How it works Amazing vehicles

DID YOU The biggest supertanker ever built
KNOW?
The Seawise Giant carried a maximum weight of 564,763 DWT and
contained 46 storage tanks when it was constructed in 1979. Stood on its
head, the Seawise Giant is taller than the Petronas Towers in Malaysia,
which stand at 452 metres (1,482 feet) tall.

DID YOU KNOW? A supertanker transporting liquid natural gas has more energy potential than six Hiroshima-scale bombs

Slosh dynamicsAbird’seyeviewofthe
prow of an oil tanker

Despite their incredible size and weight, supertankers are surprisingly
vulnerable to capsizing. That’s because they are filled with liquid cargo, which
sloshes about with great force, dangerously altering the ship’s centre of gravity.
The worst scenario is a large storage tank only partially filled. The liquid in this
‘slack tank’ will slosh and shift with sudden manoeuvres of the ship or outside
forces like strong waves or wind gusts. Since the liquid sloshes in the same
direction as the roll, it exaggerates the pitch of the vessel, creating something
called the free surface effect. As the vessel tries to right itself to centre, the liquid
sloshes even more violently in the opposite direction, initiating a positive
feedback loop that can eventually lead to disaster. To mitigate the dangers of the
free surface effect, supertankers use several smaller storage tanks and either fill
them to the top (a ‘pressed up’ tank) or leave them empty.

below-deck storage tanks. By using Rocking the boat Slack tank Centre of gravity Slosh Displacement
many smaller storage tanks,
shipbuilders minimise the effects of The free surface effect The free surface effect If enough liquid sloshes If the ship’s manoeuvring Normally, a slight roll is
sloshing (see ‘Slosh dynamics’ box). can be mitigated by is exaggerated in a with enough force, it can or an outside force tips it counteracted by the upward
While a smaller tank filled to capacity using smaller, partially filled tank, alter the vessel’s centre of starboard, the liquid will pressure of the water
won’t slosh and shift its weight on the off-centre tanks and where liquid moves gravity and leave the ship slosh in the same direction, displaced. Sloshing liquid acts
high seas, a large, half-empty tank could filling them to capacity. freely over a large area. unable to right itself. deepening the roll. against that correcting force.
slosh with enough force to capsize even
a supertanker. Once the ship reaches its What is Deadweight
destination, a powerful on-board pump crude oil? tonnage
sucks the oil from the tanks and
transports it to an on-shore pipeline, Crude oil is a mixture Crude oil is the raw, unprocessed Following the principle of
storage facility or to a smaller tanker. of compounds known petroleum that is pumped out of Archimedes’ “Eureka!”
the ground through oil drilling. moment, if you lower a floating
Safety is a major consideration on a as hydrocarbons The composition of crude oil vessel into water, a force called
supertanker. First and foremost, you are varies greatly with the location of buoyancy pushes upwards on
transporting massive quantities of a the underground oil deposit. The the hull with a force equal to
highly flammable liquid. (Every oil main ingredient of crude oil is the weight of the water it
tanker features a large stencilled ‘No carbon, which makes up 83-87 displaces. Buoyancy only
smoking’ sign over the crew quarters!) It per cent of the mix. There are works on objects that are less
turns out that the greatest danger is not also natural gases bubbling dense than water. It is the huge
the oil itself, but the vapours that can through the thick liquid such as volume of air in the hull that
become trapped in the partially filled methane, butane, ethane and allows supertankers to float.
tanks. That’s why modern oil tankers propane, composed of hydrogen, Because displacement equals
employ an automated inert gas system nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur in weight, we can figure out the
that fills unused portions of a storage varying quantities. The black/ total weight of a ship – known
tank with a cocktail of gases that render brown crude is shipped to oil as deadweight tonnage – by
the vapour inflammable. refineries, where it is purified measuring the height of the
and separated into commodities waterline against markers
Oil leaks and spills are another big like gasoline, diesel fuel, painted on the ship’s hull.
concern, both for economic and kerosene and liquid natural gas.
environmental reasons. In the wake of
the infamous Exxon Valdez oil spill in
1989, all modern oil tankers are required
to have double-hull construction. The
inner hull containing the storage tanks
is protected by an outer hull; these are
divided by a three-metre (ten-foot) gap.
When the tanker is full, the space
between the hulls is left empty, forming
an effective crumple zone. When the
tanker unburdens its load of oil, the
space is filled with water to act as ballast.

Temperature is another serious
concern for supertankers. Crude oil and
other fuel products can get thick and
sticky if they are allowed to become too
cold, making them nearly impossible to
unload. When supertankers cross
through near-frozen arctic waters, they
maintain the desired oil temperature by
pumping hot steam through coils
underneath each storage tank.

101

SEA “If you stood the Seawise Giant on its
stern, it would be taller than nearly
every skyscraper in the world”

Supersized oil tankers

Anatomy of a Vents
supertanker
Flammable vapours can build
up in the cargo tanks and must
be expelled through on-deck
venting systems. The vents
ensure that vapours aren’t
released into confined spaces.

How It Works takes an exploded

diagram of one of these mighty Droplines
vessels and details the key parts
These vertical runs of pipe
transport oil from the deck

pipelines down into the deep

Deck pipelines storage tanks.

These fixed lengths of pipe

running along the tanker’s Cargo tanks
deck are used to pump crude
oil to and from the shore. The immense hold of the
supertanker is divided into a

dozen or more storage tanks. No

Double hull tanks are allowed to straddle the
ship’s centreline, as this could

To prevent spills from low-energy destabilise the vessel.

collisions or groundings, all modern

oil tankers are built with an outer

hull and inner hull separated by a

2-3m (6.6-9.8ft) crumple zone.

Baffles

Each large cargo tank is
divided by a series of
vertical baffles that
minimise the
dangerous sloshing
effect of fluid cargo.

One of the massive
storage tanks that can
be found on a supertanker

Oil tanker timeline

© Science Photo Library 1860s 1873 1886

Wind-powered tankers First steam tanker Prototype modern tanker

A large sailing vessel like the The SS Vaderland is believed to be The British-built Gluckauf was one
Elizabeth Watts could hold the first oil tanker powered by a of the first to have many large,
several hundred tons of crude oil, steam engine. They had featured permanent storage tanks in its
but ocean travel was slow. on other types of ship since 1843. hold, instead of stacking in barrels.

102

2HHEEAADD BIGGEST CRUISE SHIP 1. Allure of the BIGGEST WARSHIP 2. Nimitz-class BIGGEST 3. Wyoming
Seas and Oasis aircraft carriers WOODEN SHIP
GIANTS OF of the Seas Measuring 140m (450ft), this
THE SEA These nuclear-powered turn-of-the-century schooner
These Royal Caribbean war machines are 333m had six masts and could reach
cruise liners are 16 decks (1,092ft) long and can a top speed of 30km/h
high and carry over 6,000 travel at a top speed of (16 knots). It sunk in 1924,
passengers in 2,700 rooms. 55.5km/h (30 knots). claiming all 14 hands on board.

DID YOU KNOW? Supertankers aren’t built for agility; it can take 15 minutes for one to shift from full forward to full reverse

Crew quarters Navigation and Oil tanker
communications classification
Supertankers are
manned by skeleton Modern supertankers are Oil tankers come in all sizes. Here we
crews of captains, equipped with satellite explain the differences and what it
officers, engineers, communication towers, GPS takes to qualify as a supertanker
pumpmen, cooks, navigation systems and
deckhands and more advanced radar stations that Medium-range tanker
who live on the ships show the identity and courses
for months at a time. of nearby vessels. <44,999 DWT (deadweight tons)

© Alex Pang Engine room According to a system developed by Shell Oil called the average
freight weight assessment, oil tankers are classified by the
1 The main engine maximum amount of deadweight tons (DWT) they can carry.
5 is a two-stroke Medium-range tankers handle up to 44,999 DWT and include
the Seawaymax class of tankers, the largest vessels that can
4 reversible diesel pass from the interior Great Lakes of the US-Canadian border to
3 engine packing the Atlantic Ocean via the St Lawrence Seaway.
over 20,000 boiler
2 Long-range tanker 1 (LR1)
horsepower to
turn a bronze 45,000-79,000 DWT
propeller that is
more than 8m Tankers classified as LR1 can carry between 45,000 and 79,000
DWT, which may be small on a supertanker scale, however LR1
(26ft) across. tankers do have their advantages. For example, no tanker larger
than an LR1 can squeeze through the narrow locks of the
Pump room Panama Canal, which can shave many miles off a journey.

Supertankers are equipped with three or Long-range tanker 2 (LR2)
four steam-powered centrifugal pumps
that suck oil from the cargo tanks and <160,000 DWT
pump it ashore at rates of 4,000 cubic
metres (141,259 cubic feet) an hour. Some LR2 tankers are twice as large as the heaviest LR1s,
reaching a maximum weight of 160,000 DWT. Smaller tankers in
ON THE the LR2 class roam the waters of shallower sea basins like the
North Sea, Black Sea and the Caribbean. The largest LR2s still
MAP float shallow enough to pass through the Suez Canal, thus
avoiding the long journey around the southern tip of Africa.
Top oil producers*
Very large crude carrier (VLCC)
1 Country: Russia
Barrels per day: 9.93m <319,999 DWT

2 Country: Saudi Arabia From the VLCC class up is officially supertanker territory. VLCCs
Barrels per day: 9.76m weigh in at a maximum 319,999 DWT. VLCCs are also known as
Malaccamax craft, because they are the largest tankers that can
3 Country: United States fit through the Strait of Malacca – a 25-metre (82-foot)-deep pass
Barrels per day: 9.14m between Malaysia and Sumatra – the most direct sea route from
the oil-rich Middle East to oil-hungry China.
4 Country: Iran
Barrels per day: 4.17m Ultra large crude carrier (ULCC)

5 Country: China <500,000 DWT
Barrels per day: 4.00m
These gargantuan vessels – more like small, floating nation-
*Source: US Energy states – are the monsters of the supertanker world, with a
Information Administration maximum carrying capacity of 500,000 DWT. The typical ULCC
can transport over 3 million barrels of oil, more than the
1903 1915 1958 combined daily energy usage of England and Spain. Most ULCCs
are too big to fit through canals, so they must take the scenic
Internal-combustion tankers Wartime refuelling First supertanker route around the southern tips of Africa and South America.

Alfred Nobel’s brothers, Ludvig and The USS Maumee was the first The Japanese-built SS 103
Robert, were oil tanker innovators. The large oil tanker used to refuel Universe Apollo was the
Vandal was their first diesel-electric ship, destroyers on their long Atlantic first oil tanker to exceed
powered by three 120hp diesel motors. voyage from America to the UK. 100,000 deadweight tons.

SEA “If all the Triple-E’s containers were
stacked, the tower would almost
Cargo ship reach Earth’s stratosphere!”

The largest cargo The statistics…
ship in the world
Triple-E
The Triple-E container vessel rewrites the concept of what
is deemed big, carrying mighty loads across the ocean Beam: 59m (194ft)
Draught: 14.5m (47ft)
What is big? A hippopotamus? A giant the creation of a vessel that can safely and efficiently Height: 73m (239ft)
redwood? An aircraft carrier? No, they were carry such tremendous weight (for a breakdown of Length: 400m (1,312ft)
thought of as big – once. Today they are these, see the ‘Triple-E anatomy’ diagram). Without Deadweight: 165,000 tons
rendered mere dwarfs compared to the Triple-E many technological advancements the Triple-E Container capacity:
container vessel, a 165,000-ton, 400-metre (1,312-foot)- would, quite simply, be impractical. 18,000 TEU
long behemoth capable of carrying 18,000 containers Top speed:
over thousands of miles. It is quite simply massive The Triple-E gets its name from its focus on 23 knots (42km/h; 26mph)
and, when viewed close up, looms over human, economy of scale, energy efficiency and Engine power:
machine and building alike. For a bit of perspective, environmental protection, and its primary role is ~60,000kW (~81,577hp)
the Triple-E can carry so many containers that if they braving the long-haul trade passages between Asia
were all stacked on top of each other, the tower would and Europe, which are getting ever busier. Here the
almost reach Earth’s stratosphere. Triple-E will make use of its new ‘slow-steaming’
Indeed, the Triple-E is no ordinary container vessel method of transport – a process where the vessel
and its construction has required its manufacturer – travels at a reduced speed in order to deliver
Danish firm Maersk – to completely redesign almost significantly reduced fuel consumption and CO2
every component of the freighter. Everything from the emissions. This will enable the Triple-E to carry far
hull and the powerplant, through to the propulsion more goods than any other container ship before it for
and the deck layout has had to be adjusted to allow for any given journey and, on top of that, with less impact
on the environment.

Triple-E anatomy

Take a close-up look at this
container-carrying colossus

Propeller Engines Recovery systems Containers Deckhouse

Unlike other container vessels, The Triple-E is equipped with two MAN The ship is equipped with a brace A total of 18,000 TEU The Triple-E’s deckhouse can
the Triple-E has a twin ultra-long-stroke diesel engines, each of waste heat recovery (WHR) containers can be carried by accommodate 34 people and
propeller system. The rated at 32MW (42,913hp). These have systems. These convert excess the Triple-E. They can house is located farther forward on
propellers, which measure a low fuel consumption of 168g/kWh heat from the engines into a wide variety of freight the deck than usual; this
9.8m (32.2ft) in diameter, are and are designed specifically for high-pressure steam to drive an ranging from food and drink means containers can be
quad bladed and allow the slow-steaming (travelling more electric turbine. This improves the through to clothing, stacked higher in front of the
ship to cruise smoothly, even efficiently at lower speeds) operations. overall energy efficiency. electronics and more. bridge, improving capacity.
in the choppiest waters.

104

RECORD 458m BIGGEST SHIP IN HISTORY
BREAKERS
Despite being the largest container vessel, the Triple-E will not be the biggest
SEA MONSTER ship ever. That accolade goes to the now scrapped 458-metre (1,503-foot)-long
Knock Nevis supertanker, which outsized the Triple-E by 58 metres (191 feet).

DID YOU KNOW? The Triple-E is 59m (194ft) longer than the formidable USS Enterprise aircraft carrier

Tower The Triple-E compared

The Triple-E is controlled from a How does the latest member of the Maersk
tower mounted to the top of the fleet measure up to former container ships?
deckhouse. The forward positioning
of the tower allows a clearer and Early container ship (1956)
wider viewing angle when the vessel
Length: 137m (449ft)
is loaded with containers. Beam: 17m (56ft)
Capacity: 500-800 TEU
(20-foot equivalent units)

Fully cellular (1970)

Length: 215m (705ft)
Beam: 20m (66ft)
Capacity: 1,000-1,500 TEU

Panamax (1980)

Length: 250m (820ft)
Beam: 32m (105ft)
Capacity: 3,000-3,400 TEU

Panamax Max (1985)

Length: 290m (951ft)
Beam: 32m (105ft)
Capacity: 3,400-4,500 TEU

Post-Panamax (1988)

Length: 285m (935ft)
Beam: 40m (131ft)
Capacity: 4,000-5,000 TEU

Post-Panamax Plus (2000)

Length: 300m (984ft)
Beam: 43m (141ft)
Capacity: 6,000-8,000 TEU

Triple-E (2013)

Length: 400m (1,312ft)
Beam: 59m (194ft)
Capacity: 18,000 TEU

Bigger than what?

Rows Hull London Eye Empire State Washington © Maersk
Building Monument
The deck of the Triple-E is The hull of the Triple-E is a flat If the Triple-E were
broken down into 23 rows, ‘U’ shape rather than its tipped on its end, With the roof of the It’s not all about
with each capable of carrying predecessor’s sharper it would be three Empire State at 381 height. Weighing in
stacked lines of containers. ‘V’-shaped one. This enables times the height metres (1,250 feet) unloaded at 165,000
This arrangement grants significantly more containers of the 135-metre high, the Triple-E tons, the Triple-E is
terminal cranes easier access to be stored at lower levels, (443-foot)-tall would be 20 metres more than double the
for loading and unloading. improving overall capacity by observation wheel (65 feet) taller if weight of this iconic
16 per cent, as well as stability. on the Thames. placed on its end. Washington landmark.

