Simplified Methods on Building Construction

Simplified Methods on

BUILDING·CONSTRUCTION

MAX 8. FA.JAAOQ JR.

B. S. Architecture, National University 1961; Passed the
. Boord Exam for Architects 1961; Former Deon College of
Architecture and Eng in~ering, University of North Eastern

Pl)ilippines; Architect, .Public ';tNorks Province of Comorines
Sur; Practising Architect and Contractor; Author and pu~
Usher of S'implified Construction Estim~te_

Philippines Copyright
1983

by

MAX B. FAJARDO, JR.

All Rights Reserved
Every copy of this book must bear the genuine signature of
the author. Copies not having the signature will be deemed to
hove emanated from on illegal source.

FOREWORD

Experienced builders agree that Building Construct ion is con-
sidered os the most challenging, complicoted and articulate work
in the field of construction. To discuss the subject matter embra-
cing t he whole aspect o~ b_uilding construction from the laying
out up fo the lost touch of the finished work requires· several vol-
umes.

The author in this f irst volume presents the rudimentary
knowledge os well os the techn ie:a/ aspect and procedur~ of
building construction.

The book was designed to present the technical trade in-
-formation in a short, concise, d irect and plain language ac-
companied with illustrations os o visual aid to the reader. Use-
ful tables, conversion foetor and formulae from the English to
the Metric System (Sil, various permit forms, problems and so-
lutions were also incorporated.

Hand tools, power tools and equipment including their res-
pective uses and functions in the construction were also p re- .
sented because the author considered those to be the first one
a builder should be fam iliar with before any other thing in the
construction. The book could be of great help to Architecture
and Engineering students as well as trade school stude nts, car-
penters and laymen who ·have interest in the field of construction.

·For the first.vqlume, the author wishes to express his grate-
ful acknowledgement to the. valuable research and contribu-
tions. of PepinN . Fajardo, and also to the constructive sugge~tions
of Supervisor Jhonny Blonquera who first read the preliminary
.manuscript. The author likewise expresses his indebtedness and
gratitude to the persons here unnamed wro in one way or ano-
ther hove contributed to the full realization of this book.

M. B. F.

}•

TAILE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I TOOLS Page

1·1 Mea suring i ools . . . .•.. •. . . .. . .. .. •. . • ... .. 2
1-2 Marking Tools • .• . . •... .. . •.• . ..• . . .. . .. . 5
1-3 Testing and Guiding Tools • ... .••. .. •..• •.• •
1-4 Fastening TooI5. ••• • •.. •• • • •.. • • • • • •• ••• •• • 6
Rough Foc:ing Tools . . .. . . ....• . ..... . ....
l -5 12
Toothed Cutting Tool!> . . ... .. . . .• .. . . .•• .. ..
1-6.. Sharp-Edged C~tting Tools .. . . . . .. . . . .... . ·13
1-7
Smooth Facing Tools . . ...... . : . ... .. ..... . . 14
l-8 Boring o r Drill ing Too ls ... .. . . .. .... . . .. . . .
Holding Tools ... .•. . . .. . . . . ... . . . . .. . .. .. 19
1-9 Sharpening Tools . . . . . .. .. ... . . . . . .. ..... .
22
1-lO Work Bench .. .. .. . .. .. ...•• •. .. . ...•...
I-ll Roughing Up Tools .. . . .. .. . . .. : . . . . ... . . . 26

1-12 Surface Finishing Toofs .. . .. . .. \ .... . ... . . . 29
1- 13 M iscel laneous Ma son ry Tools . . . . . . ...... .
31
1- 14
32
1- 15
33

35

37

CHAPTER 2 WO 0 0

2-1 Introduction ... .... .. ... ........,,... ... ~· .,,. ,. :.... . . 42

2-2 Definition of Terms .... ..- .,)••··-"' . . ... . . ..... .,.•,..._. 42

2-3 Class if ication of Wood .i. . .r • • • ' ·'.., •• • • • , ,.,..,. _ 43
2-4 Preparation of Wood . . . .. .. ·" . . ..• . . . ... .. , ,__, ,
44

2-5 Defects in Wood .• .... ., ••., ..• , ... .. .... ... .. ,.Of~ 45

4!-6 Seasoning of Wood . .. .. •.... .... • .. . .... . .,,... ~ 46

2-7 Causes of Deca y and Methods of..F!JeServotrtm. --:':'J 47

2~8 Measuring of Wood . •.. .. , . ... . ... .... ..... . ,.. 49

2-9 Eng lish to Metric Measure o.f'· ~--~. ,_.. ._. •.;.• . . 51

CHAPTER 3 LA.YOUT AND EXCAVATIONS .

3-l De finit ion . . . •... . ....• • ... •. . •... .. . . . .. . ·5 3
Lay'out Method s c;md Procedures .. .. ... ... .. .
3-2 M inor ExcCtvation ... .,. • ... ..... •. . . .. .. . . .. 53
Major Exca va tion .. . ... . . . . . . . . . : ......... . 57
3-3 Sheeting and Bracing Sha llow Excavat ion .. . 59
61
3J -...4s Sheeting and Bracing ·of Deep Excavation . • .
Sheet Piles ..... . ..... . ..... .. ... . ..... . . 63
3-6 Exca va t ion in So nd .. . .... , . . ......... . . .. .
Excavation in Clay · . . . . ... . . . •.. . . .. ... ... 65
3-7 Filling · ... . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . .. • ; ... . . . . ..... .
3-8 67
3-9.
3-10 68
69

