82 TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN COUNSELLING Figure 3.8: Counsellors giving right responses by listening to their clients Source: http://www.rhodescollege.ca and www.betterhelp.com At another level, what is heard by the counsellor is interpreted as another meaning, a more accurate meaning according to the messages sent. The interpretation is a must because human beings generally do not communicate accurately. When we speak, we have the tendency to talk evasively. What we say may not convey what we think and how we feel. Therefore, the process of listening needs the integration of restating and feeling reflection skills. Listening actually has a therapeutic value where it is perceived by the client that he is being heard and understood by someone. Ordinarily, when we speak with other people during a social meeting, we rarely take time to observe attentively to what is being said. But when there is someone who listens attentively and understands what we are trying to convey, we will usually feel better. This might be the reason why the client feels nurtured because there is someone who really listens to his dissatisfactions, tries to understand him and his thoughts, and offer accurate responses, something which he may not have experienced before. (d) Restating Restating is related to listening skill. The ability of the counsellor to restate the gist of the message being conveyed by the client shows that the counsellor has listened attentively. This skill is also known as paraphrasing a statement. The counsellor gives feedback of what has been said by the client by using the counsellorÊs own words. There are three purposes of paraphrasing the clientÊs statements: (i) To let the client know that the counsellor is trying to understand him; (ii) To summarise clearly what has been said by the client; and (iii) To check whether what is understood by the counsellor is similar to what the client wants to convey. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN COUNSELLING 83 Sometimes what is being said by the client revolves around his feelings but the counsellorÊs response when paraphrasing is on the meaning of the statement. For example: Example 1 Client : IÊm fed up of studying. Sometimes when I wake up in the morning, I feel like skipping school. ( feeling) Counsellor : Studying is no longer a challenge for you. ( meaning) Example 2 Client : I donÊt know what to do anymore. At times I feel like I want to work first, get some experience and continue my studies after a year or two. ( feeling) Counsellor : You feel it is difficult to make a decision, whether to stop studying for a while and work or to continue your studies. ( meaning) In each example, the counsellor responded with the meaning of the message from the client by paraphrasing the statements through the use of his own words. Paraphrasing a clientÊs statement is suitable at the initial stage of consultation because it encourages the client to talk more openly and explain his problem more elaborately. However, it is important to remember that paraphrasing does not result in deeper exploration of the problem. The discussion can even be boring if it is not aided by other skills. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
84 TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN COUNSELLING (e) Feeling Reflection The difference between restating what has been said by the client and feeling reflection is from the aspect of its emphasis. Restating the explanation by using the counsellorÊs own words to check whether what the client said is exactly as what the counsellor perceived. On the other hand, feeling reflection is to suggest a feeling felt by the client when making a statement, to check the accuracy of the clientÊs feeling at the time. For example: Example Client : When I found out that my PTPTN application was approved, I felt better because at least I donÊt have to worry about my expenses. Counsellor : You felt relieved because your financial burden has been lessened. In this instance, the counsellor reflects the condition of the clientÊs feelings at the current time and by doing so, he communicates his acceptance towards the client. If you recall the previous explanation, a client who felt that he has been heard (or listened to) and understood by the counsellor will be more open and able to focus better on the problem. (f) Summarising the Content of Discussion Summarising skill refers to the ability of the counsellor to summarise important matters which were discussed during the consultation session. This is to ascertain that both the client and the counsellor agreed on what has been discussed. Ascertaining the gist of discussion is not the same as paraphrasing. The gist of discussion might be based on clientÊs statements in one consultation session or one which was made during one of the last few sessions. The main purpose is for verification. In addition, summarising can provide assurance to the client that his problem has been given full attention by the counsellor. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN COUNSELLING 85 Summarising the content of counselling is usually applied during these situations: (i) When the counsellor structures the beginning of the counselling session by reflecting on important matters which were discussed during previous sessions; (ii) When client starts to make confusing statements which do not have any relevance with the current problem; (iii) When the client feels that he has expressed everything which is important to him on a specific topic; (iv) With regard to future actions, the counsellor and the client make evaluation of what has been learnt from the previous consultation; and (v) At the end of the session when the counsellor tells the client what has been learnt from the session. (g) Summarising the Feeling The skill of summarising the clientÊs feelings can be quite difficult to be conducted because of several reasons. Firstly, it has to do with our Eastern culture whereby expressing deep and profound feeling is not an easy thing to do. When a counsellor tries to summarise a clientÊs feeling, there is a possibility that the client will deny his own feelings. This is because to admit to something which contradicts our own culture is difficult even though the client may have feelings such as hating his parents, being angry and others. Therefore, the counsellor must use his mastery of communication skills so that the counsellor and the client do not have contrasting opinions. If the client denies what is perceived as true by the counsellor, therefore the counsellor must change the topic of discussion. There might be a chance that the counsellor wrongly perceives the feelings exhibited by the client. The aim of summarising the clientÊs feelings which were observed by the counsellor during consultation sessions is to recognise and respond to the feelings which were expressed by the client or those which were perceived by the counsellor. This type of response allows the counsellor to observe and verify whether the response given by the client is accurate and similar to what is being felt by him. Another purpose is to demonstrate to the client that the counsellor is sincerely listening to his problems and is by his side to help him. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
86 TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN COUNSELLING Counselling involves the dynamic communication process between two individuals who interact with each other. The counsellor is responsible for providing an appropriate environment and ambience in order to carry out the counselling session effectively and comfortably. The relationship between the counsellor and the client is unique. Whatever is discussed during the counselling session is deemed confidential. A counsellor has the responsibility to respect and maintain the clientÊs secrets unless there is written consent to not do so. Confidentiality of the clientÊs secrets need to be upheld to build trust. 1. (a) What is the impact to an individual if he is truly listened to and understood by others? Provide an explanation based on your experience. (b) Practise listening with this technique and observe the results. 2. Is silence during an interaction a good thing? Why and when should you be silent? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 3.4 1. Explain the basic communication skills which a counsellor needs to know and practise. 2. In what situations would the counsellor need to summarise the gist of a discussion? 3. Briefly explain how the first counselling session is to be conducted. SELF-CHECK 3.5 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN COUNSELLING 87 The counselling process moves from one phase to another, each phase possesses certain procedures and skills. Thus, the counsellor must be ready to start the consultation with the client, build a good rapport, structure the session and inform the clients of the roles of the client and the counsellor. Non-verbal behaviour plays a very important role during the consultation session. It is important to observe the behaviour of the client and interpret his non-verbal behaviour. There are seven basic communication skills that a counsellor needs to have. They are; asking open-ended questions, responding to silence, listening, restating, feeling reflection, summarising the content of the discussion and summarising the feeling. Close-ended questions Communication skills Confidentiality Consultation session Counselling skills Listening skill Meeting environment Non-verbal behaviour Open-ended questions Silence Luxmoore, N. (2014). School counsellors working with young people and staff: A whole-school approach. UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Mc-Leod, J. (2013). An introduction to counselling (5th ed.). UK: McGraw-Hill Education. Nelson-Jones, R. (2012). Introduction to counselling skills: Text and activities (4th ed.). California: SAGE Publication Ltd. