How it works Amazing vehicles

THE MAX SPEED 450mph RANGE 400 miles 32ftLENGTH 11ins
STATS WINGSPAN 36ft 11in ARMAMENT20mm cannon x4

RAF SPITFIRE

DID YOU KNOW? By 1939, approximately ten per cent of all Spitfires had been lost as a result of training accidents

Fully enclosed cockpit Inside the Spitfire

The benefits of a fully enclosed What made this aircraft so spectacular?
cockpit were numerable, most
notably though it improved the
Spitfire’s aerodynamics.

Elliptical wing Image © DK Images Fuselage

The elliptical wing of the Spitfire The fuselage of the
is a defining design characteristic, Spitfire was
functional to the extreme and constructed from
aesthetically pleasing to the eye. toughened aluminium
alloy, composing
of 19 individual frames.

Undercarriage Designed in the technologically Arguably, the other most defining and
fervent and innovatory melting success-inducing element of the Spitfire was its
The Spitfire’s undercarriage pot of the Second World War, the engine, which took on the form of the Rolls-
was fully retractable, a Supermarine Spitfire became Royce Merlin and Griffon engines. Planned by a
refinement that was not the fighter plane of the times. board of directors at Rolls-Royce who realised
commonplace in earlier aircraft. With its simple lines, elegant frame and superb that their current Vee-12 engine was topping
aerodynamics, the Spitfire was to live on in the out at 700hp and that a more powerful variant
minds of generations during the war and for would be needed, first the Merlin and later the
decades to come. Griffon engines were designed. The Merlin at
The Spitfire was the brainchild of first delivered 790hp, short of the 1,000hp goal
aeronautical engineer Reginald Mitchell, who set in its design brief, however this was to
led a dedicated and talented team of designers. increase to 975hp in a few years. The Griffon
Originally planned as a short-range air-defence then built upon the success of the Merlin,
fighter, the Spitfire was built for speed and delivering at the climax of its advancement a
agility, traits that it was to need in the explosive whopping 2,035hp. These engines were to
dogfights it was to partake in as it met enemy prove tantamount to the airframe and wing
fighters and bombers. Building a fighter plane, designs in the dominance of the Spitfire.
though, is more complex than listing desirable
traits however, and the Spitfire’s construction Despite its origins lying in short-range home
is a balletic series of compromises between defence, the Spitfire was to prove so versatile
weight, aerodynamics and firepower. and successful that it was quickly adapted for a
The frame of a spitfire with its elliptical wide variety of military purposes. Many
wings is one of its most defining characteristics, variants were created, including designs
casting a distinctive silhouette against the sky. tailored for reconnaissance, bombing runs,
The ellipse shaping was used to minimise drag high-altitude interception and general fighter-
while having the necessary thickness to bomber operations. The most notable
accommodate the retracted undercarriages derivative, however, was the multi-variant
and the guns required for self defence. A simple Seafire, specially designed for operation on
compromise that had the resulting benefit of aircraft carriers with the added ability to
having an incredibly individual shape. In double-fold its wings for ease of storage.
contrast, the airframe – which was influenced
by exciting new advances in all metal, low- Considering the place in history that the
wing plane construction – was a complex and Spitfire holds – a fighter-bomber aircraft that
well-balanced amalgamation of a streamlined bridged the gap between the age of the
semi-single piece of aluminium alloy and a propeller engine to that of the jet – the fact that
fully enclosed cockpit. This allowed unrivalled they are still collected (with an average cost of
responsiveness and ease of flight, making the £1.4 million) and flown today is unsurprising.
Spitfire a favourite for pilots. The Spitfire is a timeless piece of engineering
that shows some of the most creative and
advanced efforts in military history.

151

HISTORIC

Lancaster bomber

Lancaster
Famed for its prowess and entrenched in
popular culture by The Dam Busters film of
1955, the Lancaster bomber played a vital role
in securing an allied victory in World War II

Arguably the most famous heavy bomber Lancaster bombers
of World War II, the Avro-built Lancaster dropped 609,00o tons
bomber undertook some of the most of bombs
dangerous and complex missions yet
encountered by the RAF. Primarily a night bomber but
frequently used during the day too, the Lancasters
under Bomber Command flew some 156,000 sorties
during the war, dropping 609,000 tons of bombs.
Among these bombs was the famous ‘bouncing bomb’
designed by British inventor Barnes Wallis, a payload
that would lead the Lancaster to remain famed long
after 1945. We take a look inside a Avro Lancaster to see
what made it so successful.

The statistics… Crew

Lancaster bomber Due to its large size, hefty armament and technical complexity, the Lancaster bomber
had a crew of seven. This included: a pilot, flight engineer, navigator, bomb aimer,
Crew: 7 wireless operator, mid-upper and rear gunners. Many crew members from Lancasters
Length: 21.18m were awarded the Victoria Cross for their heroic actions in battle, a notable example
Wingspan: 31.09m being the two awarded after a daring daytime raid on Augsburg, Germany.
Height: 5.97m
Weight: 29,000kg Inside a
Powerplant: 4 x Rolls-Royce Lancaster
Merlin XX V12 engines bomber
Max speed: 280mph
Max range: 3,000 miles
Max altitude: 8,160m
Armament: 8 x .7.7mm
Browning machine guns; bomb
load of 6,300kg

Turrets Bomb bay

As standard the Lancaster bomber was The bomb bay could carry a great
fitted with three twin 7.7mm turrets in the payload. Indeed, the bay was so
nose, rear and upper-middle fuselage. In some
later variants of the Lancaster the twin 7.7mm spacious that with a little modification it
machine guns were replaced with 12.7mm models, could house the massive Grand Slam
which delivered more power. The rear and upper- “earthquake” bomb, a 10,000kg giant
middle turrets were staffed permanently by dedicated that when released would reach near
gunners, while the nose turret was staffed periodically sonic speeds before penetrating deep
by the bomb aimer when caught up in a dogfight. into the Earth and exploding.

152 Fuselage

The Lancaster was designed out of the earlier Avro Type 683
Manchester III bomber, which sported a three-finned tail layout and
was similar in construction. While the overall build remained similar
the tri-fin was removed in favour of a twin-finned set up instead. This
is famously one of only a small number of design alterations made to

the bomber, which was deemed to be just right after its test flights.

5 TOP High calibre Slam-dunk Busted Collateral Black label
FACTS
1 While 7.7mm machine guns 2 Lancaster bombers often 3 A selection of bombers 4 Between 1942 and 1945 5 The lager company Carling
LANCASTER were standard on Lancaster had their already-large bomb became famous after Operation Lancaster bombers flew used footage of Lancaster
BOMBER bombers, selective later bays modified in order to carry Chastise, a mission to destroy 156,000 sorties and dropped bombers to create a parody of
variants were fitted with twin the monumental 10,000 German dams in the Ruhr Valley, approximately 609,000 tons The Dam Busters in which a
12.7mm turrets in both tail and kilogram Grand Slam the inspiration for the film The of bombs on military and German soldier catches the
dorsal positions. “earthquake” bombs. Dam Busters. civilian targets. bouncing bombs.

DID YOU KNOW? A single Lancaster bomber cost £50,000 in 1942, roughly £1.5 million in today’s currency

bomber The © Bluemoose
Over 7,000 bombers bouncing
were built bomb

One of the most famous parts of the
Lancaster’s heritage is its role in carrying and
releasing the ‘bouncing bomb’ payload, as
glamourised in the 1955 film The Dam Busters.
The bomb was designed by Barnes Wallis –
who was also the creator of the Grand Slam
and Tallboy bombs – and was special in its
ability to bounce along the top of a surface of
water, much akin to skimming a stone. It was
designed to counteract and evade German
defences below and above the waterline,
allowing Allied forces to target German
hydroelectric dams and floating vessels.

In May 1943 the bouncing bombs were
utilised in Operation Chastise, an allied
mission to destroy German dams in the Ruhr
Valley. The aircraft used were modified Avro
Lancaster Mk IIIs, which had much of their
armour and central turret removed in order to
accommodate the payload. Despite eight of
the Lancasters being lost during the
operation, as well as the lives of 53 crew, a
small number of bouncing bombs were
released and they caused two dams to be
breached, one to be heavily damaged and
1,296 civilians to be killed.

Powerplant © John Batchelor / www.johnbatchelor.com That’s a real
dam buster…
The Lancaster bomber was
powered by four Rolls-Royce 153
Merlin V12 engines. These were
chosen by the Lancaster’s chief
designer Roy Chadwick due to
their reliability, as the incumbent
bomber – the Avro Manchester –
had adopted the Rolls-Royce
Vulture and had been troubled by
engine failure consistently when
in service.