105

SEA

How do manned submersibles
safely descend to the deadly
depths of the oceanic trenches?

Extreme
submarines

On 26 March 2012, director James would have been an impossible feat for this trio of Naturally such extreme pressures would crush us
Cameron ascended from the deepest intrepid aquanauts. to a pulp, so a manned submersible that visits the
part of the deepest oceanic rift in the Challenger Deep needs to have enormous
world: the Mariana Trench, in the So what are the challenges posed by this compressive strength to maintain the habitat inside
western Pacific. He wasn’t the first person to reach geological giant, which could swallow Mount it, while keeping its human occupants warm and
the abyssal 11-kilometre (6.8-mile)-deep valley in its Everest and still leave over two kilometres (1.25 supplying them with breathable air.
floor, the Challenger Deep, and the publicity around miles) of water above its highest peak? The biggest
the event probably had as much to do with his obstacle for any submersible diving to these depths Cameron’s Deepsea Challenger had a similar
celebrity status as anything else. is the extreme pressure. Because seawater has more structure to the Bathyscaphe Trieste, though its
Cameron was actually the third person to go there mass than air per volume – typically 1,025 kilograms torpedo shape was designed to descend lengthways.
(after Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard’s 1960 descent per cubic metre (64 pounds per cubic foot) versus 1.23 At one end is the pilot sphere, the only line of defence
in the Bathyscaphe Trieste), but he was part of the kilograms per cubic metre (0.08 pounds per cubic against a wall of deadly water. To minimise weight
second manned mission to the Challenger Deep and foot), for roughly every ten metres (32 feet) you dive and increase strength, the interior is just 109
the first person to reach the bottom of the Mariana into the ocean, the pressure increases by one centimetres (43 inches) in diameter, while the hull is
Trench solo. And to put all that into better standard atmosphere (one bar). So the pressure near made of 6.4-centimetre (2.5-inch)-thick steel. The
perspective, NASA alone has sent 24 men to the the bottom of the Challenger Deep exceeds 1,000 spherical shape of the chamber makes it much
Moon, 12 of them actually leaving their command bars, or 1,000 kilograms per square centimetre stronger; if it was cylindrical like the rest of the sub,
modules and walking around on its surface, which (14,500 pounds per square inch), although it would need to be three times as thick. To facilitate
temperature and other factors mean this varies. its descent, 450 kilograms (1,000 pounds) of steel

106

THE MARIANA
STATS TRENCH

DEEP-SEA 1876 170m years 1960DISCOVERED
EXPLORATION MARIANA MARIANA TRENCH
TRENCH AGE FIRST EXPLORED

VIRGIN

3 knots 11.8 tons $17mSUB SPEED
WEIGHT OF THE VIRGIN
DEEPSEA CHALLENGER SUB COST

DID YOU KNOW? Most of Earth’s ocean floors are 6,000m (19,685ft) deep, which is why subs tend to be rated only to this depth

LIFE IN THE The Deepsea Challenger
TRENCHES
The essential difference between a submersible and a submarine
We know very little about life in the deep ocean, is that a submarine must be able to recycle its own air and power
but we do know that in the pitch black at the supply, while a submersible relies on a support craft on the surface.
bottom, creatures can thrive. Microbes with the This is why military submarines can go for months at sea, while
capacity to metabolise the hydrogen sulphide both the Virgin Oceanic and Deepsea Challenger submersibles
and other compounds that spout from boiling can only support their pilots for a day or so at most.
hydrothermal vents form the base of a food
chain. In turn this attracts deep-ocean Thrusters Batteries
specialised crustaceans, gastropods, worms,
eels and more in a place that was, up until the These control the altitude Hundreds of small lithium
Sixties, thought to be uninhabitable. Incredibly, of the sub, suspending it batteries that power the
giant single-cell, amoebic organisms known as above the ocean floor or vessel absorb seawater to
xenophyophores are found in their greatest propelling it downward. compensate for battery
numbers in the oceanic trenches. oil compression.

Bottom-feeders in the dark regions of the
ocean are usually scavengers, feeding off
whatever falls from the waters above. But much
of the taxa found in the extremes of the deep
derive their energy from sources other than the
Sun, in an environment that is analogous to
those found on other planets in the Solar
System. Indeed, extensive studies into these
communities has breathed new hope into
discovering life elsewhere in the cosmos.

Xenophyophores are giant single- Cameras
celled organisms that live at great
depth, feeding off mineral compounds The four bespoke HD
cameras are a tenth of the
size of cameras used in
previous missions.
© NOAA
© National Geographic
weights are held on the side by Pilot sphere
electromagnets. These are dropped
when the pilot needs to rise, but in case One pilot and all their equipment, as
they don’t (thereby marooning the well as the craft’s instruments, are
submersible on the ocean floor), a power crammed into a 109cm (43in)-wide space.
failure will drop the weights
automatically, the support team on the Air
surface can trigger the command
themselves and, as a failsafe, a wire that The pilot sphere is supplied
helps connect the weights to the with up to 56 hours of oxygen,
submersible will corrode and snap after while excess carbon dioxide
13 hours’ exposure to seawater. is scrubbed from the air.

In any case, the Deepsea Challenger “A manned submersible needs great compressive
uses syntactic foam floats, dense enough strength to maintain the habitat inside”
to withstand the pressure yet lighter
than water – these are able to rapidly lift 107
the craft back to the surface in just half
the time it took to reach the bottom.

108 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1W5 WW1.6HOWI1T7WOR1K8SDAI1L9Y.COM20 21 Taking the plunge Exploring the depths SEA

From the shallows to the murky depths, what can deep-sea subs expect to see on the way down?

Giant isopod Sunlit Zone (Epipelagic) – 0-200m Japanese spider crab 1,000m
– 1,000m (3,281ft) – 400m (1,312ft)
Coelacanth – 200m (656ft)
It might look like an alien and The world’s biggest arthropod
live in an alien environment, This ancient species of fish that has fossils dating back 350 million years can have a 3.8m (12.5ft) leg span
was thought to be extinct until one was caught in 1938.
but these invertebrates are and weigh up to 19kg (42lb).
actually closely related to the Twilight Zone (Mesopelagic) – 200-1,000m
Giant squid
woodlouse (or pill bug). Deep-sea corals – 2,000m (6,562ft)
– 1,500m (4,921ft)
Seldom seen and even less 2,000m
Most coldwater corals living in frequently seen alive, this iconic
the deep tend to form mounds,
rather than the sprawling coral creature of the deep ocean can
grow to be 14m (46ft) long.
reefs found near the surface.
© Citron
Blobfish Viperfish – 1,500m (4,921ft) “Hydrothermal vents are volcanic
– 1,200m (3,937ft) Molloy Deep vents that spout a concoction of
These ghastly fish have a bioluminescent – 5,608m (18,399ft) boiling seawater and minerals”
These rare fish are bottom-feeders dorsal spine that they use to attract smaller
with gelatinous flesh and very fish, impaling them with their huge teeth. Amphipod
– 6,500m (21,325ft)
little muscle tissue. 3,000m
Many species of this
Midnight Zone (Bathypelagic) – 1,000-4,000m soft-bodied crustacean
live in the depths and
Sperm whale often resemble fleas. 4,000m
– 2,000m (6,562ft)

The largest toothed whale has
been known to dive as deep as
2km (1.2mi) for over an hour
to hunt giant squid.

Black smokers
– 2,100m (6,890ft)

Hydrothermal vents are
volcanic vents that spout
a concoction of boiling
seawater and minerals.
They can support
extensive ecosystems.

Black devil RMS Titanic – 3,784m (12,415ft) 5,000m
– 4,000m (13,123ft)
The resting place of the Titanic is 3,784m
Also known as an angler fish, the (12,415ft) deep at the bottom of the north
females of the species physically Atlantic, south of Newfoundland.
fuse with several tiny males to
ensure they have a mate. The Abyss (Abyssopelagic) – 4,000-6,000m

Mir submersibles Jiaolong – 7,000m (22,966ft) 6,000m
– 6,170m (20,243ft)
China’s manned deep-sea sub tried to break
Built by a Finnish company, the Mir 1 and 2 are its own record of 5,200m (17,060ft) in June this
three-man subs in service since 1987. Primarily
used for scientific expeditions, they’re notable year, making successive attempts to hit the
for being used by James Cameron in journeys to 7,000m (22,966ft) mark in the Mariana Trench.
film the Bismarck and Titanic wrecks.
It has completed 15 research missions so far.

7,

22 2W3WW.2H4OWIT2W5 ORK2S6DAIL2Y7.COM28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 000m
Depth (in thousands of feet)
South Sandwich Trench Shinkai 6500 Snailfish – 8,368m (27,454ft) 8,000m DID YOU KNOW? Because of the immense pressure, water doesn’t boil in black smokers until it reaches up to 400˚C (752˚F) RECORD
– 7,235m (23,736ft) – 6,500m (21,325ft) BREAKERS
This species was the deepest fish ever
This Japanese submersible is rated to dive caught in 1970 at 8,368m (27,454ft) at the EARLIEST SUB
deeper than any other manned research
vessel and, unlike the Bathyscaphe Trieste bottom of the Puerto Rico Trench.
and the Deepsea Challenger, it’s capable of
navigating along the bottom. It’s clocked 1,300 Deepsea Challenger
dives since 1991 and had major upgrades to its – 10,912m (33,438ft)
systems in March this year.
James Cameron’s
Diamantina Trench The Trenches (Hadalpelagic) – 6,000-11,000m bathyscaphe sub broke a 9,000m WORLD’S FIRST SUBMERSIBLE
– 8,047m (26,401ft)
ON THE 50-year-old record by The world’s first proven submersible was designed by William
Puerto Rico Trench reaching a depth of nearly
– 8,605m (28,232ft) MAP Bourne and built by Cornelius Drebbel in the early-17th century
11,000m (36,090ft) .
Deep oceanic trenches 5 © National 1620 (circa 1620). It was propelled a few feet underwater by oars.
Geographic
1 Mariana, West Pacific
2 Puerto Rico, Caribbean 2 1 10,000m
3 Diamantina, Indian Ocean
4 South Sandwich,

Southern Ocean
5 Molloy Deep,

Arctic Ocean

3 11,000m

4

109 Mariana Trench © Virgin Oceanic
– 11,034m (36,201ft)

Unless credited otherwise, all images © NOAA

VIRGIN OCEANIC

Virgin Oceanic plans to launch an even more ambitious craft
into the Mariana Trench. It too will be a one-man submersible
but made of 3,630 kilograms (over 8,000 pounds) of carbon
fibre and titanium. It’s supported from the surface by the
Virgin Oceanic Super Catamaran, adapted from Steven
Fossett’s racing catamaran, the Cheyenne. Virgin Oceanic’s
version is a gigantic 38.1 metres (125 feet) long and 48.7 metres
(160 feet) to the tip of its mast. It can lower the sub into the
water through a hole in the deck of one hull, while the other
hull serves as a galley for the 12-man crew.

The sub is designed to incorporate hydroplanes (aquatic
wings) that will allow it to move across up to ten kilometres
(6.2 miles) of ocean floor, with a large quartz viewing dome
capable of withstanding nearly 6 million kilograms (13 million
pounds) of pressure. On its own dive into the Mariana Trench
later in 2012, this vessel will be piloted by someone equally as
famous as James Cameron: Sir Richard Branson.

SEA

Amphibious vehicles

Amphibious
machines
Take a look at the cutting-edge vehicles that
are able to jump between land, water and air
as a result of some innovative engineering

The dream of a fully functional For example, a high-speed watercraft needs
amphibious vehicle dates back to the to break the plane of the water to reduce drag.
mid-1700s, when an Italian prince Picture the wide, hydrodynamic shape of a
drove a modified land/water coach into the speedboat hull, which lifts the nose of the boat
Tyrrhenian Sea. Despite the odd universal up and out of the water. The body of a sports
desire to drive our cars into the nearest lake, car, on the other hand, needs to be low and flat
only the Amphicar, a steel beauty with stylish to reduce drag and safely hug the road during
tailfins, achieved anything close to commercial sharp turns. So how do you engineer the body
success, selling 4,500 units in the Sixties. of a vehicle that can navigate both surf and turf
Other ‘amphibians’ have had greater success with ease and speed?
– namely amphibious aircraft. That’s because a
simple amphibious plane or helicopter can be Modern amphibious vehicles have several
made by adding sturdy floats to a pair of key advantages over earlier models. Materials,
landing skids. But amphibious land/water for example. The Amphicar was pure steel,
vehicles face many more obstacles, because the which not only rusts and corrodes, but makes it
engineering rules of the water are often in heavy as a rock. To keep a steel craft afloat, you
direct conflict with the rules of the land. need a lot of water displacement, which
demands a bulky body that looks odd on the

The statistics…

Quadski

Crew: 1
Length: 3.2m (10.5ft)
Width: 1.6m (5.2ft)
Height: 1.4m (4.6ft)
Weight: 535kg (1,180lb)
Max land speed:
72km/h (45mph)
Max water speed:
72km/h (45mph)

110

KEY 1750 1804 1870s 1961 1977
DATES
Italian prince and scientist Oliver Evans builds the Steam-powered alligator After many commercial An underwater Lotus Esprit
VERSATILE Raimondo di Sangro invents Orukter Amphibolos (right), tugs gain popularity in attempts, the German in The Spy Who Loved Me
VEHICLES the North American Amphicar (right) sells
an internally propelled a 20-ton amphibious, logging industry. 4,500 units worldwide. inspires the CEO of
amphibious carriage. steam-powered dredger. Rinspeed to set up shop.

DID YOU KNOW? In 2012, DARPA decided to crowdsource a new design for the military’s AAV with a grand prize of $2m (£1.24m)

road. Today’s amphibious cars and ATVs are Gibbs Sports Quadski
built from composite material – a strong and
lightweight blend of plastics and fibre. These A quadbike that goes from turf to surf in just five seconds
lighter bodies sit higher in the water and
require less speed to break the plane. The Quadski is an amphibious transformer,
switching from ATV to jet-ski at the push of a
Propulsion is another huge obstacle. Earlier button. The quick-change act centres on the
motorised amphibious vehicles relied on wheels, which fully retract in five seconds
propellers for thrust. Propeller blades had to be thanks to two zippy servomotors. On land,
small in order to ride high enough on the road to the Quadski looks and rides exactly like a
avoid damage, and small propellers provide less quadbike. For mud-chewing trail rides, the
thrust. Modern amphibians have switched to Quadski is powered by the same 130-kilowatt
water jet propulsion systems with no moving (175-horsepower), 1.3-litre motorcycle engine
parts outside the craft. Water jets take in water that supercharges BMW’s high-performance
through a hole in the bottom of the hull and use racing line. For safety reasons, the engine is
power from the engine to turn a centrifugal capped at 60 kilowatts (80 horsepower) on
pump to build up pressure. The pressurised land, reaching a maximum 72 kilometres (45
water is then forced through a nozzle in the miles) per hour. But the real magic is seeing
rear, providing forward thrust. this lightweight ATV move from land to
water. Previous amphibian car concepts were
The military has always been a great literally dead in the water, slogging slow and
supporter of amphibious vehicles, with landing low. The Quadski, however, leaps out of the
craft, troop movers and jeeps playing critical water using the full 130 kilowatts (175
strategic roles since World War II. With horsepower) to pump water through its jet
continued military funding and engineering propulsion system. By riding high on the
breakthroughs, we might see a commercially surface on its fibreglass hull, the Quadski can
viable amphibious car sooner than you think. match its maximum land speed on the water.

Jet propulsion up close Pump housing

The Quadski’s compact water jet The closed environment of
system delivers serious thrust the pump housing is key to
building high water pressure.
Drive shaft
Propelling nozzle
The water jet system is
powered by a dedicated This nozzle is tapered to a
drive shaft connected to point. As water exits the jet,
the BMW engine. it accelerates across the
nozzle, creating greater
speed and thrust. © Gibbs Sports Amphibians Inc

Steering nozzle

The Quadski manoeuvres
through the water by

adjusting the direction of
the water jet with a

swivelling steering nozzle.

