobles and 25 knights/
common soldiers.
Falstaff dies without ever even
appearing—a victim, so Mistress for self-control and self-sacrifice is bishops to common man with the
Quickly insists, of Henry’s neglect: clear. The result is that Henry’s soldiery, to charming, unschooled
“The King has killed his heart” personality remains largely hidden. lover with the princess Catherine.
(2.1.84). Bardolph and Nim are He has just one moment of personal
hanged offstage for the same revelation—a long soliloquy at the The Henriad
roguery that made them endearing end of his nightwalk about the Henry V was the fourth play of the
in the earlier play. Finally, Mistress camp—and even here his argument Henriad, a quartet of history plays,
Quickly dies of the French malady about the burdens of kingship seem following Richard II and Henry IV
(venereal disease), again offstage. more theoretical than emotional. Parts 1 and 2. Together with the
Only Pistol survives, and even he is Henry is a consummate actor, able first quartet (comprising Henry VI
humiliated by being forced to eat a to be whoever his people need him Parts 1, 2, and 3, and Richard III), it
leek by Fluellen. The juggernaut of to be—from theologian with the forms a complete chronology of
Henry’s heroic new age has rolled English history from the time of
on and left these characters of an Take it God, Richard II (1377–99) to the time of
earlier time in its wake. For it is none but thine. Richard III (1483–85). Henry V
provides a contrasting figure to the
Henry the king Henry V quartet’s first king, Richard II,
The portrait of a king in Henry V, whose weaknesses are transformed
then, is an ambiguous one, more so Act 4, Scene 8 into Henry’s strengths. Richard
than the stirring speeches would smashes a mirror when he loses his
suggest. What is certain is that throne. But as the English prepare
Henry is no unthinking military for battle, the Chorus holds Henry up
leader. He has a keen insight into as “the mirror of all Christian kings”
his role as king. As he explains (2.0.6). Henry is our own reflection,
to Bates and Williams when in the king we want him to be, which
disguise, “All his senses have but may explain why our view of this
human conditions. His ceremonies hero is so hard to pin down. ■
laid by, in his nakedness he
appears but a man” (4.1.103–105).

Henry knows that he is,
underneath the crown, just a man.
But he is keenly aware that, as
king, he cannot behave as other
men do. “We are no tyrant,” he
insists, “but a Christian king, /
Unto whose grace our passion is as
subject / As our wretches fettered
in our prisons” (1.2.241–243). The
image of his human emotions as
a wretched prisoner in chains is
disturbing, but his view of the need

THERE IS A TIDE IN THE

AFFAIRS

OF MEN WHICH TAKEN AT

THE FLOOD LEADS ON

TO FORTUNE

JULIUS CAESAR (1599)



172 JULIUS CAESAR

DRAMATIS The people of Rome Casca and Cassius meet Despite Calpurnia’s
PERSONAE celebrate Caesar’s in a thunderstorm and plea for Caesar to
victory over Pompey. discuss overthrowing Caesar remain at home,
Julius Caesar A Roman with the help of Brutus. Decius convinces
general and senator who, Caesar to go into
having defeated the tyrant
Pompey, is crowned emperor. the Capitol.

CAESAR’S SUPPORTERS 1.1 1.3 2.2
Mark Antony A senator and Act 1 Act 2
soldier who is loyal to Caesar. 1.2 2.1
Antony is a manipulative
man, able to turn the civilians A soothsayer warns The conspirators
against Brutus. Caesar to beware Cassius, Decius, Casca,
the ides of March. Cinna, and Trebonius
Calpurnia Wife of Caesar.
She asks him not to visit the meet in Brutus’s
Capitol on the ides of March. orchard and plan to
assassinate Caesar.
Octavius Caesar Nephew
and adopted son of Julius I n Rome, the people celebrate respected by the public. After
Caesar, Octavius is the a holiday, the Lupercal, and this, Cassius and Brutus learn from
named heir to his uncle. also rejoice in the triumph Casca that Caesar has been offered
of Julius Caesar over the former a crown three times, but refused
Lepidus One of the rulers of leader, Pompey. it, albeit unconvincingly, each
Rome after the assassination time. He finally accepts the offer,
of Caesar. While greeting his followers, agreeing to become king and sole
Caesar is warned by a soothsayer leader of Rome. Cassius, left alone,
Soothsayer A prophesier who to beware the ides (15th) of March. admits that he will use whatever
warns Caesar to beware the Caesar ignores this warning and deception necessary to convince
ides of March. dismisses the soothsayer as a Brutus to overthrow Caesar.
dreamer. As he leaves, Cassius
CONSPIRATORS draws Brutus aside to convince During a thunderstorm the night
Marcus Brutus A senator him that Caesar has become too before Caesar is to be crowned,
and staunch Republican, who self-important and that Brutus Casca notes that many ill omens
is persuaded by Cassius to himself would be a better leader, have appeared. The conspirators
revolt against Caesar. being of equal standing and as meet at Brutus’s home and agree to

Caius Cassius Manipulative
and greedy, he exploits
Brutus’s loyalty to the republic
in order to overthrow Caesar.

Portia Loyal, loving, and
trustworthy wife of Brutus.

Lucius Serving boy to Brutus.

Trebonius, Decius Brutus,
Metullus Cimber, Cinna,
Caius Ligarius Conspirators
against Caesar.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 173

Brutus convinces the Antony, Octavius, Portia dies and Overrun by Antony and
plebeians that Caesar and Lepidus form a Brutus is visited Octavius’s army, Brutus
triumvirate and wage war by Caesar’s ghost
deserved death. against Caesar’s assassins. who warns that he kills himself and is
Antony convinces will die at Philippi. promised an honorable
them immediately burial by the conquerors.

after to mutiny
against Brutus in
protest of Caesar’s

murder.

3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 5.5
Act 3 Act 4 Act 5
3.1 4.2 5.3

In the Capitol, Casca Cinna the poet is set upon Brutus accuses Cassius, believing
stabs Caesar, after by angry Plebians for his Cassius of pocketing Titinius to be
defeated, kills
which the other part in Caesar’s death. money but they
conspirators attack reconcile. himself with the
sword he used to
Caesar in turn.
Antony vows stab Caesar.

vengeance over
Caesar’s body.

murder Caesar in order to liberate Caesar’s funeral. Brutus agrees Brutus sees the ghost of Caesar,
the country from his dictatorship. to let Antony do this, in spite of and acknowledges that he will
Brutus has reservations, but he Cassius’s warning that it would lose the battle. After he finds
agrees that it must be done to be dangerous to let him rally the Cassius dead, Brutus asks his
put a stop to Caesar’s ambition. public in Caesar’s name. servant Lucius to hold his sword
while he runs onto it and he
The next day, on the fateful After Brutus gives a speech to dies. Finally, Antony and
ides of March, Caesar is convinced the people, Antony convinces them Octavius arrive as victors after
by Decius that he should go into that Caesar was unjustly murdered the war, lamenting the fall of
the city, where he is stabbed by by the conspirators, and that this Brutus and noting that, despite
each of the conspirators. When injustice must be avenged. The his crime against Caesar,
the great soldier Mark Antony people then take Caesar’s body his intentions were the most
hears of this, he laments the death to be buried, and start a public honorable of all the conspirators.
of Caesar, but he shows respect mutiny. When Caesar’s son The play closes with Octavius
for the people who murdered him, Octavius returns to Rome, he promising to give Brutus a
asking them if he can give a and Antony start a war against respectable funeral. ❯❯
speech to the people before Brutus and the conspirators.