HISTORIC

Messerschmitt Me 262

Messerschmitt
Me 262

How this German fighter aircraft brought terrifying
speed and combative dominance to the aerial
battlefields of World War II

Airframe

The Me 262’s airframe was made from steel and
aluminium alloy, while the cockpit canopy
consisted of two rounded plastic glass sections
mounted in a frame on a tubular base. The
airframe was fitted with a tricycle
undercarriage arrangement.

The Messerschmitt Me 262 Schwalbe, as
seen in this photograph, was the first

variant of the jet to fall into Allied hands

Speed kills. This is a fact of war that the Its aerial dominance rested on its high top Air-to-air damage was delivered with four 30mm
Nazi regime understood well, employing speed of 900km/h (560 mph), which obliterated its MK 108 cannons, as well as 24 55mm R4M rockets.
it to great effect with their ‘Blitzkrieg’ nearest rivals, the American P-51 Mustang and The Me 262’s cannons allowed for short-range firing
(lightning war) tactics of WWII, British Spitfire. Indeed, the extreme velocity that the runs, while the unguided R4M rockets allowed
puncturing holes in Allied lines with great speed Me 262 brought to the aerial battlefield meant that larger targets to be peppered with high-explosive
and firepower. It was a mantra they incorporated traditional dog-fighting tactics needed to be munitions, each one capable of totally destroying
into all aspects of their military and, as shown in the rewritten, with Allied pilots unable to track the any aircraft of the day. Air-to-ground attacks were
groundbreaking Messerschmitt Me 262 fighter jet, aircraft with their electric gun turrets or tail them actualised through a selection of 250kg or 500kg
often generated spectacular results. over long stretches. Instead, Allied pilots had to (550lb to 1,100lb) free-fall bombs, which were stored
The Me 262 was the most advanced aviation gang up and attempt to force the 262’s pilot into and released from dedicated bomb bays. Through its
design brought to fruition during World War II, and making low-speed manoeuvres, from which it could weaponry and intense speed, the Me 262 racked up
the first ever operational jet-powered fighter aircraft be shot down. a reported five-to-one kill rate, shooting down a
in the world. It featured a state-of-the-art, variety of different Allied aircraft.
streamlined steel and aluminium alloy chassis, This formidable power came from the turbojets.
twin super-powerful Junkers Jumo 004 B-1 turbojet They didn’t provide as much thrust at lower speeds Unfortunately, the reign of the Me 262 was
engines and a suite of weaponry that allowed it to than that of propellers, meaning that Me 262s short-lived, as mass delays in bringing it to
fulfil a wide variety of roles. It was originally took longer to reach high speed. However, once operational functionality meant that it was not
conceived to be a high-speed fighter-interceptor flying, the aircraft could easily outpace any Allied introduced until the spring of 1944, just over a year
used to take down Allied bombers during sorties plane. Further, the turbojets granted the Me 262 a before the close of the war. Further, poor parts
(flight missions), however under order from Adolf higher rate of climb than its contemporaries, availability and dissemination of maintenance
Hitler himself, its role was widened to also include which, when used tactically, allowed them to information to mechanics led to serious deficiencies
bombing duties. out-position the enemy and line up attack runs on in fleet fly time, with few aircraft in the air at any
lower-flying bombers. one time. Due to its aerial dominance, Allied forces

154

5 TOP Delay 90° Survivors Dominance Fly-along
FACTS
1 The Me 262 was not 2 Post war, former Me 262 pilot 3 Very few original Me 262s still 4 Allied pilots struggled to 5 The Collings Foundation’s recent
The Me 262 introduced until the spring of Hans Guido Mutke claimed to be exist today, with limited counter the Me 262’s reconstruction project built
1944. Massive delays in attaining the first to ever exceed Mach 1, production run during the war dominance, so decided to three Me 262s, their Jumo 004
operational status for its Junkers alleging that on 9 April 1945, he and heavy dismantling after it, undertake bombing runs during engines replaced with J-85s.
Jumo 004 B-1 turbojet engines broke the limit in a straight-down leaving less than 11 of the aircraft 1944 and 1945 on Me 262 They’re now being booked for
held it back. 90° dive. in existence. production factories. fly-along sessions.

DID YOU KNOW? The Messerschmitt Me 262 was the first operational, jet-powered fighter aircraft in the world

Instrumentation The Me 262’s engines allowed
a top speed of 900km/h
Flight instruments in the Me 262’s
cockpit included an artificial

horizon, bank and turn indicators,
airspeed indicator, altimeter, rate of

climb indicator, repeater compass
and blind approach indicator.

© Matthias Kabel

Wings

The Me 262 sported a
swept-wing profile, with
a leading edge sweep of

18.5°. This sweep was
added to the aircraft – the

original design did not
feature swept wings – as

the Jumo 004 engines
proved heavier than
expected and the centre

of lift needed to
be repositioned.

© DK Images

Armament © Noop1958The statistics…

Weaponry included four Me 262 A-1a
30mm (1.2in) MK 108 cannons,
Crew: 1
24 55mm (2.1in), unguided Length: 10.6m (34.8ft)
R4M rockets and either two Wingspan: 12.6m (41.5ft)
Height: 3.5m (11.5ft)
250kg or 500kg (550lb or Weight: 3,795kg (8,367lb)
1,100lb) free-fall bombs. Powerplant:
2 x Junkers Jumo 004 B-1
Engines turbojet engines (1,980lbf each)
Max speed:
Extreme speed comes courtesy of two Junkers Jumo 900km/h (559mph)
004 turbojet engines, each delivering a whopping Range: 1,050km (652mi)
Max altitude:
900kgf (1,980lbf). This gave the fighter a top speed of 11,450m (37,566ft)
900km/h (560mph), over 160km/h (100mph) more Armament: 4 x 30mm MK 108
than its nearest competitor. cannons, 24 x 55mm R4M
rockets, 2 x 250kg bombs
soon identified the Me 262’s potential threat
and dedicated large quantities of bombing
sorties to destroying construction factories and
launch bases.

“The Me 262 was
the most advanced
aviation design
brought to fruition
during World War II”

155

HISTORIC “The Sabre was one of the first
military jets capable of firing
guided air-to-air missiles”

Inside the F-86 Sabre

F-86 Sabre
Considered the foremost military aircraft On board the F-86E
of the Fifties, the F-86 Sabre was a highly
Explore the advanced engineering that makes
the Sabre such a formidable fighter jet…

versatile fighter jet as fast as it was lethal Fuselage

The F-86 Sabre was a highly around 1,600 kilometres (1,000 miles), A tapered conical fuselage is
successful single-seat therefore enabled it to intercept any installed with a nose cone air
fighter jet built by North enemy aircraft with ease. inlet. Air is ducted under the
American Aviation (now cockpit and delivered to the
part of Boeing) in the late-Forties. The However, today the Sabre is most J47 engine before being
aircraft – the first western jet to feature known for its famous world record- expelled at the rear of the
breaking performances, with variants plane via a nozzle.

swept wings, as well as one of the first of the jet setting five official speed

capable of breaking the sound barrier records over a six-year period in the

in a dive – saw action throughout the Forties and Fifties. Indeed, the F-86D

Korean War and Cold War, and has made history in 1952 by not just setting

become a highy recognisable icon in the overall world speed record (1,123

aircraft engineering history. kilometres/698 miles per hour), but

Built initially to combat the Russian then bettering it by an additional 27

MiG-15, the Sabre was geared towards kilometres (17 miles) per hour the

flight superiority roles, dispatched to following year. It is partly due to these

undertake furious high-speed records that
dogfights. Though inferior to the the F-86

Russian jet in terms of lightness and remains to be a

weaponry, the reduced transonic drag beloved aircraft and will be

delivered by the swept wings – remembered throughout history.

combined with its streamlined Today there are no F-86s that are

fuselage and advanced electronics – still in service in national militaries.

granted it far superior handling. This They have naturally been replaced by
ability to outmanoeuvre the MiG-15 more modern and more advanced

saw it establish supremacy in combat. aircrafts as time went by and new

Despite overall armament technologies were developed.

inferiority to its rivals, the Sabre was However, due to their iconic status

one of the first military jets capable of and reliable handling, many remain Wing
firing guided air-to-air missiles and in operation in the civilian sphere,
later variants, such as the F-86E, were with 50 privately owned jets Both wings and tail are
fitted with radar and targeting registered in the US alone. They are swept back, with the former
systems that were revolutionary for extremely popular with collectors and fitted with electrically
the time. These factors, along with its aircraft enthusiasts alike, and operated flaps and automatic
high service ceiling (ie maximum continue to inspire the next leading-edge slats. The
altitude) and its generous range of swept wings lend it excellent
generation of engineers to this day.
agility in dogfights.