Intake grate

Water feeds into the jet
system through an intake
grate below the surface.

Impeller Reversing bucket

Like a propeller, an impeller Reverse is easy with a water
is a rotating blade that jet system. By placing a cap
builds water pressure over the steering nozzle, the
using centrifugal motion. jet is deflected in the
opposite direction.

111

SEA “The hull of the speedboat-looking
Dornier Seastar is made entirely of
Amphibious vehicles corrosion-proof composite material”

Road speed Topless Breathe easy

On land, the rear wheels are The open cabin makes it easier to The saltwater-resistant interior
powered by one of the three both sink the sQuba and swim features slick VDO displays and
electric motors, giving the to safety in an emergency. seat-mounted oxygen supplies.
sQuba pep off the line but a top
speed of 120km/h (75mph).

Rinspeed sQuba

A James Bond fantasy car brought to life

Rinspeed CEO Frank Rinderknecht had dreamt hour. Getting the sQuba Jet propulsion Frame
about an underwater ‘flying’ car since seeing to dive requires driver
The Spy Who Loved Me in 1977. 007’s swimming and passenger to open The sQuba’s conventional The aluminium and
car was the direct inspiration for the sQuba, a doors and windows to flood rear propellers are fibreglass body weighs a
modified Lotus Elise with three battery- the cabin. To travel at the surprising 920kg (2,028lb),
powered electric motors and oxygen masks. maximum depth of ten metres (33 supplemented by two so needs lots of foam and
When the aluminium-bodied, watertight Lotus feet), the driver must use the water jets. On Seabob scooter jets waterproofing to keep afloat.
drives into a lake, it floats. With the flick of a land, the zero-emissions sQuba can rocket
switch, power is diverted to two propellers and from 0-80 kilometres (0-50 miles) per hour in 5.1 attached to the sides.
two water jets to reach a leisurely surface seconds, but maxes out at just 2.9 kilometres
cruising speed of 5.9 kilometres (3.7 miles) per (1.8 miles) per hour when underwater.

Dornier Seastar Land, sea and air: this flying boat has got it all covered

A conventional seaplane is nothing more than a Cessna does the in-line arrangement of the twin turboprop engines The statistics…
outfitted with floats. Exposed to seawater, metal seaplanes positioned directly over the cabin. The push-pull action of
corrode quickly and require constant maintenance. And the two propellers can see the Seastar take off – with up to 12 Seastar
without landing gear, they’re as waterbound as a tuna. The passengers – after just 760 metres (2,500 feet) and reach a
hull of the speedboat-looking Dornier Seastar, meanwhile, is maximum air speed of 180 knots (333 kilometres/207 miles Crew: 2
made entirely of corrosion-proof composite material. For per hour). Short takeoffs and landings are aided by two sets Wingspan: 17.6m (58ft)
terrestrial destinations, landing gear lowers from the hull. of curved sponsons – side projections that add stability to a Length: 12.5m (41ft)
The wide boat hull keeps the craft stable on the water, as vessel’s hull – located near the middle of the Seastar. Height: 4.8m (15.9ft)
Empty weight:
Boat mode Breaking the plane Liftoff Gaining altitude Water landing 3,289kg (7,250lb)
Max speed:
The Seastar is a boat that Two sets of sponsons make With the nose of the hull The push-pull configuration The sponsons double up as 333km/h (207mph)
flies – rather than a plane the hull wider under the out of the water, drag is of the twin turboprop engine ‘water wings’. As the Max altitude:
that floats – so it sits low wings. The sponsons act greatly reduced, so the results in huge thrust so the Seastar touches down, 4,572m (15,000ft)
and steady in the water on almost as hydrofoils to Seastar can reach takeoff Seastar can climb 396m the sponsons create just
its V-shaped hull. raise the hull when moving. speed in 760m (2,500ft). (1,300ft) per minute. enough drag to slow it.

112

DID YOU KNOW? Sir Richard Branson has proposed an amphibious limo service for Virgin Airlines’ first-class passengers

Zero emissions Turret Smokescreen Battle ready

Rinspeed stripped the Toyota The gunner’s turret fits The AAV can also The rear hatch opens to
engine from the Lotus Elise and one soldier and can rotate fire smoke grenades deploy a battalion of
a full 360 degrees. from two four-tube
replaced it with three electric grenade launchers. combat-ready Marines.
motors and six rechargeable Fire power

lithium-ion batteries. The turret is armed with
a .50-calibre machine
The statistics… gun and 40mm (1.6in)
grenade launcher.

sQuba Body armour

Crew: 2 The welded
Length: 3.7m (12.4ft) aluminium
Width: 1.9m (6.3ft) exterior of the
Height: 1.1m (3.6ft) AAV is armoured
Empty weight: 920kg (2,028lb) to withstand
Max land speed: small arms fire.
120km/h (75mph)
Max underwater speed: Fast tracks The statistics…
2.9km/h (1.8mph)
The all-terrain tracks can Amphibious
Grille gills manoeuvre through thick sand at Assault Vehicle
speeds up to 72km/h (45mph).
When the sQuba floats on Crew: 3
the water’s surface, the Amphibious Length: 7.9m (26ft)
driver can open louvres in Assault Vehicle Width: 3.3m (10.8ft)
the grille to direct water flow Height: 3.3m (10.8ft)
toward the rear propellers. The first to land and the first to fight Weight: 29.1 tons
Max land speed:
Owned by the US Marine Corps, the 72km/h (45mph)
Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAV) is a ship-to- Max water speed:
shore troop transporter and fully armed 13.1km/h (8.2mph)
combat vehicle. The AAV weighs close to 30
tons and can carry 21 combat-ready Marines © US Navy; Dornier; Rinspeed
and a crew of three. The amphibious tanks
launch from the sea-level well decks of
assault ships and roar through the water at
ten knots (18.5 kilometres/11.5 miles per hour)
powered by two rear water jets. The jets are
mixed-flow, reversible pumps that propel
52,990 litres (14,000 gallons) of water per
minute. In addition to the jets, the AAV gets
some propulsion from its spinning tracks. The
AAV rides low in the water and can fire its
.50-calibre machine gun and 40-millimetre
(1.6-inch) grenade launcher on both land or
sea. It makes a seamless transition from
ocean to shore and carries enough fuel to haul
4,535 kilograms (10,000 pounds) of cargo as far
as 480 kilometres (300 miles) inland.

113

MILITARY

The machines that shape modern warfare

126 130 Mikoyan Mig-29 © BAE Systems/Geoffrey Lee
See how this Russian jet
1162421st Century has dominated the skies, 140 The HMS Queen
combat vehicles combining both agility and Elizabeth
Taking combat to the next power Find out why the HMS
level with these machines Astute has changed the face
132 F-14 Tomcat of nuclear warfare
124 Abrams M1
Battletank Uncover the technology and 142 Next-gen
Discover how this mighty secrets of one of the most battleships
beast has become the king iconic fighter jets the world Explore the technology
of the battlefield has ever seen of tomorrow with these
military naval masterpieces
126 Mikoyan Mig-29 134 AH-64D Apache
Find out how this subsonic Longbow 134
fighter jet managed to An advanced gunship that
change the dynamics of can cause some serious
fighter plane damage to its enemies

128 Stealth Bomber 136 Stealth warships
Get a glimpse of the B-2 Lifting the lid on the covert
Spirit, the deadly plane that ships roaming the seas
can hide from radar but without detection
cause massive destruction

114

MILITARY

© Northrop Grumman

124 © Alex Pang

128 © Eurofighter/Geoffrey Lee - Planefocus Ltd.

© BAE Systems 142

141 116

© BAE Systems

115

MILITARY

21st-Century war machines

21st-Century

Combat
vehicles

The modern battlefield is a high-tech,
high-stakes race

for maximum firepower

Radar

During 2014 many Typhoons
are being fitted with
cutting-edge Captor E sensors,
which provide about 50 per
cent greater coverage than
traditional systems.

Cockpit

The glass cockpit has been
designed with maximum
convenience for the pilot in mind.
Controls are accessed via
full-colour displays and some
react to voice commands.

The 20th century witnessed the greatest reaching top road speeds of 59 kilometres (37 rocketing behind enemy lines for a late-night
escalation in deadly force in history. miles) per hour. But its real talent is blowing stuff rescue mission. And its firepower – including
The fate of nations has rested in the up. One blast from the Challenger 2’s Hellfire air-to-ground missiles – provides critical
hands of ingenious engineers dreaming up 120-millimetre (4.7-inch) main gun will level a close-air support for a ground invasion.
bigger and badder war machines. lesser tank, while its own crew is protected by
Ever since World War I, battle tanks have next-generation armour. The explosive reactive The Viper isn’t all strength and speed though;
played a pivotal strategic role in large-scale tiles built into its front and flanks respond to a it’s also smart. Using a host of sensors and radar
warfare, both during invasions and in defence of rocket-launched grenade attack by repelling equipment, the onboard computers can
high-value ground. The main job of a tank enemy rounds in the opposite direction. distinguish between friend and foe, target and
squadron is to take out other tanks. In a fire fight, track multiple guided missiles, as well as
the tank with the thickest skin and the most Tanks are excellent at holding ground in a transmit air reconnaissance data to ground
armour-piercing firepower wins. When it comes warzone, but if you want a truly versatile fighting troops. Even the Viper’s pilot helmets are smart,
to battlefield supremacy, the British-made machine, nothing beats an attack helicopter. The featuring heads-up displays in the visors that
Challenger 2 is a true beast. current chopper of choice for the US Marines is overlay flight routes and enemy targets directly
With a battle weight of some 63 tons (139,000 the AH-1Z Viper, codenamed ‘Zulu’. The four- onto the landscape below.
pounds), the Challenger 2 is surprisingly nimble, bladed Viper reaches top air speeds of 410
kilometres (255 miles) per hour, perfect for While the Zulu may be a new kid on the block,
even more senior attack helicopters can be

116

RECORD 332.9m BIGGEST EVER WARSHIP
BREAKERS
With a flight deck over 330m (1,080ft) long and a displacement of
MARINE MONSTER 102,000 tons, the Nimitz aircraft carrier is the largest warship built
to date. It can accommodate a crew of 6,000 and over 80 planes.

DID YOU KNOW? The HMS Ambush sub replaces periscopes with advanced sensors connected by 100km (62mi) of cabling

Weapons Countermeasures

As well as a 27mm (1in) Mauser The Typhoon’s Defensive
cannon and short-range missiles, Aids Sub System (DASS)
the arsenal of this fighter jet boasts numerous flares
includes some of the deadliest and decoys to throw off
weapons around, such as the incoming missiles.
ramjet-propelled Meteor missile.

Airframe Powerplant

The shell of the Eurofighter The twin EJ200 turbofans are
Typhoon is made with composite 74cm (29in) in diameter and each
materials that aim for strength, provide 90kN of thrust. Offering a
lightness and stealth. 70 per cent top speed of Mach 2, the same jet
of the structure is made from engine is used to power the
blends of carbon fibre and only 15 Bloodhound SSC supersonic car.
per cent comprised of metal.

117

MILITARY “The Typhoon is only 15 per cent metal,
making it all but invisible to radar”

21st-Century war machines

taught new tricks, as demonstrated by the latest The Challenger 2’s Chobham armour is
reincarnation of the Apache. But for all the power reported to be twice as strong as steel
of tanks and speed of helicopters, the ultimate
modern war machine has to be the fighter jet.
Dominance in the air generally translates into
dominance on the ground. Radar-eluding jets can
penetrate deep into enemy territory and fire
laser-guided missiles to destroy a target in
seconds. One of the most advanced models in
service is the Eurofighter Typhoon.

At a cost of £126 million ($208 million) per plane,
the Typhoon is designed to be an all-in-one
soldier of the skies. It can perform reconnaissance
with its scanning radar, take out enemy aircraft in
a close-range dogfight and drop heavy payload
bombs on long-range targets – all on the same
mission. The Typhoon is only 15 per cent metal,
making it all but invisible to radar, and its
intentionally ‘unstable’ delta-wing design
provides maximum agility at subsonic speeds
and peak performance during supersonic flight.

Of course, the war machines of the future may
not even need people on board. Unmanned
drones have already proven deadly accurate in
locating and destroying key enemy targets. An
MQ-9 Reaper drone can deliver laser-guided
missiles and air-to-ground Hellfire missiles, all
with the push of a button far away. It’s not hard to
imagine tomorrow’s battles being played out by
swarms of remote-controlled war bots.

Up close with the Turret
Challenger 2
The Challenger 2’s turret rotates a
The British Army’s main battle tank combines full 360 degrees and is equipped
explosive power with near-impenetrable armour with a nuclear, biological and
chemical protection system.
Ammunition
Commander
The tank has the capacity to carry
up to 50 120mm (4.7in) rounds, The tank commander
including depleted uranium ‘tank scans the horizon
busters’ and smoke grenades. through eight periscopes
offering a panoramic
War machines Engine 360-degree view.
going green
Power comes courtesy of a
The BAE Ground Combat Vehicle (GCV) Perkins CV-12 diesel engine
is the Prius of the tank world. Powered by a with a max power of 895kW
hybrid-electric propulsion system, the GCV (1,200hp). Its top road speed
offers the US Army more than savings at the is 59km/h (37mph).
petrol pump. The lightweight engine frees up
weight that can be added to the tank’s armour.
Energy stored in the propulsion system allows
for maximum power at startup. The hybrid
engine also produces 1,100 kilowatts of
exportable electricity – enough to power the
advanced onboard computers and portable
battle gadgets. Less fuel consumption also
means fewer supply lines, which are a frequent
target for roadside bomb attacks.

118

DKEATYES 1916 1922 1938 1981 2007

BATTLE VEHICLES The British Mark I tank The USS Langley was The RAF’s iconic, The Bradley Fighting The unmanned, remote-
debuts at Flers-Courcelette converted from a elliptical-winged Spitfire Vehicle was a fast controlled MQ-9 Reaper is
all-terrain tank with
armed with two 57mm battleship to become the was pivotal in 1940’s massive firepower. capable of pinpointing
(2.2in) naval guns. USA’s first aircraft carrier. Battle of Britain. targets half a world away.

DID YOU KNOW? Both cockpits in the two-person AH-1Z Viper contain identical instruments, so it can be flown by both pilots

What is it like to work
inside a battle tank?

Tank driving instructor Sgt Arron Anderton tells us all
about the experience of operating a Challenger 2

The French 56-ton AMX What does it feel like to drive the Challenger 2? commander. The driver steers the vehicle and
Leclerc is one of the Sgt Arron Anderton: The Challenger 2 is a carries out all the daily and major maintenance and
complex piece of equipment but once trained it is running repairs. He also assists the REME (vehicle
biggest tanks in the world not that difficult to drive. It can take some time to mechanics) with major repairs.
get used to its size when you first start driving it,
The Russian T-90A tank boasts a [but] once you gain more experience it can become The gunner maintains the weapons systems and
welded turret and an ESSA thermal quite fun to drive. The Challenger 2 has exceptional engages the targets identified by the commander
cross-country capability but due to the driver’s and the crew. The loader loads the main armament
imaging viewer for night missions restricted vision they need to read the ground up to and the 7.62mm [0.3in] chain gun. They have
50 metres [164 feet] away so they can make secondary duties of assisting the commander with
Thick skin adjustments to the direction and speed. The operating the radio. The commander is in overall
Challenger 2 is quite easy to handle at high speeds [charge] of the vehicle and all crew members. They
The turret is shielded from enemy but is more difficult to negotiate around tight navigate, send and receive radio messages and
fire by Chobham armour, a corners. The tank is [manoeuvred] by two steering prioritise targets to be engaged by the gunner.
composite of metal plates and levers located on either side of the driver.
ceramic tiles separated by air. Due to working and living in a confined space,
What is the hardest part about driving a tank the camaraderie has to be second to none. As you
Gunner like the Challenger 2? can imagine working, living, eating, sleeping in a
The hardest part of driving the Challenger 2 is confined space for extended periods presents
In addition to firing the judging the size of the vehicle’s width on public some problems – the smell can be eye-watering!
CHARM gun, the gunner roads and driving it in confined spaces. The driving
mans two high-powered position is located in the centre of the vehicle What equipment does the crew rely on to
machine guns with a which is different to standard cars and lorries and navigate in the field?
capacity of 4,000 does take some time to get used to. Combat navigation is fitted to the vehicle and
7.6mm (0.3in) rounds. personal GPS. Additionally, good old-fashioned
How does it feel in the tank when the main gun maps still form an integral part of navigation
Loader is fired and when you come under fire? around the battlefield; the commander needs to be
When you are sat inside a Challenger 2 during ‘live’ an expert in this form of navigation.
The loader/operator’s firing of the weapons systems you tend to become
main job is to lock and oblivious to the firing of the chain gun or the bang What roles do tanks assume in a warzone?
load the CHARM gun and from the 120mm [4.7in] main armament gun. The A tank is a highly sophisticated fighting machine. It
two machine guns with vehicle does shake a little but this adds to the has the characteristics of firepower, protection,
fresh rounds. adrenaline when you’re scanning for targets and mobility and sustainability – it is also designed to
ensuring you engage the targets in time. Coming operate in a CBRN [chemical, biological,
under small-arms (ie rifles and machine guns) fire radiological and nuclear] environment. It is used in
can sound like hailstones on a tin roof, it does give all phases of battle (the advance to contact, the
you a sense of invulnerability! attack, the defence and withdrawal). It will
invariably operate in an all arms environment, ie
Can you tell us a little about the roles of each of with infantry, artillery and air support. Due to its
the four crew members? night-vision ability it can fight a 24-hour battle.
The Challenger 2 has a four-man crew: a driver, Although it will normally operate in open spaces it
gunner, loader (and radio operator) and can, with intimate infantry support, operate in built-
up areas. For example, in recent years it proved
highly successful in the Iraq conflict.