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION In previous topics, you have been introduced to several basic communication skills which are necessary for a counsellor. In this topic, we will look at how those communication skills can be used when engaging with clients. In this topic, we will also explain how a counsellor should play the three basic roles by utilising all the communication skills that we have learned. The counsellorÊs roles are focusing role, explaining role and supporting role. Several examples on how these roles can be effectively applied will be provided. At the end of the topic, there are exercises provided for counsellors to practise so as to be able to differentiate between the demands of the three different roles. Topic 4 Counselling Roles and Skills By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the types and response levels of focusing role; 2. Explain the types and levels of clarifying responses; 3. Analyse the levels of supporting responses; and 4. Differentiate the characteristics of higher-level responses and lower-level responses of each role. LEARNING OUTCOMES Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 89 FOCUSING ROLE Before we can help a person, we must pay full attention to the person that we are trying to help and listen attentively to what he has to say. Focusing is the process of giving full attention to the client with the intention of understanding and not doubting him. This can only be achieved if the counsellor actively listens to the message that the client wants to convey. Listening actively means the counsellor listens attentively to the client, accepts and respects the client and his thoughts without any conditions. The counsellor would use appropriate words and gestures as an indication that the counsellor understands what the client is trying to say. More importantly, a counsellor should be able to comprehend the implicit meaning hidden behind the lengthy conversation with the client. The following are characteristics that imply that the counsellor is listening actively: (a) Being patient and open-minded; (b) Focusing on the content of the conversation and the phrases being used; and (c) Focusing on the implicit and explicit feelings as well as non-verbal movements. The most common method to listen attentively regardless of the counselling approaches used is by having eye contact with the client, maintaining an open posture and making your presence felt by the client by responding to what he has to say. Responses to the client must convey that you understand him and can be done in many ways such as nodding as a sign of agreeing, giving simple answers such as „Yes, go on⁄‰ until it arrives at the appropriate verbal responses. It is best to respond in a way that will reflect the clientÊs feelings and the gist of discussion up until the appropriate responses which will reflect the counsellorÊs deeper level of comprehension with regard to the clientÊs feelings. The focusing role, which is giving full attention to the client, involves the acceptance and involvement process with other individuals. It is a must for a counsellor to recognise and practise the skills of the focusing role. The focusing role, if it is done accordingly, will be able to signal to the client that the counsellor is concerned and has an interest in listening to the problems which are expressed by the client. 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
90 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS According to Casemore (2011), there are four ways in which we can facilitate the skills of the focusing role and this is illustrated in Figure 4.1. Figure 4.1: Focusing role skills Source: Casemore (2011) Here are the explanations of focusing role skills. (a) Take some time to reflect before giving your response to the client. Consider the clientÊs whole message thoroughly and think of an appropriate response; (b) Use appropriate words, phrases and terms which the client is familiar with based on his age and background; (c) Do not take too much time when responding because this will cause the client to shift his attention to other matters; and (d) Use simple and short responses, and avoid elaborate ones. How does a counsellor show the client that he is interested in listening to the clientÊs problems, that he can accept and respect the client? Share your answer in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 91 4.1.1 Types of Verbal Focusing Response According to Casemore (2011), counsellors must be able to differentiate the various types of verbal focusing responses. There are four types of verbal responses which are used by counsellors. Each of the responses can communicate specific meaning to the client if it is used accordingly. (a) Simple Response These responses are short responses, for example, „Yes‰ or „Uh huh‰ or „Mm-hmm‰, which carries the same meaning as nodding in agreement. These simple responses can indicate that the counsellor is listening and following the clientÊs story. These simple responses can encourage the client to continue his story. (b) Reflection of Content and Feeling This kind of response reflects what the client said, as heard by the counsellor. The counsellor then responds to what has been said and how it was said including the hidden feelings and the body language projected by the client. The counsellor needs to understand and realise the clientÊs feelings and attitude which may not be expressed through his words. (c) Emphasising This simple response is taken from the clientÊs final words. Emphasis is placed on the words or sentences which stand out the most and repeatingly. Emphasise the point slowly and gently. This is done to encourage the client to elaborate deeper on the matter that the client has just brought up for discussion. (d) Paraphrasing This response is done by restating the important message which the client expresses through the use of other words or phrases. Because the counsellor uses different words or phrases, the counsellor not only shows his comprehension but simultaneously provides the client an opportunity to „view‰ his actions, thoughts and feelings from the counsellorÊs perspective. Explain the focusing role. SELF-CHECK 4.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
92 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS Now let us look at examples of verbal focusing responses. (a) Client 1: A 20-year Old Female College Student „Recently, I had a feeling that I was being isolated by my own friends. I do not know the reason. Things went well for the last three months. I have many friends and they are all very close to me prior to this incident.‰ (i) Simple Response „Yes, go on.‰ (ii) Reflection of Content and Feeling „You are worried because it seems like your friends are keeping themselves away from you.‰ (iii) Emphasising „You are being disfavoured.‰ (iv) Paraphrasing „You used to have many friends but now it feels like they do not want to be your friends anymore. You feel hurt.‰ (b) Client 2: A Teenage Girl „My mother always nags at me. As soon as I finished a chore, she will ask me to do other things. She never stops nagging, never stops giving me all kinds of advice which sometimes have nothing to do with me. IÊm sick of it!‰ (i) Simple Response „I see, go on.‰ (ii) Reflection of Content and Feeling „You feel angry because your mother always asks you to do the housework and continually gives you advices.‰ (iii) Emphasising „YouÊre tired of it.‰ (iv) Paraphrasing „You do not like to be instructed to do the housework. And you feel that it is unnecessary for your mother to give too many advices especially those which do not concern you.‰ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 93 (c) Client 3: A 25-year-old Man „I am now working part-time at a factory while waiting for a better job opportunity. ItÊs been more than a year. I have a Diploma in Business Administration but nowadays it is very hard to get an office job because I do not have prior experience. I already feel bored with the job that IÊm doing right now.‰ (i) Simple Response „Uh-huh.‰ (ii) Reflection of Content and Feeling „You feel disappointed because you could not get a job in the field of your study.‰ (iii) Emphasising „You are frustrated.‰ (iv) Paraphrasing „You feel unsuccessful because you are unable to get the job that you want. Now you also feel bored with the part-time job at the factory.‰ 4.1.2 Focusing Response Levels When the focusing role is carried out appropriately, it can produce very good results. When it is done correctly, it means that the counsellor has managed to show his profound understanding of what the clients has expressed including the content and his feelings. If the focusing response is shown at a higher level, it conveys the message to the client that the counsellor is sincere in helping him and that he can trust the counsellor without feeling threatened. On the contrary, if repeating what the client said is the only thing that the counsellor does and with no purpose at all, it will make the client feel uneasy. Such focusing response can be categorised as lower-level focusing response which is the most ineffective response level. Lower-level focusing conveys the message to the client that his thoughts, feelings and actions were not supported nor acknowledged. Figure 4.2 illustrates the different levels of the effectiveness of focusing responses. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