Although built in North America at least 20
other countries used Sabres in their air
forces, including Japan, Spain and the UK

156

RECORD 1,151km/h SPEED DEMON
BREAKERS
The F-86 Sabre has broken the world speed record not once
AVIATION HAT-TRICK but three times, the fastest of which was in 1953 when it
reached a zippy 1,151 kilometres (715 miles) per hour.

DID YOU KNOW? US production of the F-86 Sabre ended in December 1956

Engine Cockpit The statistics… Who was high flyer
Jacqueline Cochran?
The F-86E uses a GE J47-13 The F-86E is fitted with a F-86E Sabre
turbojet engine capable of small bubble canopy cockpit Born in 1906, Cochran was a pioneering
outputting 2,358kgf (5,200lbf) that covers a single-seat Length: 11.3m (37ft) American aviator and one of the most gifted
of thrust. This raw power cabin for the pilot. The Wingspan: 11.3m (37ft) pilots of her generation. This led her to become
grants it a top horizontal cockpit is in a very forward Height: 4.3m (14ft) the first woman in the world to break the sound
speed of about 1,050km per position, tucked just behind Max speed: barrier – an amazing feat which she performed
hour (650mph). the nose cone. 1,046km/h (650mph) in a custom, one-off F-86 Sabre.
Range: 1,611km (1,001mi)
Max altitude: The record was broken on 18 May 1953 at
1,371m (45,000ft) Rogers Dry Lake in California. In her F-86,
Combat weight: Cochran racked up an average speed of 1,050
6,350kg (14,000lb) km/h (652 mph), breaking the sound barrier
with fellow pilot Chuck Yeager as her wingman.
Cochran also became the first woman to take
off from an aircraft carrier as to reach Mach 2.

Weaponry Electronics © DK Images; Alamy

The Sabre is equipped with An A-1CM gun sight in partnership
six .50-caliber (12.7mm) M2 with an AN/APG-30 radar system
Browning machine guns makes the F-86E one of the most
and 16 127mm (5in) HVAR technologically advanced jets of its
rockets, as well as a variety of time. The radar can quickly work out
freefall bombs as well as
unguided missiles. the range to potential targets.

157

HISTORIC

Tiger tank

The Tiger
tank
4. Commander

Responsible for the tank’s welfare,
positioning and activity, Tiger
Commanders were experienced
and respected officers.

The German heavy tank of choice 3. Gunner
during World War II, the Tiger was a
formidable adversary, bringing Operating the Tiger’s
massive armour and firepower to monster gun, the
the theatre of war gunner sat next to the
tank’s Commander.

9. Engine

In order to shift the tank’s huge
weight (56.9 tons), a Maybach HL230
P45 V-12 petrol engine was installed
at the rear of the Tiger.

Tiger tanks were deployed throughout Europe as well as Africa
during World War II

© Esselborn 10. Side/rear hull armour

Weaker and thinner than the armour
at the front of the tank, the walls of the
side hull were 2.4 inches thick or less.

Along with the Panzer, the Tiger is one of two. On top of this it sported armour that was to the field of war, while also greatly minimising the
the most iconic German tanks of the impregnable at wide firing angles and distances and probability of having its own armour broken. In fact,
Second World War. A conglomeration of was driven by commanders who had already proved with 100mm (3.9”) frontal hull armour, as well as the
metal and man, built to puncture holes themselves in warfare. It was due to these attributes basically impregnable 120mm (4.7”) frontal turret
in allied forces from the snowy plains of Russia, that Tiger tanks accounted for thousands of kills. armour, attempting to take on a Tiger from the front
through the rolling countryside of France, to the was almost impossible. Indeed, historically in order
dusty desert plains of North Africa, the Tiger was Central to the Tiger’s success was the radical to take out a Tiger allied forces were often forced to
feared and rightly so, as it was an efficient and change in its design philosophy. Switching from the flank it so they could target the weaker side and rear
powerful killer. It was armed with a 8.8cm main traditional all-rounder designs of earlier German armour, as well as getting as close as possible to
gun, capable of firing rounds that not only tore tanks, the Tiger was built with a focus on massive maximise the chance of piercing it.
through enemy armour but also carried highly armour and firepower at the expense of
explosive tips which ripped man and machine in manoeuvrability. This gave the Tiger the stopping The firepower that this new breed of tank gave the
power to pierce any armour the allied forces brought German forces on the other hand, did not need

158

HEAD GERMAN 1. Tiger AMERICAN 2. M26 Pershing RUSSIAN 3. Iosif Stalin

2HEAD Twice as long in production The American counterpart to The Russian equivalent of the
than either the M26 or Iosif the Tiger, the M26 Pershing Tiger, the Iosif Stalin evolved
BATTLE Stalin, the Tiger was one of was produced during WWII. It thro ugh numerous iterations
TANKS the most technically was lighter and quicker than throughout WWII. The tank
advanced, and deadliest, the Tiger, with an impressive sported a massive D25-T 122mm
tanks of the age. M3 90mm gun. gun and was very light.

DID YOU KNOW? According to documents, a number of Tiger tanks destroyed enemy tanks at ranges greater than one mile

8. Ammunition 5. Krupp 8.8cm KwK 36 L/56 gun

The Tiger’s gun could fire a variety of Bringing the pain to allied forces, the large Krupp-made 8.8cm gun
ammunition, ranging from highly explosive had a very flat trajectory and was famed for its accuracy and range.
anti-tank rounds, to incendiary shrapnel.

7. Frontal turret armour © Pirath, Helmuth

As with the front hull, the turret’s Certain terrains such as mud caused
front armour was very thick, the tank’s wheels to jam
measuring in at a massive 4.7 inches.

1. Driver

Controlling the speed and direction
of the tank, the driver sat to the side
of the Tiger’s gearbox.

© DK Images © wassen

Most Tiger tanks are now decommissioned
and reside in museums

2. Radio operator 6. Frontal hull armour

Crucial for communication The armour of the front hull was 3.9
and co-ordinating the inches thick, providing maximum
attacks, the Tiger’s radio protection from frontal assaults.
operator was pivotal to its
successful operation. The statistics…

© Scheck
© Homun

anywhere near that level of refinement main gun with rounds to suit most also its poor mobility over certain Tiger Tank
in order to score a hit. The Krupp-made situations, be that highly explosive terrain. Indeed, the Tiger was often too
8.8cm KwK 36 L/56 gun allowed German anti-tank shells, armour piercing heavy for bridges and therefore had to Price: 250,000 Reichsmark
gunners to hit targets well over 1,100 rounds or anti-infantry incendiary drive through shallow rivers and gullies, Speed: 38km/h (24mph)
metres away no bigger than 50cm2. In shrapnel rounds. a dangerous process considering the Operational range:
fact, reports from the time indicate that fragile nature of its multi-wheel, 110-195km (68-120 miles)
Tigers took out numerous allied tanks at Of course, as we know from the interlapped design, as in cold weather Weight: 56.9 tons
a range of over a mile (1,600 metres), unfolding of history, the Tiger’s water, snow and mud often jammed Crew: 5
thanks to their gun’s flat trajectory and dominance was short lived. This was them badly. Of course, the final nail in Engine: Maybach HL230 P45
expulsion of rounds at high velocity. due to multiple factors but mainly the coffin was at the close of the war, (V-12, 690.4hp)
Ammunition types could be varied too, stemmed from its costly production – when much of Germany’s armaments Firepower: 8.8cm KwK 36 L/56
allowing the gunner to load the Tiger’s limiting the amount of units produced were destroyed post defeat. (92 rounds)
compared to its contemporaries – and
159

HISTORIC “It couldn’t climb steep hills if
the tank was low on fuel”

Pioneer of the assembly line

The 1910 Steering wheel Passenger door Hood
Model T Ford
The throttle and ignition levers On this model, only the rear passengers get side Folds out to offer
Paraffin lamp are positioned on the steering doors. Without a door, the driver can easily limited protection
column just under the wheel. jump into the car after starting it, but is more from the weather.
This holds a wick vulnerable to the elements.
burner fuelled by
paraffin (kerosene).

Glass windshield Brass horn

This is divided into two parts. The rubber bulb is
The top part can be swung squeezed to warn
down over the bottom half other road users of
when the hood is lowered. your presence.

