Guidance & Counselling

182 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING WHAT IS GROUP COUNSELLING? A group is defined as two or more people interacting with each other to achieve a goal for their mutual or common benefit (see Figure 7.1). Everyone typically spends some time in group activities each day. For example, students interact with each other in and out of the classroom, teachers interact with other teachers in the staff room. Given this situation, it is only natural for counsellors to make use of group counselling. Groups are an economical and effective means of helping individuals who share similar problems and concerns. Figure 7.1: A group having a discussion Counsellors who limit their counselling activities to individual counselling limit their options to helping people. Joseph Pratt, a Boston physician, was the first person to use group counselling in 1905. PrattÊs group members were patients who were suffering from tuberculosis (TB) at the Massachusetts General Hospital. The patients spent time together regularly, supporting and informing each other. Jacob Moreno introduced the term „group counselling‰ into the counselling literature in the 1920s. Gazda (1989) described group counselling as the dynamic interaction between individuals for the prevention or remediation of difficulties, or for the enhancement of personal growth and enrichment. The term „group work‰ is often used to describe what goes on within groups. The Association of Specialist Group Work (1992) defined group work as broad professional practice which involves the giving of help or the accomplishment of tasks in a group setting. It involves the application of group theory and process by a capable professional practitioner to assist a collection of people to reach their mutual or common goals, which may be personal, interpersonal or task-related in nature. 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 183 THE “WHEN” AND “HOW” OF GROUP COUNSELLING Counsellors have to make the decision of when, where and with whom to conduct group counselling. In some situations, group counselling may not be an appropriate way to help the individuals. For instance, it would be inappropriate to use groups to counsel students who are of different age groups with their personal problems. Likewise, it would be unwise to use a group setting as a way of working with children who are all behaviourally disruptive. But a group may be ideal for helping students who are not too disruptive or unequal in age and who have common concerns. In such cases, the counsellor would schedule a regular time for students to meet in a quiet, uninterrupted setting and interact together. Comments from individuals who were participants in a group counselling: „I feel like the group is the only place in school where people understand me.‰ „During my time in the group, I came out of my shell. The group has helped me open up to other people and not to worry about what other people think about what I have to say.‰ „I was able to share things with my group that I was too afraid to share with other people. Once I learned to do this, I started feeling better about myself.‰ However, there are also some misconceptions about groups. Childers and Couch (1989) argued that some people are of the opinion that groups are artificial and unreal when dealing with problems. They force people to lose their identity by tearing down psychological defences when members are required to become emotional and spill their guts or tell others about their innermost thoughts. Some have also suggested that members in the group can become confrontational and hostile. In addition, group counselling can lead to the brainwashing of participants. 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

184 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING On the other hand, groups have a number of general advantages (Gladding, 2003) as follows: (a) Group members may come to realise that: (i) They are not alone; (ii) They are not unique; and (iii) Their problems and concerns are not abnormal. (b) Group members interact with one another and learn more about themselves in social situations. (c) Group members can try out new behaviours and ways of interacting when the group provides a safe environment to experiment changes and receive feedback. (d) Group members pick up skills vicariously when they observe how others talk, interact and solve problems. (e) Group members may realise their need for individual counselling or the accomplishment of a personal goal. 1. List examples of problems and concerns of students in schools, colleges, universities or training organisations which may be addressed using group counselling. 2. Give four reasons why these problems and concerns are most appropriate for group counselling. Share your answers in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.1 1. What is group counselling? 2. List some misconceptions about group counselling. 3. What are some advantages of group counselling? SELF-CHECK 7.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 185 TYPES OF GROUPS Groups come in many forms. There seems to be a group for anyone who seeks counselling, personal growth and support. There are many ways of categorising the many different groups. The Association of Specialist Group Work (1992) developed the following classification (see Figure 7.2): Figure 7.2: Types of groups Source: Association of Specialist Group Work (1992) Here is the details explanations of each type of group. (a) Guidance/Psychoeducational Groups These are preventive and instructional groups who meet briefly for a limited time. For example: (i) Teaching group participants on how to deal with: A potential threat (such as AIDS); A developmental life event (such as growing older); and An immediate life crisis (such as the death of a loved one). 7.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

186 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING (ii) Student development in tertiary institutions: Control of anger; Dating relationships; and Study skills. (b) Interpersonal Problem-solving Groups These groups seek to help participants resolve difficult life problems through interpersonal support and problem-solving. For example: For students who are getting ready to graduate from secondary school: (i) Provide them with information to deal with problems after school; and (ii) Give them an opportunity to speak about their concerns. (c) Personality Reconstruction Groups These groups are set up to help individual group members who have deep psychological problems in order to reconstruct major personality dimensions. For example: Help patients in psychiatric hospitals who are suffering from depression, suicidal tendencies and paranoia. (d) Task/Work Groups Work groups help members apply the principles and processes of group dynamics to improve their practices and accomplish identified work goals. For example: (i) Teams in the workplace or sports teams are formed to accomplish objectives that would be impossible for an individual to achieve alone (see Figure 7.3). (ii) A good example is the quality circle team in which a group of workers meet to examine the processes they are using in their jobs and to devise ways to improve them. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 187 Figure 7.3: Teams in the workplace seeking to achieve a common goal (e) T-Groups The ÂTÊ stands for training. These groups are formed to emphasise interpersonal relationships. Members of the group learn how oneÊs behaviour in a group influences othersÊ behaviours and vice versa. In other words, how an individual functions within a system. (f) Self-help/Support Groups Now let us look at the explanation of self-help groups and support groups. (i) Self-help groups have grown in prominence since the 1970s. A self-help group usually develops spontaneously and focuses on a single topic which may be led by a person without professional training but with experience in the issue. For example, residents in a neighbourhood may meet to help each other to clean the neighbourhood (a kind of gotongroyong) or to focus governmentÊs attention on issues (such as toxic waste disposal or river pollution) that affect the quality of their lives. (ii) Support groups are similar to self-help groups in its focus on a particular concern or problem but they are organised by an established professional helping organisation or individual such as Alcoholics Anonymous, Weight Watchers, Cancer Survivors (Gladding, 2003). List the main differences between the various types of groups in group counselling. What is a common element in all these groups? SELF-CHECK 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

188 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING STAGES IN GROUP COUNSELLING There is a debate as to how many stages there are in group counselling. Tuckman (1965) was one of the first theorists to design the stages in group counselling process. He suggested four stages of group development which he termed as forming, storming, norming and performing. Later additions to the process by Waldo (1985) and modifications by Gladding (2003) led to the following four stages of the group counselling process ă forming, norming, performing and termination (see Figure 7.4). Figure 7.4: Stages in group counselling Each of these stages will now be discussed in detail. (a) Stage 1: Forming Stage Before joining the group, the participants need to be informed as much as possible about how the sessions will be conducted. It is suggested that before enrolling, members should be clear about the purpose of the group, the ground rules and basic procedures. We should also be informed about the risks involved, our rights and responsibilities and the issue of limited confidentiality since we are in the company of other people. In the forming stage the group is formed and efforts are made to help members feel they are part of the group. For example, members initiate conversations which may be superficial but aim to break the ice. The leader structures the environment to make members feel safe by clarifying the purpose of the group, establishes rules, models appropriate behaviours and outlines a vision for the group. It is important that both the leader and group members are clear regarding the purpose of the group to ensure a feeling of trust. 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 189 The group members need to be involved and feel part of the group. They need to voice out their expectations from the group. Group members who are uninvolved and inactive will hinder the progress of the group. Serious effort is made to help group members feel relaxed, welcomed and valued. The room is set up in such a way that encourages interaction such as arranging the chairs in a circle (see Figure 7.5). If at any point there is anxiety and mistrust, enthusiasm and commitment by group members is likely to deteriorate. Figure 7.5: Arranging members in a circle encourages group interaction (b) Stage 2: Norming Stage Having decided on the goals and purpose of the group, the next stage is set for the norming stage. The leader and group members try to find their place in the group and develop a sense of cohesiveness or „we-ness‰. The leader reminds members of the rules and regulations when there is conflict between members (which unavoidably happens). The leader may use helping skills such as active listening and linking to build trust and a sense of togetherness and purposefulness. Members seek and receive feedback from each other and work through critical issues together. „We‰ statements are encouraged to build a sense of belonging in the group (see Figure 7.6). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