174 JULIUS CAESAR T he first of Shakespeare’s O conspiracy,
Roman plays, Julius Sham’st thou to show thy
IN CONTEXT Caesar is a tale of ambition, dang’rous brow by night,
political manipulation, and duty. When evils are most free?
THEMES The true tragic figure of the play
Power, ambition, rebellion, is Brutus, whose actions proceed Brutus
civil war from a noble desire to serve Rome.
Brutus’s struggle between love for Act 2, Scene 1
SETTING Caesar and fear of his despotism
Ancient Rome make him a sympathetic and anxiety, which makes them more
honorable tragic figure. morally ambiguous than Plutarch’s
SOURCES counterparts. For instance, it is not
1579 Sir Thomas North’s Following the events laid out in clear whether Caesar would have
translation of Plutarch’s Plutarch’s history, the play charts mutated into the tyrant that Brutus
Lives of the Noble Grecians the events leading up to Caesar’s fears before his assassination,
and Romans. assassination and the civil war that nor that Cassius is a categorically
breaks out thereafter. The senators’ self-interested man, nor even that
LEGACY concerns about Caesar’s leadership Ocatvius will make a suitable
1599 A performance at a echoed anxieties about the aged successor to his adopted father.
Bankside theater is mentioned and heirless Queen Elizabeth in Such ambiguity has led the
in the diary of the Swiss 1599, when the play was first American historian Garry Wills to
traveler Thomas Platter the performed. Her inheritance and argue that the play has no villains
Younger. The theater is likely legacy were not to be discussed, and is, therefore, unique among
to have been the Globe. let alone satirized, but could be Shakespeare’s tragedies.
approached sideways via history.
1898 British actor-manager
Herbert Beerbohm Tree opens Shakespeare brings an acute
the first of his successful sense of humanity to the story. His
Shakespearean productions at historical figures are not simply
Her Majesty’s Theatre, London, biographical documentations of the
with a lavish Julius Caesar. lives of noble Romans. Rather, the
characters experience hardship and
1937 At the age of 22, Orson
Welles stages a heavily edited, Why, man, he doth bestride Seductive rhetoric
modern-dress adaptation set the narrow world Power in this play does not come
within a European fascist from strength, honor, or military
context at the Mercury Theatre Like a Colossus, and prowess. Instead, power is linked
in New York. we petty men to manipulative and calculated
rhetoric. Without the support of the
1977 While imprisoned on Walk under his huge legs, people, the senators cannot avoid
Robben Island, South Africa, and peep about civil unrest, and how to convince,
Nelson Mandela marks on his To find ourselves placate, and organize the civilians
copy of the play Caesar’s in Rome is a major preoccupation of
words “cowards die many dishonourable graves. the leaders. It is this that motivates
times before their deaths” as Cassius Brutus’s address to the people
an inspirational passage. after Caesar’s death and Antony’s
Act 1, Scene 2 speech about Caesar’s reputation.
2013 An all-female production
at the Donmar Warehouse in Antony’s oft-quoted speech
London, directed by Phyllida beginning “Friends, Romans,
Lloyd, sets the action in a countrymen” (3.2.74) is a carefully
contemporary women’s prison. crafted piece of rhetoric calculated

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 175

A 1953 film adaptation by director
Joseph Mankiewicz starred Marlon
Brando as Antony. Brando received
coaching in declaiming Shakespearean
verse from co-star John Gielgud.

to inspire suspicion of Brutus and same way that Antony persuades Caesar’s assassination. Rhetoric
respect for the late Caesar. Antony the people that the conspirators and persuasion are integral to the
accuses the public who so recently are treasonous murderers, so too political tacticians in Rome, so
celebrated Caesar’s triumph at the Cassius convinces Brutus that it is with a scathing voice that
Lupercal of being “brutish beasts,” Caesar must be removed from Cassius declares, “For who so firm
an echo of Brutus’s name. Antony office. The most potent piece of that cannot be seduced?” (1.2.312).
suggests that his enemy is a liar, rhetoric is the cry made by the
simultaneously touting Caesar as conspirators after Caesar’s death: Women unheeded
a peerless hero. With this speech, “Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is The women in this masculine
and with his reading of Caesar’s dead!” (3.1.77). Intangible ideals are political Rome are presented as
will, Antony gains the support of cleverly used to justify the horror of supportive, stoic wives. Both ❯❯
the civilians, thereby exploiting
their new hatred of Caesar’s
murderers to justify civil war.

With this support, Antony
unleashes havoc in the streets.
Rebellions and rioting lead to the
assassination of Cinna, the poet.
There is no accountability for such
violent crimes because the civilians
act out of anger and fear. Antony
understands this, but chooses to
spur on the people’s distrust of
the conspirators to further his
own interests. With persuasive
rhetorical flourishes, the senators
also manipulate one another. In the

Contemporary twist The director Gregory Doran Ray Fearon’s Antony was a
staged a politically provocative charismatic, manipulative
adaptation of the play in 2012. man whose speech to the
With a black cast and set in an citizens was delivered on
unspecified African country, this a raised platform over the
production of Julius Caesar drew bloodied body of Caesar, played
inspiration from contemporary by Jeffery Kissoon. Brutus was
political tyranny in its depiction played as a fiercely honorable
of a nation familiar with despots, but naive man by Patterson
civil war, superstition, poverty, Joseph. Caesar’s own tyranny
and disease. The actions of was skillfully echoed by a giant
20th-century dictators such as statue of the leader, designed
Idi Amin and Bokassa, and, more by Michael Vale, resembling
recently, Robert Mugabe, together icons of dictatorship in the
with the unfolding of the Arab 20th century. The production
Spring in 2010, collectively was adapted for the screen
informed this interpretation. later that year.

176 JULIUS CAESAR

Brutus’s wife Portia and Caesar’s unpurgèd air / To add unto his Cowards die many times
wife Calpurnia exist to temper the sickness? No, my Brutus, / You before their deaths;
passions, albeit unsuccessfully, of have some sick offence within
their husbands. Neither politician your mind, / Which by the right The valiant never taste
shares his misgivings with his and virtue of my place / I ought of death but once.
wife, nor does either one heed to know of” (2.1.260–269). Julius Caesar
the wifely warnings of danger.
Although Brutus promises to Act 2, Scene 2
Calpurnia appeals to Caesar’s be more open with his wife, she
regard for reputation and honor to remains ignorant of the plot against
ask him to remain at home on the Caesar. This echoes Calpurnia’s
ides of March. By contrast, Portia lack of influence over Caesar.
wounds her own thigh, proving
herself an equal to her husband Masters of fate? When he speaks of riding the tide
through noble suffering. She takes For the conspirators at the start of opportunity, Brutus suggests
her own life by swallowing hot of the play, time and opportunity that fate has a degree of flexibility
coals, setting the bar of honor work in their favor. Caesar is not yet to it and that to make the most of
very high for Brutus’s death. an emperor, nor has he morphed opportunities leads on to fortune.
into a tyrant. Before he can become This is a theory he takes from
Like the men in this world, the either, Brutus believes it is in the Cassius who argues that autonomy
women craft their speech. Portia interests of the people and state to is the route to success: “Men at
urges her husband to reveal his dispatch him:“There is a tide in the sometime were masters of their
anxieties in a series of questions affairs of men / Which, taken at the fates. / The fault, dear Brutus, is not
using the rule of listing in threes: flood, leads on to fortune; / Omitted, in our stars, / But in ourselves, that
“Is Brutus sick? and is it physical / all the voyage of their life / Is bound we are underlings” (1.2.140–142).
To walk unbracèd and suck up the in shallows and in miseries. / On
humours / Of the dank morning? such a full sea are we now afloat, / Brutus’s belief in destiny
What, is Brutus sick? / And will he And we must take the current explains his willingness to accept
steal out of his wholesome bed / when it serves, / Or lose our his defeat at Philippi. Although he
To dare the vile contagion of the ventures” (4.2.270–276). took the opportunity to remove
night, / And tempt the rheumy and Caesar, it is the ghost and
retribution of that same enemy
that brings about Brutus’s fall.
In other words, fate intervenes to
punish the conspirators. If fate
leads these men to their inevitable
ends, how can there be, and what
is the purpose of, free will? This
question consumes Brutus and
Cassius, as well as proving fatal
to Caesar. Although Shakespeare
does not provide a resolution to the
conflict between fate and free will,