94 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS Figure 4.2: Focusing response levels Source: Casemore (2011) Each of these levels will now be discussed one by one. (a) Level One: Does Not Play the Role Well The counsellor is ineffective when he gives little or no attention to his client. (b) Level Two: Moderately Playing the Role The counsellor plays his role moderately well when he only pays attention to some parts of the clientÊs content and feelings. This is sometimes done in a pretentious manner. (c) Level Three: Playing the Role Well The counsellor plays the role well when he shows full attention to the clientÊs feelings and content. He is able to interpret the message sent by client correctly. Moreover, the message is communicated back to the client in a precise manner. (d) Level Four: Playing the Role Best The counsellor is playing the role at the best level when he shows a very high interest in the client, able to interpret the clientÊs messages correctly, responses to the implicit feelings and content of message expressed by the client, uses suitable eye contact and tone of voice. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 95 Now we will look at a few examples of focusing response levels. These are three statements which were made by the clients. Each statement will be followed by four responses given by four different counsellors. Each response will be given marks based on the Response Level Scale (1ă4) and explanations are given based on the marks given to each of the responses. You are asked to carefully examine the examples given and try to give your own evaluation (whether you agree or disagree with the marks given and the explanations which follow). You may disagree with the grading. This does not mean that you are wrong because the verbal and non-verbal statements made by the clients and the responses displayed by the counsellors could not be fully portrayed through the written statements. There is a possibility that you might read it differently from the person who has given the marks. Each response from the counsellor could be given different marks based on what he has heard. When giving marks for each response, it is important for you to provide the rationale so that it can be a basis for discussion with your tutor and other coursemates. (a) Client 1: A Form Five Male Student „I am worried about what am I going to do after I finish schooling. Sir, do you know if it will be easy to get a job if I continue my studies in Accounting?‰ Responses: (i) „It seems like you are looking for a future career and accounting seems to be your option right now.‰ (ii) „You have not even completed your SPM, and you already worrying about your future job?‰ (iii) „If you want to know more about the job opportunities, why donÊt you ask Mrs. Shanthi, the Accounting teacher?‰ (iv) „Exam is nearing. You are worried about what you are going to do once you complete your examination. You may want to further your studies in accounting.‰ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
96 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 2.5 : Focuses on the content and feelings, provides support on the problem that arises and provides opportunities for further discussions. (ii) 1.0 : The counsellor underestimates and pays little attention to the clientÊs problem, and does not accept clientÊs problem. (iii) 2.0 : Giving advice without understanding the real situation, does not try to comprehend the clientÊs feelings, does not want to be involved with the clientÊs problem. (iv) 3.5 : The counsellor responds to the implicit message, understands the client more that what the client stated and encourages the client to take action. (b) Client 2: A 27-year-old Man „I feel so exhausted. My work has been piling up over the last few weeks. The harder I try to complete all the work, the more work I get. Plus, IÊm studying part-time. I easily became angry at my wife and my baby daughter. I donÊt know what to do anymore.‰ Responses: (i) „Your work load is increasing and you are worried about its effects on your family.‰ (ii) „DonÊt worry, this will all pass when your employer hires some parttime workers.‰ (iii) „You feel really frustrated. You work hard and yet there is no end to it. You love your family but you always lashed out your anger at them. Surely you donÊt want this to go on?‰ (iv) „What do you want me to do? Everyone has his own problems.‰ Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 2.5 : Paraphrasing the clientÊs statement and shows focusing response. (ii) 0 : Gives invalid advice. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 97 (iii) 4.0 : The counsellor is able to read the implicit meaning and gives opportunities for the client to be more open in the discussion. (iv) 0 : Shows no acceptance at all, ridicules the client and is insensitive towards his clientÊs problems. (c) Client 3: First Year Student at a Public University „Lately I feel like everything has gone wrong. My grade has worsened and my mother never stops grumbling. Recently, my girlfriend has threatened to leave me.‰ Responses: (i) „You know, I used to have that problem when I was your age. DonÊt worry too much. It will all pass some day.‰ (ii) „You are having problems to improve your grade, relationship problem with your mother as well as with your girlfriend.‰ (iii) „You feel uneasy because all the problems ă which are problems with your studies, mother and girlfriend ă happened at the same time and you need an immediate solution.‰ (iv) „You feel distressed and tried to find ways on how to lessen your problems.‰ Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 0 : Gives advice without knowing the clientÊs real problem. This is inappropriate self-discovery. (ii) 2.5 : Focuses on the content and reflecting on important matters. (iii) 3.5 : Focuses on the content and feelings and encourages the client to find a solution for the most critical matter between the three problems highlighted. (iv) 4.0 : Understands the implicit message and encourages the client to express his concerns in a deeper manner. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
98 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS The following exercises were initially designed by Nelson-Jones (2012) and edited to be used to increase your focusing response skills. These differentiating skills will give you the opportunity to recognise the clientÊs implicit meaning, to identify various kinds of focusing responses and to gain experience in distinguishing effective responses from ineffective ones. (a) Client 1: A Form Five Student „I have just received the results from the last examination and I found out that I have failed the Biology paper. I donÊt know how to tell my parents about this. They had planned to spend the coming holidays travelling overseas but now I have to go for extra classes during the holidays.‰ Implicit Meaning: __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Responses: 1. „It is hard when you disappoint your parents, but things will be worse if you disappoint yourself.‰ 2. „This is how you should tell your parents ⁄‰ 3. „You seemed frustrated because of three reasons. Firstly, you have failed in school, secondly, you have disappointed your parents and thirdly, you might not be able to go overseas for your holidays.‰ 4. „My, oh my!‰ Type and Level of Response: 1. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 4. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ACTIVITY 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 99 (b) Client 2: A 30-year-old Man „I am thinking of divorcing my wife. Fighting is all we do nowadays. It seems like the love we had between us has been gone a long time ago.‰ Implicit Meaning: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Responses: 1. „Your once beautiful relationship has now turned sour and troublesome, so much so that you think there is only one solution.‰ 2. „Ah, yes.‰ 3. „Fighting, mmm, it is hard.‰ 4. „You seem to be having a hard time with your wife. Your love for each other has gone and you are thinking if divorce is the best solution to solve this problem.‰ Type and Level of Response: 1. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 4. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