190 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING Figure 7.6: The ÂWe-nessÊ feeling is developed Differences and similarities within group members are recognised. Ideally, at this stage members are cooperative and share their goals and objectives, and they are ready for the next stage which is the performing stage. However, members should also be prepared in the event things do not work out. The group may deteriorate and become chaotic. Members may refuse to be involved and the cohesiveness of group members may get less and less. This is when the leader should intervene, increased self-disclosure and acknowledge that differences between group members are actually the strength of the group. (c) Stage 3: Performing Stage At this stage, the group is ready to „work‰. Members are more trusting of himself and others. Members are more focussed towards achieving the goals of the group. Members concentrate on individual and group accomplishments, using the ideas of the group to reach a resolution. The leader is less involved in directing or structuring the group as members become increasingly more responsible in running the group. The leader takes the role of helping members achieve the goals by encouraging interpersonal interactions and modelling appropriate behaviours. However, when inappropriate behaviour is displayed, the leader may remind members of the group on the agreed goals and the limited time available. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 191 (d) Stage 4: Termination Stage This is the stage where group members have completed their task and have accomplished their goals. They then take time to celebrate and ultimately disband the group. Before termination, members take time to reflect on the events and discuss what they still need to do. Both the leader and members may actively remind each other about the conclusion of the group counselling process. There will be farewell events if the experience was pleasant and satisfying. Members are required to state verbally or in written form what they have learned from the group experience. It is hoped that everyone will leave the group stronger and better connected with other group members. Everyone are expected make a successful transition from the life in the group back to everyday life. Follow-up is used in the group counselling to keep in touch with members after the group has terminated in order to determine how well the members are progressing on personal as well as group goals (Gladding, 2003). Follow-up helps group members and the leader assess what they have gained from the group experience. It also allows the leader to refer a group member for further help, if appropriate (Gladding, 2003). Follow-up sessions maximise the effects of group experience and encourage members to keep pursuing their original goals. Select a topic that will be of interest to your coursemates (such as proper diet, time management, adult learner study tips or bringing up children). Select a group leader and conduct a group counselling session during tutorial. Use the stages in group counselling to get the group to discuss the chosen topic. Share your answers in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 7.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

192 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING Read the „Confession of a Participant in Group Counselling‰ and answer the following questions: (a) What are some misconceptions of group counselling as revealed in the story? (b) How has group counselling benefitted the storyteller? Confession of a Participant in Group Counselling Because of the unstructured nature of the group, the major problem faced by the participants was how they were going to use their time together effectively. There was puzzlement, anxiety and irritation at first because of the lack of structure. Only gradually did it become evident that the major aim of nearly every member was to find ways of relating to other members in the group. Then as we gradually began to explore our feelings and attitudes towards one another, it became increasingly evident that what was first presented were façades or masks. Slowly and cautiously our real feelings and real personality began to emerge. The contrast between the outer shell and the inner person became more and more apparent as the hours went by. A sense of genuine communication slowly built up and membersÊ actual feelings became apparent. In the beginning it was felt that oneÊs real feelings will not be appreciated by other members of the group. To my surprise personal feelings were readily accepted by members. A sense of trust slowly began to build up as well as a sense of warmth and liking for other members of the group. A woman said, „If anybody had told me earlier that I would feel love for every member of this group, I would have told him that he belonged in the nutty house.‰ Participants felt a closeness and intimacy which they had not felt before, even with members of their own family because they had revealed themselves here more deeply and more fully than to those in their own family circle. In the group I had come to know myself and each of the members more intimately than is possible in the usual social or working relationships. I became deeply acquainted with other members and their inner selves, the self that otherwise tended to be hidden behind a façade. Hence, I could relate better to others, both in the group and later in everyday life situations. SELF-CHECK 7.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 193 CASE STUDY: GROUP COUNSELLING SERVICES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA In the earlier subtopics we have discussed what group counselling is when it is appropriate to conduct group counselling, types and stages of group counselling. One of the main advantage of group counselling is that meeting other people who are dealing with similar issues and hearing their story makes people know that they are not alone. Now let use examine a case study of a group counselling services at the University of Iowa. (a) What is Group Counselling? Group counselling is one of several types of counselling offered at the University Counselling Service (UCS), University of Iowa. In group counselling, approximately six to ten students meet with a trained group counsellor, typically once a week for one and a half hours. Group members talk about a variety of issues. MembersÊ common goals include exploring relationship issues, learning to feel better about oneself and learning to cope with life more effectively. Group members share information about themselves and provide feedback to other group members while the group leader facilitates productive communication within the group. (b) How Do I Know If Being in a Group is Right for Me? Group counselling is a beneficial form of therapy for many issues. Groups can be especially helpful for people who have concerns about their relationships. Groups are also useful for people who want a place to experiment new behaviours or communication styles. Groups can be a good platform to receive feedback on oneÊs interpersonal behaviour. Group counselling seems to work best for people who are clear about what they want to work on and are willing to state their goals and needs to the group even when it may be scary or difficult. One way to decide whether or not group might be a good choice is to set up a meeting with a UCS counsellor who can help you think through your options. (c) What Types of Concerns are Group Counselling Most Helpful For? Group counselling is especially helpful for the following types of student concerns because it is one of the most direct ways of providing the type of contacts that a student needed to work through his concerns: (i) „My relationships with others are unsatisfactory, very frustrating, and/or disappointing.‰ (ii) „People don't react to me the way I would like them to.‰ 7.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