CHAPTER 4 C 0 N C R E T E

4-1 Concrete ........ , ............... , , ...... ~ .. 7J
Cement ........................... ~ ...... . 71
4-2 Aggregate ...............•................
Water ......................... , . ~ ........ . 71
4-3
4-4 Types of Concrete ond Their Weight ....•..•.. 72
72
4-5 Mixing of Concrete .............•..........
4-6 Segregation ............................•.. 73
4-7
4-8 Requirement for Good Quality Concrete ..... . 76
4-9 Curing ............................. , . , .. . 76
Admixture .............................. .
4-10 77
Concrete Proportion and Water Cement Ratio ..
4-11 Tests .................·...................... . 78
78
4-12 82

CHAPTER 5 METAL REINFORCEMENT

5-1 Steel Reinforcement .........••......•... , . 86
5-2 Steel Bars ·from English to Metric Measure .... 87
5-3 Prestressed Steel •..•••••.•.•••........•..••
5-4 Welded Wire Fabric ..................••... 90
5-5 Identification of Steet Bars ................. . 91
5-6 Bar Cut Off and Bend ·Points ..•............. 91
5-7 Bar Splicing ................•....•... ; ... .
93
5-8 Bar Spacing ........•....... .' ............. . 94
5-9 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement ....... . 94

5-10 Bundle of Bars ....• ; ..•.•.....•............ 95

5- J 1 Control of Crocks ......................... . 97

S-12 Metal Reinforcement Specifications . . . . . .. 98
98

CHAPTER 6 F 0 U N D AT I 0 N

6-l Brief History ••••••••••••••••••. ! ......... . 100
6-2 102
Wall Footing ...•........•..•..•...... , ... . 102
6·3 106
6-4 Isolated or Independent Footing ......•..... 107
6-5
6-6 Combined Footing ..••..•....•............. 107.

6-7 Continuous Footing ..•.......•...•........• 109

6~8 Raft or Mat Footing ......•........•....... 109

6-9 Piile Foundation ........•..••............•. 110
112
6-10 Piles •••••••...••..••.•••...•.• ............. . 113

6-ll The Important Functions or Uses of Pile~ ... . 114
114
6·12 Quality and Durability of Piles .•..... , ..... .

6·13 Timber Piles .....................•.......

DPreotteerciotiroantioonf of Wood Piles .............•.. ·
Timber Piles ..................

6-14 Pile Dr.iving .................. .. .... .... . 115
Con.rete and Pipe Piles ...... ·.... ........... . 118
6-15 Precast Concrete Piles ............ -. -.- ... . 119
6-16 Deterioration of Concrete Piles ....·.... ..... . 119
6-17 Metal' Pile ....••.... - .. ,. .. : . •.... . . . . . ... 120
6-18 120
Driving Equipment· •..........••••... : . ... . 124
6-19 Pile Spacing .............. ........ ........ . 124
6-20 Driving of Piles Through on Obstruction ... . 125
6 -21 Causes of Pile Deflection in Driving 125
6-22 Settlement of Foundation ............. . .. . . 126
6-23 l27
6-24 Failure of Pile Foundation ................. .
6-25 Grillage Footing •.•............. ·.......... . f 28
128
CHAPTER 7 SOIL TEST 129
129
7-1 Auger Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7-2 Wosh Boring . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7-3 Hollow Stem Auger Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7-4 Rotary Drilling ........•....•..••... : . . ; . . 131
7-5 Percussion Drilling • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7-6 Penetrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7J7 Dutch Cone Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13'-4
7-8 Vone Shear Test ..... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7-9 Standard Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
137
CHAPTER 8 POST AND COLUMN 149
159
8-1 Definition . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8-2 Wooden Post . . . . • • • . • . . . • • • • • . . • . . • . . . • • . l 61
8-3 . Rein'forced Concrete Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-4 T ied Colu mn . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8-5 Spiral Column . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8-6 Composite ·cotumn . • . . . ... • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7
8-7 Combined .Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l69
8'-8 Lally Column .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . 170
171
CHAPTER· 9 PLATFORM- FLOOR STRUCTURE 173

9-1 Wood Floor System • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . • . . .
9-2 Beam ...••. .. ....... ..•• ..•••..... .. : . . .
9-3 Relation Between the Materials and Structure . .
9-4 Behavior of Beam Under the Influence of Load .

9-5 Reinforcement of Concrete Beam . . . . . . . . • .
9-6 The Compression and Tension m a Beam . . • .
9-7 Spacing of Reinforcing Bars in Seam ... ·~ • . • .

9-8 Splicing Hooks and Bends .. .. .. .•• .- •••• •.. 174

9-9 Steel Bors Cut Off 'ond -Bend Point ......• • .. 175

9- 10 Beams Reinforced- for Compression •. ••• .• .. 176
9-11 Web Reinforcement ....... . .• . ...... .... .
9- 12 177
Tor&ion in Reinforced Concrete Member •.•• . •
9-13 177
T-Beam Design & limitation , • • . ••.•• . ... . .
9- 14 178
Other Causes of Beam Failure ...•.•....•..
9-15 ~einfarced Concrete Slob .. ....•.•••••.••• . . 178

9- 16 Ribbed Flood Slab . ...... ............... ..· 179
9-17 186
The AC I on Concrete Joist Floor Construction .
189

CHAPTER 10 · STEEL FRAMING

10-1 Introduction . . .. . . . ..... . . . ..•••••.... . .. 190
191
10-2 Structural Shapes . . ....•. • .... . • . .•• .•. ...
195
10-3 Structural Steel ... . ....... . .. . .. . ........ .
10-4 High Strength Steel ....... .. . ..•.... . .. .. . 195

l0-5 Rivets and Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . .••.•.... . .. .. 196
l0-6 Riveting Procedures . . ... ... . ....•.••..... . 196