Exploding armour L30 CHARM gun

The front and sides are covered with Challenger 2’s main weapon fires
explosive plates that ignite on contact to 120mm (4.7in) projectiles including
deflect the force of enemy rounds. armour-piercing, high-explosive
squash head (HESH) rounds.

How long does it take to train the
Challenger 2 crew members?

Driver Driver 6 weeks Loader 2 weeks
Gunner 6 weeks Commander 5 months
The driver can push the
1,200hp diesel engine to
59km/h (37mph) and navigate
at night with help from an
image-intensifying periscope.

119

“Microwave bombs aim to disable the

MILITARY electrical systems of buildings with
a fuse-frying pulse of radio waves”

21st-Century war machines

Engineering of Rotor blades
the AH-1Z Viper
The four blades are made of
What makes the Zulu helicopter among the composite materials which can
most advanced vehicles on Earth today? better withstand bullets. They
can also be folded to better fit
on aircraft carriers.

Engines Wing stubs

Combined with the main rotor Although not needed for flight,
system, the two T700-GE-401 these mini-wings offer
engines power the AH-1Z, valuable space for mounting
giving it a cruise speed of just weapons and radar tech.
under 300km/h (186mph).
Avionics
Helmet Max speed
A third-gen forward-looking
State-of-the-art ‘Top Owl’ infrared (FLIR) sensor offers The tank can hit
helmet-mounted sight and display one of the most accurate 59km/h (37mph)
(HMS/D) units offer a binocular weapons sights on any modern on roads.
display with a 40-degree field of helicopter whether day, night
view and easier comms. or in adverse weather. It can
track multiple out-of-sight
Challenger 2 targets simultaneously.

Crew: 4 Power

1,200bhp Perkins-
Condor CV12.

Max speed

During a dive the
Zulu can reach
411km/h (255mph).

Armour: 5/5

Cost: £4mn ($6.6mn) Power

Two T700-GE-401
turboshaft engines.

Bell AH-1Z Zulu Power
Crew: 2
Armour: 2/5 A pair of EJ200
Cost: £18.8mn ($31mn) turbojet engines.

Eurofighter Typhoon
Crew: 1
Armour: 1/5
Cost: £126mn ($208mn)

DID YOU KNOW? The AH-64D Apache Longbow can prioritise up to 128 threats in less than a minute

Weaponry Max firing range Ready for
battle!
120mm L30 tank HESH rounds fired from
gun, C-axial 7.62mm the Challenger 2 can 1HMS Ambush
chain gun, 7.62mm travel 8km (5mi). The Royal Navy’s
turret-mounted newest nuclear
machine gun. Max firing range submarine boasts sonar
sensitive enough to
Weaponry Sidewinder missiles can reach a detect craft about 5,630km
target up to 35km (22mi) away. (3,500mi) away. Built for over
Hellfire air-to-surface £1bn ($1.6bn), the Ambush
missiles, Sidewinder Max firing range carries a payload of 38
air-to-air missiles Tomahawk cruise missiles.
and unguided Hydra The new Meteor missile has a
70 rockets. range in excess of 100km (68mi). 2B-2 Spirit
The iconic batwing stealth
Max speed Weaponry aircraft is the USAF’s flagship
strike bomber. Able to fly
The Typhoon’s record Long and short- 18,520km (11,508mi) with only
speed is Mach 2 range air-to-air one aerial refuelling, it can
(2,470km/h; 1,535mph). missiles, 27mm deliver 20 tons of bombs deep
Mauser cannon and into enemy territory.
Laser-based weapons are laser-guided bombs.
already being fitted to 3USS Zumwalt
today’s combat vehicles Next-gen weapons This ‘all-electric’ US Navy
destroyer generates all the
The Challenger 2’s main gun is Microwave bombs made by power it needs. The ship’s
essentially a bigger, meaner Boeing for the US Air Force aim sharp-angled hull lowers its
version of the same rifled- to disable the electrical systems radar profile and its payload
cannon technology that has of target buildings with a includes two 155mm (6.1in)
been blasting oversized rounds fuse-frying pulse of radio waves. guns capable of striking a
for nearly a century. The The US Navy has been testing target 154km (96mi) away.
weapons of the future are more 32-megajoule rail guns that use
subtle, but immensely more magnetic fields to launch 4Assault Breacher
strategic. Take the Passive armour-piercing projectiles 185 Vehicle
Attack Weapon developed by the kilometres (115 miles) without an
Pentagon to safely eradicate a ounce of gunpowder. And what The US Army’s mine-clearing
store of deadly bioagents. would the future of weapons be tank’s signature move is firing
Dropped from an aeroplane, the without lasers? The US Navy is a rocket that unfurls 100m
450-kilogram (990-pound) actively testing its solid-state (328ft) of sausage-like tubing
bomb explodes in mid-air, raining Free Electron Laser with hopes packed with a ton of C4
down thousands of steel and of creating a weapon capable of explosives, clearing an
tungsten rods that can penetrate melting through 610 metres area the size of a football
canisters of chemical weapons. (2,000 feet) of steel per second! pitch of hidden mines.

5 ATF Dingo
A German armoured
mobility vehicle used to
transport troops, the Dingo is
reinforced to withstand land
mines, gunfire and many other
heavy weapons. The top-
mounted weapons station
can be fired by a gunner
directly, or via remote
control using a monitor
inside the cabin.

121

MILITARY “The Apache’s resilience in combat
has also made it one of the foremost
war machines of the age”

21st-Century war machines

Evolution of the Apache

The AH-1Z Zulu might be newer, but there is acquisition and designation system (TADS), pilot its pilots survived. Similarly more recently in
arguably another attack helicopter more renowned night-vision system (PNVS), GPS navigation, passive Afghanistan, many Apaches were hit in Operation
for its deadliness: the AH-64 Apache. A barbarous infrared countermeasure system, ground-fire Anaconda (2002), but none were brought down by
hybrid of power, penetration and liquid speed, the acquisition system (GFAS) and, most cutting-edge the enemy, with the helicopter’s toughened
Apache excels in ravaging enemy lines and of all, an integrated helmet and display sighting airframe, along with features such as a self-sealing
installations, laying waste to the strongest of system (IHADSS). A bit like a military take on Google fuel system, seeing off all incoming fire.
battlements with high-explosive missiles and Glass, this latter piece of technology augments the
rockets, while gunning down any attackers with its pilots’ control in a number of ways (see ‘Apache Maybe the most telling aspect to the Apache’s
30-millimetre (1.2-inch) chain gun. As history has anatomy’ for more). Combined these technologies prowess on the battlefield, however, is its enduring
shown, with the Apache successfully deployed in enable this incredible helicopter to operate in the legacy – one which is still playing out, even after 28
the Gulf, Balkan, Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts harshest environments with ease, while always years fighting on the frontline. Indeed, this technical
among many others, these abilities have been ensuring it hits its target. leader of attack helicopters continues to be
proven time and again, with its 14-plus operators improved all the time, with additional operators
worldwide using it in all manner of roles. The Apache’s resilience in combat has also made such as India, South Korea and Indonesia looking to
it one of the foremost war machines of the age, with take up the Apache in the near future. Additional
Interestingly though, despite the Apache’s mighty the helicopter made to demanding build and technological enhancements, such as an upgraded
arsenal of offensive weapons, the real reason it is crashworthiness standards. Indeed, during the Gulf transmission with split-torque face gears for more
such a feared opponent is the advanced nature of its War many Apaches were repeatedly hit by power output and an improved all-digital
combat systems and electronics. For example, its small-arms fire and rocket-propelled grenades, but communications system look set to keep this
avionic and sensor suite includes a target only one of them went down and even then both of helicopter at the top of its class for some time yet.

Apache anatomy The USA currently operates 669
Apache attack helicopters, with that
Get up close and personal with the tech number set to rise over the next decade
of this ever-evolving frontline veteran

Rotor blades

The Apache has a four-blade main
rotor and a four-blade tail rotor,
which grant a maximum rate of
climb of 889m (2,915ft) per
minute. It also boasts superb
manoeuvrability for a helicopter,
easily capable of complex,
low-altitude operations.

Missiles Human-machine interface Powerplant

The arsenal carried by the The integrated helmet and display The Apache is powered by
Apache is devastating, with sighting system (IHADSS) allows two GE T700 turboshaft
missiles such as the AGM-114 advanced features such as syncing the engines, each with
Hellfire and AIM-92 Stinger helicopter’s M230 chain gun with the high-mounted exhausts on
partnered with a bounty of pilot’s head movements, so the gun either side of the fuselage.
70mm (2.8in) Hydra 70 can be aimed with the turn of the head. This powerplant grants a top
rockets and the ever-reliable speed of 293km/h (182mph).
30mm (1.2in) M230 chain
gun with 1,200 rounds. Controls

Tandem control With laser, infrared and
thermal tracking systems,
The crew of the Apache sits including a target acquisition
in tandem, with one pilot night-vision sensor, as well as
sitting above and behind the a threat prioritisation system,
other. Both pilots can fly the the Apache is ideal for covert
gunship and both can operate and low-visibility operations.
all weapons systems – critical
when fighting in today’s
complex warzones.

122 WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

5FATCOTPS F-35 Lightning II Sukhoi T-50 Chengdu J-20 F-22 Raptor F-16 Fighting Falcon

AERIAL ASSASSINS 1 The F-35 Lightning II is one of 2 The fifth-gen Sukhoi T-50 is 3 Reports claim this Chinese 4 The most established fighter 5 An older fighter jet but still
the most advanced fighter jets Russia’s most state-of-the-art stealth fighter is the most jet in the world since its remains in widespread use
ever, capable of ground attack, combat plane. Armed with advanced piece of aerial introduction in 2005. 182 due to its excellent handling
reconnaissance and air defence air-to-air, air-to-surface and military equipment in the East. operational aircraft give the and combat prowess. The F-16
missions. It also features air-to-ship missiles, the T-50 It appears to be an F-22/F-35 US Air Force unparalleled is an excellent all-round,
cutting-edge stealth capabilities. can pack a punch too. hybrid and armed to the teeth. dog-fighting capabilities. short-range, multi-role fighter.

DID YOU KNOW? Stryker AFVs can be adapted for many roles, including engineering support, medical treatment and firing mortars

Stryker in focus Machine gun Electronics

Check out some of the key features A .50-calibre machine gun The Stryker comes with
packed into these top-rate AFVs that can be manned or a Force XXI Battle
controlled from within the Command Brigade and
Diesel engine Stryker proves a lethal tool Below (FBCB2) digital
against infantry and light comms system that
A heavy-duty 261kW (350hp) armoured vehicles. allows communication
Caterpillar JP-8 diesel engine between vehicles and a
grants the Stryker its mobile remote weapons system
power, allowing the 16-ton (pictured) to fire from
vehicle to surpass 97km/h the safety of the cabin.
(60mph) with ease.

Tough shell Room to spare Awesome amphibians

The Stryker is built around a Along with a two-man crew, With flexibility being key to success in the realm
toughened steel skeleton and the Stryker can carry up to of modern combat, one vehicle firmly on the up is
has a spall liner. 14.5mm nine fully equipped soldiers in the amphibious assault vehicle – essentially an
(0.6in)-thick armour plate kits its rear compartment, plus a armoured personnel carrier and landing boat
can be fitted to its chassis for wide selection of vital hybrid. They enable troops to be deployed
even more protection. equipment and provisions. remotely from the ocean, transported under
bulletproof protection to shore and then
The Stryker boasts an unmatched All-wheel drive distributed over enemy terrain, without any slow
combination of survivability, and dangerously exposed vehicle changes, quickly
mobility and lethality Depending on terrain, thanks getting soldiers to where they need to be.
to the Stryker’s advanced
Allison transmission, the Arguably the most successful amphibious
driver can switch between assault vehicle in production today is the AAV-P7/
four and eight-wheel drive A1, a tracked amphibious landing vehicle
operation modes. produced by US Combat Systems (now part of
BAE Systems). It delivers a 26-ton armoured
Armoured fighters on wheels personnel carrier with 45-millimetre (1.8-inch)
armour plating, a roof-mounted Mk 19 automatic
Sure, if you want the heaviest armour or most Of this new wave of vehicles, the Stryker family grenade launcher, a .50-calibre machine gun and © Eurofighter/Geoffrey Lee – Planefocus Ltd; Crown Copyright; Ian Moores Graphics; Alamy;
destructive firepower on the battlefield, then you of AFVs made by General Dynamics Land Systems room for 21 soldiers in its cavernous rear Getty; Terry Pastor; The Art Agency; MOD/Peter Davies/Graeme Main; BAE Systems
call in a tank. But tanks tend to be decidedly one is one of the most advanced and prolific. The wide compartment. Perhaps most impressive though,
note in the theatre of war and cumbersome when range of formats the Stryker comes in really the AAV-P7/A1 can cruise up to 37 kilometres (23
posed with any obstacle outside their immediate highlights why they are not only usurping more and miles) through choppy waters before hitting land
remit – ie blowing things into last week with a more of the roles historically assigned to tanks but and still has enough steam to operate for some
massive cannon! As a result, today national executing them far more effectively. 480 kilometres (300 miles) on terra firma.
militaries are calling upon a different class of war
machine more and more. The armoured fighting For example, the Stryker family members include 123
vehicle (AFV) is a cool combo of personnel carrier, vehicles equipped for anti-tank operations, medical
tank and military jeep which can undertake almost evacuation missions, fire support and
any mission due to its unparalleled flexibility. reconnaissance, infantry deployments and
direct-fire assaults, to name just a few! Strykers
While a tank is great at crossing rough terrain offer these bespoke abilities with an agility, speed
with its caterpillar track, that system’s inherent and cost-effectiveness unheard of in the tank world.
limitations along with the machine’s gross weight
restrict its agility and speed massively. Examples You might start to wonder if the armoured
like the Challenger 2 struggle to get past 60 fighting vehicle will make the tank obsolete, but this
kilometres (37 miles) per hour and possess next to is unlikely. Sometimes only the biggest and heaviest
no agility. On the other hand, the armoured fighting armoured machine is capable of breaking down an
vehicle delivers a shielded vehicle that easily blows enemy’s front door, but moving forward into the
through 100 kilometres (60 miles) per hour, is 21st century, there’s no doubt the use of
capable of traversing cross-country terrain with multipurpose vehicles like the Stryker will rise. In
ease, can sport a wide variety of cannons, machine almost every arena, speed and adaptability can be
guns and missiles, and is able to transport nine fully the difference between success and failure.
equipped soldiers on top of that – all without so Nowhere is that more true than in modern warfare,
much as breaking a sweat. and the still-evolving armoured fighting vehicle
delivers both with consummate ease.