100 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS CLARIFYING ROLE Clarifying role is used when a counsellor needs some clarifications on issues that are still unclear or when the counsellor wants to avoid confusion. As a counsellor, you may sometimes be a little unsure of what the client has said especially when the statement seems confusing to you or when you feel that there is a need for the client to provide additional information in order for you to understand how your client perceives his problem. It is important for a counsellor to understand what the client is trying to convey in his statements. A counsellor 4.2 (c) Client 3: A 30-year-old Housewife „I donÊt know what I should do with my life.‰ Implicit Meaning: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Responses: 1. „You seem disoriented because you want to make some changes but you donÊt know where to go or what to do.‰ 2. „You feel confused, you feel like you want to do something with your life.‰ 3. „Thinking about your future is frightening.‰ 4. „I understand.‰ Type and Level of Response: 1. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 4. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 101 must also not pretend that he understands what the client is saying. The clarifying role is usually used simultaneously with the focusing role because both roles facilitate the comprehension of clientÊs feelings and thoughts. When using the clarifying role with the client, you are actually encouraging your client to recall what has been said previously, restate what has been said about certain issues or problems. The request for your client to explain further can be communicated through body movement signals such as nodding, eye contact or asking open-ended questions which require your client to answer more than just saying „yes‰ or „no‰. 4.2.1 Types of Clarifying Responses The clarifying role usually consists of the following responses: (a) Perception Checking With this response, the counsellor aims to check the accuracy of his perception towards the message which was conveyed by the client. The counsellor confirms with the client whether he agrees with his perception or whether there is a need to correct that perception by the client. For example, „Just now you have stated that⁄‰ (b) Alternative Explanation This response is used when the counsellor is unsure of which alternative is more important to the client. Example of response, „You mean that this matter is more important⁄‰ (c) Asking for Elaboration This response is used when the counsellor asks the client to elaborate further when the counsellor feels that there is some confusion on the side of the client or his side. For example, „I am not very sure what you mean. Would you please elaborate?‰ What do you understand about the clarifying role? SELF-CHECK 4.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
102 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS Let us look at a few examples of clarifying responses. These examples show us how to carry out the clarifying role: (a) Client 1: A 20-year-old Female College Student „Recently, I had a feeling that I was being isolated by my own friends. I do not know the reason. Things went well for the last three months. I have many friends and they are all very close to me prior to this incident.‰ (i) Perception Checking „From my understanding, you want to find out what have you done that has caused your friends to distance themselves from you.‰ (ii) Alternative Explanation „I am not certain which of these two matters worry you more. Are you angry because you lost many friends over something you did? Or perhaps because you didnÊt do anything to cause something like this to happen, you are confused as to why this is happening?‰ (iii) Asking for Elaboration „I am not quite sure what your problem is. Would you please elaborate?‰ (b) Client 2: A Teenage Girl „My mother always nags at me. As soon as I finished a chore, she will ask me to do other things. She never stops nagging, never stops giving me all kinds of advice which sometimes have nothing to do with me. IÊm sick of it!‰ (i) Perception Checking „Does this mean that your mother controls everything in your life?‰ (ii) Alternative Explanation „Please explain to me. Do you feel that your mother is troubling you or do you feel that you lack the skills to communicate with your worrisome mother?‰ (iii) Asking for Elaboration „I am not quite certain of your relationship with your mother and other family members. Would you please tell me more about it?‰ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 103 (c) Client 3: A 25-year-old Man „I am now working part-time at a factory while waiting for a better job opportunity. ItÊs been more than a year. I have a Diploma in Business Administration but nowadays it is very hard to get an office job because I do not have prior experience. I already feel bored with the job that IÊm doing right now.‰ (i) Perception Checking „You feel like you need to find another job, if possible, a job in an office.‰ (ii) Alternative Explanation „Are you worried because you current job is disappointing or are you mad because you werenÊt given any chance to work in the office because you lack the experience?‰ (iii) Asking for Elaboration „It seems like you are angry at something. I wonder what or who is it? Go on.‰ 4.2.2 Levels of Clarifying Responses The counsellorÊs clarifying responses are usually applied at the initial stage of the counselling process. Responses at higher level, either verbally or non-verbally, conveys to the client that the counsellor is interested and sincere in helping the client. Responses at higher level are also able to help the counsellor focus on critical issues or situations which require further clarification. If the clarifying role is practised appropriately, it will simplify matters for the client. Moreover, it will make it easier for the counsellor to understand and comprehend the clientÊs feelings and thoughts. State the three types of clarifying responses. Describe the purposes for making such responses. SELF-CHECK 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
104 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS Conversely, if it is done excessively (that is, if the counsellor makes or asks for clarifications even on trivial matters), all the efforts will be ineffective or worse, counterproductive. It can interfere with the flow of the clientÊs thought process. The following is the use of the clarifying role based on the 4-mark grading scale (1ă4). It will enable you to distinguish which ones are effective and which ones are not. (a) Level One: Less Effective Role The counsellor is considered as ineffective when he shows little or no interest at all towards the clientÊs problem, exhibit judgmental attitude (for example, „ThatÊs wrong, isnÊt that stupid?‰). Making responses at this level means that the counsellor refuses to be involved with the clientÊs feelings and content which are expressed by client. Or the counsellor might be thinking of other matters which have no relation at all to the clientÊs problem. (b) Level Two: Moderately Playing the Role The counsellor is less effective when he gives explanations only on some parts of the clientÊs implicit message, and it is usually done in an unenthusiastical manner. (c) Level Three: Playing the Role Well The counsellor focuses on the content and the feelings expressed by the client. He will try to clarify things which might cause confusion or will ask clarifications from the client on doubtful or questionable matters. The counsellor shows high interest in helping the client. (d) Level Four: Playing the Role Best The counsellor plays his role best at this level when he is able to grasp the meaning as well as able to clarify what is stated verbally and what is felt by the client. He is able to help the client to look at an issue with a clearer vision, help the client to focus deeper on his problem, he is non-judgmental and shows very high interest in helping his client. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 105 Let us look at a few examples of clarifying response levels. To practice and learn to differentiate between effective and ineffective responses, the following three clientsÊ statements will be studied: (a) Client 1: A Form Five Male Student „I am worried about what am I going to do after I finish schooling. Sir, do you know if it will be easy to get a job if I continue my studies in Accounting?‰ Responses: (i) „I am not quite clear on what the real problem is. Are you unsure of your future in general or your career option?‰ (ii) „Your worry seems to be whether you should or should not continue your studies in the field of accounting at institutions of higher learning.‰ (iii) „Does the worry about your future come from within yourself or are there any pressures from your parents?‰ (iv) „Is your exam result good enough to enable you to take up the Accounting programme?‰ Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 3.0 : The counsellor is able to read beyond the real statement and try to clearly differentiate the two statements expressed by the client. (ii) 2.8 : The counsellor checks whether his perception towards his clientÊs statement is true or not. (iii) 2.8 : The counsellor ascertains whether there is another alternative which might contribute to his clientÊs problem. (iv) 1.5 : The counsellor tries to encourage the client to clarify his situation but at the same time conveys his personal value in his response („You must be qualified‰). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