10-7 Conditions for Punching and Drilling •.. : ... . 197
10-8 Bolts ~ . ...... .. . ...... ..... ,. .. .•• _• : ... ... . 200
10~9 Connect ion of Structu ral Members .... . . ... . 200
10-10 Plate Girders . .. .. ... . ..... . .. ... ..... . .. .
206
10-1 1 Web Plates and· Intermediate Stiffeners ..... .
10- 12 Roof Trusses ........ . ............... . . .. . 207

10- 13. Welded Connections .•...... .. .•.... .. .... . 211

212

CHAPTER 1.1 TIMBER ROOF FRAMING

11-1 Introduction . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . • • . • • • • . . • . . 215
11 ..2 Types of Roof .. .. . .. .. . .. .. • . . • • .. .. .. . .. 216
11 - 3 Types of Roof Frame . . ....• ... , . . • . . . . . . . . . 220
11 -4 T imber Framing Fasteners . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11-5 lntf!rmediate Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11-6 End Joints ·• . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
1 1-7 Splicing . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . 233
11-8 Glued Laminated Lumber . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . 235

CHAPTER 12 'ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

12- l Roofing Materials . . . . . . .. .. . . • .. .. .. • .. .. 242
Galvanized iron Sheets ... . . . - .............. 243
12-2 246
12-3 Corrugated G.J. Roofing Fasteners·......... . 247
t 2-4 Advantages and Disadvantages of G.I. Rivets . . 247
Advantages and Oisadvcntagess of G. I. Nails . :
12-5

12-6 Technical Specifications .•. . .•.....•....• . .. 248
12-7 Plain G.l. Sheet ...••...................... 249
12-8 . Flat, Standing Seom and Botten_Roofing ..... . 252
12-9 Slope of RooF • . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . .252
12-lO Cloy Tile Roofing ... . .... ... ....... .. ... . . 255
12-1 1 Asbestos ond Color. Bond Roofing . .. .... .... . 256

CHAPTER 13 STAIRS

13-1 Introduction ...•.•••.............•...... · . 259
Definitions . . . . • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
13-2
Laying Out of Stairs ...................... · . 263
13-3 laying Out the Stringer . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
13-4 Type of Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Handrail and Balusters . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . ..
13-5 Re inforced Concrete Sta irways . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
266
13-6

13-7

CHAPTER 14

PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION

14-1 ·Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Types of Precast Structure ....... . ......... .
J4~2 Roof and Floor Members ....... ..... ·. . . .. •.. 269
Precast Beams •.••••••••• • .•.. .. .•. .. .•.• 270
14-3 Precast Column ................... .. .•...
14-4 Prestressed Concrele .................... . 271
14-5 Prestressing of Concrete ........ ... ... .. ... .
14-6 Concrete for Prestressing ... ............. . . 272
l4-7 Shope of Prestressed Structure ... . ......... . 272
14-8 Metal Rein:orcement .. .... .............. . 273
14-9 Grout for Bonded Tendons ...... .. ... ..... .
Measurement of ~restressing Force .. .. . . ... . 275
14-10 Post Tensioning Anchorage . .... . .......... .
275
14-11
14-12 ,280
14-13 282
283

283

CHAPTER 15 FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

15- J Form . . . • • . . • . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . • . . 284
1-5-2 Construction ,f forms ...•.......... ,' ,.:. . . 285
Erection ond Securing of Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
~5-3 Wall Forms ...•••.....................·. . . . 288
Greasing of Forms . . • • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
15-4 Comparative Analysis Between tke T&G ond
15·5 289
15-6 Plywood as Form . . • . . . • • • • • . • . . . . • . . . . . . 290
Scaffolding and Staging .. • .. • .. .. . . . . . .. . ..
15-7

15-8 Stag ing for Reinforced Concrete Beam and 293
15-9 Floor Slob • . . . • • . • • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Conduits and Pipes Embedded in Concrete

CHAPTER 16

HOISTiNG EQUIPMENT and POWER TOOLS

16- 1 Hoist • . . . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . • • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . • 297
297
16-2 Definitions . . • . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . • • . . . • • . . . . . . 298
304
16-3 Knotting and H 1tching . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . ..
16-4 Pu lleys .....•. . ..... . ...•....... . .... .. .. ·306

16-5 Circu lar Sow . . ........... . ... , . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 0
16-6 Radial A rm Sow . . . • . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

16-7 Portable Electric Sow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 11

16-8 Portable Electric Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2
3 13
16-9 Drill Press ·. . • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . • . • . . • • . . . . . . 3 14
16- 10 Portable Electric Sabe r Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 7
16-11 Band Saw • • • • • . • . • • • • • . . . • . • . • . . . . • • . . . • 317
16-12 Single Surface Planer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
319
16- 13 Portable Sanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
16- 1-4 Porta ble ·Hand Router . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 321
16-15 Wood Lathe •. ..••..•• . , • • . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 322
16-16 Truck Mounted Crane . •..• • ........ ~ , . . , . . .
16-17 Tpwer Crone . . • . . . • . . • • • • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES ... .•... . .....•.•...... , . . . . . . . . . .

1CHAPTER

TOOLS

INTRODUCTION

Tools had been regarded as a partner of man·s quest for
progress and survival from the early stone age down to the pre-
sent generation. The mechanical advantages, accuracy, speed
and efficiency derived from the use of the right tools and equ ip-
ment, has prompted man to continuously search for the refine-
ment of old tools aside from the invention and introduction
of new ones that would provide greater efficiency and refinement
of work.

Comparatively, it could be seen from the structures and works
, of past builders, the quality. refinement of texture and the time

involved in their construction to be far behind the wor ks of the
present generation. These could be mainly attributed to the kind
of tools and or power tools that are being used by the present
contemporary builders

Experienced builder agrees, that the efficiency of the work
in building construction could be augmented by 25 percent or
more with the use of the right kind of tools aside from the im-
proved quality of the work performed.