The knives are out for Caesar in this
2014 production at the Globe Theatre,
with George Irving as Caesar, and
Anthony Howell as Cassius.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 177

DEATH TOLL

Cinna the Poet Julius Caesar Brutus stabs Cassius stabs Portia eats
is torn apart by is stabbed. himself. himself. hot coals.

the mob.

there is an overwhelming sense consequences. It is no accident power to interpret and act on those
of destiny throughout the play, that, when Casca expostulates warnings lies with the individual.
specifically with the many omens about portents, the senator Cicero Ultimately, Brutus takes advantage
that appear during the action. responds with a statement that of chances thrown his way, and yet
rings true for every individual still ends in defeat. Octavius and
Ominous portents in this tragedy: “Indeed it is a Mark Antony will overcome Brutus,
Casca expounds on the unnatural strange-disposèd time; / But men just as Brutus took advantage of
events that led up to the ides of may construe things after their Caesar’s decision to ignore caution
March during an equally ominous fashion, / Clean from the purpose of on the ides of March.
thunderstorm. Fire drops from the the things themselves” (1.3.33–35).
sky, men walk around the streets in There is, in other words, a greater The intricacies of fate aside, the
flames, lions stalk the Roman roads, force at work forewarning these play makes clear the respect that
and nightingales sing at midday. men of their destinies, but the these men have for one another.
Casca claims “I believe they are Brutus’s love for Caesar prevents
portentous things” (1.3.31). I love the name of honour him from overcoming his guilt at
more than I fear death. Phillippi; Caesar’s trust in Brutus
The signs of doom, as Cassius Brutus prompts him to exclaim “et tu,
and Brutus choose to interpret Bruté?” [you, too, Brutus?] (3.1.77)
them, echo the Soothsayer’s Act 1, Scene 2 upon his murder; Cassius is loyal to
warning to Caesar to “Beware Brutus despite taking advantage of
the ides of March” (1.2.25). Caesar his integrity; and Antony respects
ignores the omen by dismissing the Brutus who, in his opinion, “was
Soothsayer, while the conspirators the noblest Roman of them all”
take the omens as a sign to attack (5.5.67). They recognize nobility in
Caesar, rather than a warning one another. This is what separates
about impending turmoil should this tragedy from others, including
they proceed. Both Caesar and King Lear, Hamlet, and Macbeth,
Brutus misinterpret such signs and because every character is capable
go on to make decisions with tragic and deserving of redemption. ■

ALL THE WORLD S A

STAGE

AND ALL THE MEN AND WOMEN

MERELY PLAYERS

AS YOU LIKE IT (1599–1600)



180 AS YOU LIKE IT

DRAMATIS Charles the wrestler Banished by Duke Orlando learns his
PERSONAE arrives with news Frederick, Rosalind brother Oliver hoped
that Duke Senior escapes to Arden
Duke Senior Older brother has been banished to kill him and
of Duke Frederick, living in in disguise escapes to Arden.
exile in the Forest of Arden. to the woods. with Celia.

Rosalind Duke Senior’s 1.1 1.5 2.2
daughter. Later disguised Act 1 Act 2
as Ganymede. 1.2 2.1

Amiens One of Duke Senior’s Orlando, in disguise, Duke Senior
lords, a talented singer. beats Charles in a relishes his time in
wrestling bout and exile in the forest.
Jaques One of Duke Senior’s Rosalind is smitten.
lords, a melancholy philosopher.
S ince their father’s death, Frederick, feels threatened by
Duke Frederick Father to Orlando has been kept at Rosalind’s popularity and exiles
Celia, he usurps his brother. home and denied education her. Rosalind dresses as the boy
by his older brother Oliver. When Ganymede and flees to the forest
Celia Daughter of Duke Oliver hears that Orlando plans to with Celia and Touchstone, the fool.
Frederick and Rosalind’s fight Charles the wrestler, Oliver In the forest, Duke Senior and his
cousin. Later, she disguises tells Charles to kill him. At court, lords, including the gloomy Jaques,
herself as Aliena. Rosalind laments her father, Duke enjoy the simple life.
Senior’s, banishment. With her
Touchstone A court fool. cousin Celia, she watches the Duke Frederick organizes a
wrestling match and both are taken pursuit of Rosalind and Celia. In the
Le Beau A courtier. with Orlando, who surprisingly forest, Rosalind and Celia witness
beats Charles. Orlando falls in love Silvius telling the old shepherd
Charles A wrestler. with Rosalind, but has to escape to Corin of his unrequited love for
the forest with old Adam, pursued Phoebe. Faint with hunger, Orlando
Oliver Oldest son of Sir by Oliver. Celia’s father, Duke meets Duke Senior’s men and draws
Rowland de Bois. his sword. They offer him supper

Orlando Younger brother
of Oliver, kept uneducated.

Jaques de Boys Younger
brother of Oliver.

Adam Former servant of
Sir Rowland de Bois.

Corin An old shepherd.

Silvius A young shepherd
in love with Phoebe.

Phoebe A young shepherdess,
disdainful of Silvius.

William A countryman and
rival in love for Audrey with
Touchstone.

Audrey A goatherd, she is
betrothed to Touchstone.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 181

Orlando hangs love Orlando and Ganymede Ganymede promises
Orlando he shall
poems to Rosalind pretending to be “Rosalind” marry Rosalind. Rosalind bids farewell
to the audience.
on trees. have a mock wedding.