106 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS (b) Client 2: A 27-year-old Man „I feel so exhausted. My work has been piling up over the last few weeks. The harder I try to complete all the work; the more work I get. Plus, IÊm studying part-time. I easily became angry at my wife and my baby daughter. I donÊt know what to do anymore.‰ Responses: (i) „You are saying that your work pressure causes problems to your health and your family.‰ (ii) „I am not quite clear about your relationship with your boss and your job in general, would you please elaborate on that.‰ (iii) „I am not sure with what you said. Is your health causing problems to your job or is it the other way around?‰ (iv) „You seem frustrated and you think that your job is to be blamed but youÊre actually not certain whether it really is the cause.‰ Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 2.5 : The counsellor evaluates his perception towards the clientÊs statement and does not go far from the expressed statement. (ii) 2.8 : The counsellor asks for clarification regarding the clientÊs statement. Focus is given to the clientÊs main statement. (iii) 3.0 : The counsellor tries to differentiate the two important alternatives from the original statement. (iv) 3.5 : The counsellor goes beyond the original statement to clarify the cause of clientÊs feelings. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 107 (c) Client 3: First Year Student at a Public University „Lately I feel like everything has gone wrong. My grade has worsened and my mother never stops grumbling. Recently, my girlfriend has threatened to leave me.‰ Responses: (i) „You wish that you could forget everything, that it would be good if you can start everything over again.‰ (ii) „You feel like everyone is turning their backs on you.‰ (iii) „I am not sure what troubles you more - your grade, the relationship problem with your mother or the relationship problem with your girlfriend?‰ (iv) „You are considering whether you should stop studying, move out of your house or find another girlfriend.‰ Marks (1 ă 4) and Rationales: (i) 2.5 : The counsellor checks his perception on the seriousness of the problem. (ii) 3.0 : Checks the perception and goes beyond what is said by the client. (iii) 2.5 : The counsellorÊs clarification of the alternatives can be conceived as phony by the client. (iv) 3.0 : By injecting humour into the clarification of the alternatives, the counsellor tries to interpret beyond the clientÊs original statement. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
108 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS The following exercises were prepared by Nelson-Jones (2012) to help you gain the skills in making clarifications. The differentiating exercises will give you the opportunity to identify the clientÊs implicit meaning, recognise the various ways to make clarifications regarding the clientÊs statement as well as to distinguish effective responses from ineffective ones. (b) Client 1: A Form Five Student „I have just received the results from the last examination and I found out that I have failed the Biology paper. I donÊt know how to tell my parents about this. They had planned to spend the coming holidays travelling overseas but now I have to go for extra classes during the holidays.‰ Implicit Meaning: __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Responses: 1. „I am not certain what makes you feel frustrated. Is it because you have failed your exam, you might not be able to go on holidays or you disappoint your parents?‰ 2. „Are you worried that your parents might punish you for ruining their holiday plans?‰ 3. „Please explain more. I am not sure what disappoints you the most.‰ Type and Level of Response: 1. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ACTIVITY 4.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 109 (b) Client 2: A 30-year-old Man „I am thinking of divorcing my wife. Fighting is all we do nowadays. It seems like the love we had between us has been gone a long time ago.‰ Implicit Meaning: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Responses: 1. „I am not quite sure what have you just said. Do you mean ÂItÊs already too late to save this relationship?Ê or ÂI really want this relationship to return to the way it was?ʉ 2. „What hurts you the most ă the fights, the disappointment or your deteriorating relationship?‰ 3. „I think there is some confusion in your story. Would you please explain more?‰ Type and Level of Response: 1. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
110 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS SUPPORTING ROLE Communicating support is one of the most important relationship skills. Everything that the counsellor does to build good relationship with the client is based on support and confidence. Your attitude and the application of effective focusing and clarification show your interest in your clientÊs problem. The specific skills discussed in these roles are used when you want to convey stronger support and confidence for your client. The roles include giving positive feedback, communicating secure feelings, confidence, encouragement and creating a harmonious environment. In effect it is like saying „You are OK‰ or „I like to help 4.3 (c) Client 3: A 30-year-old Housewife „I donÊt know what I should do with my life.‰ Implicit Meaning: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Responses: 1. „It seems to me that you want some changes in your life. There is the possibility that you would want to work again.‰ 2. „IÊm not sure what youÊre saying. Are you unsure of your life choices or are you uncertain which life path to choose?‰ 3. „You seem concerned with your feelings and I donÊt really understand this. Would you care to elaborate more on yourself and your situation right now? Type and Level of Response: 1. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 111 you‰ to your client. These roles are very important in a counselling relationship because the client would normally want the feeling of being accepted. Moreover, they often fail to gather enough energy to kickstart a change or to find solutions to their problems without the support of the counsellor. Supporting and convincing roles are used when you want to strengthen your clientÊs statement, to make the client feels like he is apprehended and accepted as a human with moral values even though some of his behaviour and nature is not easily accepted by the counsellors and other people. Responses that convey confidence to the client will help him overcome obstacles and cope with complicated problems and situations. Several counselling experts also stated that supporting responses are suitable to be used with clients who had experienced misfortunes or are in a state of crisis. Supporting and confidence responses emphasise that as a counsellor, you trust your client and you are confident that your client is capable of solving his issues. In addition, you understand the human nature and respect your clientÊs self-esteem. By using supporting responses, you avoid making comparisons between your client and other people, and focus on what you are doing or thinking at the moment. Erford (2014) suggested that this role be implemented at several stages of the counselling process. 4.3.1 Types of Supporting Responses The responses that demonstrate this role are: (a) Valued or Appreciated Person Responses This type of response is used to demonstrate unconditional respect. This response communicates to the client that they are individuals who have high values, no matter what their conduct or actions are. This type of response also focuses on the uniqueness of each individual. Statements like, „You have handled the problem well‰ and „Seems like you are enjoying yourself!‰ encourage and provide firm humanity support to the client. (b) Acceptance Responses This response is used to help the client instil positive feelings towards himself. The response is shown by demonstrating acceptance, agreement or confidence on certain opinions, feelings or behaviour which are exhibited by the client. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
112 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS (c) Coaxing Responses This response demonstrates concerns towards the client and displays support for them whenever they feel dissatisfied with some matters. The response is useful particularly when a client has just experienced a tragedy, is going through hard times, or is likely to face the problem in the future. By saying, „ItÊs a tough problem youÊre going through‰ and „You seem to be having a really complicated problem‰, it shows your understanding towards the clientÊs problem and your support for him. (d) Calming Responses This response helps a lot when the client is stressful, nervous and in a restless condition. The response can be used to calm the client and to control his emotions. Saying something such as „Take a deep breath‰ and „Close your eyes for a few minutes and try to imagine a pleasant situation‰ will convey sincere interest towards the client. Let us look at a few examples of supporting responses. (a) Client 1: A 20-year-old Woman „My father and I always argue especially about my male friends. In fact, he doesnÊt even allow my male friends to come over to my house. According to him, theyÊre all jerks. I think he doesnÊt trust me.‰ (i) Valued or Appreciated Person Response „You are a woman with your own values and you are assertive when it comes to standing up for your own beliefs.‰ (ii) Acceptance Response „It is hard to accept that your own father does not trust you.‰ (iii) Coaxing Response „I understand why you are mad. It is tough when your father refuses to understand your situation and scolds you like that.‰ (iv) Calming Response „Whoa, your situation is really complex. You are still trembling. Before we can start, calm yourself down first. Take a deep breath and let go.‰ Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 113 (b) Client 2: A 45-year-old Woman „My mother passed away a few months ago and my life changed ever since. I could not go on living as usual. I think about death too much.‰ (i) Valued or Appreciated Person Response „Your reaction shows that you are missing your mother. After her death, it is normal for you to be sorrowful.‰ (ii) Acceptance Response „Even though it is hard as you canÊt seem to think right or to act right, your mourning for your mother is a healthy and natural response. It is alright to take some time to mourn for your mother.‰ (iii) Coaxing Response „My condolences to you for your loss. A motherÊs death is always difficult to accept and it certainly is a big loss.‰ (iv) Calming Response „Mourning takes time, and unfortunately, this feeling could never be removed or hurried. When you think about death, the feeling is a reminder of how deep your love is towards your mother and to appreciate those who are still alive. Take some time to think through this matter.‰ 4.3.2 Levels and Supporting Responses An expert counsellor uses supporting role to show respect to his client, comprehends the nature of human strengths and weaknesses, possesses a calming tone of voice, uses effective gestures and always gives full attention to his client during counselling sessions. Using the role effectively can help clients to lessen the intensity of their feelings, to feel less worried when doing certain activities, to have trust in the counselling relationship, and to possess a high level of confidence. These responses help the clients use their strengths by letting go of the past and finding other alternatives in order to face the future positively. Supporting responses facilitate clients in strengthening the desired positive attitude. How will the supporting role help to create a good relationship between the client and the counsellor? SELF-CHECK 4.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