© Infrogmation

Starting handle Floor lever Running board Acetylene generator

Two or three turns Early models had Acts as a step to gain When switched on it produces gas
are needed to get the two floor levers and easy access into the car. that is piped to the headlamps. Each
engine started. two foot pedals. The It also protects the car headlamp is then lit by a match.
reverse control foot body and passengers
pedal replaced one from dirt and splashes of The statistics…
of the floor levers. mud from the wheels. Model T

Manufacturer:
Ford Motor Company

The Model T Year introduced: 1908
Dimensions: Length: 2,540mm,
width: 1,422mm, height: 2,387mm
Engine: 2896cc
Top speed: 45mph
Horse power: 22.5

The car that brought motoring to the masses Requiredfuel:Petrol
Unit price: $850

Early Model T styles By today’s standards, Henry first to second gear by releasing pressure
included this popular Ford’s Model T has many on the clutch pedal. To stop, simply
open-top touring car unusual characteristics. reduce the throttle, press down the
Before you can jump into the clutch pedal, depress the brake foot
driver’s seat, you have to turn a hand pedal on the right and put the floor lever
crank at the front of the car to start it. into neutral. To go backwards you keep
This is a hazardous process as the hand the floor lever in neutral and press down
crank can break your thumb if the the middle reverse foot pedal.
engine backfires, and if the throttle lever
on the steering column is not set Early versions of the car had brass
properly it will run you over as soon as it acetylene lamps, and its ten-gallon fuel
starts. Fortunately, an optional electric tank was mounted under the front seat.
starter was introduced in 1919. As this fed petrol to the carburettor
The Model T has three foot pedals and using gravity, the Model T could not
a floor lever. To drive off, you increase climb steep hills if the tank was low on
the throttle lever, move the floor lever fuel. The solution to this was to drive up
forwards from its neutral position and hill in reverse.
depress the clutch foot pedal on the left.
As you pick up speed, you can move from Its engine is front mounted, and
features four cylinders in one en bloc
casting. This simple engine is relatively

160

HEAD MOST POPULAR 1. Buick Model 10 STEAM CARS 2. White Type E MASS PRODUCED 3. Curved Dash
BEFORE MODEL T Oldsmobile
2HEAD In 1908, 4,002 of these Before the domination of the
Model T and the internal
EARLY three-seater, Touring combustion engine, the 425 of these vehicles were
AUTOMOBILES White Sewing Machine
Runabouts were sold for company produced luxury, built using mass production
steam-powered touring cars.
$900 each. The hood was an methods in 1901, long before

optional extra. They can now Ford improved these
methods. It cost $650.
sell for around $40,000. © Douglas Wilkinson 2006

DID YOU KNOW? Henry Ford said you can have any colour Model T as long as it is black

Workers lower the engine into place
using an overhead block-and-tackle

© Science Photo Library

Just as its modern counterparts developed different Mass production
styles and shapes over the years, so too did the Model T
The revolutionary methods used by
OMN ATHPE 2 Ford opened up a world of possibilities

Model T production 3 6 Mass production using a moving assembly line was the key
centres 1 innovation that made the Model T so successful. Car production had

1 Highland Park Plant, 5 been largely pitched at the luxury market with hand-built bespoke
Michigan models being the norm. Henry Leland, who worked for Cadillac,
4 pioneered the standardisation of car components, and moving
2 Trafford Park, production lines were used in Chicago slaughterhouses. The
Manchester, UK genius of Ford was to integrate these methods and reduce the
production of the Model T to 84 key areas.
3 Walkerville, Ontario, The chassis of the car was run along a track and each worker
Canada carried out a very simple and repetitive production task, before it

4 La Boca, Buenos Aires, was moved on to the next work area. The engine and other
Argentina components were made in a similar manner before being added to
the chassis. This slavish process made it possible to reduce the time to
5 Geelong, Victoria, Australia make one Model T from 12 hours eight minutes to 93 minutes.
6 Berlin, Germany
As early as 1914, Ford’s mass production techniques produced
The Model T was a welcome 300,000 cars with 13,000 workers compared to the 66,350 workers at all
addition to police forces the other car companies who only produced 280,000 cars.

From 27 September 1908 till the end of production on 26 May 1927,
15 million Model Ts were made. The Model T met and exceeded Henry
Ford’s vision of creating a simply designed car using the best materials
at a price affordable to everyone.

Connecting the barrel-
shaped petrol tank

© Harry L Sneider

easy to run and maintain. The first Since the Model T was equally at © Science Photo Library
models were runabouts with open home in town or as an off-road farm
bodies and a hood that can be folded workhorse, and available at the
down. Lots of different car and truck cheapest price possible, it quickly
bodies were later fitted to the Model T dominated the USA and made motoring
chassis by Ford and other companies. an essential part of our lives.

161

HISTORIC “It travelled at 160.9km/h (100mph)
breaking the world speed record”

The ultimate passenger locomotive

The Flying Scotsman
locomotive
Inside the film star, record-breaker
and national treasure

The original 4472 A1 locomotive was Tender
designed by Sir Herbert Nigel Gresley
Carries 9 tonnes (9.9 tons) of coal and 22,500 litres
(5,000 gallons) of water behind the locomotive.
An injector pipe sends water to the boiler.
Features a small corridor for crew transfer.

The Flying Scotsman began life as No 1472, an A1 © DK Images
Pacific-class locomotive. The Pacific class had a
2-6-2 arrangement of wheels, which enabled it to Fireman Firebox
carry a bigger boiler, making it suitable for
long-distance passenger services. Under ownership of the Shovels coal from the This is attached to the rear of the
London and North Eastern Railway Company (LNER) it was tender into the firebox. boiler barrel, and is cooled by
renumbered the 4472 and christened the Flying Scotsman.
When it broke down and was taken out of regular service it water in the barrel. The size of the
was the ideal candidate for putting on show at the British firebox is 19.9m² (215 sq ft) and the
Empire Exhibition in 1924 and 1925. It was an immediate hit
with the public, and its fame was sealed when in 1928 it boiler diameter is 1.95m (6ft 5in).
launched the regular 10am non-stop Flying Scotsman Express
Service from King’s Cross, London, to Waverley, Edinburgh. JUNE 1862 1888
To cope with the 631km (392-mile) route the locomotive
pulled a special eight-wheel tender that carried great Service begins Faster
quantities of water and coal. Since the crew had to be replaced
during the eight-hour journey without stopping, a special The East Coast mainline from Rivalry between rail companies
corridor was built in the tender to allow the relief crew to pass London to Edinburgh is used to run brought the journey time to as low as
between the train and the cab. the first Special Scotch Express, seven and a half hours. As this racing
The Flying Scotsman became even more famous on 30 departing at 10am with a journey was dangerous it is agreed to set the
November 1934, when it travelled at 160.9km/h (100mph) time of ten and a half hours. time at eight hours 15 minutes.
breaking the world speed record.
In January 1947, the Flying Scotsman was converted to the A3
class that incorporated a larger boiler with a higher boiler
pressure and, a year later, it was re-designated as the No 60103
under the ownership of British Rail. In 1963, it was sold off and
went through several owners before being rescued by the
National Railway Museum, York, in May 2004.

The Flying Scotsman
Express Service

162

5 TOP A1 class Price tag Longest record Long distance A sound start
FACTS
1 A total of 75 A1-class 2 The Flying Scotsman originally 3 The Scotsman was taken to 4 The Flying Scotsman 5 The locomotive starred in
THE FLYING locomotives were built in the cost £7,944 to build. Including Australia in 1989 where it set a passenger locomotive had The Flying Scotsman feature
SCOTSMAN Twenties and Thirties and most the purchase price and new record for the longest travelled an impressive film. Released back in March
were named after racehorses. All restoration work the National non-stop steam locomotive 3,340,998.14km (2,076,000 1930 it was one of Britain’s
were eventually converted to the Railway Museum has spent journey of 711km (442 miles) miles) when it was sold by very first films to include a
improved A3 class. £4 million on it since 2004. from Parkes to Broken Hill. British Rail in 1963. ‘talkie’ soundtrack.

DID YOU KNOW? The Flying Scotsman returned to the tracks in 2011, but discovered cracks mean it’s out of service until 2012

Streamlining © David Ingham Sir Nigel Gresley
and the LNER
Since the engine was so tall, the cab, dome
and chimney had to be virtually flush with Herbert Nigel Gresley (19 June 1876-5 April
the boiler to avoid hitting bridges between 1941) served his apprenticeship at Crewe
Newcastle and Edinburgh. Locomotive Works. His leadership and
engineering skills led him to become the chief
Driver mechanical engineer of the London and North
Eastern Railway Company (LNER) based in Doncaster.
The driver uses the throttle to control
the regulator in the steam dome to He designed the A1, and upgraded them to the A3 class. In 1935, he
increase or decrease the amount of introduced the A4 class that included the Mallard, which gained the
steam sent to the cylinders. world speed record by travelling at 202.7km/h (126mph) in 1938. He
also worked on steering gear for ships and, in total, designed 27
Steam dome The Flying Scotsman was not only classes of steam locomotive.
known for speed but luxury too
The water in the boiler turns to steam Gresley was always eager to test new innovations and incorporate
under high pressure, and rises to the the best ideas from Europe and America into his designs. In 1936 he
dome. The A1 boiler had 180psi while was knighted by King Edward VIII in recognition of his industry.
the A3 boiler increased it to 220psi.