By hiring an experienced worker who has a complete set of
tools however high his demand for pay is more advantageous and
cheaper than hiring a beginner with a lower rate but without the .
necessary tools for a particular job. The former although demand-
ing a higher pay can accomplish wor~ with better qu-ality in a
5hort time than the latter whose work r isks repair and delay not to
mention the extra cost involved.

The efficiency and quality of the work particularly in build-
ing construction depends upon three factors:

1. Avai labi Iity and sufficiency of materials.
2. Experience and skill of the workers in their respective
field.
3. Complete set of too ls and equipment of good quality
and standard make.

The different kinds of construction tools may be classified
according to the different kinds of trade involved:

1. Carpentry Tools 4. Painters Tools ·
2. Masonry Tools
3. Tinsmithing Tools 5. Plumbing Tools
6. Electrical Tools

A- CARPENTRY TOOLS

Carpentry tools are classified according to their functions:

1. · Measuring Tools 7. Sharp-edged Cutting Tools
2. Marking Tools 8. Smooth Facing Tools
3. Testing and Guiding Tools 9. Boring or Drilling Tools
4. Fastening Tools 10. Holding Tools
5. Rough Facing Tools
6. Toothed Cutting Tools 11. Sharpening Tools
12. Work Bench

1- 1 MEASURING TOOLS

The early developed measuring tools used in constructions

were of various types provided with English-measure graduated

scale into 8th. and 16th of an inch. The forerunner in making ·

these kinds of warranted tools are the Stanley and the Lufkins

Rule Co.

The increasing popularity and worldwide acceptance of the

Metric measure has prompted these companies and others to

adopt and incorporate the meter and centimeter rules in all the

measuring tools that they are manufacturing. The recent measu-

ring tools appear to contain the inches on one edge and the

centimeters on the opposite side of either the zig-zag or push·

pull tape. ·

Consequently, the worldwide adoption of the Metric System •
otherwise known as the System International (SI). manufacturers
of all kinds of tools has to change the scale and graduation ot
measuring tools from English to Metric measure. However, al-
though the Engl·ish measuring tools are already obsolete, they
are still presented in this topic for historical background. How
the present tools developed the correlat ion between the English
and the Metr ic measure, their equ ivalent values, how they served
the past generation and how they used the instrumen-ts which
could be of help to the educational background and advance-
ment of the present crop of builders.

The different kind,s of measuring tools that are being used
in building construction otherw ise known as "Rules" are;

2

1. The two foot four folding rule 4. Push-Pull tape rule

2. The Extension Rule 5. Slide Caliper rule

3. Zig-zag Rule 6. Marking Gauges

The two foot four folding rule - is generally used in measuring

short distances. It is usually made up of four folds connected by

three hinges spaced at 6 inc;hes or 15 em apart wh ich could be

folded-up. '

Figure l-1

Extention Rule - Is used for measuring inside distances such
a~ doors, w indows, cabinets etc.

Figure 1- 2

Zig-zag rule - Is ava ilabe in (4 ft.) 1.20m and (6 ft.) 1.80 m
commonly used by carpenters fo r ro ugh layout. There are three
types of joints available:

1. Concealed
2. Riveted
3. Springless

Push-Pull Tape rule - Is used to measure long distances;

available from 1.00 m to 50 meters tong.

tio-zoo rule

Slide Caliper rule Figure 1-3
cylindrical objects. Is used to measure outside diameter of

SLIDE CALIPER IIULE

Figure 1-4

Marking Gauges- Is used to make lines parallel to the edges.

Figure 1 - 5

4

The two foot four folding ru le cou ld be used as a protractor
using the values on table 1-1.

TABLE 1-1 ANGLES AND OPENINGS

OiL Ang. Dis. Ang. Dis. Ano, Dis. Ang. Dis. Ang. Dis. Ang.
in. 0
,in. 0 in. 0 in. 0 in. 0 in 0

.21 3.34 16 6.41 31 9.38 46 12.18 61 14.78 76
.42 2 3.55 17 6.62 12.36 62 14.94 77
.63 3 3.75 18 6.82 32 9.57 47 12.54 63 15.11
.84 4 3.96 19 7.02 33 9.76 48 12.72 64 15.27 76
1.05 5 4.17 20 7.22 34 9.95 49 12.90 65 15.43 79
1.26 6 4.37 21 7.42 13.07 66 15.59
35 10.14 50 13.25 67 15 .75 80
. 1.47 7 4.58 22 7.61 13.42 68 15.90 81
1.67 8 4.78 23 7.81 36 10.33 51 13.59 69 16.06 82
1.88 9 4.99 24 8.01 37 10.52 52 13.77 70 16.21 83
2.09 10 5.19 25 8.20 13.94 71 16.37 84
2.30 11 5.40 26 8.40 38 10.71 53 14.1 1 72 16.52' 85
2.51 12 5.60 27 8.60 14.28 73 16.67
2.72 13 5.81 28 8.80 39 10.90 54 14.44 74 16.82 86
2.92 14 6.01 29 8.99 14.61 75 16.97 87
3.13 15 6.21 30 9.18 40 11.08 55
41 11.27 56 88
42 11.45 57 89
43 11.64 58 90
44 11.82 59

45 12.00 60

1-2 MARKING TOOLS

Marking tools are classified according to the kind of work it
is to perform:

1. Chalk or charcoal line- is used for marking a very rough
work.

2. Round pencil lead- used for mark ing rough work .
3. Scratch awl - is used in mark ing a sem i-rough work.
4. Scriber - is used in marking fine work. It is hardened
steel with a sharp point designed to mark fine line.
5. Compass- is used to inscribe arcs or circle.
6. Divider - is used in dividing distances into equal parts' ·
particularly an arc or circumference.