114 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS This role will turn out to be ineffective and unproductive if the counsellor fails to admit the seriousness of his clientÊs problem. This can happen if the counsellor pretends to be honest and serious, for instance, overusing the role, giving useless advice and words which could not be regarded as providing supporting. Saying things like, „DonÊt worry, everything will be alright‰ expresses the counsellorÊs lack of understanding and interest in the clientÊs problem. It should be avoided at all cost. The following examples utilises the effectiveness of supporting responses. Level 1 shows the lowest level, level 2 for moderate use of supporting role, level 3 for good use of supporting role and level 4 for the most effective use of supporting role. (a) Level 1: Does Not Play the Role Well The counsellor is not effective in using the supporting role when he fails to encourage his client to be confident, while conveying his response in vapid voice, insincere or fails to show meaningful support. (b) Level 2: Moderately Playing the Role The counsellor is less effective when support is given in a frivolous way, using weak or uninspired expressions, or when using the role at the wrong place or time. (c) Level 3: Playing the Role Well The counsellor is considered to be effective when he gives good responses and fulfils his clientÊs needs. He supports well and uses the role at appropriate time during the counselling process. (d) Level 4: Playing the Role Best The counsellor is most effective when the choice of words and tone of voice are very supportive and when the use of supporting role by the counsellor caters to the desired response as needed by the client. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 115 Let us look at a few examples of supporting response levels. For exercise and practice in distinguishing effective counsellor responses from ineffective ones, three clientÊs statements are discussed in the following: (a) Client 1: A Final Year Male Student at a Private College „I am really unhappy with the Dean. He asked me why I joined the demonstration. He acted as if I had done a really terrible mistake.‰ Responses: (i) „It seems like you acted based on your own principles. It must have been a very important issue for you.‰ (ii) „Well, it looks like you are really angry right now. Would you please sit down, take a deep breath and calm down?‰ (iii) „You feel like your decision to join the demonstration is the right thing to do but you are not happy when an authoritative figure questioned you on something that you regard as very important to you.‰ (iv) „If there is going to be another demonstration, let me know. IÊll join you.‰ Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 3.0 : The appreciated person response shows respect to the client and focuses on the clientÊs moral values. (ii) 3.0 : This calming response enables the client to be in a calmer state of mind. (iii) 3.5 : Demonstrates approval for the clientÊs feelings and support for life-principled behaviours. (iv) 1.0 : Inappropriate validation and support. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
116 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS (b) Client 2: A Final Year Female Student at a Public University „Nantha and I have been in a serious relationship for more than a year. Suddenly he tells me that he is going to Kota Bharu to manage his fatherÊs shop. And he left me just like that.‰ Responses: (i) „It is O.K. If you want to cry, just let it all out. ItÊs alright.‰ (ii) „I can understand why you feel very angry and sad when he left you after such a long time in the relationship.‰ (iii) „I understand what causes this angry and sad feeling. You have the right to feel that way.‰ (iv) „I am sure you can get over this. You are a confident young lady, surely you will meet new friends very soon.‰ Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 3.0 : Shows approval and understanding of the clientÊs sadness. (ii) 3.5 : This coaxing response shows the counsellorÊs understanding and care towards his client. (iii) 3.0 : The counsellorÊs validation response shows that the counsellor is aware of the clientÊs emotions and situation. (iv) 1.5 : Even though the counsellor tries to show his respect for his client, it is hardly convincing and can give a false hope. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 117 (c) Client 3: A 33-year-old Woman Who Just Lost Her Husband „When I am alone, I feel sorrowful and the memory keeps appearing in my head. If I didnÊt do something to distract my attention, I will start crying and continue to be sorrowful.‰ Responses: (i) „Feelings and memories are a part of our lives. It shows that you are missing your husband. It is not wrong to feel sad and to be missing your husband.‰ (ii) „You must have had a really happy relationship. The ups and downs between your feelings and thoughts reflect your respect to your husband and to yourself.‰ (iii) „I understand how hard it is to mourn for your husband.‰ (iv) „I can see that you want to move on with your life. However, the mourning might be more important at this point in time. It takes time to let it all pass. It is important for you to take the time to feel sad.‰ Marks (1ă4) and Rationales: (i) 3.5 : Demonstrates appropriate approval of the clientÊs feelings and behaviour. (ii) 3.5 : The appreciated person response is combined with the approval response and it shows the counsellorÊs respect towards his clientÊs inner feelings. (iii) 3.0 : Shows the coaxing response towards the clientÊs loss of a loved one. (iv) 3.5 : Displays the counsellorÊs awareness of the clientÊs desire and depression. This approval demonstrates the counsellorÊs comprehension towards the dynamics of this desire. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
118 TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS In summary, the concepts in counselling which are explained in this topic will enable you to understand the important skills that you need to acquire before qualifying for the practicum. You will need at least one year of practicum under the supervision of a qualified and trained counsellor before you are allowed to provide counselling service to the public. The skills that you have learnt are very useful and they are able to help teachers perform their job as school counsellors in a more meaningful manner. Communication skills can help you avoid misunderstandings besides facilitating the good rapport with other people. The three basic roles of a counsellor are focusing, clarifying and supporting roles. The focusing role refers to the process of giving full attention to the client with the intention of understanding what is expressed by him without any prejudices. The counsellorÊs clarifying role or asking for further explanations is used when the counsellor needs more information or explanation on blurred issues or when the client makes inconsistent statements which are confusing or difficult to comprehend. The supporting role concerns everything that the counsellor does in order to create a good relationship between the counsellor and the client. Clarifying role Focusing role Response levels Role skills Supporting role Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 COUNSELLING ROLES AND SKILLS 119 Casemore, R. (2011). Person-centred counselling in a nutshell (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publication Ltd. Erford, B. T. (2014). 40 techniques every counsellor should know (2nd ed.). Boston: Peason Education. Nelson-Jones, R. (2012). Introduction to counselling skills: Text and activities (4th ed.). California: SAGE Publication Ltd. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