Boiler tubes

Hot gases from the
firebox pass through
the tubes, heating the
water in the boiler.

Chimney The statistics…

In 1958, the Scotsman was fitted The Flying Scotsman
with a Kylchap exhaust system
Designer:
that evenly mixed the steam Sir Herbert Nigel Gresley
from the pistons and gases Manufacturer:
from the boiler tubes to Doncaster Railway Works
improve performance. Year built: 1923
Class: A3
Cylinders Length: 21.6m (70ft)
Width: 2.8m (9ft 3in)
The Scotsman has three cylinders on Height: 4m (13ft)
each side. A Gresley-conjugated valve Weight: 97.5 tonnes (107 tons)
Boiler pressure: 220psi
gear system orders the operation of Top commercial speed:
the pistons inside the cylinders. 108km/h (67mph)
Top record speed:
Cranks and 160.9km/h (100mph)
connecting rods Status: Owned by the National
Railway Museum, York
The movement of the pistons is
transferred through these rods to the
wheels. The diameter of the wheels is
0.96m (3ft 2in) for the first four, 2.03m
(6ft 8in) for the coupled set and for the

trailing wheels 1.12m (3ft 8in).

1900 The London and North Eastern 1932 23 MAY 2011
Railway Company is to thank
Luxury for the Scotsman name A new beginning

Passenger comfort is 1924 The Class 91, electric
enhanced by the locomotive 91101 starts an
introduction of dining cars, Official recognition Speeding Edinburgh to London weekday
heating and corridors service. It takes just four hours
linking carriages. This service had been nicknamed The restricted journey time to run the route.
the Flying Scotsman since the 1870s. of eight hours 15 minutes
LNER now officially gives the was officially reduced to 163
servicethis nameandgivesthe 4472 seven and a half hours.
locomotive the same title.

HISTORIC

Inside a Tudor warship

Life on board
the Mary Rose
Explore Henry VIII’s incredible flagship deck by deck

One of the most famous ships of the The Mary Rose dissected
age, the Mary Rose is perhaps best
known for its tragic demise on 19 July The Tudor warship was a complex vessel, building on
1545 as it raced out of Portsmouth Harbour to previous shipbuilding techniques used in caravels
meet the invading French fleet. The vessel,
however, has a much longer history than this. Hand-to-hand
Launched in 1511, the ship engaged in 34 years combat
of service until its sinking at the Battle of the
Solent. Built to be part of the Royal Navy that After a cannon attack,
protected England’s seas, the ship was a soldiers with swords and
carrack, or great ship, with four masts and was spears would then jump
a technological advancement in its own right. board the enemy ship.
Upon engagement in battle, the Mary Rose
would fire broadside shots from its many Cannons Arrow attack
cannons before the crew would look to board
the enemy ship. The ship would sail up After the initial burst of
The Mary Rose was overhauled in 1527 after to a target and launch a cannonballs, soldiers
years of being kept in reserve. The planking devastating broadside armed with bows would
was changed to allow space for larger guns with attack with its bronze stifle any enemy
watertight lids. It could now fire shots farther to and iron cannons. response with a shower
even hit shoreline targets. of arrows.
Various theories have tried to explain why it Storage
sank. Many claim the crew misjudged the Foodstore
speed and turning circle in the harbour, which Many tools and other
unbalanced the vessel and caused it to roll on materials had to be A larder full of preserved
its side and allow water to rush in. Another carried on board for food was essential to
describes a gust of wind striking at a vital equipment repairs for feed the crew which
moment, causing it to capsize. For what came to sails and cannons etc. could number up to 700.
be its final battle, the ship had been packed
with soldiers and guns to engage the enemy. The statistics…
Some think the sheer weight proved too much Mary Rose
of a strain. Lastly, an eyewitness account from a
French officer claimed that a French cannonball Built: 1509-1511
was the culprit, but as yet there is no Years of service: 34
archaeological evidence to prove that. Length: 33.6m (110.3ft)
Weight: 600 tons
Crew: Up to 700 men
Sank: 19 July 1545
Raised: 11 October 1982

A great 1509 1512 1513-1522 1522-1535
ship’s life
Construction starts The Mary Rose Chosen as the flagship of The ship is kept in reserve and
The Mary Rose’s eventful history the English fleet, it is used
from its construction to its on the ship. It is engages in combat in various missions against the Scots given a refit. The wooden planking
surprise sinking and the French, ranging from soldier
finally completed for the first time in transportation to sea warfare. is improved and more bronze and

and launched in 1511. the First French War. iron guns are added.

164

F5ATCOTPS Rose by any other name To battle! A big crew Haul of artefacts A tricky operation

MARY ROSE TRIVIA 1 The ship could possibly be 2 The Mary Rose first engaged 3 There could be as many as 4 Items found in the wreckage 5 The total time spent on
named after the Tudors’ Rose in battle in 1512. It functioned 700 men on board with roles included food, musical recovery missions to salvage
crest, the Virgin Mary or Henry as both a flagship and a including gunners, sailors and instruments and surgeons’ the Mary Rose adds up to
VIII’s sister, Mary Tudor, who transport vessel in numerous soldiers. Around 90 per cent tools as well as conventional 22,710 hours of salvaging.
would later go on to become skirmishes against the French of the crew perished in the finds like weapons and That’s the equivalent of more
the queen of France. and the Scots. seas of the Solent. navigating equipment. than 946 days!

DID YOU KNOW? 27,831 dives were made to the Mary Rose during the modern excavation project

How the Mary Rose
wreck was raised

Over the centuries since its sinking, there have been
numerous attempts to raise the ship from the
seabed. Salvage missions were ordered days after
the sinking but the technology at the time was not
advanced enough. It was left to deteriorate until
rediscovered in the 19th century. Divers went down
and many artefacts were retrieved but still no ship
emerged. The Mary Rose finally saw the light of day
in 1982, using a lifting frame and floating crane to
hold it together as it was transported to dry land.
The wreck is now housed in the Mary Rose Museum
in Portsmouth Dockyard. At first the ship was
constantly sprayed with fresh water to rinse out the
salt, then a wax solution to stop wood shrinkage,
and since 2013 it has entered a drying-out stage.

Social activities Senior quarters

Musical instruments, books The captain and officers
and games such as had the best sleeping
backgammon provided arrangements with
entertainment when the bigger rooms and some
sailors were off-duty. even having servants.

Armoury

An armoury was also on
board to equip the
soldiers ready for battle.

Woodwork

A carpenter provided
woodwork for structural
repairs and weaponry.

Galley Hold Learn more

Found in the bowels of the The bottom deck was More information can
ship, two brick ovens were just below sea level and be found at the Mary
needed to cook enough food was where the majority Rose museum site:
for the massive crew. of cargo was kept. www.maryrose.org.

1545 1836 1979 1982 © Alamy; Mary Rose Trust

The ship’s fate is sealed as it After more than 290 undisturbed After the Deanes, the The ship is finally raised
sinks in Portsmouth Harbour years, Charles and John Deane ship is again forgotten, on 11 October and work
after attempting to engage rediscover the Mary Rose after until the Mary Rose Trust begins to house it in a
in combat. There are efforts it catches on a local fisherman’s is set up and begins special building where it
to retrieve it from the seabed net. More items are retrieved, salvaging operations. can be preserved.
but all fail. including longbows and cannons.