MILITARY

The tank of all tanks

Imagine driving one of these on The approaching camel
your morning commute. The M1 didn’t know what hit it…
Abrams tank, used throughout
the Eighties and Nineties for Abrams M1 in action
both Gulf wars, and still more Just what makes the Abrams M1 so formidable?
advanced than any other tank on the planet, is
a 74-ton monster that can crash through walls Long-range, Heavy armour High-torque
and over terrain. 120mm rounds protection engine
“The design of this tank is what makes it
unique from its first inception,” says Mike Benson says a key feature Both Peck and Benson said According to Benson, the
Peck, the director of business development at on the M1 is that it fires another key advantage is high-torque engine on the
General Dynamics, who designs and 120mm rounds up to that the tank is heavily M1 is extremely advanced:
manufactures the M1. According to Peck, the 4,000m, a decided armoured. Peck says he has it uses a form of jet fuel and
M1 uses a “combat platform” suspension with advantage on the never seen a tank that produces so much energy
a low-to-the-ground chassis with a contoured battlefield. The rounds are came back for repairs with that, even at 74 tons, the
body that allows the turret to be nestled down made of high-density steel, any noticeable dents; many tank can reach speeds
lower than other tanks, making the tank travel one mile per second, have fought in multiple approaching 45 miles
about three feet lower to the ground than and weigh around campaigns and are still in per hour.
similar vehicles. In the mid-Nineties, the M1 30 pounds. “It’s like firing a prime condition.
was updated with all digital components. big nail,” says Benson.
Peck says it actually has more electronics than
an F16 fighter.
Kevin Benson, a retired Lt Colonel who
commanded entire battalions of M1 tanks,
says the main advantage of the M1 is that it can
fire 120mm rounds up to 3,000-4,000m
whereas other tanks – especially those used
by Iraqi forces in Operation Desert Storm –
could only fire about 1,500m. In that campaign,
US forces would surround the Iraqi tanks,

Abrams M1
Battletank
74-ton, 1,500-horsepower behemoth fires long-range cannons

safely out of range but well within the range of A US tank provides suppressive
the M1. Peck says the M1 has a forward-range counter fire in Fallujah, Iraq
infrared sensor that works in day or night for
long-range shots.

The engine on the M1 is also unique. It uses a
turbine engine running at 1,500 horsepower,
providing a distinct advantage: because the
tank has such a high torque in the engine, it is
almost unstoppable on the battlefield. “The
engine has the most dense horsepower-per-
weight ratio we could find,” says Peck.

The M1 also has a pulse jet air cleaner to
remove sand and other hazards, which Peck
says has doubled the life of the engine. The
tank is also outfitted with a 50 calibre machine
gun that can turn 360-degrees, an aid for
urban warfare. The M1 Abrams cruises at a top
speed of 45 miles per hour on paved roads or 35
miles per hour over sand.

124

4,000m 120mm 2 tonsTHE

STATS

74 tons 30lbs 1980M1TANK
GUN RANGE ROUND LENGTH TRACK WEIGHT
WEIGHT ROUND WEIGHT FIRST ENTERED SERVICE

DID YOU KNOW? TUSK (Tank Urban Survival Kit) allows commanders to fire using an LCD viewfinder

Under the hood of
the Abrams M1

Find out what makes
the Abrams M1 the most
advanced battle tank
on the planet

Powerful
turbine engine

The M1 uses a turbine
engine with 1,500
horsepower torque to
push through heavy
terrain. Benson, who
served as a
Commander, says the
M1 can still get stuck,
but it is rare.

Fire control
system

Benson says the M1 has
the most advanced fire
control system of any tank
on the planet – the
sensors, cross-hair
viewfinder, gun
stabilisation, and range-
finding capability are
second to none.

Comfortable seating Two-ton tracks Chassis Learn more Illustrations © Alex Pang

The M1 drives like a car – it has a The heavy tracks that propel the tank are made of a hard The chassis of the M1 is what makes the tank For more information about the
steering wheel and foot pedals, says rubber with steel pins that hold it all together. Benson says able to withstand abuse. Peck says M1 tanks can M1 Abrams tank visit
Benson (some models use levers for the soldiers in the tank know how to quickly fix any track go through a re-build process three or four www.army-technology.com
forward and back). Peck says he problems on the battlefield. times, adding new digital components. where you can read more about
knows of a gunner who sat this destructive behemoth, as
comfortably during a Baghdad well as other lethal weapons used
campaign for 75 hours straight. in 21st Century combat.

125

MILITARY “The Sea Harrier squadron achieved
this due to their high manoeuvrability”
Sea Harrier

Sea Harrier
Before being retired in 2006, Thrust vectoring
the Sea Harrier dominated
the subsonic jet fighter field, To achieve VTOL capabilities, the
changing the dynamics Sea Harrier’s engine thrust was
and operation of the strike directed through four vectoring
fighter role forever nozzles, which could rotate
through 98.5 degrees from
vertically downwards to
horizontal.

The British Aerospace Sea Harrier was the purpose- © John Batchelor / www.johnbatchelor.com
built naval variant of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier
strike fighter, an aircraft famed for its vertical take-off Protection
and landing (VTOL) and short take-off and vertical
landing (STOVL) capabilities. It worked by adopting the Due to the testing marine operating
revolutionary single-engine thrust vectoring technology of the conditions, parts of the Sea Harrier
regular harrier (see ‘Degrees of power’ boxout) and partnering it were changed to use corrosion-resistant
with a modified fuselage – to allow the installation of the superb alloys or protective coatings.
Blue Fox radar system – bubble-style canopy (larger, allowing
greater visibility) and a significantly improved arms load out.
These factors, partnered with the aircraft carrier’s ability to
launch the aircraft from its ski-jump, allowed the Sea Harrier to
perform to a high standard at sea, carrying more weight, detecting
enemies sooner and taking them down quickly and efficiently.
This was demonstrated most vividly during the Falklands War of
1982, when 28 Sea Harriers operating off British aircraft carriers
shot down 20 Argentine aircraft in air-to-air combat without
suffering a single loss. The Sea Harrier squadron achieved this due
to their high manoeuvrability and tactics while in dogfights – for
example, braking/changing direction fast by vectoring their
thrust nozzles while in forward flight – as well as their pilots’
superior training and early-warning/detection systems.

Second-generation Sea Harriers
on board an aircraft carrier in
the Persian Gulf

Two Indian Navy Sea Harriers fly alongside
a US Navy F/A-18F Super Hornet

126

5 TOP Old boy Post-colonial Invincible Vixen Forgetful
FACTS
1 The Sea Harrier was in service 2 The only other international 3 The first ever Sea Harrier 4 The second-generation Sea 5 The second-generation Sea
HARRIERS for a total of 28 years, from operator of the Sea Harrier confirmed as operational Harrier, the FA2, featured the Harrier was also the first
August 1978 to March 2006. is actually India, who use launched off the Invincible class Blue Vixen radar, the British aircraft to be armed with
The second-generation Sea their own FRS51 variant aircraft carrier HMS Invincible in predecessor that formed the the US AIM-120 AMRAAM, a
Harrier FA2 was introduced in armed with R550 Magic air- 1981, a purpose-designed VTOL/ basis of the system used in the fire and forget high-explosive
April 1993. to-air missiles. STOL carrier. Eurofighter Typhoon. air-to-air missile.

DID YOU KNOW? During the Falkland’s conflict the Sea Harrier shot down 20 Argentine aircraft with no air-to-air losses

Powerplant Crew

The Sea Harrier was fitted The first-generation Sea Harrier FRS1
with the Rolls-Royce and second-generation FA2 were both
Pegasus 11 turbofan, an single-seat fighters. However, the T4N
engine capable of producing and T60 varieties were built with two
9,750 kilograms of force. This seats as they were used for land-based
delivered a massive amount pilot conversion training.
of power, which while not
taking the jet to supersonic
speeds did allow it to lift off
vertically, spreading the
output over multiple outlets
positioned over the aircraft.

Electronics The statistics…

Equipped according to generation by Sea Harrier FA2
the Ferranti Blue Fox or Blue Vixen
radars respectively, the Sea Harrier Crew: 1
Length: 14.2m
carried at the time some of the most Wingspan: 7.6m
advanced military radar systems in Height: 3.71m
the world. It is suggested by military Max take-off weight:
historians that the Blue Fox radar was 11,900kg
one of the key reasons why the Sea Powerplant: 1 x Rolls-Royce
Harrier performed so successfully in Pegasus turbofan (21,500lbf)
Max speed: 735mph
the Falklands War. Combat radius: 1,000km
Max range: 3,600km
Some Harriers were fitted with Max service ceiling:
the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile 16,000m
Guns: 2 x 30mm ADEN cannon
Armament pods (100 rounds per cannon)
Rockets:
As a strike fighter the Sea Harrier was equipped with 72 SNEB 68mm rockets
a broad arsenal, ranging from conventional, Missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder,
AIM-120 AMRAAM, R550 Magic,
unguided iron bombs – including WE.177 nuclear ALARM anti-radiation missile,
options – to rockets and laser-guided missiles such as Martel missile, Sea Eagle anti-
ship missile
the AIM-9 Sidewinder. The second generation FA2 Cost: $18 million
was famously equipped with deadly AIM-120
AMRAAM air-to-air, fire and forget missiles.

Degrees of power The Sea Harrier’s vectoring
nozzle in aft position

Giving the Sea Harrier lift off

The real showpiece and reason for the to drift backwards. All nozzles were © Wyrd Light Photography
lengthy success of the Sea Harrier was its moved by a series of shafts and chain
utilisation of the Harrier’s revolutionary drives, which insured that they operated
Pegasus engine partnered with thrust in unison (crucial for maintaining
vectoring nozzles. These nozzles could stability) and the angle and thrust was
be rotated by the pilot through a 98.5 determined in-cockpit by the pilot.
degree arc, from the conventional aft
(horizontal) positioning as standard on This flexibility of control and
aircraft, to straight down, allowing it to placement meant that the Sea Harrier
take off and land vertically as well as was highly manoeuvrable while in the
hover, to forward, allowing the Harrier air and could be landed and launched
from almost anywhere.

127

MILITARY

B-2 Spirt

© Northrop Grumman Composite materials

Any radar returns are reduced by
the composite materials used,
which further deflect any signals.

Crew compartment

The B-2 carries two crew, a pilot
and a mission commander with
room for a third if needed.

Fly-by-wire

The B-2’s unique shape makes
it unstable, and it relies on a
computer to stabilise it and
keep it flying.

You may not see the plane, © Northrop Grumman Windows
but you’ll see the bombs
The B-2’s windows have a
fine wire mesh built into
them, designed to
scatter radar.

Stealth Air Intakes
Bomber
To further reduce
The B-2 is extraordinary, both in the B2’s signature, the
terms of appearance and design engine intakes are sunk
into the main body

The ‘flying wing’ shaped Stealth Bomber bare minimum, making it harder for thermal be kept in a climate-controlled hangar to make
is a unique aircraft that’s designed to sensors to detect the bomber as well as lowering the sure the stealth materials remain intact and
make it as invisible as possible. Its shape aircraft’s acoustic footprint. functional. These problems aside though, the
means there are few leading edges for Spirit is truly an astonishing aircraft, even if,
radar to reflect from, reducing its signature. This is The design also means the B-2 is both highly chances are, you won’t see one unless the pilots
further enhanced by the composite materials from aerodynamic and fuel efficient. The B-2’s maximum want you to…
which the aircraft is constructed and the coatings on range is 6,000 nautical miles and as a result the
its surface. These are so successful that despite aircraft has often been used for long-range missions, Not one you’re likely to find
having a 172-foot wingspan, the B-2’s radar signature some lasting 30 hours and in one case, 50. The B-2 is in your I-Spy book…
is an astounding 0.1m2. so highly automated that it’s possible for a single
The B-2’s stealth capabilities, and aerodynamic crew member to fly while the other sleeps, uses the
shape, are further enhanced by the fact its engines lavatory or prepares a hot meal and this combination
are buried inside the wing. This means the of range and versatility has meant the aircraft has
induction fans at the front of the engines are been used to research sleep cycles to improve crew
concealed while the engine exhaust is minimised. performance on long-range missions.
As a result, the B-2’s thermal signature is kept to the
Despite this, the aircraft’s success comes with a
hefty price tag. Each B-2 costs $737 million and must

128

HEAD STEALTHY 1. F-117 STEALTHIER 2. Lockheed Martin STEALTHIEST 3. F-22 Raptor
Nighthawk F-35 Lightning II
2HEAD The F-22 Raptor carries
The original stealth The F-35 is designed to a computer that warns
STEALTH fighter’s angular of any wear and tear
AIRCRAFT design reflects away minimise its radar signature, that could possibly make
radar signals. It was the aircraft more visible
retired in 2008. including hexagonal weapon on radar.

and landing bay doors that

don’t return as strong a signal.

DID YOU KNOW? The earliest example of the ‘flying wing’ design dated from German designer Hugo Junkers in 1919

Ghost works: Flying wing
Inside the Spirit
The B-2’s shape means it has very
The B-2 is an unusual combination of complexity and few leading edges, making it
elegance, the entire airframe built around the harder to detect on radar.
concept of stealth and focused on making the aircraft
as hard to detect as possible. Carbon- The statistics…
reinforced plastic
B-2 Spirit
Special heat-resistant
material near the exhausts Manufacturer: Northrop
Grumman
mean the airframe
absorbs very little heat. Year deployed: 1993

Bomb rack assembly (BRA) Dimensions: Length: 69ft,
wingspan: 172ft, height: 17ft
The bomb rack assembly can hold up to
80 500lb bombs. Weight empty / max:
158,000lb / 336,500lb

Unit cost: $737,000,000

Max speed: Mach 0.95
(604mph)

Propulsion: The B-2 has general
Electric F118-GE-100
non-afterburning turbofans

Ceiling: 50,000ft

Armament description: The
B-2 has two internal bays
capable of holding 50,000lb of
ordnance. Common payloads
often include:
› /' ,''cY ZcXjj YfdYj
(Mk-82) mounted on the bomb
rack assembly or BRA
› *- .,'cY :9L ZcXjj YfdYj
on BRA
› (- )#'''cY ZcXjj n\Xgfej
(Mk-84, JDAM-84, JDAM-102)
mounted on the rotary launcher
assembly RLA
› (- 9-( fi 9/* elZc\Xi
weapons on the RLA

Landings are fine, if the
tower spots you coming…

Engines

The B-2’s four General Electric F118s
don’t have afterburners as the heat

these generate would make the
aircraft easier to detect.

Rotary launch assembly (RLA)

The RLA allows the B-2 to deploy different
weapons in quick succession.

Landing gear doors © John Batchelor / www.johnbatchelor.com The B-2’s engines are
buried within the wing
The landing gear doors are
hexagonal to further break up
the B-2’s radar profile.