194 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING (iii) „I feel stuck in a particular pattern or role in my relationships with others.‰ (iv) „I feel lonely and unsupported.‰ (v) „Others donÊt seem to understand me.‰ (vi) „I lack assertiveness.‰ (vii) „I either donÊt address differences and disagreements or my disagreements with others turn into hostile conflicts.‰ (viii) „I want to change my way of thinking and feeling about myself.‰ (d) What Can I Expect from a Group? What you gain from being part of a group largely depends on what your goals are for yourself. We have found that the clearer people are about their goals for the group, the more benefits they will receive. Some of the most common benefits that people obtain from being in a group are: (i) Learning to communicate more comfortably and effectively; (ii) Identifying and exploring inner feelings; (iii) Getting feedback from others; (iv) Learning to express oneÊs own wishes and act on oneÊs own behalf; (v) Being honest with others and with oneself; (vi) Becoming more sensitive to the ways people communicate; (vii) Learning about closeness and intimacy; and (viii) Experimenting with new ways of relating to others. (e) How Does a Group Work? A group is able to provide support, offer alternatives or gently confront group members in such a way that difficulties can be resolved and new behaviours learned. Sometimes a group helps a person to develop new social skills or apply different ways of relating to people. Often people in a group begin to feel less alone in dealing with their problems. It can be very encouraging to hear that others have worked through similar problems. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 195 (f) What Do I Actually Do in a Group? Letting the group know why you initially came to UCS and sharing what you hope to gain from the group is a good place to start. If you need support, let the group know. If you think that you need to be challenged, let the group know that too. It is sometimes helpful to think of the group as a laboratory in which you can experiment with new ways of thinking, feeling or relating to others. You will probably be most helped if you talk about your feelings. Unexpressed feelings are a major reason why people experience difficulties. Group leaders and other group members can help you to be more honest with yourself and with others as you explore your feelings. How much you choose to talk about yourself is up to you. However, we have found that the people who benefit most from group accept a sense of responsibility for making the group work by sharing their concerns and speaking up when they have reactions to issues or to other individuals in the group. (g) Will I Have Enough Time to Work on My Issues in a Group? Each group usually finds its own way of negotiating how group time is used. Typically, a group will begin with a „check-in‰ so that group members have an opportunity to request time during that session. We have found that group members who are able to request time as needed are most likely to benefit from group. Group members can also benefit from hearing other people work through and discuss their issues. Usually a meeting with a group leader can help you determine if the group would allow enough time for you to deal with your issues. (h) ArenÊt People Too Afraid to Really Talk in a Group? When you meet people for the first time, it is hard to know what to say and how much to trust them. Trust is a process that develops over time as group members take risks and share about themselves. It helps to remember that groups are usually small ă six to ten people ă and that other group members may be struggling with some of the same concerns as you. Letting the group know you are uncomfortable can be a first step. What is expected is that you make a commitment to being in the group and that you are willing to open up when you feel comfortable to do so. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

196 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING (i) If I Do Share Personal Information with The Group, How Can I Trust That it Will Be Kept Confidential? The issue of confidentiality is an important one and it is addressed in the first group session. Group members are asked to make a commitment to protect each otherÊs confidentiality by agreeing not to divulge information that would identify other members to outside groups or individuals. While we at the UCS cannot provide you with an absolute guarantee of confidentiality, our experience shows that group members respect each otherÊs privacy just as they respect their own. Some issues do not remain confidential whether you are being seen in group or individual counselling. The decision to break confidentiality is based on the issue of protection. If a member appears to be planning harm to self (suicide), harm to others (homicide) or if he reports that he has abused children or dependent adult individuals, the counsellor is legally bound to break confidentiality in order to provide the individuals with the assistance they need. (j) What will be Expected of Me? Each group may establish its own ground rules but there are some general guidelines which we believe to be important. They are: (i) If you are going to miss a session, please let the group leaders know; (ii) We ask that you give the group a chance. If you decide the group is not appropriate for you, please discuss your concerns with the group; (iii) It is your responsibility to talk about your reasons for being in the group and to let the group know what you expect from them; and (iv) You are expected to respect the confidentiality of the group. (k) What is the Role of the Group Leader? The role of the group leader is to facilitate productive, respectful communication within the group. To do this, he or she will encourage group members to interact with one another. A group leader may point out common themes, give feedback to individuals or the group as a whole, or offer support or challenge as needed. He may also try to provide enough structure so that the group does not get stuck but, at the same time, offer enough freedom so that the group accepts responsibility for itself. The leader respects the confidentiality of the group and makes every effort to create a safe group environment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 197 (l) Will Other Group Members Be Like Me? Within any groups there are bound to be similarities and differences among people. UCS has a strong commitment to meeting the needs of diverse people. In all individual, program and group services, we strive to create an environment where all people feel welcome. We attempt to facilitate mutual respect and understanding among people of diverse racial, ethnic, national and cultural backgrounds, sexual or affectional orientation, mental and physical abilities, languages, religion or spiritual beliefs as well as other types of diversity. Source: Group Counseling ă WhatÊs it all about? UNIVERSITY COUNSELING SERVICE. The University of Iowa. Iowa City. http://www.uiowa.edu/~ucs/ Read the Case Study of Group Counselling Services at the University of Iowa and answer the following questions: (a) What types of problems are appropriate for group counselling? (b) What can a person expect from group counselling? (c) How is confidentiality assured in group counselling? (d) Who are group leaders? (e) What is the role of the group leader? (f) Find out how many universities and colleges in Malaysia actually provide group counselling services for their students. SELF-CHECK 7.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

198 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE GROUP LEADERS There are differences between effective and ineffective group leaders. Leaders who are authoritarian and aggressive are ineffective group leaders. Such leaders cause group members to drop out after having encountered such leaders in their groups. On the other hand leaders who are caring, who are good at structuring the group, who explain and clarify the thinking of members have a positive effect on members. Effective leaders are people who are sincere, enthusiastic, creative, have a presence and identity. Gladding (2003) in Table 7.1 listed the following as qualities of effective group leaders. Table 7.1: Effective Group Leadership Skills in Counselling Skills Description Active listening Attending to verbal and non-verbal communication Clarifying Simplifying client statements Summarising Selecting important aspects Questioning Asking open-ended questions to encourage self-exploration Empathising Identifying with clients Goal setting Planning specific goals for the group Giving feedback Expressing concrete and honest reactions Facilitating Opening up clear and direct communications within the group Modelling Demonstrating desired behaviour through actions Terminating Preparing the group to end the session Source: Gladding (2003) 7.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING 199 Group counselling is based on the premise that people have a natural tendency to share thoughts and feelings. Ć Joseph Pratt, a Boston physician, was the first to use group counselling in 1905. Ć Gazda (1989) described group counselling as the dynamic interaction between individuals for the prevention or remediation of difficulties, or for the enhancement of personal growth and enrichment. Ć Counsellors have to make the decision when, where and with whom to apply group counselling. In some situations, group counselling is not an appropriate way of helping individuals. Ć Some people are of the opinion that groups are artificial and unreal when dealing with problems. Ć The Association of Specialist Work Group (ASWG) has classified groups as follows: Guidance/Psychoeducational Groups; Interpersonal Problem-Solving Groups; Personality Reconstruction Groups; Task/Work Groups; T-Groups; and Self-Help/Support Groups. Ć The group counselling process consists of forming, norming, performing and termination. In the forming stage, efforts are made to help members feel they are part of the group; In the norming stage, the leader and group members try to find their place in the group and develop a sense of cohesiveness or „we-ness‰; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

200 TOPIC 7 GROUP COUNSELLING In the performing stage, the group is ready to „work‰ and members are more trusting of self and others. They are more focussed in achieving the goals of the group; and In the termination stage, group members have completed their tasks and having accomplished goals, they take time to celebrate and ultimately disband the group. Forming Group counselling Guidance/psychoeducational groups Interpersonal problem-solving group Misconceptions Norming Performing Personality reconstruction group Self-help/Support group Termination T-Group Association of Specialist Group Work. (1992). Professional Standards for Training Group Workers. Alexandria, Virginia. Childers, J. H., & Couch, R. D. (1989). Myths about group counseling: Identifying and challenging misconceptions. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, Vol. 14(2), p. 105ă111. Gazda. G. M. (1989). Group counselling: A developmental approach. USA: Allyn and Bacon. Gladding, S. T. (2003). Group work: A counselling specialty. UK: Prentice Hall. Group Counseling ă WhatÊs it all about? University Counseling Service. The University of Iowa. Iowa City. http://www.uiowa.edu/~ucs/ Tuckman, B. (1965) Bruce TuckmanÊs Team Development Model. https://www. lfhe.ac.uk/download.../3C6230CF-61E8-4C5E-9A0C1C81DCDEDCA2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