165

HISTORIC

The Mayflower

The Mayflower

Discover what life was like on board the ship
that took the Pilgrim Fathers to America

The Mayflower is one of the most Commander was a man called Christopher Jones: voyage. There were serious threats from pirates, but
famous ships associated with English he occupied the quarters situated at the stern of it was storm damage that was to prove problematic
maritime history. After transporting the the ship. The regular crew lived in a room called on this journey. In the middle part of the expedition,
Pilgrim Fathers to a new life in America the forecastle, which was found in the bow – severe weather caused damage to the wooden beam
during 1620, the Mayflower was often regarded as a accommodation was cramped, unhygienic and that supported the ship’s frame. Fortunately,
symbol of religious freedom in the United States. highly uncomfortable. It was constantly drenched however, it was repairable.
Originally, however, the Mayflower was a simple by sea water and the officers on board were
cargo ship that was used for the transportation of fortunate in that they had their accommodation in Several accidents also occurred, including the
mundane goods – namely timber, clothing and the middle of the ship. near drowning of John Howland who was swept
wine. While statistical details of the ship have been overboard but then rescued. Less fortunate was a
lost, when scholars look at other merchant ships of During the historic voyage, the Mayflower carried crew member who died unexpectedly – considered
this period they estimate that it may have weighed 102 men, women and children – these Pilgrims were by all as ‘mean spirited’ – his demise was viewed as
up to 182,000 kilograms. It is suggested that the ship boarded in the cargo area of the ship, which was a punishment from God. A child was also born
would have been around seven metres wide and 30 deep below deck where the living conditions led to during the voyage: Elizabeth Hopkins called her
metres in length. seasickness and disease. The Mayflower set sail son Oceanus.
The ship’s crew lived on the upper decks. All in all, from England in the July of 1620, but the ship was
26 men are believed to have manned the Mayflower forced to turn back twice because a vessel that The ship reached Cape Cod safely on 11 November
on her legendary journey. The Master or accompanied it began to leak water. Many problems 1620. The religious community, who were hoping to
affected the Mayflower and her crew during the start a spiritual life in the New World, thanked God
for their survival.

“The Mayflower set sail from
England in 1620, but was forced
to turn back twice”

Inside the
Mayflower

The Mayflower was a cargo ship that could be
divided into three levels, which included the
deck with masts, lookout and rigging, and the
lower decks, which contained the staff
quarters, gun rooms and storage areas.
Below this, the hold contained passengers.

Beakhead Forecastle Hold

The beakhead is the protruding part Accommodation for the The hold is the deepest
of the foremost section of the ship. common sailors, the men section of the ship. It was

slept here when not used to store cargo and
working on deck. accommodate passengers.

166

DID YOU Old turkey
KNOW?
When the Pilgrims arrived in America, the natives taught them how to make
canoes, grow maize and establish tobacco plants. They also introduced the
newcomers to turkey, which was a native species of North America. For this
reason the turkey became a traditional dish eaten at Thanksgiving.

DID YOU KNOW? It’s thought that upon her return to England, the Mayflower was likely scrapped for her timber

Great cabin ON THE MAP

The quarters assigned to the ship’s Start:
Master, which had a second bunk Southampton

for a senior officer or guest. New Plymouth Plymouth
Newlyn, Cornwall
Poop deck
Cape Cod
Used for lookout and
navigation, the poop

deck provided the
sailors with a wide
view across the sea.

Capstan and windlass

An apparatus that enabled the
sailors to raise and lower cargo

between deck levels.
Susan A. Peterson
The Mayflower II replica docked © DK Images Original destination:
at Plymouth, Massachusetts North Virginia

The Mayflower arrived at the
internal fish hook of Cape Cod

Whipstaff

A pole that was attached to the
tiller. It was used on 17th Century

ships for steering purposes.

Pilgrim Fathers

In 1620 a group of puritans arrived on the Mayflower destined for the New World. They were known as the Pilgrim Fathers. The Pilgrim Fathers were
disillusioned with the ungodly and hedonistic behaviour of their native Englishmen and believed that America was a land of opportunity where they could
start a new religious community.

They landed in New Plymouth, and began to build houses, but it is believed that half their population died during the first year of occupation. The New
World was seen as a dazzling land and a second Garden of Eden, but in reality the environment was harsh and unforgiving. Some natives were helpful and
taught the settlers how to survive this wilderness, and in 1621 they produced their first successful harvest. This was celebrated with the first Thanksgiving
– in turn, this became a traditional feast day – and it is still observed as an American national holiday.

167

HISTORIC

HMS Victory

HMS
Victory

One of the most famous ships of all time,
HMS Victory was instrumental in ensuring
British naval supremacy during the late
18th and early 19th centuries

The only surviving warship to have fought in the
American War of Independence, the French
Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic wars, the HMS
Victory is one of the most famous ships ever to be built.
An imposing first rate ship of the line – line warfare is
characterised by two lines of opposing vessels attempting to
outmanoeuvre each other in order to bring their broadside cannons
into best range and angle – the Victory was an oceanic behemoth,
fitted with three massive gundecks, 104 multiple-ton cannons, a
cavernous magazine and a crew of over 800. It was a vessel capable of
blowing even the largest enemy vessels out of the water with
magnificent ferocity and range, while also outrunning and
outmanoeuvring other aggressors.
Historically, it was also to be Vice-Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson’s
flagship during the epic naval battle off the Cape of Trafalgar, where it
partook in the last great line-based conflict of the age, one in which it
helped to grant Nelson a decisive victory over the French and Spanish
but at the cost of his own life.

Turner’s famous The statistics…
painting of the Battle of
Trafalgar in which the
HMS Victory is shown in
the midst of battle

HMS Victory © Jamie Campbell Sails

78 Enigma machine Class: First rate ship of the line The HMS Victory is a fully rigged ship, with
168 Displacement: 3,500 tons three sets of square sails covering 5,440m2. The
Length: 227ft breadth of the Victory’s sails allowed it to sport a
Beam: 51ft maximum top speed of nine knots when
Draught: 28ft operational, which was for the time very impressive
Propulsion: Sails – 5,440m2 considering its size and weight. During the 18th and 19th
Speed: 9 knots (17km/h) centuries a fully rigged ship necessitated three or more masts
Armament: 104 guns each of which with square rigging. At full flight the Victory could
Complement: 800 spread a maximum of 37 sails at one time and could carry 23 spares.

Crew

There were over 800 people on board the HMS Victory, including
gunners, marines, warrant officers and powder monkeys among
many others. Life on board was hard for the sailors, who were paid
very little for their services and received poor food and little water.
Disease was rife too, and punishments for drunkenness, fighting,
desertion and mutiny ranged from flogging to hanging.

5 TOP Back-up Wood Mirabilis Trafalgar Rest
FACTS
1 Upon completion, the HMS 2 Building the HMS Victory 3 Victory was commissioned to 4 Victory was Nelson’s flagship 5 The HMS Victory was
HMS VICTORY Victory was not put directly into required over 6,000 trees to be celebrate the Annus Mirabilis during the famous Battle of docked down in No 2 Dock
use, but was moored in the River cut down, 90 per cent of which (year of miracles) of 1759, where Trafalgar in 1805 which, despite Portsmouth – the oldest
Medway for 13 years until France were oak. The other ten per cent the British achieved great Nelson being mortally wounded, dry-dock in the world – in
joined the American War of consisted of elm, pine, fir and military success against saw the British Navy win a 1922 due to deterioration
Independence. lignum vitae. French-led opponents. decisive victory. of its bodywork.

DID YOU KNOW? HMS Victory cost £63,176 when finished in 1765, the equivalent of roughly £7 million today

Masts Decks E
D
The HMS Victory sported a bowsprit (the The HMS Victory had seven main decks,
pole extending beyond the ship’s head), including: the hold, orlop, lower gundeck,
fore mast, main mast, mizzen mast and middle gundeck, upper gundeck,
main yard. A total of 26 miles (41.9km) of quarterdeck and poop deck.
cordage, as well as 768 elm and ash
blocks, were used to rig the ship.

C

C
C

B

A

© Alex Pang

(A) The hull

The hull was the largest storage area on the ship where up to six months of food
and drink could be stored, as well as any excess supplies.

(B) The orlop

The only other deck below the waterline, the orlop was another storage area and
also habitation deck for certain crew members such as the purser.

(C) The gundecks

Housed the majority of the Victory’s cannons, with a tiered arrangement from
top to bottom (largest cannons on the bottom, smallest on the top). These decks
also housed the majority of the crew and Royal Marines, sleeping in hammocks
suspended from battens fixed to overhead beams. The lower gundeck also acted
as mess deck, the space where the crew would live and eat.

(D) The quarterdeck

The nerve centre of the ship, where its commander dictated its manoeuvres and
actions often under heavy gunfire from rival vessels.

(E) The poop deck

Located at the stern, this short deck takes its name from the Latin word puppis,
which literally means ‘after deck’ or ‘rear deck’. This deck was mainly used for
signalling, but also gave some protection to the man helming the ship’s wheel.

Cannons

As a first rate ship of the line, the
Victory was a three-gundeck

warship with over 100 guns. In fact,
the Victory was fitted with 104

cannons: 30 x 2.75 ton long pattern 32-
pounders on the gundeck, 28 x 2.5 ton

long 12-pounders on the middle
gundeck, 30 x 1.7 ton short 12-

pounders on the upper gundeck, 12 x
1.7 ton short 12-pounders on the

quarterdeck, and 2 x medium 12-
pounders and 2 x 68-pounder
carronades on the forecastle.