129

MILITARY “It has seen significant combat
in its 19-year service, including
Mikoyan MiG-29 deployment in the Persian Gulf War”

Mikoyan MiG-29

Russia’s primary fighter jet combines a host of
advanced tech to create an agile and deadly aircraft

Often overlooked in the west due to its Anatomy of a MiG-29B
Soviet Union origins in the Eighties,
the Mikoyan MiG-29 is actually one of The essential hardware of this Russian
the world’s most prolific fighter jets, with over air superiority fighter revealed
1,600 units in operation around the globe. For a
little perspective, there are only just over 300 Cockpit
Eurofighter Typhoons currently in operation
across the planet, a number that is unlikely to The MiG-29B’s cockpit has
ever exceed the 500 mark. a bubble canopy and
So why is this Russian plane so successful? comes equipped with a
For starters, it’s great value for money – just shy conventional centre stick,
of £18 million ($29 million), compared to the left-hand throttle controls
£64.8 million ($104.6 million) Typhoon. and a heads-up display.
The MiG-29 is a fourth-generation fighter jet Pilots sit in a Zvezda
designed for an air supremacy role, which K-36DM ejection seat.
involves infiltrating and seizing enemy
airspace through force. It comes in a wide range Sensors
of variants, with both legacy and current
production models (such as the MiG-29K and The stock MiG-29B comes
MiG-29M) in operation, and has seen significant with a Phazotron RLPK-29
combat throughout its 19-year service, radar fire control system,
including deployment in the Persian Gulf War. which includes the N019
The aircraft is built around an aluminium pulse-Doppler radar along
airframe, which is bolstered with advanced with an NII Ts100 computer.
composite materials. This airframe is designed
for up to 9g manoeuvres, making the jet The statistics… Airframe
insanely agile and quite easy to fly for skilled
pilots – hence why it’s often used at air shows. The MiG-29B’s airframe
Surrounding the airframe lies an elegantly is made primarily from
sculpted titanium/aluminium alloy fuselage aluminium and composite
that tapers in from a wide rear to a raised, materials. The airframe is
‘swan neck’ cockpit and elongated nose cone. stressed for up to 9g
From the fuselage extends the aeroplane’s manoeuvres, making it an
mid-mounted swept wings, each of which is extremely agile jet.
installed with leading-edge root extensions.
The MiG-29 is powered by two widely spaced Mikoyan MiG-29 Weapons
Klimov RD-33 afterburning turbofans that,
besides granting a top speed of 2,400 Crew: 1 The MiG-29B comes with
kilometres (1,490 miles) per hour, also help Length: 17.4m (57ft) seven hardpoints, each
reduce effective wing loading. This is thanks to Wingspan: 11.4m (37.4ft) capable of carrying a
their wide spacing, with the area between Height: 4.7m (15.4ft) selection of arms (such as
them generating extra lift. The engines are fed Powerplant: 2 x Klimov RD-33 R-73 air-to-air missiles) and
by an internal fuel system that parses its total afterburning turbofans bombs. In addition, it
reserves down into a series of sub-tanks. Max speed: Mach 2.25 carries a single GSh-30-1
The MiG-29 comes packing a vast arsenal too. (2,400km/h; 1,490mph) 30mm (1.2in) cannon.
Each jet is fitted with seven hardpoints capable Max range: 1,430km (888mi)
of carrying a wide array of missiles and bombs, Max altitude:
or external fuel tanks for longer missions. 18,013m (59,100ft)
Hardpoints: 7
Max payload:
3,500kg (7,720lb)

130

F5ATCOTPS Origin Loss Fulcrum Fill ’er up Tattoo

MIG-29 TRIVIA 1 The MiG-29 was born out of the 2 The MiG-29 entered service 3 The MiG-29 was designated 4 The MiG-29B has a fuel 5 In 1993 two MiG-29s of the
Soviet Advanced Lightweight successfully in 1983 at the the NATO reporting name capacity of 4,365 litres Russian Air Force collided in
Tactical Fighter programme in Kubinka Air Base near ‘Fulcrum-A’ post-introduction, natively, with extra external mid-air during a routine at the
the Seventies. This programme Moscow. But this only came a name that would eventually fuel tanks fixable to the wings. Royal International Air Tattoo.
overshadowed the USA’s after two prototypes were lost be adopted by its Russian The internal fuel reserve is Luckily no harm came to
Fighting Falcon programme. in engine-related accidents. pilots as a nickname. divided into six sub-tanks. either the pilots or spectators.

DID YOU KNOW? Today a Mikoyan MiG-29 will set you back around £17.9 million ($29 million)

Powerplant

The fighter jet comes
installed with two Klimov

RD-33 afterburning
turbofans, which are
widely spaced to reduce
wing loading and improve
manoeuvrability. They
each deliver 8,290kgf
(18,277lbf) on afterburner.

Wings

The MiG-29B features
mid-mounted, swept wings
with blended leading-edge

root extensions swept at
40°, as well as automatic

leading-edge slats and
trailing-edge flaps.

ON THE 5 1
62 4
MAP
7 3 © KGyST; TSgt Michael Ammons, USAF; Corbis
Which air forces
fly MiG-29s?

1 Russia: 291
2 Ukraine: 80
3 India: 67
4 Uzbekistan: 60
5 Belarus: 41
6 Poland: 36
7 Cuba: 4

131

MILITARY “Missiles included the formidable
AIM-54 Phoenix, a long-range
air-to-air missile system”

Inside the iconic fighter jet

F-14 Tomcat Thestatistics…
One of the most iconic fighter jets ever built, the F-14
Tomcat dominated modern warfare for decades, F-14 Tomcat
delivering great performance across the
Crew: Two
Length: 19.1m (62.6ft)
Wingspan: 19.55m (64ft)

wide spectrum of aerial engagement Height: 4.88m (15.7ft)
Weight: 19.83m (65ft)

Designed to Wings could be Powerplant:
protect the US fully extended for Two x General Electric F110-GE-
Navy’s aircraft-carrier long-haul missions 400 afterburning turbofans
operations at long ranges
against Soviet aircraft and missiles, the Max thrust: 13,810lbf
Grumman Corporation-built F-14 Tomcat
has been entrenched in military history Max speed:
and public consciousness for decades. Mach 2.34
Made famous by its numerous high-profile (1,544mph/2,484kph)
operations – including missions in the
Vietnam, Gulf and Iraq wars – and Combat radius: 575mi/ 925km
extensive usage in the Eighties classic film
Top Gun, the F-14 has been synonymous Max altitude:
with prestige, advanced technology and 15,200m (49,868ft)
dynamic, aggressive flight performance.
This reputation emanated from its Armament: One x 20mm
next-generation, multi-use design, M61 Vulcan gatling cannon
which allowed it to be utilised as both a
long-range naval interceptor and air Hardpoints: 10 (six under
superiority fighter, making it capable of fuselage, two under nacelles,
fighting in any aerial engagement. Key to two on wing gloves)
this was the F-14’s variable geometry
wings, a sweeping system that could Missiles: AIM-54 Phoenix, AIM-
modify the wing position between 20 and 7 Sparrow, AIM-9 Sidewinder
68 degrees depending on the nature of the
operation. At high speeds, which the F-14 Bombs: JDAM, Pavewave, Mk
was capable of with great ease, the wings 80, Mk 20 Rockeye II
would be swept back, while when
undertaking long-haul patrol missions at Cost: $38 million
lower speeds, the wings could fully extend
out, maximising its lift-to-drag ratio and Air Data Computer (CADC) and Hughes Avionics
improving fuel efficiency. AWG-9 X-band digital radar. The former
While in flight, its power was supplied utilised a MOS-based LSI chipset, the In the nose, the Hughes AWG-
by two Pratt & Whitney TF30 turbofans, jet MP944 – one of the first microprocessor 9 X-band radar allowed the F-
engines each capable of delivering a designs – and could control the primary 14 to track up to 24 targets
massive 27,800 pounds of thrust with flight system, wing sweep and flaps simultaneously from as far
afterburners engaged. This gave the F-14 a automatically, while the latter provided away as 120 miles (193km).
top speed of 1,544mph (2,484kph), over next-generation search and tracking modes Targets could be locked onto
twice the speed of sound, as well as a rapid that could monitor and lock onto targets from as far out as 90 miles
rate of climb of 229 metres (751ft) a second hundreds of miles away. (144km) using multiple
and overall thrust-to-weight ratio of 0.91. tracking programs.
However, due to the F-14’s design brief as a Once enemy targets had been
multi-role aircraft, the TF30s could not discovered, the F-14 was more than capable Fuselage
only provide huge thrust but were also of taking them down, fitted to counter
designed to be fuel-efficient when cruising every aspect of air combat. Missiles The distinguishing feature of the F-14’s fuselage was its
at low speeds to maximise fuel economy. included the formidable AIM-54 Phoenix, large flat area between the engine nacelles, referred to as
The Tomcat was also notable for its a long-range air-to-air missile system, as the ‘pancake’. This area provided over half the F-14’s total
adoption of numerous advanced well as both the AIM-9 Sidewinder and
electronic systems to aid flight and AIM-Sparrow III systems to deal with aerodynamic lifting surface and housed the fuel tanks,
navigation, as demonstrated in its Central short- and medium-range targets. flight controls and wing-sweep mechanisms.
Air-to-ground options were also not in
short supply (the F-14 was adopted late on
in its service period as a bomber) with
JDAM precision-guided munitions, the
Paveway series of laser-guided bombs and
the MK 80 and MK 20 series of iron bombs
capable of being fitted to one of its ten
hardpoints. Finally, the F-14 was
installed with the ferocious M61
Vulcan six-barrelled gatling
cannon, a system capable of
firing over 6,000 20mm rounds
every 60 seconds.

132

DID YOU KNOW? The F-14’s top speed of 1,544mph is over twice the speed of sound

“Umm guys, I’m trying
to take off here…”

Undercarriage An engineer works on
one of the F-14’s TF30 turbofans
The undercarriage was built to be robust to
withstand the harsh takeoffs and landing Powerplant

necessary for aircraft carrier operation. Fed by two rectangular air intakes located
under its wings, the F-14 was powered by
two Pratt & Whitney TF30 turbofans. The
engines were designed to be fuel-efficient
when cruising, allowing for its designed
long-haul patrols and operations.

© John Batchelor/ www.johnbatchelor.com Wings

An F-14 undertaking Armament The F-14 featured wings that could sweep
a vertical climb between 20 and 68 degrees. This allowed the
The F-14’s standard layout included a single long-range air-to-air AIM-54 Phoenix,
two short-range air-to-air AIM-9 Sidewinders, two air-to-air AIM-7 Sparrow IIIs aircraft to constantly fly with an optimum
and an M61 Vulcan autocannon capable of firing 6,000 rounds per minute. lift-to-drag ratio dependent on what speed it

was flying. The sweep could be
automatically or manually controlled.

Skin

Wings had a two-spar structure, with
the box, pivots and upper and lower
skins made from titanium.

An F-14 flying over Iraq
during the Gulf war

All photographs © US Navy The insane M61
Vulcan autocannon

133

MILITARY

AH-64D Apache Longbow

AH-64D Apach
The latest iteration of the combat-tested
Apache gunship, the AH-64D Longbow
is a powerhouse of performance,
bringing massive damage and
flexibility to the theatre of war

Emerging as the next generation of 5. Cockpit
multi-mission attack helicopter, the
AH-64D Apache Longbow is changing With room for two, the Apache’s cockpit allows
the face of warfare today. Recently in excellent battlefield visibility with wide viewing
operation in Iraq and Afghanistan, and used by angles. It is fitted with cutting-edge communication,
armed forces all over the world, its military weapon and navigational systems.
performance is well-recognised and has proved
itself both combat-ready and reliable over the last 6. Composite rotor blades
13 years of service.
The AH-64D Apache Longbow is the latest The AH-64D Longbow is fitted with a
iteration of the Apache class of gunship as produced new composite four-blade main rotor,
by Boeing. Differentiating it from earlier models, the allowing for increased payload,
AH-64D Longbow is now fitted with a fire-control climb rate and cruise speed over
radar above its four-blade composite main rotor. earlier variants.
This allows it longer-range weapons accuracy,
cloaked object detection (both moving and 8. Radome
stationary), classification and threat-prioritisation
of up to 128 targets in less than 60 seconds and Through the systems within,
greater situational awareness, real-time this provides the Longbow
management of the combat arena and digital with combat information on its
transmission of target locations. surroundings and enemies,
Married to these advanced systems is an such as target azimuth,
armament to make the most armoured target elevation, range and velocity.
rethink their strategy. Topping this list of This allows it to quickly and
destruction is the Apache’s Hellfire missiles – efficiently calculate a firing
dedicated laser-guided anti-armour missiles that solution to best hit its targets.
make short work of tanks, bunkers and artillery.
The Longbow is also fitted with a brace of 70mm “Say hello to my
rockets, which can be fired off in quick succession little friend”
and provide awesome power and flexibility when
up against numerous targets. Lastly, mounted on its 2. 30mm
underside is the AH-64D’s 30mm M230 chain gun. automatic cannon
Holding 1,200 30mm high-incendiary rounds, and
controlled remotely by the pilot through his helmet Firing large, highly incendiary
– allowing hands-free targeting and tracking – the rounds (the Apache carries
M230 chain gun is capable of laying down a 1,200 units), the 30mm
phenomenal amount of damage and is ideal for automatic cannon is a multi-
clearing enemy soldiers on the ground. purpose chain gun capable of
Since 2008, the AH-64D has also been upgraded to ripping through man and
include increased digitisation, a joint tactical radio machine with ease.
system, enhanced engines and drive systems,
capability to control UAVs (unmanned aerial
vehicles) – which have been used extensively in the
Iraq and Afghanistan wars – and improved landing
gear. Currently, the Apache AH-64D Longbow is
operated by America, Egypt, Greece, Israel, Japan,
Kuwait, Netherlands, China, Singapore and the
United Arab Emirates, with many other countries
operating earlier variants.

134

DID YOU KNOW? The AH-64A was first given the Apache name in late 1981, and went into full-scale production a year later

he Longbow
7. Fuselage
1. T700-GE-701C engines
Designed for lightness,
Produced by General Electric, the T700 manoeuvrability and stealth, the
turboshaft engines allow the AH-64D fuselage is distinctively styled and
Longbow a high vertical rate of climb painted in camouflaged colours to
match its operating environment.
(2,175fpm) and max cruise speed (284kph).

© Lürssen The statistics…
© Alex Pang
AH-64D Apache
Longbow

Length: 58.17ft (17.73m)
Height: 15.24ft (4.64m)
Engine:
Twin turboshaft T700-GE-701C
Max speed: 284kph
Cost: $15.4 million
Number produced:
1,174 (Feb 2010)
Armament:
Hellfire missiles, 70mm rockets,
30mm M230 chain gun

An Apache AH-64 fires flares
in the early morning

A vehicle of
modern warfare

3. Laser-guided Hellfire missiles 4. 70mm explosive rockets

Multi-platform and multi-target, these laser- Fast firing 2.75-inch rockets allow the Apache to
guided modular missiles are excellent at support ground troops in any assault, destroying
taking down enemy armour and structures.
enemy soldiers, strongholds and vehicles.

135

MILITARY

Stealth at sea

Stealth warships

We lift the lid on the latest covert
vessels that are taking the art of
sneaking to a whole new level

Stealth relies on five core principles when it comes Radar The statistics…
to military vessels: materials, coatings, geometry,
noise and tactics. While the latter is situation Ship positions are typically USS San Antonio
dependent, the first four are physical qualities that can be determined through the
modified to enhance stealth with advanced technologies. use of large-scale military Type:
Materials are based on composites such as fibreglass radar systems on land, Amphibious transport dock
rather than hard metals and the incorporation of negative- with data passing between Roles: Troop and vehicle
index metamaterials (NIMs). These latter artificial them and other local transport; multi-mission
substances are designed to be all-but invisible to specific vehicles and facilities. But littoral combat
radar frequencies. Some vessels are also being built with as stealth tech advances it Displacement: 24,900 tons
demagnetisation belts – a process that involves encircling a becomes far harder for Length: 209m (684ft)
ship with superconducting ceramic cables. radars to spot enemies. Beam: 32m (105ft)
Covering a vessel with radar-absorbent coatings such as Draft: 7m (23ft)
iron ball paint – tiny spheres of carbonyl iron or ferrite – can Propulsion: 4 x diesel engines
also reduce a radar cross-section. Coatings are referred to as Power: 31,200kW (41,600hp)
RAMs (radar-absorbent materials) and work by transforming Max speed: 41km/h (25mph)
radar waves into heat energy. This process works as the
carbonyl iron coating has an alternating magnetic field,
which when hit by radar waves begins to oscillate at a
molecular level, trapping the incoming signal within the
material and dissipating its energy as heat.
Geometry is also crucial to remaining undetected. In
terms of radar, complex structures offer a far crisper,
easier-to-identify return image than those with a simple
geometry. As such, modern stealth warships and
submersibles are designed with this in mind, often
installing protective domes over the mast and sensors,
called radomes. Similarly, today’s vessels have incredibly
clean and angled hulls with few doors and faceted hangars.
Noise in terms of maritime vessels can come courtesy of
ship wake, heat generation and operating machinery. In
fluid dynamics a wake is the area of disturbed liquid flow
downstream of a ship. This wake can be detected by
side-scanning synthetic aperture radars (SARs), which can
then work out both the ship’s position and direction plus
sonar installations. To combat this, the latest stealth ships
are generally outfitted with low-power diesel motors with
specialised heat-dissipation systems to reduce their thermal
signature. Active acoustic camouflage systems beneath the
hull, meanwhile, can generate a constant series of small
bubbles, effectively disrupting sonar images.
Here we explore four examples of cutting-edge military
vessels that have been designed with covertness at the top of
the priority list, from out-and-out destroyers through to
agile, wraith-like submarines.