3.2 4.1 5.1 5.4

Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

2.4 3.2 4.3 5.4

Rosalind as Ganymede Ganymede begins to Orlando saves his Four marriages take
and Celia as Aliena teach Orlando lessons brother Oliver from a place in the wood,
observe Silvius, a lioness and Ganymede
young shepherd, in in love. officiated by Hymen, and
love with Phoebe. faints at the Duke Frederick abdicates.
blood-stained cloth.

and he joins their band. Orlando, over by Aliena as the vicar. Orlando affections. Oliver and Alien decide
pining for Rosalind, hangs poems leaves promising to return in the to marry. Orlando is impatient to
to her on the trees. Touchstone and afternoon. He fails to return but be with the real Rosalind and
Corin compare lifestyles. Rosalind Rosalind is distracted by an Ganymede promises he will make
finds Orlando’s poems and when anguished love letter from Phoebe Rosalind appear by magic so they
he appears, she, still disguised as to Ganymede. Oliver suddenly can be married. He also promises
Ganymede, teaches him how to arrives with a blood-stained cloth. Silvius that he will marry Phoebe.
woo her as Rosalind. Rosalind as It seems that Orlando found him
Ganymede and Celia as Aliena under a tree about to be attacked On the big day, Ganymede
come across Phoebe. Rosalind/ by wild beasts and saved his life, and Aliena slip out to return with
Ganymede suggests Phoebe should only to be injured by a lioness. Hymen as Rosalind and Celia. Four
be thankful for Silvius’s love; but Oliver is now reconciled with wedding ceremonies are performed
instead Phoebe falls for Ganymede. Orlando, and the cloth is a message by Hyman. News arrives that Duke
from Orlando to Rosalind. Rosalind Frederick has become a hermit,
Rosalind/Ganymede pretending swoons. Touchstone scares off leaving the dukedom to Duke
to be Rosalind goes through a mock William, his rival for Audrey’s Senior. The actor playing Rosalind
wedding with Orlando presided bids adieu to the audience. ❯❯

182 AS YOU LIKE IT A s You Like It is one of What passion hangs these
Shakespeare’s most weights upon my tongue?
IN CONTEXT enduringly popular plays. I cannot speak to her, yet she
It forays into the beautiful Forest of
THEMES Arden for an interlude full of light urged conference.
Love, romance, mortality romance and wit, philosophical Orlando
speculation, and broad comedy. In
SETTING the clever, ardent, playful Rosalind, Act 1, Scene 2
The French court who spends her time in Arden
and the Forest of dressed as the boy Ganymede, it Romantic nonsense?
Ardennes (in Belgium) has an engaging central character. The Irish playwright George
or Arden (in England) Bernard Shaw thought the play
Strangely, though, very little so flimsy that he dismissed it as
SOURCES happens in As You Like It. Two a silly crowd-pleaser. The title
1590 Thomas Lodge’s prose young people, Rosalind and “As You Like It,” Shaw suggested,
tale Rosalynde. Orlando, run away to the Forest of was just Shakespeare throwing
Arden to escape difficult relatives— back at the audience their taste
LEGACY Rosalind fleeing her uncle Duke for such romantic nonsense. But
1603 As You Like It may Frederick, who usurped the power although As You Like It has had
have been performed for of her father (who’s already fled to a checkered historical reception,
King James I. the forest), and Orlando from his most critics now agree that
brother Oliver, who connives to have Shaw missed the point. It really
1723 Charles Johnson’s him killed, form a rather paper-thin is a clever, sophisticated play.
filleted version, Love in a plot. In the forest, Rosalind, dressed While it is more wholeheartedly
Forest, appears, with scenes as Ganymede, teaches Orlando the entertaining perhaps than any
from other Shakespeare ways of love and meets various folk. other of Shakespeare’s plays, it
plays added. After a few misunderstandings, is still packed full of ideas and
Rosalind and Orlando get married, insights into life and love. The
1741–57 Irish actress Peg along with three other couples who title, far from being a throwaway,
Woffington plays Rosalind on also found romance in the forest, and is perhaps both a celebration of
the London stage for 16 years. all family differences are resolved. the joy of theater, and an invitation
And this is all that happens. to be open-minded. As the Royal
1879 A production at Shakespeare Company put it,
Stratford-upon-Avon features “Gender roles, nature, and politics
a freshly killed deer from a are confused in a play that reflects
Warwickshire forest. on how bewildering yet utterly
pleasurable life can be.”
1961 British director Michael
Elliott’s production for the In 1950, Hollywood star Katharine
RSC stars Vanessa Redgrave Hepburn took on the part of Rosalind.
as a boyish Rosalind. She said of the role that it is “one of the
great tests of how good an actress you
1977 German director Peter are, and I wanted to find out.”
Stein stages a large-scale
promenade production in Berlin.

1996 Kenneth Branagh’s film
version relocates the action
to a European colony in
19th-century Japan.

2013 A contemporary youth
version by Maria Aberg for the
RSC features music by folk
musician Laura Marling.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 183

I did not entreat to have
her stay.

It was your pleasure,
and your own remorse.

Celia

Act 1, Scene 3

There may not be much plot, but Frederick’s sudden change of heart Hugh Thomson’s 1915 illustration
there is a feast of romance and offstage at the end, it’s clear only of Act 1, Scene 3, in which Celia and
comedy—poems and songs, wit Jaques will stay in the forest. Rosalind contemplate leaving the court,
and banter, all spilling from hints at the move to the idyllic forest in
characters’ lips with continual It is the nature section, in the the finery of the peacocks’ feathers.
invention. It is an intellectual Forest of Arden, that dominates
and poetic picnic to which the most of the play: for this reason, it is intellectual interests of the age. The
audience is invited to spend a often described as a “pastoral word “pastoral” refers literally to the
couple of hours for their pleasure comedy.” Pastoral literature was shepherd’s life. It is not about real
and mental stimulation. Nothing very much in vogue at the time— shepherds but an idealization—a
much happens because nothing is British critic Frank Kermode harmonious “Arcadia.” Shepherds
meant to happen. Just as time is described As You Like It as “the don’t look after sheep in pastoral
briefly suspended for the characters most topical of the comedies,” literature; instead they are poets, ❯❯
in Arden—“There’s / no clock in the because it is most engaged with the
forest,” (3.2.294–295) says Orlando—
so it is also for the audience
watching the play as they go on a
brief vacation in the theater. It’s a
chance to mentally recharge and
rethink—to “fleet the / time
carelessly” (1.1.112–113)—away
from the pressures of ordinary life.

Country vs city
As You Like It is structured in three
parts. It begins in the court or city,
where unsolvable problems arise;
it journeys into nature or a fantasy
world, where the problems are
untangled; and then returns to the
court, the real world at the end with
the problems resolved. In fact, As
You Like It ends before the final
return to court, but with Duke

184 AS YOU LIKE IT

Music is a key part of the pastoral
merriment of As You Like It, as in this
production at the Delacorte Theater, New
York (2012). There are more songs in the
play than any other of Shakespeare’s.

philosophers, and singers. The vacation rather than real country scene, the real old shepherd Corin
pastoral world is an imaginary folk. Despite its focus on the is talking about his hands filthy
golden age or Garden of Eden, simple life, it has nothing much with sheep grease.
a peaceful and uncorrupted to do with real nature. In As You
place where harmony can be Like It, Shakespeare turns the The countryside continually
rediscovered away from the strife pastoral into popular entertainment interweaves the ideal and the
and pressures of everyday reality. for the stage. He continually real, the classical with the native
subverts the form, letting realism England. Even the name of the
Pastoral literature in bleed into its idealized world and forest, Arden, has this ambiguity.
Shakespeare’s time was very gently satirizing the genre’s In Shakespeare’s original source,
highbrow. It was prose and conventions. In one scene, for Thomas Lodge’s novel Rosalynde
poetry, full of lovelorn shepherds instance, Orlando is seen pinning (1590), the setting was the
and disdainful girls, and characters poems to trees in true poet- Ardennes, a hilly region bordering
with fancy classical names who shepherd style; in the very next France and Belgium. In some
were quite clearly courtiers on editions of the play, the Belgian
spelling “Ardenne” is kept—and
Shakespeare retains French
names for characters such as
Jaques and Amiens—but in other
editions the forest is called Arden.
Arden was a real woodland near
Shakespeare’s childhood home in
Warwickshire, and it is also the
family name of his grandmother,
Mary Arden. Aptly, whether by
coincidence or design, the name
“Arden” also echoes both Ar-cadia
and E-den.