INTRODUCTION Over five million students are registered in primary and secondary schools in Malaysia. These students come from diverse backgrounds and abilities. Some are developmentally ready and eager to be in school. Others are disadvantaged because of physical, mental, cultural and socioeconomic factors. There are also students who carry the burden of traumas rooted at home such as physical and emotional forms of abuse. Topic 8 School Counselling and Ethical Issues in Counselling By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain why school counselling is important; 2. Describe some of the issues that school counsellors have to deal with; 3. Elaborate on the approaches in school counselling; 4. Discuss the five moral principles of counselling; 5. Describe the ethical decision-making model; and 6. Elaborate on the dimension of confidentiality. LEARNING OUTCOMES Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 202 School counsellors have an important role in addressing these concerns and problems of the students. The focus of most school counselling programmes is basically to address issues relating to academic performance, career choice as well as personal and social concerns which can have an impact on the lives of students. It should be noted that counselling involves a person revealing his or her intimate and private thoughts and feelings to another person or to group members. Hence, the issue of ethics is of utmost importance. On the other hand, counselling is not a value-free or neutral activity but rather it is a profession which involves orienting an individual or group of individuals towards achieving something good (Cottone & Tarvydas; Bergin, 1995). In this topic we will discuss the issues relating to ethics of counselling as well as some legal aspects of counselling. IMPORTANCE OF THEORY IN COUNSELLING According to Suradi and Rafidah (2005), „the development of counselling services in Malaysia is closely related to the history of guidance and counselling in schools.‰ There are records to show that guidance services were introduced by the English during colonial Malaya in 1939 with the publication of a booklet entitled Careers in Malaya: A Guide for Parents, Teachers and Pupils. In 1963, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka published a book entitled Perkhidmatan Panduan di Sekolah. In the same year, the Ministry of Education Malaysia set up Bahagian Bimbingan dan Kaunselling (The Guidance and Counselling Section) which was established under the Educational Planning and Research Division (EPRD). In 1968, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP5209/30/13) which directed all State Education Departments to instruct their principals in secondary schools to appoint guidance teachers to provide guidance and counselling services for their students. In 1993, the Ministry of Education introduced a guidebook titled Panduan Perlaksanaan Perkhidamatan dan Kaunseling di Sekolah-sekolah Menengah (Guide Towards the Implementation of Guidance and Counselling Services in Secondary Schools). The guidebook proposed the following four goals for guidance and counselling services in schools (see Figure 8.1). 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 203 Figure 8.1: Goals of guidance and counselling services in Malaysian schools Source: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (1993) Schools were required to provide enrichment services for the overall development of students. Opportunities and facilities have to be made available in line with the capabilities and potential of the students. Preventive measures have to be introduced, especially with regard to disciplinary problems, inappropriate behaviours and drug abuse. In addition, efforts should be made to provide remedial services especially with regard to helping students with academic problems and career choice. It was also proposed that schools provide crisis counselling for students who need such service. In 1996, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP SB-HEP 8543/60/91) requesting primary and secondary school principals to appoint full-time counsellors in their schools to better plan and coordinate guidance and counselling services in schools (Suradi & Rafidah, 2005). The goal was to achieve a ratio of one counsellor for every 500 students. 1. Trace the history of guidance and counselling in Malaysian schools. 2. What other events have influenced the development of counselling in Malaysian schools? SELF-CHECK 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 204 WHY ARE SCHOOL COUNSELLING SERVICES IMPORTANT? The purpose of having guidance and counselling services in schools is to help students understand themselves and the world around them. It is the process of helping students maximise their abilities, capabilities and talents (Suradi Salim, 1996). This is based on the premise that there are individuals in our schools who are unable to realise their potentials and the responsibility of realising their potential lies within the individual themselves. The guidance and counselling services aim to help and not to direct the individuals or make decisions for them. Every day, individuals make decisions that affect themselves and others in society. Individuals who fail to make the right decisions and are unable to adapt accordingly are more likely to encounter problems. For example, a student who chooses to spend his time playing video games rather than practise solving assigned mathematics problems is more likely to find it difficult to cope with the subject. School counselling services in primary, secondary and tertiary level institutions aim to help individuals make choices and adapt to the environment. The following are the reasons for having a comprehensive counselling programme in schools (see Figure 8.2). Figure 8.2: Reasons for school counselling services 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 205 Let us now look at each of these reasons in detail. (a) Holistic Development of Students Most education systems seek to develop students holistically. The Malaysian education philosophy attempts to develop a well-balanced individual ă intellectually, physically, emotional and spiritually. However, in reality excellence in academic performance is given top priority. Overemphasis on examinations has led to the neglect of other areas of the studentÊs performance such as sports, leadership, social skills, music, creative writing, appreciation of fine arts and performing arts. These areas, if properly developed, will lead to the development of a well-balanced individual. (b) Making Decisions Many facets of a studentÊs life in school have been predetermined and presented in a didactic manner. There is little that is left requiring students to make decisions on their own. Hence, their decision-making skills are rarely developed and when faced with issues relating to behaviour, emotions and thoughts, students are ill-equipped to make the right decision. For example, some students would rather spend their time at the shopping mall during school hours than to be in school. Counselling programmes in schools can play an important role in helping students make good decisions. (c) Motivating Students Motivating students to learn and take an interest in school activities is a difficult task. Not all students are motivated to learn or are interested in school activities. The problem of motivating students becomes even more critical when dealing with academically weak students. It is like the chicken and the egg story! Which comes first? Low academic performance leads to low motivation and low motivation leads to low academic performance. How do we break the cycle? Perhaps, this may be the most important task for the counsellor. Enhancing student motivation may perhaps prevent other types of inappropriate behaviours. (d) Career Choice The original focus of most counselling programmes in schools was to help students with their career choice. Types of jobs and careers have become more varied due to the complexities at the workplace. Many jobs which are available today did not exist a decade ago. Similarly, students today have to be prepared for jobs that have not been created. Counsellors have to be well-informed as to what is currently available and what will be available in the next decade and to match job types with aptitudes and abilities of students. More sophisticated career guidance methods have to be developed to provide information that is useful in helping students make their career Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 206 choices. Students have to be oriented towards believing that there are other equally exciting jobs other than being a doctor, lawyer, engineer or accountant. ISSUES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING PROGRAMMES As society becomes more complicated, the same goes for schools have which have become more complex with large student numbers. Student populations in many secondary schools range between 1,500 and 2,000 students. Imagine the different personalities and socio-emotional backgrounds of students who are attending school each day. With the large student numbers, it is unlikely that the individual needs of each and every student are being attended to. The likelihood of students being alienated and ignored is very high. What are the issues that school counselling programmes are likely to address? Figure 8.3: Issues emphasised in school counselling programmes A comprehensive school counselling programme will provide guidance and counselling services in three main areas in order to address personal issues, educational issues and vocational issues (see Figure 8.3). (a) Personal Issues These include problems and concerns relating to personality, physical and emotional development, interpersonal relationships and other related issues. (b) Educational Issues Focus on learning problems (such as motivation to study, unable to cope with studies, unable to read and write adequately), selection of courses (especially in higher education), time management, adapting to the school (for students from various primary schools who joined the same secondary school), language difficulties (difficulties with the English language) and other related issues. 