136

HEAD 1. STEALTHY Sea Shadow 2. STEALTHIER Type 45 3. STEALTHIEST USS Zumwalt

2HEAD Now decommissioned With a similarly small This is the stealth king
this was a test bed for cross-section, but many - its hull leaves almost
COVERT CRAFT stealth tech. Its small times larger, equipped no wake, it boasts
waterplane area twin hull with an array of arms, low-noise propulsion
(SWATH) design gave it a the Type 45 destroyer is and has electromagnetic
tiny radar cross-section. a cloaked titan. rail guns.

DID YOU KNOW? The Type 26 frigate has a radar cross-section smaller than a commercial fishing boat!

Military jet The statistics… Satellite

Some jets are equipped USS Zumwalt All modern military vessels use a
with radar systems global positioning system (GPS)
purposely designed to Type: Destroyer
detect marine vessels. Roles: to help keep track of nearby
These systems can be Multi-mission land/sea attack vessels and to aid navigation.
foiled, however, by using Displacement: 14,564 tons
radar jammers, stealth Length: 182.9m (600ft) Legacy sub
coatings and radomes. Beam: 24.6m (80.7ft)
Draft: 8.4m (27.6ft) Old submarines did not
Propulsion: specialise in stealth, relying
2 x Rolls-Royce gas turbines
Power: 78,000kW (104,600hp) purely on remaining
Max speed: 56km/h (35mph) underwater to stay hidden.

The statistics…

The statistics… Fishing boat Type 26 Global © BAE Systems; Naval Sea Systems Command; Ian Moores Graphics
Combat Ship
Virginia-class This regular, small-scale fishing
submarine boat would generate a highly Type: Frigate
Roles: Maritime security;
Type: Fast attack submarine visible radar cross-section due counter piracy; troop deployment
Roles: Multi-mission to its lack of stealth technology Displacement: 5,400 tons
anti-submarine warfare Length: 148m (486ft)
Displacement: 7,900 tons and relatively complex shape. Beam: 19m (62ft)
Length: 115m (377ft) Propulsion:
Beam: 10m (33ft) Gas turbines; diesel engines
Propulsion: Power: Unknown
1 x S9G nuclear reactor Max speed: 51km/h (32mph)
Power: 29,828kW (40,000hp)
Max speed: 46km/h (29mph) 137

MILITARY “Despite measuring 148 metres (486
feet) in length, the Type 26 appears
Stealth at sea as a small fishing boat on radar”

The Capable of delivering cruise radar systems. This means that
Infiltrator missiles, combat helicopters, when it becomes operational in
unmanned hunter-killer drones 2021, it will be able to traverse
Type 26 Global and a barracks load of Royal the globe without detection and
Combat Ship Marines into coastal warzones, infiltrate the most hostile areas.
the new Type 26 Global Combat The fishing boat-sized radar
Ship being built by BAE Systems cross-section comes courtesy of
is set to deliver a platform for the sleek, low-profile hull,
specially angled deck panels,
unprecedented covert multi-installation radomes and
operations while at sea. advanced anti-radar/sonar
Despite weighing about 5,400 damping equipment. This tech
tons and measuring a whopping will cloak on-board vertical
148 metres (486 feet) long (that’s missile silos, an array of
one and a half times the size of medium-calibre guns and a huge
Manchester United’s football hangar containing both Merlin
pitch), the Type 26 appears and Wildcat helicopters.
merely as a small fishing boat on

USS San Antonio stanchions; all exterior equipment is recessed The
or flush-mounted; bulky things like boat- Crusader
The USS San Antonio amphibious transport handling cranes fold down when not in use;
dock excels in its ability to efficiently carry and while the anchor and anchor hold are designed
covertly deliver military vehicles and ground to minimise radar backscatter.
troops. This would not be so impressive if it
wasn’t for the size of the San Antonio, which This strict adherence to stealth principles
weighs in at 25,000 tons – more than the Type 26 transforms the radar cross-section of what is
and USS Zumwalt combined! essentially a small aircraft carrier into one
under half its size. This allows it to sneakily
So how is such a gargantuan vessel cloaked? approach target coastlines and launch air-
Well, aside from the basics, it comes down to cushioned landing crafts, amphibious assault
ship-wide attention to detail. Major antennas vehicles, attack helicopters, military jeeps and
are mounted on platforms inside two advanced even armoured personnel carriers onto land
enclosed mast/sensor (AEM/S) systems rather along with a maximum 699 soldiers.
than on yardarms. Deck edges are bounded by
shaped bulwarks rather than lifeline

The USS San Antonio in focus Missile systems

Take a look at some of this A series of RIM-116 rolling airframe missile
warship’s most advanced, launchers, as well as a pair of Mk 41 vertical
stealth-orientated features launch missile systems are installed.

Flight deck

The Antonio’s exposed
flight deck has a low profile
compared to those on full-blown
aircraft carriers, enabling planes
to be stationed on it without
giving away its position.

Well deck

As the San Antonio’s main
role is to stealthily deliver
combat troops and
vehicles onto coastal
regions, an internal well
deck is equipped with two
LCAC landing crafts.

138

RECORD 322km STEALTHIEST RUSSIAN SUB
BREAKERS
During Hurricane Sandy a Russian stealth submarine was detected
SNEAKY SUB only 322 kilometres (200 miles) from the east coast of the States – the
closest any of the nation’s fleet has ever come to the US mainland.

DID YOU KNOW? Sharp edges and angled flat surfaces are better at masking radar signals than rounded ones

The Virginia-class submarine
Annihilator
While the Type 26, USS rubberised panels that sit on
USS Zumwalt Zumwalt and USS San Antonio top of the hull work by
are demonstrating advanced dampening electromagnetic
The USS Zumwalt – the lead ship in stealth technology stealth technologies dedicated waves, reducing the number
the upcoming Zumwalt-class of allows it to slip through the waves to reducing their cross-sections that bounce back and sapping
destroyers – doubles down on the like a harpoon, ready to deploy an to radar, Virginia-class subs are their overall energy. Adding to
Type 26’s damage-dealing arsenal of a much more explosive utilising a piece of kit that can the Virginia’s stealth ability is
capabilities while maintaining a nature on unsuspecting targets. do the same for sonar. The its revolutionary pump-jet
purist dedication to staying invisible. Virginia’s ultra-low acoustic propulsion, which works by
Stealth first. Features include an Interestingly, the Zumwalt even signature comes courtesy of a drawing water into a turbine-
aluminium/glass-fibre composite extends its stealth mantra to its special anechoic coating. The powered pump via an intake
structure, a wave-piercing hull that weapons, with every gun, missile coating, which consists of a then pushing it out at the rear,
leaves almost no wake and an and torpedo launched by integrated series of sound-absorbent, dramatically muffling noise.
exhaust suppressor to reduce its computer systems. As such, far
infrared signature. On top of all this, from crew members having to man The
a high-angle inward sloping exterior, gun emplacements on deck or load Wraith
noise reduction system and a missiles into launchers manually –
trapezoidal, radome-inspired generating more noise – the
command and control centre make Zumwalt allows the sleek, minimalist
this near-15,000-ton titan nothing deck to remain undisturbed, so an
but a ghost on radar. This arsenal of offensive can be launched without
compromising its location.

Vehicle decks RAM coating What are masking systems?

Up to 14 expeditionary fighting The ship is coated in Masking systems in marine vehicle applications work by
vehicles and amphibious radar-absorbent material. reducing radiated noise generated by the vessel’s propulsion
This soaks up a percentage system and general movement. This is achieved by mounting
assault craft can be carried in of radio wave energy and machined perforations on the sides and propellers of the ship,
the multi-tiered vehicle decks. converts it into heat. through which compressed air is pumped at a high rate. This
action creates a barrier of tiny air bubbles around the vessel
Mast Sensors and propellers that traps mechanical noise and disrupts sonar
waves. The result of this is that enemy sonar installations, such
A huge faceted radome The San Antonio’s passive as those found on military submarines, receive a heavily
encompasses the electronic warfare system, distorted image of the scanned area, with vessels commonly
shrouded in a pattern akin to rain falling on the ocean surface.
antenna-laden central SPQ-9B horizon search
mast, greatly reducing radar and long-range air
its radar cross-section.
search radar are also
housed in a signature-

reducing radome.

2. Propellers 1. Perforations

Vents in the propellers Perforations in the hull
also eject air, shrouding allow pressurised air
them in tiny bubbles. to be pumped out the
sides of the vessel.

Hull 3. Disruption © BAE Systems; US Navy

The hull’s shape is heavily angled and Noise generated by the propellers and
sports few curved surfaces. These ship’s movement through the water is

tailored angulations help massively to muffled, with sonar installations
reduce the number of reflections bounced unable to gain a clear picture.

back to enemy radar installations. 139

MILITARY

HMS Queen Elizabeth

HMS Queen Elizabeth

Take a look inside the Royal Navy’s biggest-ever vessel

Taller than the Niagara Falls with Ship shape The bridge
room for four jumbo jets, the HMS
Queen Elizabeth is a true naval A cross-section across the length The control centre of
goliath. The construction called for and breadth of the carrier the ship was built in
six shipyards and 10,000 workers, and it’s kitted Aircraft carrier Portsmouth and sailed
out with state of the art facilities and tech. As by barge to Rosyth to
well as a cinema and gym for the 1,600-strong 40 aircraft can be held be connected to the
crew to unwind in, the carrier will have the on the ship with up to rest of the ship.
capacity to accommodate up to an incredible 40 75 taking off and
aircrafts, including the world’s most advanced landing every day.
stealth bomber family, the F35 Lightning II.
In a combat situation it can call on a set of Weapon defence systems
20mm guns, which are part of an automated
Phalanx CIWS (close-in weapon system) that To defend itself, the Elizabeth is
will protect the craft from missiles. If flight is equipped with a state-of-the-art
preferred to fight, the two Rolls-Royce MT30 gas defence system known as Phalanx.
turbines and four diesel generator sets give the
ship a power of 109,000 kilowatts (146,171 Living space
horsepower). That’s enough to power a small
city! The engines givesthe vessel a top speed of 1,600 bunks are available for the
25 knots (46 kilometres / 29 miles per hour) and small army of staff. These rooms
a range of 16,000 kilometres (10,000 miles). take up nearly all of this deck.
Incredibly heavy ships – like the Elizabeth –
can still float because when the boat is pushing
down, the water pushes up. As long as the
vessel is not as heavy as the water it has
displaced, it will float – a principle called
buoyancy. This particular ship will begin sea
trials in the summer of 2016. To achieve this, it
will have to will have to disembark from its
current location in Rosyth Dockyard in
Scotland by going under the Forth Bridge. This
can only be done at low tide as the HMS Queen
Elizabeth is simply too much of a giant to clear
it at high tide!

The Invincible class Engine room

Before the Queen Elizabeth The ship will utilise a 109,000kW
class was even a twinkle in the (146,171hp) power station to
Royal Navy’s eye, the Invincible power the ship’s electronics.
class ruled the waves. The first
of this class of light aircraft Jet power
carrier was the HMS Invincible
itself, which was first Two Rolls Royce MT30 gas turbines
commissioned in 1980. (based on the same parts used in a
Followed by the HMS Illustrious Boeing 777) power the engine
and HMS Ark Royal, the vessels served during the along with four diesel engines.
Falklands War and the Bosnian War and assisted in the
2003 invasion of Iraq. The Illustrious is the only ship of the
class still in service but it is due to be retired in the near
future. It will possibly be turned into a tourist attraction in
Hull, hosting events and exhibitions on the River Humber.

140

F5ATCOTPS Sir John Thornycroft Sir Christopher Cockerell Channel crossing Retired Military

HOVERCRAFT 1 The first patent for a hovercraft 2 British engineer Sir Christopher 3 The first hovercraft to cross 4 Cross-channel hovercraft 5 Since their invention, hovercraft
HISTORY design was made by Sir John Cockerell (1910-1999) initially the English Channel was the were expensive to run, have been regularly employed
Thornycroft (1843-1928) in 1877, began work on the first SR.N1, completing the journey especially with degradation by the military. The Griffon
but he could not solve the hovercraft back in 1953, on 25 July 1959, reducing the caused by sea salt, and the 2000 TDX Class ACV, for
problem of air escaping from completing the very first time of the trip to just half last trip was made in example, is currently in use by
underneath the vehicle. working model by 1955. an hour. October 2000. the Royal Marines.

DID YOU KNOW? The foghorn is 162 decibels and can be heard from more than 3.2km (2mi) away

Flight control Aircraft lift and hangar The original
HMS Queen
This tower regulates air Several aircraft will be placed Elizabeth
traffic and controls the below deck for extra space and
ship’s radar systems. will be raised up using a special In the early-20th century,
lift when required. dreadnoughts were the
battleships of choice. The
original Queen Elizabeth class
was a series of five super-
dreadnoughts that served the
Royal Navy through both world
wars. Six were designed but
HMS Agincourt was cancelled
due to the outbreak of World
War I. The vessels all made it
through both world wars except
HMS Barham, which was sunk
by a German submarine in 1941.
By this time the armour of the
vessels had become obsolete
and could not protect against
torpedo fire. They were
deployed all over the world
before being effectively
replaced by the Revenge class of
battleships and were scrapped
in the late-1940s.

The first HMS Queen Elizabeth
was the flagship of the Royal
Navy, serving for 34 years

Propulsion 12,000

The ship’s two CANS OF BAKED BEANS
propellers are 7m (23ft) ON BOARD, ENOUGH
in diameter and are
equipped with enough TO FILL 38 BATHTUBS
power to run 1,000 cars
or 50 high-speed trains! 64,800

The statistics… EGGS ON BOARD
ENOUGH FOR 21,600 OMELETTES

66,000
SAUSAGES IN THE SHIP’S STORES
– THAT’S 6.5KM (4MI) WORTH

Medical area HMS Queen Elizabeth 1,000 © BAE Systems

The ship contains Cost: £6.2 billion ($10.3 billion) LOAVES OF BREAD
various medical Weight: 65,000 tons PRODUCED A DAY
areas as well as a Length: 280m (919ft)
hospital to treat staff Height: 56m (184ft) BY THE SHIP’S
on long journeys. Crew: 1,600 ONBOARD BAKERY

141

MILITARY

Future of battles

The British Type 45 has
a displacement of 8,000

tons and can carry a
crew of around 190

The firepower on the latest battleships is mind-boggling – we
explore the technology transforming 21st-century naval warfare

If you thought that the golden age of each other in a deadly game of broadsides, directly into the heart of enemy encampments
naval combat came to an end 200 years today’s warships need to take down a variety of in minutes from a safe distance, while naval
ago, then clearly somebody forgot to threats, whether at sea, on land or in the air, guns are capable of subjecting a target to
tell the national navies of today, as a wave of and they need to do so at extreme range. As continuous bombardment with high-explosive
state-of-the-art, armed-to-the-teeth battleships such, step onto a battleship today – be it a shells with controlled abandon. All this is but a
are currently emerging from shipbuilding frigate, destroyer or corvette – and you’ll find an taste of the weaponry being fitted to the most
yards with a singular aim in mind: total arsenal of insane weapons systems. advanced 21st-century warships.
domination of the seas.
From the brand-new and brutal Type 45 There are cannons that can fire over The heavy armament of vessels currently
destroyers being pushed out of British distances of 95 kilometres (60 miles) and deliver knows no bounds, with even coastguard fleets,
dockyards, through to the almost sci-fi a guided smart munition to a target with convoy vehicles and civilian support ships
Zumwalt-class battleships emerging in the pinpoint accuracy, as well as Gatling guns that being outfitted with some form of military-
USA, and on to the cruising carrier vessels can automatically track a target moving at grade offensive weaponry. Clearly, controlling
sitting like small islands in Earth’s oceans, hundreds of miles per hour and then fire the world’s waters is not as old-fashioned as the
battleships are being produced en masse and to explosive bullets at up to 1,100 metres (3,610 feet) history books would have us believe. In this
a more advanced spec than ever before. per second to take it down. feature we take a look at the various types of
Far from the basic heavyweights of bygone battleship taking to the seas and the weapon
centuries, required simply to go toe-to-toe with Missile launch systems not only increase the systems that are revolutionising not just naval
vessel’s stealth but are capable of launching a combat but warfare in general.
wide variety of city block-levelling missiles

142

RECORD HEAVIEST-EVER BATTLESHIP
BREAKERS
When fully laden the Yamato-class battleship, which was used
SEA MONSTER
by Japan during World War II, weighed in at 73,000 tons –

73,000 making it by far the heaviest warship ever constructed.