© Alex Pang

© Alex Pang

169

HISTORIC

Inside a tea clipper

Cutty Sark

The world’s last intact tea clipper trading ship, the Cutty
Sark epitomised the tailend of the age of sail, built to
negotiate cross-continent trading routes with great speed

The Cutty Sark was an English clipper-class determination to outsail the other great clipper of the age The Cutty Sark
ship used predominantly to transport tea from the Thermopylae, something that it would proceed to do was very
China to England. It was built for speed, with a no less than five times during its career. Luckily, despite advanced
narrow hull, a wide, forward-raked bow and a the ship falling into poor condition, numerous refits and for its era
square rig on a three-mast setup. restorations mean that today its condition remains
These factors enabled the ship to cut through rough unchallenged worldwide.
waves with greater efficiency than pre-existing trading
vessels, allowing produce such as tea, cocoa, coal and Unfortunately, as with many tools and technologies, the
wool to be rapidly transported cross continent for age of the Cutty Sark/clipper was not to last. The invention
expedited delivery (for the time). In fact, the high speeds of the steam engine had led to increasing mechanisation
attainable by clipper-class ships led to the formation of throughout the Industrial Revolution and by the late-19th
the ‘Race of the Tea Clippers’, an annual event where Century steam-powered ships were becoming financially
various crews battled it out to bring in the first tea viable to the mass-market. This, in partnership with the
shipment of the year. opening of the Suez Canal – which created a shortcut
The Cutty Sark was – and still is today, albeit as a tourist between Europe and Asia not traversable by sail-powered
attraction – a prime example of the tea clipper. With ships – caused clippers to be slowly phased out. As such
planking, deadwoods, stem and sternpost made from the Cutty Sark was sold in 1895 and re-rigged in Cape
American rock elm, a bespoke iron frame, a deck made Town, South Africa, returning to England in the Twenties
from teak and solid brass bolting throughout, the ship was to serve as a training ship.
one of the most expensive and advanced clippers at sea.
This build quality was ensured by its shipbuilder’s Today the Cutty Sark is preserved in a dry dock in
Greenwich, London, where it is viewable to the public as a
maritime museum piece.

The Cutty Sark
moored in
Sydney Harbour,
Australia

Hull © DK Images

The Sark’s hull was
made from wood
on a metal frame.
The ship’s deck
and brims were
made from teak.

170

5 TOP Races Shirty Wool Dry Fire
FACTS
1 The Cutty Sark was designed as a 2 The Cutty Sark’s name 3 In the early-20th Century the 4 In the early-Fifties the Cutty 5 In 2007 the Cutty Sark was set
THE CUTTY merchant vessel, primarily to translates as ‘short shirt’ in Cutty Sark was bought and Sark had fallen into disrepair alight by vandals, leaving it with
SARK transport tea from China. Due to modern English. The name was redesigned to act as a ship to through lack of maintenance. extensive damage. Luckily, much of
the product’s popularity, annual taken from the famous poem by transport wool. As such, its But in 1957 it was restored and the vessel had been dismantled for
races were held to bring the year’s Scottish poet Robert Burns, homeport was switched from positioned in a dry berth near restoration. The ship reopened to the
first tea to England. Tam o’ Shanter. London to Lisbon, Portugal. Greenwich, London. public on 25 April 2012.

DID YOU KNOW? The Cutty Sark was moored under Krakatoa just two years before it erupted

The statistics… The Cutty Sark in service Time waits
during 1869. Today, the ship for no clipper
is one of only three left from
the 19th Century There are only two other 19th-
Century clippers still around,
© Jan van der Crabben though they are fast decaying

Cutty Sark © David Cook

Class: Clipper
Tonnage: 975 GRT
Displacement: 2,100 tons
Length: 85m (279ft)
Beam: 11m (36ft)
Max speed: 32km/h (17kn)
Capacity: 1,700 tons
Complement: 28-35

Masts City of Adelaide

The ship’s masts, yards and Built: 1864
bowsprit were made from Fate: Sunk/salvaged
Position: Irvine, Scotland
iron. The Sark was equipped
with three main masts. Designed to transport passengers and
merchandise between England and Australia
Sails during the latter’s colonisation, the City of
Adelaide is today the oldest surviving clipper
The Cutty Sark featured in existence. During its heyday the Adelaide
a square sail layout due made 23 annual return voyages to South
Australia and, consequently, it is estimated
to it being the most that 250,000 modern-day Australians can
aerodynamically trace their lineage to a passenger on the ship.
The ship was accidentally sunk while in
efficient running rig for Prince’s Dock, Glasgow, in 1991 and, while
attaining high speeds. salvaged in 1992, is now a severely dilapidated
wreck. As with the Cutty Sark, the Adelaide is
an A-listed protected structure.

© Google/André Bonacin

Crew Ambassador

The Sark had a complement Built: 1869
ranging between 28 and 35 men Fate: Beached
Position: Estancia San Gregorio, Chile
depending on the length and Built in the Lavender Dry Dock on the River
direction of the trade route. Thames during 1869, the Ambassador was
designed to transport tea from China to
Cargo England. A frequent contestant in the great
tea races of the day, the Ambassador was one
The Cutty Sark transported primarily of the fastest clipper ships, with a personal-
tea, wool and coal, however other best time of 108 days to complete the journey.
foodstuffs were carried as the ship After its tea-trading days, the Ambassador
was used to transport wool and other
was capable of reaching destinations products around the world. Unfortunately, in
with great speed, reducing spoilage. 1899, the ship was in a state of disrepair, with
its then owner unable to pay for its restoration.
As a result, it was beached in Estancia San
Gregorio, Chile, where it remains to this day.

171

HISTORIC

Germany’s powerful submarines

U-boats Anatomy of a VII-C
explained
Discover what made this class of U-boat
How did these advanced German such a formidable opponent out at sea
submarines wreak so much havoc
during both the World Wars? Navigation

Navigation and detection were
handled by a suite of systems
including a periscope, radar
antenna and magnetic
compass. These allowed the
U-boat to pick up both surface
and undersea targets.

Air tank Torpedoes Main gun

Almost everything on Five 533mm (21in) torpedo The VII-C was equipped
the U-boat required air to tubes – four in the bow with an 8.8cm (3.5in) SK
operate, ranging from and one in the stern – were C/35 naval cannon for use
torpedo launchers to installed and left armed for on the surface. It could
dive tanks. As such, large quick attack. A total of 14 fire armour-piercing,
air tanks were located all torpedoes could be carried high-explosive and
over the vessel. at any one time. illumination rounds.

The statistics… Hydroplane Dive tank Signal station Control room

VII-C U-boat Movement underwater A series of ballast dive Even when submerged up When submerged, the
was controlled with a tanks were located at to 9m (30ft) the U-boat centre of operations
Crew: 44 series of hydroplanes – the lower front of the could still send and receive was the control room.
Length: 67.3m (221ft) short, wing-like vessel. When on the long-wave radio signals. Steering, navigation and
Diameter: 6m (20ft) appendages that could surface these tanks were Codes were encrypted fire commands were all
Weight: 761 tons (surfaced) be angled as desired. empty and filled with air; prior to transmission. issued from here.
Surface range: Facing them up caused to submerge, they were
15,739km (9,780mi) the vessel to dive. flooded with water.
Submerged range:
141.9km (88.2mi)
Max surface speed:
30.5km/h (19mph)
Max submerged speed:
13.5km/h (8.4mph)
Armament: 14 torpedoes; 60
mines; 8.8cm (3.5in) main gun

172

F5ATCOTPS Pack hunter Veteran Breaking the rules Atlantic standoff Lone survivor

U-BOAT TRIVIA 1 U-boats were famous for 2 While U-boats were at their 3 Despite the 1919 Treaty of 4 U-boats were most heavily 5 The only VII-C U-boat that
hunting targets in groups most numerous and advanced Versailles forbidding the used in the Battle of the remains intact today is model
known as ‘wolf packs’, which during World War II, early construction of submarines, Atlantic, a campaign to seize U-995. This vessel is on
would engage the enemy as a versions were used in World by the start of World War II control over supply routes to display at the Laboe Naval
single deadly unit, much like War I too, sinking many a Germany already had 65 and from America that lasted Memorial in Schleswig-
the animal namesake. military and civilian ship. U-boats, with 21 battle-ready. throughout World War II. Holstein, Germany.