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 207 (c) Vocational Issues Focus on career choices, preparation for a particular career, placement and adaptating to the working world. These services would be most needed by students who are at the end of their schooling years, although choice of careers can begin earlier in a studentÊs life. The following are some of the common negative behaviours of students which are found in Malaysian schools: (a) Not interested in learning; (b) Playing truant (loitering in shopping complexes, video arcades, internet cafes or snooker centres); (c) Vandalism; (d) Stealing school property; (e) Owning, viewing and distributing pornographic materials; (f) Behaving rudely; (g) Smoking; (h) Drug abuse; (i) Extortion; (j) Gangsterism (belonging to or claiming to belong to gangs outside of school or using the services of gangsters); and (k) Violating school rules (dress code, length of hair). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 208 APPROACHES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING Counsellors are also needed in schools. The tasks of school counsellors are not as difficult or hard as counsellors in hospitals or rehab centres where they need to deal with complex problems or situations that may involve mental disturbance. School counsellors are needed for the following approaches as shown in Figure 8.4. Figure 8.4: Approaches in school counselling 8.4 1. How serious is the issue of negative student behaviour in your school or college? 2. How has management dealt with these negative behaviours? 3. Do you think schools are doing enough to reduce the occurrence of such negative behaviours? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 209 Each of these approaches in school counselling will now be discussed in detail. (a) Counselling for Academic Success One of the major roles of school counsellors is to help students achieve academic success. There are two major interventions that school counsellors can use to help students succeed academically. Firstly, school counsellors can intervene to help students create a school climate which promotes academic success. Secondly, direct counselling interventions can be used with individual students or groups of students whose academic success remains a challenge. Now let us look at the interventions: (i) Creating a Climate of Learning Purkey and Schmidt (1996) identified several characteristics of creating a climate of learning in the school environment. They found that students are more likely to want to perform well academically in a school where they are recognised for their accomplishments and encouraged to fulfil their potentials. School counsellors can be part of team which develops this climate by conducting award programmes and recognising studentsÊ achievements. This is a popular practice in many Malaysian schools. It is easy to encourage and reward students who are motivated to succeed. But the school experience is not always perceived as positive by all students. Some students detest the structure and demands of the school curricula. They have difficulty conforming to the school environment and the expectations of others. School counsellors should focus on students who struggle academically and who are struggling to get through the day at school. Direct counselling interventions are needed to support whatever goals which are perceived as important to the students and success ă no matter how small it should be celebrated. Creating a climate for academic progress includes engaging students in their own learning. School counsellors can be instrumental in identifying the factors that facilitate learning for all students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 210 (ii) Counselling Interventions Let us study counselling interventions closely. Assessing the Present Problem School counsellors should be aware that issues which are presented as academic problems may, in fact, be symptomatic of other issues. The purpose of the school counsellorÊs initial intervention should be to determine the sources of the academic problems. Is the issue solely academic? Is the problem more psychological, social or emotional? Is the source of the issue outside the school environment? The answers to these questions will influence how the school counsellor proceeds with the appropriate intervention. Setting Goals When students have educational and career goals, they are more likely to be successful academically. Therefore, school counsellors must focus on helping students establish their goals. This is not always easy as some students have difficulty determining what they want in life. Goals may need to be short-term and very concrete such as „My goal is to complete all my mathematics homework‰. Goals must be concise, precise and most of all, meaningful. The counsellor could ask, „How would completing all your mathematics homework help you?‰ The student might respond, „Well, it can mean a difference between D and an F, and I need a pass in mathematics‰. This is a meaningful sub-goal. When setting goals for the studentÊs academic success, it is critical that the student is committed to the goals. School counsellors must determine whose goals are being addressed during the counselling session. There may be a tendency to set goals based on the teacher or parentÊs opinion rather than the studentÊs needs. It must be remembered that it is the studentÊs commitment to the established academic goals that will ultimately determine the studentÊs success. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 211 Selecting Appropriate Intervention Strategies When a student struggles academically, it is important that intervention begins as soon as the difficulty is identified. If the struggle goes untreated for too long, the studentÊs self-concept and social interactions may be affected. (b) Counselling for Career Development The school counsellorÊs role in the studentÊs career development is one of the foundations of the school counsellorÊs job. Since vocational counselling was the central focus of counselling services in the early school counselling history, it is only natural that career counselling is still a primary responsibility of school counsellors. In the past, career counselling focused solely on helping students discover what suitable jobs or careers that they wished to pursue and helping them decide which paths they may take to achieve their goals. More recently, the emphasis is on students exploring for themselves and determining their own career paths with some guidance from the counsellor. Students explore for themselves as to how their likes and interests relate to different jobs or careers. It is also important for students to be aware of what is available in the job market. This is usually done through career talks by professionals from various occupations or taking field trips to a variety of workplaces. In primary schools, counsellors may organise activities which require pupils to interview people from various occupations. Often, this creates important dialogues between pupils and adults such as parents, neighbours and community leaders about the many opportunities and challenges in the working world. This awareness may help them move through the phases of their career development. In secondary schools, emphasis should be on how various occupations play a role in the economy and how work influences the way we live. The organisation of Career Day or Career Week is encouraged whereby students will be able to learn about the different career options. Interactive software programmes, questionnaires and test instruments can be administered to students to obtain profiles of their personalities, interests, abilities and values. Based on the inputs received, students will be able to obtain profiles or information regarding potential occupational matches. Students can explore specific occupations by accessing information about how much education is needed, the salary range and the outlook for job opportunities. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 212 Students typically enjoy this activity because they not only learn about themselves but they also begin to think about their future. Student counsellors initiate dialogues which can help students explore the results of the programmes and how well they believe the results match their self-perceptions. To help students prepare for their careers, counsellors could maintain portfolios at the beginning of early secondary school. A portfolio is a collection of activities which students have completed during their time in secondary school. The portfolio may contain the following: (i) Listing and description of school activities (sports and club activities); (ii) Grades and test scores; (iii) Work and/or volunteer experiences; (iv) Courses attended; (v) Hobbies or interests outside of school; and (vi) Projected future plans (university, college, technical or vocational, work). The portfolio is to be updated as the student progresses through the secondary school. By the time the student reaches Form 5, there should be enough information to help the student in his college or university application process, or his job application process. Much of the school counsellorÊs role in secondary school career development is consultative and supportive. If a student has a question or concern about careers, the school counsellor can explore options with the student and help the student come to an acceptable conclusion. The question of „What am I going to do after secondary school?