A shepherd’s life The origins of pastoral literature Arcadia and Christopher
date back to writers such as the Marlowe’s romantic poem The
Greeks Hesiod (c.750–650 BCE) and Passionate Shepherd to His Love,
Theocritus (c.270 BCE) and, most published in 1599.
famously, the Roman poet Virgil
(70–19 BCE) in his Eclogues. They Pastoral literature often
all wrote of golden ages and rural contained subversive messages,
idylls. The genre was rediscovered and was intended to be held up
in Europe during the Renaissance, as a mirror to the contemporary
and in Elizabethan England, world. At the time As You Like It
the idea of the pastoral became was written, satire had recently
popular among intellectuals and been banned by the Church.
poets. A key work was Edmund The play may contain reference
Spenser’s much-imitated The to this ban in Celia’s line: “since
Shephearde’s Calender, first the little wit / that fools have
published in 1579. Others include silenced, the little foolery that /
Sir Philip Sidney’s long prose work wise men have makes a great
show” (1.2.84–86).

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 185

O wonderful, Critics have talked a great deal No, no, Orlando; men are
wonderful, and most about gender issues in As You April when they woo,
wonderful-wonderful, Like It and the undercurrents
and yet again wonderful, of homoeroticism in, for instance, December when they wed.
and after that out of Phoebe’s love for Ganymede/ Maids are May when they are
Rosalind, Celia’s for Rosalind, and maids, but the sky changes
all whooping! Orlando’s flirtation with Ganymede.
Celia Indeed, the Ganymede of Greek when they are wives.
myth was a beautiful boy who Rosalind
Act 3, Scene 2 became Zeus’s lover and was a
byword for erotic relationships Act 4, Scene 1
Ambiguous Rosalind between men and young boys.
At the very heart of the play’s In the play’s epilogue, “Rosalind” says in her somewhat down-to-
ambiguity is the character of has fun with the ambiguity of her earth fashion, “but not for love”
Rosalind. In the forest, Rosalind gender. She partly steps out of (4.1.99–101).
dresses as a boy and takes the very her role, and as a boy actor toys
classical name, Ganymede—the with the audience, offering a kiss But Rosalind is not a cynic like
name of a beautiful Trojan boy in to “as many of you as had beards Jaques, who doesn’t believe in
Greek myth. On the Elizabethan that pleased.” Shakespeare’s play love. At this very moment, she is
stage, she would have been played is a celebration of all kinds of love “fathom deep” in love with Orlando
by a boy actor, and the play has fun and sexual possibilities, as the (4.1.196) and “cannot be out / of ❯❯
with her constantly switching title implies.
gender identities. At one point, The idyllic countryside setting in
Rosalind, disguised as Ganymede, True love Shakespeare’s source novel Rosalynde
pretends to be “Rosalind” to teach Beneath the role-playing and was the Ardennes in Belgium (below).
Orlando how to love. So at this gender-switching, a portrait Shakespeare’s forest may also be partly
moment on stage, there would of the reality of love appears. inspired by the Arden forest in England.
have been a boy actor playing a When Orlando says he will die
girl who is playing a boy playing for love, Rosalind as Ganymede
a girl! Meanwhile, Orlando is in at once points out the flaws
love not with the pretend Rosalind in this romantic nonsense.
played by Ganymede but the “real” “Men have died from time and
Rosalind who is at that moment worms have eaten them,” she
playing Ganymede playing
Rosalind. And Phoebe—a girl’s role
also played by a boy actor—is in
love with Ganymede, mistakenly
thinking her a boy, when “he” is in
fact a girl played by a boy! Much
of the entertainment in the play
comes from seeing how adeptly
it manages these confusions and,
at the end, resolves them.

186 AS YOU LIKE IT The seven ages of man

7. Oblivion 1. Infant
“Sans teeth, sans “Mewling and puking
eyes, sans taste, in the nurse’s arms”
sans everything”
2. Schoolboy
6. Sixth age “creeping like a
“a world too snail unwillingly
wide for his
shrunk shank” to school”

5. Justice 3. Lover
“Full of wise saws “Sighing like
furnace, with a
and modern woeful ballad”
instances”

Jaques’s speech (2.7.139–166) is somewhat 4. Soldier
maudlin in its depiction of the tragedy of life. “Jealous in honour, sudden,
Much of the play counteracts this with its wit
and spirit, and portrayal of passions in the forest. and quick in quarrel”

the sight” of him (4.1.205–206). The world’s a stage view when he says, “Life’s but a
Indeed,she is more in love with him The best known speech in As You walking shadow, a poor player /
at this moment than he is with her, Like It is Jaques’s speech, which That struts and frets his hour upon
despite his protestations and poems. begins: “All the world’s a stage, / the stage / And then is heard no
At this moment, Orlando is more in And all the men and women merely more. It is a tale / Told by an idiot,
love with love than with Rosalind, players. / They have their exits and full of sound and fury, / Signifying
and she must remain as Ganymede their entrances, / And one man in nothing.” (Macbeth 5.5.23–27).
to teach him how to actually love his time plays many parts”
her. She is high-spirited, insightful, (2.7.139–142). But of course the speaker is
witty, and passionate—but she can Jaques, whose name, as the jester
only stop playing Ganymede when The speech suggests that we Touchstone slyly reminds us in
Orlando stops playing at love. are all merely playing parts, and dubbing him “Monsieur What-
describes the seven stages of life, ye-call’t” (3.3.66), is pronounced
Love is dressed in many from infancy to decrepit old age. “jakes,” Elizabethan slang for toilet.
guises in the play. Curmudgeonly This simple metaphor for life is It’s a reminder that Jaques may as
Touchstone suddenly finds his heart often quoted out of context, and well be talking “crap.” In fact, in the
with Audrey. The once-mean brother taken as Shakespeare’s theme for character of Jaques, Shakespeare
Oliver falls in love at first sight with the whole play and its theatricality. is making fun of a stereotype of
Celia. Even Silvius’s absurd poems Its message about the pointless Elizabethan times—the melancholy
and declarations bear fruit with artificiality of life seems strangely young philosopher with his
Phoebe. Yet beneath it all, love is bleak, though. Indeed, it’s not fashionably jaded outlook on life.
shown to be real and important. so different from desolate Macbeth’s In his meandering observations,