DID YOU KNOW? It’s estimated that over 3,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats during WWII

Conning tower Flak cannon U-boats – or ‘unterseeboots’, which Capable of travelling thousands of miles on
translates as ‘undersea boats’ – were a the water and then able to submerge and strike
Each VII-C was topped A few VII-Cs were fitted series of submarines used in both enemy targets within a 142-kilometre (88-mile)
with a conning tower at with a flak cannon too. World War I and World War II. They were famed range, the VII-C was the backbone of Germany’s
the centre of the vessel. These 20mm (0.8in) for their ability to stealthily strike at Allied submarine fleet. Armed with a bounty of
The commander of the guns were used to fire vessels, ganging up on them in brutally torpedoes, sea mines and cannons, the VII-C
U-boat controlled the at any enemy attack efficient ‘wolf packs’ to inflict the maximum could deliver damage both on the surface and
submarine from here aircraft trying to blow damage. In World War I alone, 430 Allied and beneath the waves, as well as tie key areas
when surfaced. neutral ships were sunk by these roving packs. down with traps and blockades. Indeed, the
the U-boat out the water. If the might of the U-boat was thought to be type II was so successful that between 1940 and
at its peak in 1917, however, then by the start of 1945 568 vessels were commissioned.
Storage World War II in 1939, they had risen to a whole
other level. Over 50 new U-boats were built or In contrast to the impressive German fleet,
There was no dedicated already in construction and this impressive the Allied fleet was inferior both in number
storage area in U-boats submarine fleet proceeded to enjoy much and, in general, in its technology. Interestingly
due to their compact, success raiding supply lines and sinking Allied though, records indicate that more U-boats
narrow design. As such vessels. One of the foremost of these next- were sunk by Allied vessels than vice versa,
meat, bread and other generation U-boats was the VII-C – the most with HMS Upholder – a U-class submarine –
produce were kept in advanced submarine that had ever been built. sinking several in the Mediterranean.
the crew quarters.
Fuel tank Many of these statistics do not give an
accurate portrayal, however, of the overall
Due to limited internal influence that the U-boats had during World
space, the VII-C’s fuel War II, as their primary purpose was that of
tanks were mounted in a economic warfare (eg cutting off supply lines),
saddle arrangement over rather than being solely dedicated to battle.
its back, with twin cavities
extending from each side.

Battery array Crew quarters Engine Motors © DK Images

Huge banks of electrical Living quarters were situated When on the surface, the While submerged the U-boat
batteries were located in throughout the vessel. Up to 44 U-boat was propelled by two was propelled by a brace of
the lower centre portion people could be accommodated, supercharged six-cylinder, electric motors that produced
of the U-boat. These with individuals sleeping on four-stroke M6V 40/46 diesel 560kW (750hp). These were
supplied energy for the narrow, wall-mounted bunk beds. engines. These generated a needed as the diesel engines
motors and lights. maximum 2,400kW (3,200hp). required air to operate.

173

HISTORIC

A record-breaking submersible

Bathyscaphe
Trieste
Propellers
A real-life Nautilus, the Bathyscaphe
Trieste explored the deepest parts The Trieste could largely only
of Earth’s oceans, remaining to this move up and down on a vertical
day one of the only manned plane. However, small,
vehicles to have reached the bottom top-mounted propellers allowed
of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific a little horizontal movement.

After passing 9,000 metres periodically as when activated they Water tanks
(30,000 feet), one of the caused the water to violently boil – and
Plexiglas windows cracked. discovering a multitude of life including At fore and aft of the hull lay twin
Over 1,000 atmospheres – a a white flatfish, several shrimp and water-filled ballast tanks.
pressure over six tons per square inch jellyfish, Piccard initiated the Trieste’s
– relentlessly bore down upon the ascent. The vessel had held, but at a Quartz lamp
Bathyscaphe Trieste. The hull shook depth of 10,916 metres (35,814 feet) the
violently, threatening to collapse under temperature of the pressure sphere was High-powered quartz arc-light lamps
the mighty strain. If fractured on even a dropping continuously (the minimum enabled the Trieste’s crew to observe
microscopic scale, the weight of the recorded was just seven degrees their immediate environment. These
Earth’s deepest ocean would rip the Celsius/45 degrees Fahrenheit); if they were mounted to the bottom of the hull.
vessel in two, triggering explosive were not careful, there would be no
decompression and instantly killing return. Three hours and 15 minutes later, A close-up view of the Trieste’s pressure
both oceanographer Jacques Piccard the Trieste re-emerged into the daylight sphere, clearly showing the Plexiglas
and pilot Lieutenant Don Walsh of the US and human civilisation. The vessel and observation window and instrument leads
Navy. 23 January 1960, however, was not its crew had been to a world only
their day to die. The men had still not envisioned in fiction and returned with
reached the bottom of the Mariana field-changing information.
Trench’s Challenger Deep; the structure
had to hold – there was no plan B. Key to the data gathered was
Descending further into the black establishing the existence of life at the
void, completely cut off from the outside bottom of Earth’s deepest ocean. This
world – the sonar/hydrophone revealed that not only were there
communications system had packed up creatures impervious to extreme
hours ago – the Trieste continued to atmospheric pressures, but also that
dump iron pellets into its ballast system. water at this depth wasn’t stagnant.
After all, you don’t descend vertically This was a clear indication that ocean
nine kilometres (nearly six miles) currents even penetrated these extreme
beneath the surface of the ocean only to depths, so they should not be used as a
quit so close to your goal. Then finally, dumping ground for radioactive waste.
out of nowhere and after four hours and Unfortunately, despite this first-hand
48 minutes within a two-metre evidence, dumping of this kind still
(seven-foot) pressurised sphere, Piccard, continues throughout large parts of the
Walsh and the Trieste touched down. world to this day.
Clouds of diatomaceous ooze (made of
the skeletons of dead sea-creatures) Today the legacy of the Trieste is being
diffused from the seabed on contact, built upon, with numerous programmes
filling the surrounding water with a currently underway focused on
liquidated organic haze. designing new vehicles to return to this
Half an hour later, after periodically uncharted territory. The most high
observing this alien environment with profile of these is Richard Branson’s
high-powered quartz arc-light lamps – Virgin Oceanic, which intends to return
to the bottom of the Mariana Trench in
the near future.

174

5 TOP Launch Purchase Sphere Robots Retirement
FACTS
1 The Trieste was launched 2 In 1958 the Trieste was bought 3 During the USA’s ownership the 4 Up until 2012, no other manned 5 In 1980 the Trieste, which had
TRIESTE on 26 August 1953 into the by the US Navy. It was used in Trieste was fitted with a new vessel had returned from the been continuously redesigned
TRIVIA Mediterranean Sea near Capri. It Project Nekton, a series of dives pressure sphere. This Challenger Deep. In 1995 a for three decades, was retired
proceeded to operate in the in the Pacific Ocean near Guam, was produced by Krupp Steel Japanese robotic craft reached and taken to the Washington
vicinity for five years under the where it first entered the Works of Essen, Germany, and the bottom, as did a remotely Navy Yard. It’s now housed in the
command of the French Navy. Challenger Deep. weighed in at 13 tons. operated vehicle in 2009. US Navy’s museum.

DID YOU KNOW? The Trieste was designed by Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard – the father of Jacques who co-piloted it

One of the specially Inside the
designed ballast tanks Bathyscaphe
Trieste
which worked with
magnetised iron pellets We take a look at the machinery and
technology that enabled this
record-breaking dive

Electromagnets

The magnetic iron pellets that
allowed the Trieste to descend so deep
were held in place actively by large
electromagnets. As such, if there was
an electrical failure, the vessel would
automatically begin to rise.

Entrance tunnel The Bathyscaphe Trieste is now
exhibited at the National Museum of
The pressure sphere was
accessed from the deck of the the US Navy in Washington DC
vessel by a narrow vertical shaft
that penetrated the float. Hull

The Trieste’s hull was made
from steel and held numerous

ballast tanks. The pressure
sphere that contained the

vessel’s crew was mounted
centrally to its belly.

© Alex Pang

The statistics…

Pressure sphere Pellet tanks Bathyscaphe Trieste

The heart of the Trieste’s Magnetised iron pellets were contained Type: Bathyscaphe
operation, the sphere was within special ballast tanks to enable a Crew: 2
constructed from 13cm (5in)-thick fast and deep dive. These were held in Displacement: 51 tons
steel and housed the crew and the an active state by electromagnets. Length: 18.1m (59.6ft)
vessel’s instrumentation. Beam: 3.5m (11.6ft)
Gasoline tanks Draft: 5.6m (18.6ft)
Observation window
Due to the extreme weight of the pressure 175
The only transparent material on the sphere, large gasoline-filled tanks were
entire craft, the observation window used to ensure neutral buoyancy.
was made from a cone-shaped block of Gasoline was chosen as it is relatively
shatterproof Plexiglas (acrylic glass). incompressible at extreme pressures.

trialSpofefcieral

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