5

SCRA"fCH AWL

r~--s-c_··-·-~~··

CHALK OR CHARCOAL LINE COMPASS

Figure 1-6

1-3 TESTING AND GUIDING TOOLS

Good carpentry work demands accur~cy in measurement and
a well fitted joint or parts together. This could be done with the
various guiding tools for a precise and quality work.

The different kinds of testing and guiding tools are:

1. Level- is used for both guiding and testing the work to

a vertical or ht>rizontal position.

2. Plastic Hose with water - is the best and accurate tool for

guiding the work in establishing a horizontal level.

Figure.. 1-7

3. Plumb Bob - is used to check or obtain a vertical line.
The word plumb means perpendicular to a horizontal plane.

6.

PL.UM8 808

Figure 1·8
4. Miter Box - is a device used as a guide of the hand saw in
cutting object to form a miter joint.

Figure 1·9

5. Miter shooting board - is a plai n board with two 45°
guide fastened on top of the upper board. This device is used for
designing patterns, cabinets. etc.

Figure 1' -10 ·

7

6. Sliding r~bevel - is like a try square with a slidina and

adjustable blade that could be set to any angle other than 90

SLIDING T- BEVEL

Figure 1·11

. ·TABLE 1·2 TABLE OF ANGLES

Polygon Angle Tongue Blade

No. of Sides Degrees ln. em. ln. em.

3 30 12 30.5 20718 53.0

5 54 12 30.5 8 25/32 22.3

6 60 12 30.5 6 15/16 17.6

7 64.3 12 30.5 5 25/32 14.6

8 67.5 12 30.5 4 31/32 12.6

9 70 12 30.5 43/8 11.1

10 72 12 30.5 3718 9.8

Table 1 - 2 is useful in laying out the included angles of a
given polygon.

7. Angle Divider- is a double bevel used to divide an angle
a complicated work. This tool could divide an angle in one

8

/ /,.

...[~/ '

L-_J

SQUARE COMBINED TRY AND

ANGLE OlVlOER MITER SQUARE

Figure 1-12

8. Square - is called a "Trying Square" . Square is a· right
angle standard at 90 degrees us.ed in marking or testing work.
The different types of square are:

a) Try Square - is a square with blades that ranges from
(3" to 15") 7.6 to 38 em.

b) Miter Square - is a square w it h blades permanently set .
at 45 degrees.

c) Combined Try and Miter Square .- is a combination of
4 5 and 90 degrees in one set.

d) Combination Square ..:.. is similar to a try square only
that the head can be made to slide and clamp at any
desired place of the blade and is also provided w ith a
miter and a level gu ide.

9

e) Framing or Steel Square - so called as it is used effec-

tively on framing work.

FRAMING OR STEEL SQUARE

Figure l -13
Parts of a fram ing square:

Body- the longer and wider part
Tongue- the shorter and the narrower part
Face - the side visible when the square is held by the
tongue in the right hand, the body pointing to the left.
Back - the side ~isible when the square is held by the tongue
with the left hand, the body pointing to the right.
10

.,._ u:n

HAND

TO NGUE.

Figure 1-14

TAf?LE 1-3 TABLE OF ANGLE FORM BY THE SQUARE
(inches)

Angles: Tongue: Body: Angle: Tongue: Body: Angle: Tongue: Body:

.35 20.00 16 5.51 19.23 31 10.28 17.14
2 .70 19.99 17 5.85 19.13 32 10.60 16.96
3 1.05 19.97 18 6.18 19.02 33 10.89 16.77
4 1.40 19.95 19 6.51 18.91 34 11 .18 16.58
5 1.74 19.92 20 6.84 18.79 35 11.47 16.38
6 2.09 19.89 21 7 .17 18.69 36 11.76 16.18
7 2.44 19.85 22 7 .49 18.54 37 12.04 14.98
8 2.78 19.81 23 7.80 18.40 38 12.31 15.76
9 3.13 19.75 24 8.13 18.27 39 12.59 15.54
10 3.47 19.70 25 8.45 18.13 40 12.81 15.32
11 3.82 19.63 26 8.77 17.98 41 13.12 15.09

12 4.16 19.56 27 9.08 17.82 42 13.38 1<1.89
13 4.50 19.49 28 9.39 17.66 43 13.64 14.14

14 4.84 19.41 29 9.70 17.49 44 13.89 14.39

15 5.18 19.32 30 10.00 17.32 45 14.14 14.14

l1

1- 4 FASTENING TOOLS

Fastening tools are the tools used to faster or secure parts of
the construction that are to be connected together with nails,

screws, bolts, etc.
The different types of fastening tools are:
1. Claw hammer - a hand tool made of steel carefully forged,

hardened and tempered. Its sizes varies from 140 to 560 grams.
a. A 400- 450 grams is recommended for finishing work.
b. A 450-560 grams is recommended for framing work.

C •rv~<l Claw Plolf\ Nt<~

Figure 1·15

2. Wrenches- a hand tool with a handle and a jaw which

may be fitted to the head of a nut used to tighten or loosen bolts.
The three general classes of wrenches are:
a. Plain
b. Socket

c. Adjustable

Figure 1-16

12

3. Screw driver- a hand tool with a head and a shank used

for turning screw·, classified either as:

a. Plai11
b. Automatjc ·

It may also be classified according to the shape of the tip of
. the shank, such as:

a. Ordinary b. Phillips

PLAIN SCAE 'W DRIVER

SCRt:'W DRIVER

YMH<E£ SCREW DRIVER

Figurel-17

1- 5 ROUGH FACING TOOLS or STRIKING TOOLS

Rough facing tools are the so called "Striking Tools" because
they are used through a series of blows. They are also called "iner·
tia tools", or "Rough facing tools" because the cut produced were

rough.
The differe'nt kinds of rough facing tools are:

1. Hatchet - is generally a1utility tool used for sharpening
stakes and cutting down timber to rough sizes.

SI11HGLIHG CLAW BUREL

Figure 1-18

13

2. Axe - a tool used for splitting wood or hew ing t i m~r.

Ol!tfFITH Ail-E

Figure 1·19
3. Adze- roughly, an adze is a hatchet in which the blade is
at right angle with the handle.