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 187

I will weary you then no longer his own sardonic wit too much Playing Rosalind
with idle talking. to be truly gloomy. For all his
Rosalind cynicism, he seems to positively After its initial success at the
enjoy being miserable. This is his Globe in 1599, As You Like It
Act 5, Scene 2 life choice—as valid, perhaps, as fell almost entirely out of
any other. When the couples wed, fashion in the 17th century,
Jaques is perhaps missing the and all is forgiven, the glut of and it was not until 1740
point just as much as Orlando with happiness and “dancing measures” that the play was properly
his poems on trees. At the very are too much for Jaques. Instead, performed again by Charles
instant Jaques finishes his speech despite entreaties, he chooses to Macklin at Drury Lane
with his bleak summary of old age go into exile once more, joining in London. In Macklin’s
as “second childishness and mere Duke Frederick in a hermit’s cave. production, Hannah Pritchard
oblivion,” on comes old Adam, was unaffectedly lively as
carried on Orlando’s back, decrepit It is Rosalind who has the final Rosalind and the role has
old age personified. It’s a funny word, stepping forward to erase the been a favorite ever since.
moment, and a clear sign we boundary between character and
shouldn’t take Jaques too seriously. actor, stage and audience, offering Actors who have played
In some ways, neither does Jaques an invitation to leave this theatrical Rosalind include Edith Evans,
himself, for he relishes the bite of diversion, “as you like it”: “I am Katherine Hepburn, Vanessa
sure, as many as have good beards, Redgrave (pictured), Maggie
or good faces, or sweet breaths Smith, and Fiona Shaw.
will for my kind offer, when I make Theater company Cheek by
curtsy, bid me farewell” (Epilogue). ■ Jowl’s 1991 production had
an all-male cast, with Adrian
James Thomas Watts, a Victorian Lester as Rosalind.
landscape artist, captured a forest idyll
in his painting of Celia, Rosalind, and There have been three
Touchstone in the forest. Country idylls major films of the play, each
were popular subjects in Victorian art. very different. Paul Czinner’s
whimsical 1936 version, with
German Elisabeth Bergner as
Rosalind, was the first sound
film of any Shakespeare play.
Christine Edzard’s edgy 1992
version dressed Rosalind in
jeans and a hooded sweatshirt
in London’s “cardboard city”
for down and outs. Kenneth
Branagh’s lush 2007 film was
set in 19th-century Japan and
starred Romola Garai.

THE SLINGS AND

ARROWS

OF OUTRAGEOUS

FORTUNE

HAMLET (1599–1601)



190 HAMLET

DRAMATIS The ghost of King The ghost makes Rosencrantz and
PERSONAE Hamlet is seen Hamlet swear to Guildenstern are
greeted by the King and
Hamlet Son of the dead king haunting the battlements avenge his Queen, then sent to
and Prince of Denmark. He is of Elsinore castle. father’s murder. spy on Hamlet.
the nephew and step-son of
King Claudius. 1.1 1.5 2.2
Act 1 Act 2
Claudius The newly crowned 1.2
Danish king who marries his 2.1
brother’s widow, Gertrude.
Claudius announces Ophelia informs her
Fortinbras Nephew of his marriage to his father that Hamlet
the Norwegian king and visited her in a state
successor to the Danish brother’s widow, of sorrow and undress.
throne. He seeks vengeance Gertrude.
against Denmark for his
father’s murder. I n Elsinore castle in Denmark, Hamlet’s father was murdered
King Claudius grieves for the by his uncle. Hamlet swears to
Polonius Courtier and trusted death of the former king, his avenge his father. However, unsure
adviser to Claudius. Father to brother. He hastily marries if he can believe the ghost, Hamlet
Ophelia and Laertes. Gertrude, the dead king’s widow, feigns madness to distract his
and sends messengers to Norway, peers while he discovers the truth.
Gertrude Mother to Hamlet Denmark’s feuding neighbor,
and former wife of the to prevent an invasion by the The courtier Polonius interprets
deceased King Hamlet. She Norwegian Prince Fortinbras. Hamlet’s strange behavior as a
is now the wife of Claudius Gertrude’s son, Hamlet, is also symptom of love for Ophelia. After
and Queen of Denmark. grieving for the king, his father. informing the King of this, they use
Horatio, a companion, informs Ophelia to spy on Hamlet. Hamlet
Laertes Son of Polonius and Hamlet that the ghost of his father guesses what she is doing and
brother to Ophelia. Laertes has has appeared on the battlements cruelly denies any affection for her.
been studying in France, but at night, and takes him to see for
returns to Denmark to avenge himself. The ghost tells Hamlet that To help assuage Hamlet’s grief
Polonius’s death. the King and Queen send for
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern,
Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern University
companions of Hamlet, whom
he distrusts.

Ophelia Daughter of Polonius
and sister to Laertes.

Horatio Trusted friend
of Hamlet, to whom Hamlet
reveals his plans.

Ghost of Hamlet’s father
It orders Hamlet to avenge his
father’s death.

Four players They perform
in Hamlet’s play.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 191

While watching the Hamlet is sent to Hamlet returns to Hamlet stabs
traveling troupe of England to be killed. Denmark, discovers the Claudius and
actors perform a play force-feeds him the
in which a king is skull of his father’s remaining wine.
killed by his brother, jester, Yorick, and is Hamlet then dies
Claudius betrays reminded of mortality. and the bodies are
taken away by
signs of guilt.
Fortinbras.

3.2 4.3 5.1 5.2

Act 3 Act 4 Act 5

3.1 3.4 4.7 5.2

Polonius and Polonius hides in Gertrude’s After the king Hamlet and Laertes are wounded
agrees to help in a duel. Claudius offers Hamlet a
Claudius use chamber to eavesdrop on Hamlet. Laertes kill Hamlet, poisoned goblet of wine, out of which
Gertrude drinks. She dies.
Ophelia to entrap Hamlet stabs at the curtain, Gertrude
announces that
Hamlet so that they killing Polonius.
Ophelia
can discover whether has drowned.

he is in love with her.

Hamlet accuses

Ophelia of being

false, and orders her

to a nunnery.

his old college friends, whom he help and Hamlet, believing the Horatio and Hamlet witness
now distrusts. Instead, he focuses voice to be the King’s, stabs at Ophelia’s burial. Hamlet reveals
on the arrival at court of traveling the tapestry and kills Polonius. himself to the mourners and
players, and orders them to perform challenges Laertes to a duel.
a play in which a king is murdered The King punishes Hamlet Laertes injures Hamlet with a
by his brother. Hamlet sees that by sending him to England with poisoned blade, after which he is
King Claudius is affected by the Rosencrantz and Guildenstern with himself mortally wounded with
play, and takes this as proof of guilt. the intention of having him killed the same blade. Gertrude drinks
on arrival. On the journey, they poisoned wine intended for Hamlet
On his way to Gertrude’s are attacked by pirates. Hamlet and dies, causing Laertes to accuse
chamber, Hamlet overhears the escapes and returns to Denmark. Claudius of murder. Hamlet stabs
King in prayer, confessing to the the King and forces the remaining
murder. Meanwhile, Polonius hides Laertes arrives in Elsinore and poisoned wine down his throat
behind an arras (a tapestry) in demands vengeance for the murder before himself dying in the arms of
Gertrude’s chamber to spy on of Polonius. Grief-stricken by the Horatio. Fortinbras and his troops
Hamlet. Hamlet berates his mother murder, Ophelia loses her mind arrive to take away the bodies. ❯❯
for remarrying. Polonius calls for and drowns in a brook, spurring
on Laertes’s hatred for Hamlet.