‰ can be an overwhelming question for some students. Therefore, the school counsellorÊs role is to assist in any way possible to alleviate the anxiety and worry that often come with making major life decisions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 213 (c) Counselling for Personal and Social Development In an ideal world, we would be able to protect children from life events that cause them stress and pain. The reality is that studentsÊ lives are affected by significant events that are usually expected. School counsellors may identify extreme changes in student behaviours or attitudes as a result of significant events or changes in their lives. Students frequently seek out school counsellors because of upsetting or stressful life events. School counsellors must help students address the thoughts, feelings and behaviours that result from the stressful events in their lives. For example, with the increasing number of divorces, many students are experiencing changes in family situations. School counsellors may need to provide services for students who are facing the issue of a parent moving out, going to court, living in two places, parents remarrying or having step-parents or step-siblings. Most children hope that their parents will get back together. Emotions range from depression to anger to confusion because of the divorce. Sometimes, children feel responsible and express their emotions through destructive behaviours such as violence or fighting. Students sometimes believe that if their behaviours are extreme enough, their parents will focus on them rather than the divorce. In addition to divorce, there are other significant experiences of griefs or loss that children and adolescents may encounter such as the death of a relative or a friend, moving to a new school, friends moving away or parental change as a result of job loss. Most students will experience some form of loss events and school counsellors should be prepared to help them work through the related issues. Other personal and social issues which the school counsellor may have to deal with are anger, jealousy, lack of motivation, friendship issues, gang involvement, relationship issues, self-concept, drug use and abuse and peer pressure, to name a few. One aspect of being an effective counsellor is the ability to identify and understand the issues that studentsÊ face. The following are general guidelines which counsellors may use when counselling the students: (i) Listen to the Story Students need to be heard and perhaps they need to hear themselves. Often, they just need someone who will objectively listen without interfering. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 214 (ii) Help Students Identify Their Concerns There may be multiple issues to be addressed. Which seems to be the most pressing? Which issue the number one distraction in the studentÊs life? (iii) Meet the Student where the Student Is If a student is not ready to talk or not ready to work on a problem, do not force him. Counselling services are to be offered, not imposed. (iv) Help the Student Set Goals If the student is ready, talk about the goals that the student has set in order to deal with the problem. What would be different as a result of these goals? What would the student need to do differently to reach these goals? (v) Consider Challenges Along the Way Discuss the possible consequences of the studentÊs decisions. What if something does not go as planned? Are there alternatives? (vi) Be Available and Check with the Student Often, after something is resolved, the student may not come back to the counsellor. It is important for the counsellor to find the student and check to see how things are going with him. It is inaccurate to assume that there is no relationship between a studentÊs personal life and his academic behaviour. We cannot assume that students leave their problems at the school door and become completely focussed on the academic tasks at hand. The school counsellor can be a bridge between personal and social concerns, and academic progress. To view a studentÊs personal, social, emotional or academic development as if it exists in a vacuum or in isolation is a narrow vision that will ultimately neglect the full potential of the student. School counsellors must take a holistic approach. The unique training that school counsellors receive enables them to discover how each developmental area is intertwined with others and understand how each issue interacts or interferes with the development in other areas. Counsellors must help students solve problems and work through important issues that will ultimately affect their overall functioning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 215 WHAT IS ETHICS? Ethics is generally defined as a philosophical discipline that is concerned with human conduct and moral decision-making. Ethics are normative in nature and focus on principles and standards that govern relationships between individuals such as those between counsellor and clients (Gladding, 2003). For most professions, ethics are usually presented in the written form. Most professions have their own Code of Ethics and the counselling profession is no exception. For example, it is unethical for a counsellor to have intimate sexual relations with his client. The term ethics is often referred to rather loosely to be similar with morality. 8.5 1. What are some counselling approaches for academic success? 2. To what extent do you agree with the proposed approaches mentioned in subtopic 8.4? 3. Do you think schools are doing enough to help academically weak students? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.2 1. What is the role of the school counsellor in the aspect of career development? 2. How is career development implemented in your school? 3. How can career development in your school be improved? ACTIVITY 8.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 216 It is common to encounter conflicts between legal and ethical or moral issues in counselling. For example, a counsellor who refuses to provide confidential information about a client even though he is ordered to do so by the court is ethically right but is legally wrong (if the law provides for it). Another example is when a counsellor applies counselling techniques which are not covered by the law but are prohibited by the Code of Ethics. In this case, it may be legal since there is no provision in the law but it is unethical and morally wrong. The following are some examples of unethical behaviour in counselling: (a) Violation of confidentiality. (b) Claiming expertise that one does not have. (c) Imposing oneÊs values on a client. (d) Sexual activity with a client. (e) Negligent practices include: (i) Applying techniques that may harm the client; (ii) Not giving due attention to clientÊs needs; and (iii) Not serious about attending to clientÊs needs. 1. What is the difference between ethics, morality and law? 2. Give examples of situations in daily life where „it is legal but unethical‰. Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 217 SOME GENERAL ETHICAL GUIDELINES FOR COUNSELLORS Most countries developed ethical guidelines to regulate the counselling profession in order to address ethical issues. In most cases, the institution responsible for drawing up these guidelines is the national counselling association. It is responsible for drawing up a set of codes and standards of practice that have been agreed upon by all parties in the counselling profession. For example, the British Association for Counselling (BAC) ensures that counsellors practise their profession according to ethical standards of practice developed by the association. In the United States, ethical guidelines have been published by the American Association for Counselling and Development (AACD). In Malaysia, the Malaysian Counselling Association (Persatuan Kaunseling Malaysia or PERKAMA) which was founded in 1980 was tasked with the responsibility to formulate its own Code of Ethics. In 1998, the CounsellorsÊ Act (580) was introduced. It outlined the procedures for licensing and certification of new counsellors. The Malaysian Counsellors Advisory Council (Lembaga Kaunselor) functions as a registrar and an accreditation body for the licensure and certification (Suradi & Rafidah, 2005). If one was to examine these different ethical guidelines, there are some common general principles adopted by various countries. It should be noted that although these guidelines are undoubtedly helpful, they are open to interpretation. It is important to note that these ethical codes have been developed not only to protect clients against abuse or malpractice but also to protect the counselling profession. Listed in the following are some general guidelines governing the practice of counselling (ACA Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice, 2015): (a) The Counselling Relationship Let us look at the counselling relationship in detail. (i) Non-discrimination Counsellors must respect diversity and must not discriminate against clients because of age, colour, culture, disability, ethnicity, gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, marital status or socioeconomic status. (ii) Disclosure to Clients Counsellors must adequately inform clients, preferably in writing, regarding the counselling process and counselling relationship at or before counselling begins and throughout the counselling sessions. 8.6 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 218 (iii) Sexual Intimacies with Clients Counsellors must not engage in any types of sexual intimacies with his clients. (iv) Client Protection during Group Counselling Counsellors must take steps to protect his clients from physical or psychological trauma resulting from interactions during group counselling. (v) Termination Counsellors must assist in making appropriate arrangements for the continuation of his clientÊs treatment, when necessary, following the proper procedures of termination. (b) Confidentiality Each of the confidentiality will now be discussed in detail. (i) Confidentiality Requirement Counsellors must ensure that information relating to counselling services be kept confidential unless disclosure is in the best interest of client or it is required for the welfare of others, or it is required by law. When disclosure is required, only information that is essential is revealed and the client is informed of such disclosure. (ii) Confidentiality in Group Work Counsellors must clearly inform group members that confidentiality cannot be guaranteed in group work. (iii) Confidentiality of Records Counsellors must maintain appropriate confidentiality in creating, storing, accessing, transferring and disposing of counselling records. (iv) Disclosure or Transfer of Records Counsellors must obtain clientÊs consent to disclose or transfer his counselling records to third parties. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 219 (c) Professional Responsibility Let us study the professional responsibility closely. (i) Boundaries of Competence Counsellors must only practise within the boundaries of their competence. (ii) Continuing Education Counsellors must engage in continuing education to maintain their professional competence. (iii) Impairment of Professionals Counsellors must refrain from offering professional services when their personal problems or conflicts may cause harm to his client or to others. (d) Assessment and Interpretation Now let us look at assessment and interpretation. (i) Use of Assessment Instruments Counsellors must perform only testing and assessment services for which they are competent. Counsellors must not allow the use of psychological assessment techniques by unqualified persons under their supervision. Counsellors must use assessment instruments in the manner for which they were intended. (ii) Assessment Explanations to Clients Counsellors must provide explanations to his clients prior to the assessment about the nature and purposes of the assessment and the specific uses of the results. Counsellors must ensure that accurate and appropriate interpretations accompany any releases of testing and assessment information. Counsellors must not base their assessment or intervention decisions or recommendations on data or test results that are obsolete or outdated for the current purpose. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 220 (e) Research and Publication Let us now look at research and publication closely. (i) Precautions to Avoid Injury in Research Counsellors must avoid causing physical, social or psychological harm or injury to subjects during research. (ii) Confidentiality of Research Information Counsellors must ensure that the information obtained about research participants are kept confidential. Counsellors must not distort or misrepresent research data, fabricate or intentionally cause biasness in the research results. (f) Resolving Ethical Issues Now we will look at how and what do to in resolving ethical issues. (i) Ethical Behaviour Expected Counsellors must take appropriate actions when they possess reasonable doubts of other counsellors not acting in an ethical manner. (ii) Cooperation with Ethics Committees Counsellors must cooperate with investigations, proceedings and requirements of the ethics committees of the association or board in their country which have a jurisdiction over those charged with a violation. 1. Do you think the list of ethical guidelines for the counselling profession is adequate? 2. What other guidelines would you suggest? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 8.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 221 MORAL PRINCIPLES The ethical guidelines discussed earlier are based on five moral principles, namely autonomy, justice, beneficence, non-maleficence and fidelity (Kitchener, 1984). Although you may not have come across some of these words, it is useful for counsellors to apply these five moral principles when addressing issues that are not well defined. Figure 8.5: Five moral principles Source: Kitchener (1984) Figure 8.5 illustrates the five moral principles and its brief explanation will be discussed as follows. (a) Autonomy is the principle that addresses the concept of independence. The essence of this principle is to allow an individual the freedom of choice and action. It addresses the responsibility of the counsellor to encourage clients, when appropriate, to make their own decisions and to act on their own values. There are two important considerations in encouraging clients to be autonomous: (i) Firstly, help clients to understand how their decisions and their values may or may not be received within the context of the society in which they live and how they may impinge on the rights of others; and (ii) The second consideration is related to the clientsÊ ability to make sound and rational decisions. Individuals who are not capable of making competent choices (such as children and individuals with mental handicap) should not be allowed to act on decisions that could harm themselves or others. 8.7 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 222 (b) Non-maleficence is the concept of not causing harm to others. Often explained as „above all do no harm‰, this principle is considered by some to be the most critical of all the principles (Rosenbaum, 1982). This principle reflects both the idea of not inflicting intentional harm and not engaging in actions that could risk harming others. (c) Beneficence reflects the counsellorÊs responsibility to contribute to the welfare of the client. Simply stated, it means to do good, to be proactive and to prevent harm when possible (Forester-Miller & Rubenstein, 1992). (d) Justice does not mean treating all individuals to be the same. Kitchener (1984) pointed out that the formal meaning of justice is „treating equals equally and unequal unequally but in proportion to their relevant differences‰. If an individual is to be treated differently, the counsellor needs to be able to offer a rationale that explains the necessity and appropriateness of treating this individual differently. (e) Fidelity involves the notions of loyalty, faithfulness and honouring commitments. Clients must be able to trust the counsellor and have faith in the counselling relationship if growth is to occur. When exploring an ethical dilemma, you need to examine the situation and see how each of the above principles relates to that particular case. At times this alone will be able to provide clarification to the issues, so much so that resolving the dilemma will become obvious to you. In more complicated cases it is helpful to be able to work through the steps of an ethical decision-making model and to assess which of these moral principles may be in conflict. 1. What do you understand by autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, justice and fidelity? 2. How are these principles useful in making ethical decisions in counselling? SELF-CHECK 8.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 223 ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING At some point in the counselling practice, the counsellor will have to face the situation of whether he will need to apply the Code of Ethics of the counselling profession. There are no ready-made answers and professional organisations may not be of much help. Unfortunately, professional organisations only provide broad guidelines for responsible practice and not the solutions for specific cases. Therefore, the counsellor will be left with the task of making a decision involving some ethical issues. Determining the appropriate course to take when faced with a difficult ethical dilemma can be a challenge. In the United States, the American Counselling Association (ACA) has developed A PractitionerÊs Guide to Ethical Decision-Making to meet such challenges. The intent of this document is to offer professional counsellors with a framework for sound ethical decision-making. The guiding principles proposed are useful for any counsellors (even in Malaysia) who are involved in ethical decision-making ă a model that professionals can utilise to address ethical questions in their work. 8.8.1 Ethical Decision-making Model Forester-Miller and Davis (1996) has synthesised the model of ethical decision-making (Van Hoose & Paradise, 1979; Kitchener, 1984; Stadler, 1986; Haas & Malouf, 1989; Forester-Miller & Rubenstein, 1992; Sileo & Kopala, 1993) into a practical, sequential, seven-step ethical decision-making model. Figure 8.6: Seven-step ethical decision-making model 8.8 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 224 Case A student who has been in counselling for about a semester was arrested for stealing a motorbike. The juvenile court has requested that the counsellor appear in court to tell the court about the student. As a counsellor, are you obliged to inform the court what your client has confided in you? What can you tell or cannot tell to the court? This may be an ethical dilemma. Let us analyse the case using the seven-step ethical decision-making model as shown in Figure 8.6. (a) Identify the Problem In identifying the problem, as a counsellor, you need to gather as much information as you can. It is essential to be as specific and as objective as possible. You may write ideas on paper to outline the facts, separating the assumptions, hypotheses or suspicions in order to gain clarity. There are several questions that you can ask yourself: Is the problem an ethical, legal, professional or clinical one? Is it a combination of more than one of these? If it is a legal question, seek legal advice. Evaluate the rights, responsibilities and welfare of all those involved in the situation. (b) Look up the Code of Ethics You need to refer to the Code of Ethics after you have clarified the problem to see if the issue is addressed there. Find an applicable standard that you can use that will resolve the problem. You may have a true ethical dilemma if the problem is more complex and a resolution does not seem apparent. If that is the case, you need to proceed with to the next step in the ethical decision-making process. (c) Determine the Nature and Dimensions of the Dilemma There are several ways to ensure that you have examined the problem in all its various dimensions. You need to consider the moral principles of autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, justice and fidelity (which we have discussed earlier). Then you need to decide which principles apply to the specific situation and determine which principle takes priority for you in this case. In theory, each principle is of equal value, which means that it is your challenge to determine the priorities when two or more of them are in conflict. (i) Review the relevant professional literature to ensure that you are using the most current professional thinking in reaching a decision; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 225 (ii) Consult with experienced professional colleagues. As they review with you the information you have gathered, they may see other issues that are relevant or provide a perspective which you may not have considered. They may also be able to identify aspects of the dilemma that you have not viewed objectively; and (iii) Consult your national professional association (such as PERKAMA) to see if they can provide help with the dilemma. (d) Generate Potential Courses of Action You need to be creative and consider all the options when you brainstorm for possible courses of action. It is best if you can engage the assistance of at least one other colleague to help you generate more options. (e) Consider the Potential Consequences of All Options and Determine a Course of Action You need to evaluate each option and assess the potential consequences for all the parties involved after you have considered the information that you have gathered and the priorities you have set. The implications of each course of action for the client, for others who will be affected as well as for yourself (as the counsellor) must be considered thoughtfully. You need to eliminate the options that might cause even more problematic consequences or those that