CAftP(W'ttft.'S ADZE. $ .. If' A~lt
c ..t to lO 6&\4 1a em Cllt &0 to Ut••

Figure 1-20

1 ·6 TOOTHED CUTTING TOOLS

In carpentry work, the toothed cutting tools is of utmost
importance considering its versatility and service demand.

There are several types of th is kind of tools:

1. Saws - T he most important of this k ind of tools

are classified accord ing to:
a) Kind of cut:

1. Cross cut
2. Rip cut
3. Combined rip and cross cut

14

Figure 1-21 3. Thin back
4. Skew back
.b) Shape of the blades:
1. Straight back
2. Narrowed

STIIAieNT t•c;• Jtrl' s•w

THIN BACK f\tfl SAW

Figure 1-22

15

c) according to its u,se: 6. Buck or wood
7. Compass
· 1. Cab inet 8. Key hole
2. Joiner 9. Coping
·3. Miter 10. Hack
4. Stair
5. Floor

FLOOR
t<EY HOLE

JOINER OR BENCH

MITER
Figure 1-23
16

B U"CI< OR WOOD

HAC I<

COPING SAW

COMPASS

Figure 1-24

17

2. Files - a metal tool of different shapes and sizes used for

abrading, reducing or smooth cutting metal, wood or other mate-

rials. ·

HOM£NCI.ATUIU! Otr rii.E

SINGLE CUT OOUIH.E CUT RASP VUCEN

• • -OtFft£1tl:ltT TYPE OF fiLES
0

CaOSS SECTtOit Of' flLU

Figure 1-25
18

1 - 7 SHARP-EDGED CUTTING TOOLS

A- Chisel ....: is an indispensable tool in carpentry which is also
considered as the most abused tool oftenly used for prying, can
opener, open cases or as sc.r~w driver etc.

Chisels are classified according to:

1. Service:
a) Paring Chisel - a light duty tool used to plane

· long surfaces parallel with the grain of wood. Paring

chisel should not be driven by blows but only man i-
pulated by means of hand pressure.

b) Firming Chisel - us~d for medium duty work
usually ddven by hand pressure in paring or by the use
of mal~et blow in mort ising work

c) Framing Chisel - a heavy duty tool designed to
absorb a severe strain in framing work where deep cut
is necessary.

PAR i llO Clll$£ L

'It AlliiN Gl CHIS£ L

Figure 1-26

19

2. Lengt h : kZ ~~
a) Butt
~ :J
g
~]
b) pocket

kZ

c) Mill

CHI SEL ACCORDIN8 TO LENGTH

3. Side of Blade: Figure 1-27
a. p!ain
. b. Bevel

BEVE L

Figure 1-28
20

4. Handle Attachment: b. Socket"
a. ·Tang

TAit

Figure 1-29

5. Shape of Blade:

a) Flat . b) Round (gouge) c) L (corner)

•oue1 011 IIOUND

L ott COIIIIIR

Figure 1·30

Chisels may also be clas~ified accord ing to its blade with un-

natural width. ' Those chisels with blades wider than (2 in.) 5 em
is called "Slick". .

B. Draw Knife- is used in trimming work by drawing towards
the worker.

Figure 1·31

21

1 - 8 SMOOTH FACING TOOLS

Smooth facing tools are sometimes regarded as "guided sharp
edge cutting tools". These tools are actually chisels with frames to
guide and lim it the cut and make it smooth.

'The different kinds of smooth facing tools are:
L Spoke Shave - a modified k ind of draw knife w ith an

adjustable blade like a plane to limit the thickness of the cut.

SIN GLE- SCREW RAISED
HANDLES

CHAIR MAK ER'S WOOOEII $P0k£ SHAVE

, ,· -....
' 1'
'

DOUBLE SCIIEW
HAIIOLES

CQNCAVE CUTTER

CHAIH Ell CUTTER

Figure 1~32

' 22

2. Plane -- is used in smoothing boards or other surfaces for
framing and moulding. P~ane is also used to make wood surfaces
into uniform thickness.

Planes are classified according to its size and services:
1. Jack plane- for heavy rough work.
2. Fore plane- for smoothing and straightening the rough

or irregular cut of the jack plane.
3. Trying plane-is used to obtain the smoothest finish.

4. Jointer--:- a trying plane is a simple small jointer.
5. Smooth plane- a small plane used for smoothing un-

even surfaces in wood even those with minor depressions.

£
[

SYOOT M I' LAM£ .IIlJa .30•.

FORt PLAII£ .411.,.

TIIYIMG PLANE .511 to . 80111.

e'----===-:::=L_/-~_--,j/~-z-_----J,

JOIIITER I'LAIIE .TOto .1'11!ft.

Figure 1·33

23

J.&.CK PL.AME

,' ~-=.-.-..-.... .•SINGLE PI.AHit

~~ ' ' ,., '•' ~-:;;~_- -'' ::--::.;._·_-:.= ~-
l '' ' - .:.= _~:...· -:.

~ . --.-··

-,::---.... ·~------·-" ,• ~- ..,.:;:.:_' -

TCiOTHI!D PLAIIIE

Figure 1·34
24

6. Moulding and Special Planes - are planes used in
making various shapes of mou lding and cuts. The different
types of moulding planes are:

a) Rabbet or Rebate Plane - used for making a sinking
cut on wood to make them fit t o each other.

b) Fillester Plane - similar in use as the rabbet plane
but is more preferable because it cuts more accurately than
the former.

c) Groov ing Plane - used in cutting across the wood
grain.

d) Router - used to surface the bottom of the grooves.
e) Round and hollow moulding plane- used to produc e
a concave or convex surface.