INTRODUCTION This topic introduces behaviourism counselling theory. For learners who have just enrolled in the counselling course, they will need assistance in understanding how an individual whom they wish to help functions in his or her environment. They must not make decisions by solely relying on their own assumptions without thinking rationally on why a certain action is taken. By applying the chosen theory, they will be able to understand why a behaviour happens the way it happens and the appropriate strategies to maintain or change the behaviour based on the theory. Most importantly, as a counsellor, you will act more consistently towards the client by applying the adopted theory. Topic 5 Behaviourist Counselling By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify what are the principles of behaviourism theory; 2. Explain how behaviourism approaches form the basis for behaviourism counselling theory; 3. Identify adaptive and maladaptive behaviours; 4. Explain why maladaptive behaviours in some individuals continue to persist even after the counselling process; and 5. Explain the strategies to help clients through behaviourism theory approaches. LEARNING OUTCOMES Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING 121 Through this topic, you will be able to understand the functions of the various theories and follow the explanations of a theory which is widely used by professional counsellors and behaviourism theorists. Firstly, you will comprehend the concepts and techniques in behaviourism theory. In addition, there will be explanations on how an individual continues on with his his maladaptive behaviour. Several examples are provided to facilitate your understanding on the implementation of the behaviourism theory. NEED FOR COUNSELLING THEORY Theory is a presumption which consists of several ideas to explain an event or a phenomenon. The purpose of a theory is to: (a) Explain an event after making a few observations; (b) Use the theory to overcome certain situations; and (c) Use the theory to make predictions. Whether counselling theories are needed or not depends on the professional counselling practitioner. For example, Lazarus (1981) stated that counselling or therapy does not require a theory. There are also other views which have mentioned that there has been too much emphasis on theories in some counselling practices (Smith & Glass, 1977). This view has a notion that all counsellors and therapists conduct the same activities, achieve the same results and there are some who even use techniques which do not relate at all to the theory that they support. This means the theory which they support does not bring any benefit. Frank (1971) asserted that theory is very important for those who practice it. In his opinion, theory is important because it gives meaning, confidence and direction to the counsellors. Thus, we can conclude from FrankÊs statement that theory helps the counsellor focus on what he is doing to his client. As such, the counsellor will be able to give his full attention and energy to what he believes to be the source of his clientÊs problem. A counsellor who carries out his tasks according to theory will be able to make plans and devise change strategies for his client and make preparations before he advises his client. This will indirectly increase the clientÊs trust towards the counsellor because the counsellor demonstrates professionalism in carrying out his responsibilities. 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
122 TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING BEHAVIOURISM COUNSELLING THEORY The history of the behavioural approach in counselling begins with three components. We will now examine each component one by one. 5.2.1 First Component The first component is taken from the classical conditioning principle, sometimes referred to as respondent conditioning. It is based on the studies by Pavlov (1960 as cited in Elford, 2014) and Hull (1943 as cited in Erford, 2014). In one study, Watson (1920, as cited in Elford, 2014) used PavlovÊs classical conditioning principle to train Little Albert, a 9-month-old infant to be afraid of white mice, white cotton as well as WatsonÊs white hair! Figure 5.1: John B. Watson 5.2 To check your comprehension, answer these questions: (a) State the purpose of a theory and provide an example for each theory. (b) Why are theories important for a counsellor? ACTIVITY 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING 123 In the experiment, Watson (refer to Figure 5.1) used unconditioned stimulus (loud ringing of a bell) combined with conditioned stimulus (white mouse). This experiment was known as the Little Albert experiment. The pairing of a load bell with the white mouse has resulted in a conditioned response in Little Albert (feeling startled and fearful). It is important to understand this experiment because it is the foundation towards understanding the behaviourism theory. It showed that an individualÊs emotions can be learnt and modified by using the learning principle. Figure 5.2 illustrates the classical conditioning learning principle. Figure 5.2: Classical conditioning learning principle Source: Watson (1960 as cited in Erford, 2014) This approach was used many times by Wolpe (1954; 1958; 1961, as cited in Palmer, 2015) when he introduced systematic desensitisation. Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy based on the principle of classical conditioning. This therapy aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually using counter conditioning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
124 TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING 5.2.2 Second Component The second component is the operant conditioning which was proposed by B. F. Skinner in 1953 (Palmer, 2015) (refer to Figure 5.3). In operant conditioning, reinforcement is used to ensure the repetition of certain behaviour. Reinforcement is the presence of a stimulus to increase a desirable behaviour. Examples of positive reinforcement are the use of money or giving compliments. An example of negative reinforcement is the application of electric shock to the mice whenever it did not produce the desired behaviour. Negative reinforcement also reinforces the repetition of behaviour. In the experiment, the rat will press the lever more often when the ringing bell is turned down slowly. Punishment and extinction will hinder the behaviour from being repeated. You may visit this link to find out about the experiment https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html. Punishment is the presence of hurtful or uncomfortable stimulus to decrease undesirable behaviour. One example is giving electric shock whenever a person smokes (in an effort to stop smoking). Extinction is to lessen the unwanted behaviour such as interrupting older peopleÊs conversation. To decrease these unwanted behaviours, it is adequate to ignore it or not give any response towards the person who is interrupting the conversation. Figure 5.3: B. F. Skinner Provide an example of how you have used the classical conditioning principle in your learning. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.2 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING 125 The use of the operant conditioning principle as a technique to modify an individualÊs behaviour is known as behaviour modification technique or behaviour modification. From the implementation aspect, this technique sometimes corresponds with behaviour therapy technique. Skinner used behaviour modification on an individual and in small groups. 5.2.3 Third Component The third component is known as cognitive behaviour therapy. This therapy is the combination of two different trains of thoughts, where one focuses on behavioural approaches while the other emphasises on cognitive approaches. We are not able to explain the human occurrence or behaviour only through behavioural perspective because we also have to take into account their thinking process. The thinking process is the cognitive process. BEHAVIOURISM PERSONALITY THEORY In reality, there is no single specific personality theory which can be called behaviourism personality theory. The theorists in the behaviourism domain were not interested in proposing a single theory which can be referred to as the behaviourism personality theory. They emphasised more on the learning theory instead of developing a model theory of human personality. Behaviourists presumed that the common behaviour consistently posed by an individual (referred to as attribute or personality) is actually a symbol of maturity and learning laws which the individual has experienced. Hence, the behaviourists believed that the most similar element to personality theory is actually learning theory. 5.3 1. What are the combinations of the three components which became the behaviourism counselling theory? 2. Gather external information on the meaning and the procedures of behaviour modification. Share your answer in the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.3 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