DID YOU KNOW? A Zumwalt-class destroyer costs around £2.4bn ($3.8bn) to build

Rules of engagement Detection Battleship types

The key stages and technology that decide To engage any of these 1Corvette
the outcome of a modern naval battle targets first they need to One of the smallest types, the corvette
be detected – something is a lightly armed and manoeuvrable
Threats achieved via orbiting GPS vessel used for coastal operations. Stealth
satellites, radar and sonar corvettes are now becoming popular too.
Modern battleships are communication systems.
designed to engage a
number of threats,
including high-speed jet
aircraft, rival battleships
and deep-sea submarines.

Defensive Offensive 2Frigate
Lightly armed, medium-sized ships
If attacked, a battleship can deploy When on the offensive, a generally used to protect other military or
decoy systems like flares and battleship can engage civilian vessels. Recently, frigates have
countering anti-missile munitions, these targets with guided been re-focused to take out submarines.
or directly engage incoming or unguided missiles,
threats with smart autocannons. explosive shells and
deadly torpedoes.
A high-explosive guided
torpedo is projected More traditional 41cm 3Destroyer
from a US battleship (16in) naval guns on board Large and heavily armed, destroyers
are typically outfitted for anti-submarine,
USS Iowa unloads a volley the USS North Carolina anti-aircraft and anti-surface warfare, and
of explosive shells from can remain at sea for months on end.
its Mark 7 naval guns
4Cruiser
The cruiser is an armed-to-the-teeth
multi-role vessel akin to a modern
destroyer. While cruisers are still in use,
they have largely been superseded now.

5Carrier
Ocean-going leviathans, carriers are
the largest battleship. Their primary role
is as a seagoing airbase, launching combat
aircraft, but they also come heavily armed.

143

MILITARY “The Advanced Gun System can fire
ten of these LRLAPs per minute
from its stealth-designed turret”

Future of battleships

Weapons in focus

We train our sights on four of the most advanced
armaments aboard the latest battleships

RFIRE POWE IRE POWE
RF
3 RF4
RF
Mk 110 naval gun Advanced
Gun System
Capable of delivering automatic salvos

of 220 57-millimetre (2.2-inch) Mk 295 IRE POWE IRE POWE
The Advanced Gun System (AGS)
Mod 0 ammunition – read: fragmenting is a new naval gun from BAE
Systems capable of firing precision
high-explosive shells – each and every munitions super-fast and at over-the-horizon
ranges. What makes it special is that far from
minute, the Mk 110 naval gun is quite simply firing traditional unguided shells – as most
naval guns have been designed for – it fires the
a shell-slinging colossus. Stemming from one of the most Long Range Land Attack Projectile (LRLAP), a
155-millimetre (6.1-inch) precision guided
long-lasting naval gun series of the last 100 years, the artillery shell that, thanks to base bleed rocket
assistance and an extended range fin glide
Mk 110 comes with a selection of hot features. These trajectory, can travel over 105 kilometres (65
miles) to a target. What’s more, it then has a
include the ability to fire both standard and smart circular error probable (ie accuracy) of only 50
metres (164 feet), making it incredibly precise
munitions, a gun barrel-mounted radar for refined even at great distance. Throw in the fact that
the AGS can fire ten of these LRLAPs per
measuring of muzzle velocity, an instantaneous ability to minute from its stealth-designed turret and
that it can fire traditional unguided munitions
switch between ammunition types, a stealth-oriented as well and it becomes clear why it’s being
incorporated into many of today’s warships.
ballistic shield that protects the gun while allowing a full

360-degree traverse, plus a fully digital fire control

system that enables the Mk 110 to respond to exact

pointing orders and ammunition fuse selection

milliseconds prior to firing. Indeed, the only thing that

stops the Mk 110 from bombarding its target

continuously is its shell capacity, which rests at 120

rounds with a three-minute reload process.

Turret Barrel

The MK 110’s turret is The MK 110 has a single
capable of a full-circle firing barrel with a
sweep and contains the progressive, 24-groove
gun’s firing systems. The parabolic twist. The
turret allows the gun to barrel’s bore length is
elevate from -10° through 3,990mm (157in), with the
to +77° and is protected gun capable of firing 57mm
with a ballistic shield to (2.2in) conventional and
disguise it from radars. smart munitions.

Hoist

The MK 110’s 57mm
(2.2in) Mk 295 Mod 0
ammunition is delivered
to the turret emplacement
via a mechanical loading
hoist. Ammunition is
stacked 120 rounds deep
and automatically fed into
the firing chamber.

144

DID YOU KNOW? The Type 26 frigate is installed with the Phalanx close-in weapon system

Vertical RF IRE POWERF
Launch System
5
IRE POWE
The Vertical Launch System (VLS) IRE POWE
is a state-of-the-art multi-missile
launching system. Unlike previous
systems, which could only fire one specific type of
missile, the VLS is modular so a variety of projectiles
can be fired from the same enclosures. The missiles,
which on the Zumwalt-class destroyers include the
RIM-162 Evolved Seasparrow missile, Anti-Submarine
Rocket (ASROC) and Tactical Tomahawk subsonic
cruise missile, are enclosed in a series of launch cells
within the ship’s hull and, when launched, are fired
out of the top of the deck. By concealing the missiles
within the ship until needed, the VLS improves the
ship’s overall radar cross-section, making it harder to
detect. Each missile fired from a VLS cell is of the
guided variety, with a selection of high-explosive
warheads directed to the target by radar or GPS.

Phalanx CIWS RF IRE POWERF

Every battleship built today 3

comes with a close-in weapon

system, or CIWS, and out of these

systems the Phalanx CIWS is the

leader of the pack. It is a point-defence

weapon designed to attack any target – be that

enemy fighter jets or missiles – which has

managed to evade the battleship’s longer-

range offensive weapons with its massive

20mm (0.8in) M61 Vulcan Gatling gun. What

makes it really special though is its advanced

targeting system, which consists of two

independent antennas that work together

to engage a target. The first antenna is

used for searching for the incoming target

Radar and delivers bearing, velocity, range and

A bulbous tubular radome altitude information. The second antenna
encases the Phalanx’s Ku-band
search and gun-laying radar. is then used to track the target on its
The search antenna sweeps for
threats, and once a target is approach until it is in firing range. As
confirmed as hostile, the
gun-laying antenna locks on. soon as an incoming target is close

enough, the Phalanx can then

automatically fire, using a selection of

sensors to guide spent rounds at the

unfortunate target in a split second.

Gun Drum © Ian Moores Graphics; Corbis; Getty; BAE Systems

Damage is dealt with a Ammunition for the Gatling
20mm (0.8in) M61 Vulcan cannon comes courtesy of a large
autocannon. The cannon magazine drum. This dispenser
has a muzzle velocity of can feed the cannon at a rate of
over 1,100m/s (3,600ft/s) over 4,000 rounds per minute.
and an effective range of
up to 3.6km (2.2mi).

145

HISTORIC

Iconic machines that changed the world

© Alex Pang

158

148 Concorde 158 The Tiger tank 168 HMS Victory
The supersonic plane that Learn about the German
changed the way we travel tank that brought massive The Royal Navy ship that
firepower to the war helped ensure British
150 Supermarine supremacy during the 18th
Spitfire and 19th centuries

See how this iconic fighter 160 The Model T 170 Cutty Sark
dominated the skies during Discover more about the car
the Second World War that brought motoring to On board the world’s
the masses last remaining intact tea
clipper on earth
152 Lancaster
bomber 162 The Flying 172 U-boats
Scotsman explained
A look inside the plane that Locomotive
helped secure victory for Take a ride on board the Find out how these German
the Allies in WWII film star, record breaker submarines reaped havoc
and beloved national during the world wars
154 Messerschmitt treasure
Me 262 174 Bathyscaphe
164 The Mary Rose Trieste
This German fighter
brought incredible speed to See what daily life was The deep sea diver that
the skies during the aerial like on board this amazing reached the bottom of the
dogfights of the Second flagship of Henry VIII’s fleet Mariana Trench
World War

156 F-86 Sabre 166 The Mayflower “Concorde’s nose
A versatile fighter that was dipped in order to
as fast as it was lethal A complete guide to the help visibility”
ship that took the Pilgrim
Fathers to America

146

HISTORIC

159 © DK Images

162 156
148

154 168 © Alex Pang

147

HISTORIC Intake system Wing fuel tanks

Concorde The intake ramps and spill Concorde, like many aircraft,
door were so effective they stored its fuel in its wings.
Inside could almost completely
Concorde offset an engine failure However, it also used its fuel
and keep the aircraft as a heat sink, drawing heat
What’s under the wings? aerodynamic.
away from the passengers.
Rolls-Royce/Snecma
Olympus 593 engines © DocKurt2K

Concorde’s afterburning engines
were a development of engines
originally designed for the
Avro Vulcan bomber.

Ogival wings Lighter, stronger components © John Batchelor / www.johnbatchelor.com

Concorde’s ‘double Concorde was constructed using ‘sculpture
delta’ wings helped its milling’, a process that reduced the amount of
aerodynamic profile parts required while making those that were
and speed. necessary lighter and stronger.

Concorde
An aircraft that could fly across the Atlantic in less than
three hours seemed as impossible as it was desirable

Flying faster than the speed of sound Its ogival or double-curved wings kept it in air at subsonic speed so the air passing into the
has always been the sole proviso of aerodynamic and dictated much of the plane’s engines had to be slowed when flying at Mach 2.0.
the military, but in the late-Sixties, shape, as they forced the nose up on taxiing, take off Worse, the act of slowing the air down generated
Russia, France, the UK and the US and landing. To help minimise drag on the aircraft potentially damaging shock waves. This was
were all working on the idea of as well as improve visibility, the nose cone could controlled by a pair of intake ramps and an auxiliary
supersonic commercial travel. move, dropping down to improve visibility then spill door that could be moved during flight, slowing
Concorde was the result of France and the UK straightening out in flight to improve the the air and allowing the engine to operate efficiently.
combining their efforts to produce a supersonic aerodynamic profile. This system was so successful that 63 per cent of
airliner and, even now, it’s impossible not to be Concorde’s thrust was generated by these intakes
impressed by its pioneering stature. Concorde’s engines also had to be modified for during supersonic flight.
extended supersonic flight. Jet engines can only take

148

HEAD THE FIRST 1. Bell X-1 THE FASTEST 2. SR-71 THE FAILURE 3. Tupolev-144
Blackbird
2HEAD As well as being the (NATO code name –
first aircraft to break A futuristic, high-altitude Charger)
SUPERSONIC the speed of sound, reconnaissance aircraft,
PLANES the X-1 was the first the SR-71 was capable of The TU-144 flew two months
in a long line of up to Mach 3.35, or before Concorde in 1968 but
pioneering aircraft. 2,275 miles per hour. was ultimately scrapped due
to lack of demand.

DID YOU KNOW? The first Concorde test flight took place from Toulouse on 2 March 1969

The sonic boom This Concorde is on display at
Paris-Charles de Gaulle airport

Sonic booms are generated by the passage of an object through the air. This passage
creates pressure waves that travel at the speed of sound. The closer the aircraft gets
to the speed of sound, the closer these waves become until they merge. The aircraft
then forms the tip of a ‘Mach cone’, the pressure wave at its nose combining with the
fall in pressure at its tail as it passes to create the distinctive ‘boom’ sound.

SUBSONIC MACH SUPERSONIC
SPEED ONE SPEED

Wavefront Overlapping Shock cone End of an era
On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight Despite an attempt by Richard
Passenger cabin 4590 crashed in Gonesse, France, Branson to purchase BA’s Concorde
killing all 100 passengers and nine fleet for Virgin Atlantic, the planes
Concorde could carry 92 crew as well as a further four on were retired following a week-long
passengers or be the ground. farewell tour that culminated in
three Concordes landing at
reconfigured internally Although the crash was caused Heathrow, and the very final flight
to carry up to 120. by a fragment from the previous of a Concorde worldwide landing
aircraft to take off, passenger in Filton, Bristol.
© Pline 09 The interior of a British numbers never recovered and
© Martin J. GallowayAirways Concordewere damaged still further by theBA still owns its Concorde fleet:
rising cost of maintaining the one is on display in Surrey, a
ageing aircraft and the slump in air second is being kept near-
travel following the 9/11 attacks. airworthy by volunteers at the Le
Bourget Air and Space Museum,
As a result, on 10 April 2003, Air and a third, also at that site, is
France and British Airways being worked on by a joint team of
announced their Concorde fleets English and French engineers.
would be retired later that year.

Undercarriage Cockpit The statistics…

The undercarriage was unusually strong due to the Concorde’s were the BAC/Aerospatiale
high angle the plane would rise to at rotation, just last aircraft BA flew Concorde
prior to take off, which put a tremendous amount of
stress on the rear wheels in particular. that required a Manufacturer:
flight engineer in BAC (Now BAE Systems) and
And yet Concorde still had to contend Concorde travelled supersonically, the the cockpit with the Aerospatiale (Now EADS)
with the heat generated by supersonic fuselage would extend up to 300 pilot and copilot. Year launched: 1976
flight. The nose – traditionally the millimetres, or almost one foot. The Year retired: 2003
hottest part of any supersonic aircraft most famous manifestation of this was a Mike Bannister (top left) Number built: 20
– was fitted with a visor to prevent the gap that would open up on the flight piloted the first Concorde Dimensions:
heat reaching the cockpit while the deck between the flight engineer’s Length: 61.66m
plane’s fuel was used as a heat sink, console and the bulkhead. flight following the Wingspan: 25.6m
drawing heat away from the cabin. Traditionally, engineers would place Gonesse disaster Height: 3.39m
their hats in this gap, trapping them Capacity (passengers):
Even then, owing to the incredible there after it closed. Thrust-by-wire Up to 120 passengers
heat generated by compression of air as Unit cost: £23 million in 1977
Concorde was one of the Cruise speed: Mach 2.02
first aircraft to use an (1,320mph)
onboard computer to help Max speed: Mach 2.04
manage its thrust levels. (1,350mph)
Propulsion: 4x Rolls-Royce/
Nose Snecma Olympus 593 engines
Ceiling: 60,000ft
Concorde’s nose drooped to help visibility on
take off and landing and straightened in flight.

149

HISTORIC

RAF Spitfire

Supermarine

Arguably the most iconic
fighter aircraft of the Second
World War, the RAF Spitfire to
this day is championed for its
prowess, grace and versatility

Rolls-Royce
Vee-12 engine

The Spitfire utilised two variant of
Rolls-Royce engine during its
production life span, the 27-litre
Merlin and the 36.7-litre Griffon.

Propeller Airframe Gun-emplacement

Original Spitfires The aircraft’s airframe was an The original armament of
had wooden propellers, these amalgamation of a streamlined semi- the Spitfire comprised of
were later replaced with single piece of aluminium alloy with eight .303-inch Browning
variable-pitch propellers, and an enclosed cockpit, allowing increased machine guns, each with 300
more blades were added as responsiveness and ease of flight. rounds of ammunition.
horsepower increased.

Video still from gun
camera showing the
tracers

150