IIA18E T

COVI!

QUAil T!R ROUMO

MOULDINC. ANO SPECIAL I"LANf

Figure 1-35

25

1 - 9 BORING OR DRILLING TOOLS

These tools are special ly designed to mak e hole in wood.
The different types of dr iII ing t-ools are:

1. Brad awls- A small tool used for punching or piercing
sma ll holes. It is generally used in starting a nail or screw into
hardwood. •

Figure 1·36

2. Gimlets - Tool s used for boring small holes by hand

pressure classified as:

a) Twist b) Plain

TWIIt

I'LAI M
IIIII Lf.TI

Figure 1-37
3. Augers- is used for boring holes with a diameter from

liz" to 2" inches or 12.7 mm to 25 mm. Augers that are pro·

vided with a shank are commonly called "bits"
26

~oMeLI Tli£Ao· SlUt I CUTTU DOUetI CIIHlll ~"'" If£AD $1111' HEAD OOUILI! TREAt>
1\NGLt CUTTER
If•Sln<.E CI.ITTEII

No er Kt•"

(a) Single cutter. extension lip, coarse screw, for general all around
boring; rap id, dean cutting tnd ..sy boring adopted in boring wet,
green, hard or knotty wood and boring with the grain.
(b} Double cutter, extension lip, fine screw, npcommended for fur·
nltures and cabiMt work or wherever a smooth hole is essential.
(t) Ship h..d with single cutter and coarse screw, Absence of lip is
recommended for deep boring or in wood with strong grain.
(d) Ship hNd single cutter without screw or lip is recommended

for deep borln9 In wet pitchy woods. The absence of strew has less

toten~ncy follow or drift with the .!I~~ in of the wood.

Figure 1·38

4. Twist Drills- used for drilling small holes. Twist drills

are preferably used in cases where the gimlets or the auger may
cause splitting of the wood grain. These tools has lesser ten-
dency to split the wood grain because they are not provided

with a cutting lip.

l)II.ILL

e•~aST DA tL~

Figure 1-39

27

5. Hollow Augers- "!sed for external boring or turning.

c~=s~-,,,.un~-r. --1;zr----,1

AUU. I liT

Figure 1-40

6·. Spoke Pointers - cuts conical holes. It is similar to the

auger only that the cutter is lengthwise.

7. Counter ~inks - used for enlarging a conical hole at

the surface of wood.

8. Reamers- usually a reamer is used chiefly by machinist

in enlarging metal holes. It is also used in carpentry work for
enlarging holes on wood when made too small for the screw
or its head.

OCTAIOUI. TYPl jt«A*II .

--.. ·-

1'0111 ,OIPITU
D... 4
- ; .,)

"

sc••• *"'' CO!IITII ....

Figure 1·41

These tools are u5ually provided with a sha.nk instead of a
handle, hence, a brace is indispensable.

28

PLAIN liT IIUef.

Figure 1-42

1-10 HOLDING TOOLS

.. .
Hold ing tools is vital and important in accompl ishing f ine car-
pentry work. In many stages of construction the need for holding
the materials in place rigidly is necessary.
Holding tools may be classif ied accord ing to its 5erv ice: ·

1. Supporting - Carpentry wor.k such as chiselling planing

and the like, needs support to amply sustain the operation. The
Hor5e or Trestle is the r ight tool for the purpose.

Figure 1·43

2. Retaining- Under this category, there are several kinds of

holding tools considered as rigid and strong enough in tightly pres-
sing the materials together.

29

a) Clamps - is effective in tightly pressing pieces of
wood together in making tenon, mortise and other joints. Clamps
may be classi fied into:

1. Single Screw Jaw 4. Miter
5. Beam
2. Double Screw

3. Chain

A .~,"·..

.r · ''.·., .. / , ''t

·, '·. // . /,·"'>
~1/

·• 1

IAOM J AW CLAM'

MITAI! CLAMP

,.-.r~ -~~=~. ~

t~I . . I~

~~ r~J

OHP TllAOAT C- CLA MP SO UAit[ C- C L AIIIP

ST EiL IAR CLAN,

Figure 1-44

b) Vises - A tool used t o hold a piece of m aterial

rigidly secured in place to absorb severe blows. The available types
of vises are:

1. Screw 3. Parallel Jaw

2. Quick acting screw 4. Swivel Bottom

5. Self-adjusting jaw

30 .

Vllt:S

Figure 1-45

1-11 SHARPENING TOOLS

Experienced carpenters realize the importance .of sharpening

tools in carpentry operat ion. Sharp tools assure the worker in ac-
complishing a quality work and is faster than using dull tools.

The different kinds of sharpening tools are:

1. Grind Stone - a flat disc solid stone usually of sand-

stone mounted on a shaft used f.or sharpening, shaping or

polish ing metal by turning. ·

2. Oil Stone- Used after the grinding operation to achieve

a sm.ooth and keen edge of the tools. Oil is used as a lubricafing

medium and that is why they are called oil stone. Oil stone are

of two types:

a. Natural - found in their natural state
b. Artificial -are ordinary abrasives such as carburan-

dum alundum and emery.

Figure 1-4:~

• .•

31

1-12 WORK BENCH

Work bench is also an important tool in carpentry operation

considering the var'ious tools attached to it. Work bench is con-

sidered as a shop tool and is needed for the different kinds of on-

site or off-site preparation of wood parts in all construction

projects. .·:,;·-.;..