192 HAMLET H amlet is Shakespeare’s But I have that within
longest play, with perhaps which passeth show—
IN CONTEXT the most challenging lead These but the trappings and
role. It is also his most enduringly
THEMES popular tragedy. The play is a story the suits of woe.
Revenge, betrayal, honor, of kingship, war, madness, and Hamlet
mortality revenge. It is also a story that
centers on a troubled man whose Act 1, Scene 2
SETTING responsibilities to his father and
Elsinore in Denmark to his kingdom are diametrically Hamlet has been read as the
opposed to his instincts and story of an ill-fated hero, a victim
SOURCES temperament. Unlike its source of fate and “outrageous fortune,”
c.1185 “Amleth,” by Danish text about the legendary Danish as well as one about a mentally
historian Saxo Grammaticus is king Amleth, which is described unstable, indecisive young man.
the story of a legendary Danish as a romance, Hamlet is undeniably In both readings, the character
prince whose uncle killed the a tragedy—The Tragedy of and the world he inhabits are
king and married the queen. Hamlet, the Prince of Denmark, overwhelmed by melancholy
as it is listed in the First Folio. and corruption.
1580 French poet François Shakespeare retains the details
de Belleforest retells the story about Amleth’s feigned madness Prince of Denmark
in his Histories Tragiques, and need for revenge, but adds new Hamlet is a man of 30; he is a
translated into English in 1608. information, such as naming the son, a nephew, a lover, a courtier,
ghost—also called Hamlet—and and a university student of
LEGACY adding a companion for the hero in Wittenberg. As the only male
1602 The first recorded the form of Horatio. Shakespeare heir to the former king, Hamlet
performance is on July 26. also adds two other sons seeking should have ascended immediately
revenge for their fathers’ deaths: to the throne. That his uncle,
1742 English actor David Laertes and Fortinbras. Claudius, takes the crown is largely
Garrick becomes the most because of Gertrude’s “o’er-hasty”
famous Hamlet of his day. A 2000 film adaptation starring Ethan (2.2.57) marriage, as the character
Hawke sets Hamlet in New York City. herself describes it. The result is
1827 Irish actress Harriet The ghost is an apparition on CCTV, that, when the audience first meets
Smithson plays Ophelia at and the play-within-the-play takes the Hamlet, he has been robbed of his
the Odéon, Paris; the play is form of a video game. father, all trust in his mother, and
a great success in France. the throne to which he is entitled.
It is not surprising, therefore, that
1919 Poet T. S. Eliot argues he should be quiet, resentful, and
that the character Hamlet moody in his first appearance.
is an artistic failure.
Claudius calls his subjects
1948 English actor Laurence together to discuss Fortinbras,
Olivier’s screen adaptation has Laertes, and Hamlet, respectively.
dark, Freudian undertones. His priorities, in order of
significance, are relations political,
1964 Grigori Kozintsev directs
a Soviet film of the play.

1996 British actor Kenneth
Branagh directs a film version
that runs for over four hours.

2001 Director Peter Brook
directs a multilingual Hamlet
in Paris with actors speaking
Japanese and Swahili.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 193

social, and domestic. Although Elsinore castle, the setting for the play, Prayer scene
this may seem justifiable, is in fact Kronborg, an ancient fortress
prioritizing Laertes and his wish on the Danish island of Zealand. It was During the 19th century,
to travel abroad above Hamlet’s rebuilt in the 1580s and appears here scholars and actors went
obvious grief seems irresponsible as it did in Shakespeare’s day. to great lengths to excuse
and callous in Hamlet’s eyes. Hamlet of wickedness in
This explains the bitterness of Claudius calling him “son”: his pursuit of vengeance.
his opening words in the play, “A little more than kin and The prayer scene, in which
which are a response to less than kind” (1.2.65). Claudius confesses his
guilt and Hamlet stalls his
O, vengeance! Why, what Despite his dark mood and vengeance, was removed
an ass am I? Ay, sure this is somber appearance, Hamlet from the play until the 1880s.
most brave, That I, the son commands love and respect from At this moment, Hamlet
his peers. He is the first person begins to speak in violent
of the dear murderèd, Horatio thinks to tell about the and disturbing terms of
Prompted to my revenge appearance of the ghost, and it is damnation, a topic of great
Hamlet, not the king, whom the debate both in the 16th and
by heaven and hell, players first greet at court. In the 19th centuries. Wishing to
Must, like a whore, unpack play’s closing scene, Horatio states damn someone to eternal
that Hamlet has “a noble heart” hellfire is not a Christian
my heart with words (5.2.311), echoing Ophelia’s early sentiment, and whether or
And fall a-cursing like claim that he has “a noble mind” not such an attitude might be
(3.1.153). In fact, Ophelia speaks of thought justifiable in Hamlet’s
a very drab, Hamlet as though he is a symbol of search for vengeance,
A scullion! hope, calling him “Th’expectancy Victorian audiences did not
Hamlet and rose of the fair state, / The wish to hear these words
glass of fashion and the mould of spoken on the stage.
Act 2, Scene 2 form, / Th’observed of all observers”
(3.1.155–157). Notable modern
performances of the scene
Unstable Hamlet include David Tennant’s
Hamlet is also described in less Hamlet (2009, above). This hit
positive terms. He is full of “turbulent stage production was filmed
and dangerous lunacy” (3.1.4), ❯❯ for a special TV version by
the BBC. Hovering his dagger
above the head of Patrick
Stewart’s Claudius, in the film
version, he delivers the speech
as a voiceover rather than
directly to the audience.

194 HAMLET

“melancholy” and “unmanly grief,” the Player King’s ear. Hamlet has A poster advertises the 1868 grand
with “A heart unfortified, a mind chosen drama as the medium opera Hamlet by French composer
impatient” (1.2.96). He is, in other through which to test the truth of Ambroise Thomas. The story became
words, unstable and rash. the ghost’s story. First, he explains popular in France after a translation by
to the players that the function of adventure novelist Alexandre Dumas.
Although Hamlet elicits respect plays and acting is, “to hold, as
for his nobility and receives ’twere, the mirror up to nature, to “catch the conscience of the King”
censure for his attitude, he has show virtue her own feature, scorn (2.2.607). The power of drama to
a distinctive need to offer other her own image, and the very age move individuals to tears, guilt,
people advice. He tells Ophelia to and body of the time his form and and happiness is powerfully
choose a nunnery over marriage; pressure” (3.2.21–24). Drama is, in explored both here and in the scene
he advises the players on their Hamlet’s view, a way of revealing in which the chief player delivers a
acting techniques, and he truths about real life. It is with this speech to Hamlet about the fall of
reprimands Laertes for weeping logic that he claims that a play will Troy. This monologue focuses on
at Ophelia’s funeral. What makes the intensity of the grief of Hecuba,
Hamlet think he has more right to whose husband, Priam, has been
mourn than Laertes, her brother? slaughtered by the Greek enemy.
From what experience, and with Hamlet is clearly moved by the
what authority does he lecture the extent of Hecuba’s sorrow and
actors on stagecraft? And from by the actor’s ability to engage
what motive does he send Ophelia emotionally with the speech. He
off to a convent? considers both himself and his
mother inadequate in comparison,
The play’s the thing because Gertrude fails to mourn
The ghost has informed Hamlet for her husband’s death, and
that his father was murdered with Hamlet struggles to motivate
a poison administered into his ear himself to seek revenge.
while asleep in his orchard. This
very same scenario is played out Mother complex
in The Mousetrap, the play Hamlet It is no accident, then, that
chooses to stage before the King Hamlet’s Mousetrap is not entirely
and Queen. The Player King’s motivated by the discovery of
brother emerges from the shadows Claudius’s guilt. He is also using
of an orchard to pour poison into