clearly will not produce the desired results. Review the remaining options to determine which option or combination of options best fits the situation and address the priorities you have identified. (f) Evaluate the Selected Course of Action Review the selected course of action to see if it presents any new ethical considerations. Stadler (1986, as cited in Forester-Miller & Davis, 1996) suggested the application of three simple tests to the selected course of action to ensure that the selected course of action is appropriate. (i) In applying the test of justice, assess your own sense of fairness by determining whether you would treat others in the same manner as in this situation; (ii) For the test of publicity, ask yourself whether you would want your behaviour to be reported in the press; and (iii) For the test of universality, assess whether you would recommend the same course of action to another counsellor under the same situation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 226 If you can answer in the affirmative to each of the three questions suggested and you are satisfied that you have selected an appropriate course of action, then you are ready to move on to the implementation stage. (g) Implement the Course of Action It is often difficult to take the appropriate action in an ethical dilemma. The final step involves strengthening your ego in order to allow you to carry out your plan. It is a good practice to follow up on the situation after implementing your course of action in order to assess whether your actions had the anticipated effects and consequences. There is seldom one answer to a complex ethical dilemma. Thus, it is crucial to be aware that different professionals may employ different courses of action for the same situation. However, you will definitely be able to give a professional explanation for the course of action that you have chosen if you follow a systematic model. Van Hoose and Paradise (1979, as cited in Forester-Miller & Davis [1996]) suggested that a counsellor „is probably acting in an ethically responsible way concerning a client if: (a) He has maintained personal and professional honesty, coupled with: (b) The best interest of the client; (c) Without malice or personal gain; and (d) Can justify his actions as the best judgment of what should be done based upon the current state of the profession‰. Following this model will help to ensure that all these four conditions have been met. DIMENSION OF CONFIDENTIALITY Confidentiality is central to the counselling process. No counselling session can take place unless the client trusts in the privacy of the relationship with the counsellor. Counsellors have an ethical responsibility to discuss the nature and purpose of confidentiality with their clients early in the counselling process. Clients have a right to know that their counsellor may be discussing certain details of the relationship with school authorities or colleagues. 8.9 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 227 Although most counsellors agree on the essential value of confidentiality, they also realise that it cannot be considered as an absolute confidentiality. There are times when confidential information must be divulged. There are many instances in which the decision whether to keep or to break the confidentiality becomes a cloudy issue. In general, confidentiality must be broken when it becomes clear that clients might do serious harm to either themselves or others. For example, there is legal requirement to break confidentiality in cases involving child abuse. The counsellor, after hearing a student tells about the fact that she has being sexually abused at home, may have to break confidentiality to protect the client from further harm. The following are circumstances in which counsellors may break confidentiality: (a) When the counsellor believes that a client (a student) is the victim of incest, rape, child abuse or some other crimes; (b) When the counsellor determines that the client needs hospitalisation; (c) When the information is made an issue in a court action; or (d) When clients request that their records are released to themselves or to a third party. In general, however, it is a counsellorÊs primary obligation to protect his clientÊs information as a vital part of the counselling relationship. When assuring clients that what they reveal in counselling sessions will generally be kept confidential, counsellors should also inform them of any limitations on confidentiality. This practice does not necessarily inhibit successful counselling. Schools are required to provide enrichment services for the overall development of the students. Opportunities and facilities have to be made available in line with the capabilities and potential of the students. Preventive measures have to be introduced, especially with regard to disciplinary problems, inappropriate behaviours, drug abuse and other maladaptive behaviours. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 228 Efforts should be made to provide remedial services especially with regard to helping students with academic problems and career choice. The purpose of having guidance and counselling services in schools is to help students understand themselves and the world around them. It is the process of helping students to maximise their abilities, capabilities and talents. One of the major roles of school counsellors is to help students achieve academic success. There are two major ways that school counsellors can intervene to help students succeed academically: Firstly, school counsellors can help to create a school climate that promotes academic success; and Secondly, direct counselling interventions can be used with individual students or groups of students for whom academic success is a challenge. Ethics are normative in nature and focus on principles and standards that govern relationships between individuals such as those between the counsellor and his clients. Morality involves judgement or evaluation of action. It is associated with words such as good, bad, right, wrong, ought and should. Law is the precise description of governing standards that are established to ensure legal and moral justice. Most countries have developed ethical guidelines to regulate the counselling profession. In most cases, the institution responsible for drawing up these guidelines is the national counselling association. Some general guidelines governing the practice of counselling include: The counselling relationship; Confidentiality; Professional responsibility; Assessment and interpretations; Research and publication; and Resolving ethical issues. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 229 At some point in the counselling process, counsellors will be faced with the situation where he or she will have to apply the Code of Ethics of the counselling profession. Ethical decision-making model offers professional counsellors a framework for sound ethical decision-making. Confidentiality is central to the counselling process. No counselling session can take place unless the client trusts in the privacy of the relationship with the counsellor. There are times when confidential information must be divulged. There are also many instances in when deciding whether to keep or to break confidentiality becomes a cloudy issue. Academic success Autonomy Career choice Climate for learning Code of Ethics for counsellors Counselling for career development Counselling for personal development Decision-making Dimension of confidentiality Ethical decision-making Fidelity Holistic development Interventions for academic success Justice Law or Legal Moral principles Morality Non-maleficence PERKAMA Preventive measures Remedial services Vocational issues Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 8 SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING 230 American Counselling Assoction (ACA). (2015). ACA code of ethnics. Alexandria, VA: American Counselling Association. Forester-Miller, H., & Davis, T. (1996). A practitionerÊs guide to ethical decision making. American Counseling Association. Gladding, S. T. (2003). Group work: A counselling specialty. UK: Prentice Hall. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (1993). Panduan perlaksanaan perkhidmatan bimbingan dan kaunseling di sekolah menengah. Unit Bimbingan dan Kaunseling, Bahagian Sekolah. Kitchener, K. S. (1984). Intuition, critical evaluation and ethical principles: The foundation for ethical decisions in counseling psychology. Counseling Psychologist, 12(3), 43ă55. LaypersonÊs Guide to Code of History. http://www.counseling.org/Files/FD. ashx?guid=606b5973-315c-4118-8b2c-2fbfd8194f82 Purkey, W. W., & Schmidt, J. J. (1996). Invitational learning for counseling and development. USA: Caps Pr. Suradi Salim & Rafidah Aga Mohd Jaladin. (2005). Development of counselling services in Malaysia in Contemporary Issues of Malaysia Psychology (eds Zafar Afaq Ansari & Noraini M. Noor). Kuala Lumpur: Thomson Learning. Suradi Salim. (1996). Bimbingan dan kaunseling. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Professional. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

INTRODUCTION An educational system which focuses on human capital development as intended in the National Mission and National Education Philosophy requires the assessment of human capacity or holistic human capabilities. According to the Oxford Dictionary (n.d.), the term „holistic‰ means being interconnected with each other as a comprehensive integrated system, not just on certain aspects. The quality of a student should not be judged solely from the intellectual ability by his examination results alone. On the contrary, human quality can be judged by various dimensions that reflect the individual as a knowledgeable, skillful and attentive person, possessing spiritual values, possessing high levels of health and fitness, emotionally stable, with the ability to think and possessing the skills to live in a community. Since our aim is to develop a well-balanced individual, Topic 9 Psychometric Assessment in Malaysian Schools By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain psychometric assessment; 2. Differentiate between aptitude and personality tests; 3. Recall the types of instruments in psychometric assessment; and 4. Elaborate the tasks of counsellors in the District Education Office (DEO) and in schools. LEARNING OUTCOMES Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)