Figure 1-47

B - MASONRY TOOLS

Masonry. is the art of shaping, forming, arranging, laying and
uniting stone, bricks, building blocks, plastering etc. to form walls
and other parts of the building.

Masonry tools are so designed to accompl ish many types of
masonry work. Masonry tools also include some of the carpentry
tools previously mentioned particularly the measuring tools, the
testing and guiding tools. Masons also use other kinds of special
tools aside from . the previously enumerated tools adopted to the
kind of work involved..

32

1-13 ROUGHING UP TOOLS

Roughing up is the process of preparing the surface and parts
of masonry work. It involves the rough work of dressing, and pre·
paration of the different phases of masonry work. Tools for this
type are mostly striking tools and those that also need a striking
medium.

1. Mason's Axe or Hammtr- Is also known as Ax-Hammer

used in two different ways. The axe to serve as a chisel and the
hammer for driving nails and other rough work in masonry.

2. Brick Hammer- 1$ another type of combination hammer

wh ich is used for dressing and cutting bricks, stone or concrete
and other driving operations.

3. Patent Hammer - Is a hammer wherein the head is com-

posed of a group ofth in chisels used for dressing stone or concrete.

4. Crandall- A tool w ith sharp pointed steel spikes used for

dressing stone or concrete.

5. Cross Peen Hammer- Is a cross head hammer where one is

shaped Iike a wedge used for various striking need in masonry work.

6. Cold Chisel- Is a common tool for carpentry, and masonry

work used for dressing or cutting stone, concrete, metal and other
materials with the aid of hammer.

7. Star Drill - Used for boring or drilling holes on hard sur-

face such as rock, stone or concrete.

8. Bolster- A tool similar in appearance with the cold chisel

including its services but has a wide blade edge. It is· also known
as blocking chisel.

9. Wrecking Bar - a very useful tool made of steel bar used in

demolition work and in pulling- off large nails.

STEEL MALLEl

B~ I C I< HAMME R

CRA N DALL HATCHET

COLD CHISEL
STAR DRILL

CROSS PEEN HAMMER
MASONS HAMMER

SHOVEL

Figure 1-48

1-14 SUAFACE FINISHING TOOLS

Tools of this classification are categorized 'into:

1. Floats- flat tools with a handle at the back usually made
of wood. Kinds of float:

a. Common float- used for smoothing or for producing

textured surfaces on cement or plaster.

· b. Bull float - a tool used to smooth freshly placed

concrete. ·

c. Devil or Nail float- a tool.used to roughen the surface·

of plaster to provide a key for the next coat.

d. Carpet float - used in plastering to produce a fine- ·

grained texture in sand finishes.

e. Angle float- used for finishing corners and for pfaster:.

ing.

b '~-------------------*

Figure l-49.

35

2. Trowels- flat hand tools used for applying, spreading and ·
shaping plaster or mortar to produce a relatively smooth finish on
concrete surfaces in the final stages of finishing. The kind of
trowels are:

a. Ordinary trowel- similar in appearance as the ordinary
float but with a steel blade.

b. Pointing trowel - a trowel used in pointing or remov·
lng and laying mortar In masonry joints.

. c. Brick trowel - a trowel with an offset blade used to
pick up or spl'ead mortar.

d. Buttering trowel - a small trowel used to spread
mortar on bricks and tiles before it is laid.

e. Edger a finishing trowel used on the edges offresh
~::oncrete or plaster to form a rounded corner.

f. Margin trowel - its sides has a box-l ike appearance
especially used for working corner angles.

MARGIN TIIOWlL

POIN'fiN8 TROWEL FINISHING TROWEL

aUT TEtiUIC$

36

1 -15 MISCELLANEOUS MASONRY TOOLS

There is so much duplicity in the functions of masonry tools.
There are also tools which can easily be fabricated by a prolific
mason. Tools of this kind are those simple tools but are considered
worthy of notice since they accomplish an important task in
making the rigorous work involved in masonry simpler.

1. Spade - a basic construction tool used in many of the

dirty work in the concrete mix or plaster.

2. G. I. pail- in the absence of a chute or a buggy, it is used

as vessel in handling especially lntransferringconcrete mix, mortar
or plaster from the mixing board.

3. Mixing board- usually made of wood or concrete used for
mixing' concrete in the absence of a concrete mixer. This is usually

fabricated on-site.

. ..
4. Mason's box - a shallow box, made of wood, used to
contain mortar or plaster to make it easily accessible to the mason.

5. Measuring box - a box, made of board or plywood with
handle, used for measuring sand, gravel etc. prior to mixing. This
tool is also fabricated.

6. Rubber foam - used to obtain a fine-grained texture in
plastering.

7. Painter's brush - its use in masonry work is similar to the
foam.

8. Plastic or nylon string- used for marking and guiding the
block laying, tile laying. etc. to produce a uniform and straight
course.

9. Aligning stick - various names can be attributed to this

tool which is simply a straight piece of lumber, more or less L50

m. long used in plastering and concreting the pavement to assure
alignment or astraight surface. .
·

37

C. PLUMBING TOOLS

m,,:. .~~~~~i·.;'i . .
~ : '-'---'
r

"\... ' .. ··--··- ·····

PIP€ CUTTER

S TIL LSON WRENCH YOI(I VIII£

Figur e 1 - !> ll

38

D. PAINTERS TOOLS ,

-uti ns

NAIL SET

HOOK SCRAPER WALL PUTTY PUTTY PLATE

SCRAPER KNif'E

CORNER ROLLER TRIM ROLLER CUTTINO ·IN ROLLER
E OG1NG ROLLER

PAINT SPRAYER

_-_- ---_.._ _.,,_ .-.......
r f' ~

~ .' ~ ,: , ; r!., It '

WIRE &RUSHES
Figure 1 52

39