Poor Yorick One subject that is inseparable suicide case) merits a Christian
from the play concerns the nature burial, and casually digs up
of existence. Perhaps the most bones from graves to clear
iconic image in Shakespearian space. In a play in which all is
tragedy is that of Hamlet admiring contemplated by Hamlet, the
Yorick’s skull. This is the moment gravedigger is a welcome voice
when Hamlet recognizes the that trivializes the otherwise
reality of death. He contemplates overwhelming subject of death.
the difference between the living
head of his father’s jester, with In 1930, G. Wilson Knight
its lips, tongue and wit, and the argued that Hamlet’s fixation
grotesque remnants of his body. with death poisons everyone
around him, and that it is he
Yorick’s skull is given to who triggers the entire tragedy.
Hamlet by a gravedigger, who is Although Hamlet claims to
able to see humor in the tragedy. be a victim of fortune, it can be
He speaks in a pragmatic way argued that he is ultimately
about whether Ophelia (an alleged responsible for his own fate.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 195

…but, O, what form of prayer the play proper, during which he is shakes off responsibility for his
Can serve my turn? ‘Forgive often paralyzed by indecision, a actions, namely delaying revenge,
character flaw that proves fatal. murdering Polonius, rejecting
me my foul murder’? Ophelia, and having Rosencrantz
That cannot be, since Outrageous fortune? and Guildenstern executed. In the
I am still possessed Hamlet is not a man in a good play’s final act, Hamlet speaks of
Of those effects for which position. He has left the university providence and the inevitability of
at the age of 30 and returned to live his defeating the King. If, however,
I did the murder— at home; his father has died and he the so-called outrageous fortune is
My crown, mine own cannot reconcile with his mother removed from the equation, what is
ambition, and my queen. after her remarriage; and he is left is a series of bad decisions that
May one be pardoned and forced to take on the responsibility have ill consequences. ❯❯
of avenging his father’s murder in
retain th’offence? secret. Although Hamlet’s famous You are the Queen, your
Claudius question is “to be or not to be” husband’s brother’s wife.
(3.1.58), it is the question he asks But—would you were not
Act 3, Scene 2 immediately after that haunts him so—you are my mother.
more than anything: “Whether ’tis
the play to test his mother’s nobler in the mind to suffer / The Hamlet
conscience. Indeed, much of slings and arrows of outrageous
Hamlet’s melancholy stems from fortune, / Or to take arms against a Act 3, Scene 4
anger with his mother, whose sea of troubles, / And, by opposing,
marriage to Claudius he thinks end them” (3.1.59–62).
incestuous. The Player Queen
makes a speech about fidelity, in Hamlet chooses to suffer the
which she swears never to remarry outrageous fortune that he believes
in the event of her husband’s is an external attack rather than an
death: “The instances that second internal conflict. Assuming the
marriage move / Are base respects position of a self-confessed victim
of thrift, but none of love. / A of fate, much like Romeo, Hamlet
second time I kill my husband
dead / When second husband
kisses me in bed” (3.2.173–176).

With this play-within-the-play,
Hamlet seizes control of events
by taking up arms against his
troubles in a way that is otherwise
rare in the course of the action of

Hamlet (right, Ladi Emeruwa) fights
with Claudius (left, John Dougall) in a
production by the Globe Theatre that
was set to play in 205 countries during
a world tour between 2014 and 2016.

196 HAMLET

The tragedy spirals out of control O, what a rash and bloody accidents. Both the characters’
because the characters within deed is this! choices and their fortunes do
the world of Denmark make poor Gertrude indeed seem outrageous.
choices that lead to a catalog of
even worse outcomes. Not only Act 3, Scene 4 Revenge
does Hamlet defer taking revenge First and foremost, Hamlet is a
on Claudius, but he accidentally conversation with her son. Add tale of revenge. The revenge motif
stabs Polonius, which leads Laertes to these tragic events Ophelia’s repeats throughout the play, not just
to seek vengeance against him. drowning, Claudius’s poisoning in having three avengers all seeking
He rejects Ophelia in such a of the wine goblet, Gertrude the same thing, but in the terrible
humiliating and devastating way accidentally drinking it, and cycle of destruction and grief that
that, when she learns of her father’s Laertes being wounded by his own proceeds from any desire to exact
murder at the hands of her former poisoned blade, and this tragic vengeance on an enemy.
lover, she loses her sanity and, world is riddled with fateful
potentially, her dignity. Polonius, As a revenge story, Hamlet
too, is no blameless character. He follows conventions established by
exhibits poor judgement when the English playwright Thomas Kyd
he dispatches a spy to France to in The Spanish Tragedy (1587),
trail his son, when he convinces which was one of the most popular
Ophelia to trap Hamlet, and revenge tragedies of the period.
especially when he proposes Shakespeare includes a ghost, a
hiding behind the arras in order play-within-a-play, and a deathly
to eavesdrop on Gertrude’s object in the form of Yorick’s skull,
to echo the revenge tradition. The

DEATH TOLL

Rosencrantz and Polonius is Gertrude and Ophelia is
Guildenstern stabbed through King Hamlet drowned.
are beheaded. are poisoned.
a tapestry.

Hamlet, Claudius,
and Laertes are

stabbed and poisoned.

THE LORD CHAMBERLAIN’S MAN 197

hero is forced to compromise his Horatio and Marcellus. Hamlet This haunting depiction of Ophelia’s
own conscience in order to carry refers to the ghost as “old mole” death was painted by British artist
out an attack on the original and “this fellow in the cellarage” John Everett Millais in 1852. The
criminal, in this case Claudius. (1.5.153), which draws a knowing floating flowers correspond to the
audience’s attention to the actor play’s description of her garland.
As well as their brutality, calling from beneath the stage
revenge tragedies were known for floor, rather than any disembodied, does not delay and even swears to
their meta-theatrical jokes, which spectral voice. However, Hamlet is “dare damnation” (4.5.131) in order
Shakespeare incorporates into his no simple revenge hero: he is torn to have revenge on Polonius’s
play when the ghost calls out to between hatred for his uncle, love murderer. Although his behavior is
for his father, disgust for his rash and is exploited by the king,
Now cracks a noble heart. mother, and distrust of the ghost. who also wishes Hamlet dead,
Good night, sweet prince, He deliberately delays his attack Laertes’s motivation and intent are
And flights of angels sing on Claudius, choosing instead not dissimilar to those of Hamlet.
to ruminate on his actions and The third avenger is Fortinbras,
thee to thy rest. on his existence. Hamlet’s whose own father was murdered
Horatio approach places him in direct by Hamlet’s father, the former king.
contrast with Laertes and Whereas Hamlet delays and Laertes
Act 5, Scene 2 Fortinbras, who also seek revenge rushes in, Fortinbras tactfully
against their fathers’ murderers. assembles his army and plans
When news of Polonius’s death to invade Denmark, making his
reaches Laertes, he flies in the vengeance political rather than
face of all custom and duty in personal. Laertes and Fortinbras
order to challenge the king, risking lack Hamlet’s tragic flaw—the
his own reputation by committing doubt and indecision that lead
treason. Unlike Hamlet, Laertes Hamlet inexorably to his fate. ■

YOUTH S

A STUFF WILL NOT

ENDURE

TWELFTH NIGHT (1601)