126 TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING However, there are several areas that all behaviourists agreed upon about personality which all of us must understand. They are as follows: (a) Firstly, the determiner of learning, attitude, habit or nature and other aspects related to personal development is the behaviourism of an organism, not the mental phenomenon; (b) Secondly, personality development is deterministic whereby the environment and experiences determine the personality development; (c) Thirdly, individual differences come from differences in experience; (d) Fourthly, dualism such as mind-body and body-soul does not have scientific evidence to explain about the human development, to predict what will happen about the human behaviour or to motivate human behaviour to do something; and (e) Lastly, even though personality development usually has a genetic constraint which cannot change or be changed anymore, it is the result of the influence of internal environment and stimulus which play dominant roles. 5.3.1 Skinner’s Principle of Adaptation In 1966, a counselling expert named R.W. Lundin (Lundin, 1966) explained how SkinnerÊs principles can be adapted with one personality theory. We have already learnt that the foundation of SkinnerÊs principle is that the development of human personality depends on operant reinforcement. Lundin has developed the view of operant reinforcement to model personality by listing some of the principles described in the following: (a) In shaping the behaviourism personality theory, the most important element is to predict and control our behaviour. There is no question of free will here. Environmental variables will determine the type of responses. (b) All behaviours can be divided into categories of operant and respondent. This means that the individual responds to something (operant) or acts (respondent) according to the environment. Thus, all behaviours are subjected under the control of environmental stimuli and as such, voluntary behaviour does not exist. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING 127 (c) An individualÊs personality is moulded by reinforcements. Apart from main reinforcements such as food, water and air, specific conditioned positive reinforcements such as money and compliments will also help to mould the personality. Removal of negative reinforcements also strengthens behaviour and helps in personality development. (d) Behaviour can be modified by weakening or restraining the reinforcement ă a process called extinction. One example of behaviour modification using extinction is to ignore a childÊs behaviour as he tries to attract his or her parentÊs attention by whimpering and sulking (see Figure 5.4). Figure 5.4: A baby whimpers and wants his motherÊs touch It might take a long time to change an individual, for example, a childÊs behaviour once the child has been given reinforcements based on undesired behaviour. Modelling also facilitates personality development. An individualÊs behaviour can be modelled by observing the nearest person and when reinforcement is given for the behaviour which is similar to the behaviour of the observed person. The use of role-play technique to teach assertive behaviour is one way of modelling. Apart from positive reinforcement, an individualÊs personality can also be controlled by unpleasant reinforcements which can keep the individual away from or to avoid the behaviour. Personality is maintained by continuous conditioned reinforcement. Conditioned reinforcement begins from neutral stimuli but when it is combined with the primary reinforcement, it can be reinforcement in itself. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
128 TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING Behaviour can persist if the reinforcement is constantly or frequently applied. Constant reinforcement is given for constantly needed behaviour. This means that after each response (desired behaviour) is achieved, it will be followed by reinforcement. However, if this method is used excessively, the desired effect will gradually weaken or lose its effect. Some frequent reinforcements are given according to a certain schedule. Frequent and scheduled reinforcements are the most effective behaviour modification techniques. INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR An inappropriate or prohibited behaviour in society is known as maladaptive behaviour. If maladaptive behaviour continues to be practised by the individual, he will be regarded as a person who could not adjust himself to the society (maladjusted person). An act such as taking other peopleÊs properties or showing aggressiveness is one example of maladaptive behaviour. Such behaviour is considered as inappropriate behaviour in society. On the other hand, helping someone in trouble and contributing to society, for example, social work is regarded as adjustive behaviour which is the desired behaviour. According to the behaviourism approach, behaviour (regardless of adjustive or maladaptive) is learnt. This also means that something which is learnt can also be stopped. For instance, if an individual has the habit of smoking as illustrated in Figure 5.5 which is an act that he has learnt, theoretically this maladaptive habit can be stopped. 5.4 In your opinion, what are the most apparent differences between the approaches proposed by Watson and Skinner? Post your answer on the myINSPIRE online forum. ACTIVITY 5.4 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING 129 Figure 5.5: A group of people smoking outside the office Maladjustive behaviour is determined and influenced by culture, time, social class and situation. What is termed as maladjustive behaviour in one society might be considered as adjustive behaviour in another society. The difference is that the individual receives the reinforcement from the people in his immediate environment, people who can influence giving the reinforcement. In a group of people, the person who is close to the members of the group and has control in giving the reinforcement to its members is usually the group leader. For example, orders from a gang leader to kill or rob will be followed by the gang members because there is reinforcement. In this context, the action by the criminal gang is considered as adjustive behaviour in the criminal society but it is maladaptive behaviour in the common society. Time or period can also determine what is considered as adjustive or maladjustive behaviour. Fifty years ago, Malay children were forbidden to study at English medium schools for fear that they would become Christians. Those who still attended English medium schools despite the prohibition were regarded as adopting maladaptive behaviour and suffered much pressure from their relatives. Some were even forced to quit school. But Malay parents nowadays do not suffer from such pressures when they send their children to English schools. Some even send their children to study in America and England. Studying in English schools nowadays is considered as adjustive behaviour. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
130 TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING All social classes have their own interpretations on what is considered as adjustive and maladjustive behaviours. They have their own way to handle themselves in order to avoid the discomfort when performing the maladaptive behaviour. In the West, these interpretations exist whereby individuals from the middle social class are able to control themselves better, always feel guilty and humble towards maladjustive behaviours while individuals from the lower social class tend to show aggressive behaviour, have the tendency to rebel and violate the laws as shown in their maladjustive behaviours (Myers & Roberts, 1959). 5.4.1 Troubled Individuals How do the advocates of behaviourism view an individual who is having problems or is „unwell‰? They believe that all learning occurs through the respondent or operant experience. As such, behaviours which are regarded as maladaptive are believed to be learnt in order to obtain positive reinforcements or to lessen the pain or uncomfortable feeling. From the perspective of respondent learning, if the painful stimulus is combined with neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will gradually produce maladaptive response after the learning has occurred, and the maladaptive response will recur even at the mention of the real event. For example, a boy suffers from stomach ache (uncomfortable stimulus) on the night that he had planned to go camping together with some of his friends (neutral stimulus). After some time, when it is time to go for another camping trip, he starts to experience the same stomach ache again (combination). As time goes by, he feels uncomfortable and feels like vomiting (conditioned response) whenever he hears the word „camping‰ (conditioned stimulus) (see Figure 5.6). What is maladaptive behaviour? What are the factors that influence them to become criminals? SELF-CHECK 5.1 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOURIST COUNSELLING 131 Figure 5.6: Illustration of how camping can cause uncomfortable feelings for the boy mentioned in the example Maladaptive behaviours are often learnt through operant conditioning. The behaviour will be shaped, enhanced and continued because of further reinforcements. For example, the boy who had stomach ache was given full attention, love, sympathy and very comfortable care by his parents when he was sick. This may cause the boy to take advantage of the situation if he decides that he does not want to go to school. By saying that he has a stomach ache, he will be able to avoid doing something which he dislikes such as going to school. If we look deeper into this example, generalisation will occur. Whenever the boy wants to avoid a situation which he considers as uncomfortable, he will „experience‰ stomach ache. Why does this happen? The answer is because it works. Although he has learnt that avoiding uncomfortable stimulus will bring a „good‰ effect on him, in reality, this is a maladaptive behaviour. Unfortunately, this behaviour will be a burden for him in the future. For instance, he might experience stomach ache before he sits for an examination. The individual might want to change his maladaptive behaviour. However, it will be difficult for him to quit the „stomach ache‰ behaviour unless he goes for therapy or counselling sessions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)