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Turn to page 42 for our
Bluffer’s Guide to the
Russian Revolution
Welcome Issue 21
ThestoryofGeorgeWashingtonisshrouded bemoretothislegendarybutelusiveking highlights
inmyth–amanwhocouldn’ttellalie,had thanyoufirstbelieved.
Herculeanstrength,andwhoneverknew Wealsorevealwhatlifewasreallylikefor 18 Dayinthelife
anythingbutvictory.Infact,Washingtonlost peoplelivingintheWildWestonpage78, Discoverwhatanaverageday
mayhaveentailedforaWalt
morebattlesthanhewon,andno,henever whileoveronpage54youcanlearnhowthe Disneyanimatorlivingand
workinginHollywoodjustas
didcutdownthatcherrytree.Thisissue,we AncientGreekschangedthecourseofhistory. itwasdiscoveringthewonder
plotWashington’sturbulentjourneyfromthe Andincaseyouwerewonderingwhatyour oftechnicolour.
fieldsofatobaccoplantationtoIndependence nextreadshouldbe,wehavefourpagesof SecondBattleofYpres
Hall,explainingwhatitwasthatdrovehimto bookreviewsstartingonpage86. 32 Wecommemorate100
yearssincethefirstmassuse
thebattlefieldandhowhecametobeoneof Wehopeyouhaveaverymerry2015.
ofpoisongasinWWIwitha
themostrespectedmeninAmericanhistory. step-by-stepaccountofthe
Turntopage46tolearnmore. tragiceventasitunfoldedon
thefieldsofFlanders.
Elsewhere,discoverthereal-liferootsof
Britain’sgreatestlegend–KingArthur.From 38 What if?
Learn what might have
theRomangeneralwholedabloodybattle happened had South
againsttheAnglo-Saxons,totheCelticforts Vietnam and its US allies
won the Vietnam War, as
thatinspiredthemythicalcastleofCamelot, we interview author and
onpage70wesetouttoshowthattheremay Alicea Francis historian Dr Andrew Wiest.
www.historyanswers.co.uk Facebook Twitter
Be part of history Share your views and opinions online /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag © Alamy
3
CONTENTS
Welcome to All About History
WASHINGTON
46 Discoverhowonemanrosefromfarmertofreedom
fightertofoundingfatheroftheUnitedStatesofAmerica
ART
12 Be it cave paintings or Banksy’s graffiti art,
we showcase some of history’s masterpieces
14 Art Timeline
Weplotthecolourfulprogressionofartand 46
sculpture, from ancient times to the present day
16 Hall of Fame
Getthelow-downontenoftheworld’smost
celebrated and controversial artists
18 DayintheLife
Ofa1930sDisneyanimator,working
tirelesslytobringpicturestolife
20 Anatomy of
An Ancient Greek sculptor,
creating marble masterpieces
22 How To…
Becomeasuccessfulpopartist,
followinginthestepsofAndy 62
Warhol and his Factory
24 Inside History
Get a sneak peek into
Da Vinci’s Renaissance studio
26 Top 5 Facts
About Vincent Van Gogh – did he
really cut off his own ear?
FEATURES
54 The Legacy of 70 The Real King
Ancient Greece Arthur
Learn what the ancient Greeks did for Is there any truth in Britain’s greatest
the modern world legend? We reveal all
62 Inside the Nazi 78 Life in the Wild
State West
Discover what life would have been Behind the Hollywood glamour is a
like in Hitler’s Germany far more grisly past
4 Be part of history www.historyanswers.co.uk /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag
EVERYISSUE
06 Defining
Moments
See history like never before with
three stunning photos from the past
28 Heroes & Villains
Inside the cutthroat world of
Blackbeard and his notorious crew
78 32 Greatest Battles
We mark 100 years since the first mass
use of poison gas in World War I
36 Through History
From hot-air balloons to spaceplanes,
54 see how flying machines have evolved
38 What If?
Find out what might have happened
if South Vietnam and its US allies had
won the Vietnam War
28 42 Bluffer’s Guide
All the need-to-know facts about the
Russian Revolution
86 Book Reviews
Find out what this month’s best
history reads were
90 Competition
Enter our competition for a chance to
win over £75 worth of books
92 History Answers
Learn what was the closest
38 humankind ever came to extinction
and why the Taj Mahal was built
94 Your History
A reader reveals his father’s brave
actions in World War II
6 98 History vs
Hollywood
Was The Patriot a fair retelling of the
American Revolutionary War?
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70
BOMBS CAN’T BEAT US
A grocer sells his produce from a street cart among the
wreckage of the Blitz. A hand-written sign proudly boasts
that the oranges came from the Mediterranean and
through Mussolini’s ‘lake’. During WWII, exotic fruits like
oranges and bananas were incredibly hard to come
by, as relentless attacks on British ships resulted
in severe restrictions on imports.
23 November 1940
6
© Alamy
7
8
JESSE OWENS WINS GOLD
American track-and-field athlete Jesse Owens participates
in a long-jump event during the 1930s. Owens won four
gold medals at the 1936 Berlin Olympics – a feat that was
considered an act of defiance against the Nazi belief
in the superiority of the Aryan race. Owens’ long
jump world record of 8.13m (26’8”) remained
unchallenged for 25 years.
August 1936
© Alamy
9
BENAZIR BHUTTO IS
ASSASSINATED
Mourners gather to honour Benazir Bhutto. Bhutto was the
first woman to be elected as the head of an Islamic state’s
government, and remains Pakistan’s only female prime
minister to date. She was killed in a suicide bombing
when leaving a campaign rally – an attack for
which al-Qaeda claimed responsibility.
27 December 2007
10
© Corbis
11
The satirical graffiti art of
the mysterious ‘Banksy’
has captivated the world
Michelangelo’s David Monet’s flower garden at
has become a symbol of Giverny was the subject of
the Renaissance his famous Water Lilies
12
US General
Eisenhower
inspects artwork The first cave
stolen by the paintings appeared
Nazis during their over 40,000 years ago
reign of terror
The Guggenheim Museum
is one of the world’s most
admired works of architecture
These huge stone heads on
Easter Island were built to Toulouse Lautrec’s
honour the ancestors of the Moulin Rouge posters
Rapa Nui people kick-started a new age
of visual advertising
Pablo Picasso
gained fame with
the creation of his
Cubist masterpieces
© Getty Images; Alamy; Corbis; Thinkstock
A painting within a painting –
Vermeer never sold this famous
piece during his lifetime
13
Art
VENUS OF Hellenistic art The Classical Antiquity had
a great influence on the
GREECE 323-30 BCE
development of art
WILLENDORF There are few artworks
that have captivated artists
AUSTRIA 28000-25000 BCE long after their creation,
Discovered in the early- but Hellenistic art, such
20th century, the Venus of as Laocoön And His Sons
Willendorf is named after and the Venus De Milo,
the place in which it was have been a source of
found, with archaeologists inspiration for centuries.
estimating that the sculpture Sadly the characters in
dates all the way back to Laocoön And His Sons
28000 to 25000 BCE, are missing a few limbs,
making it one of the oldest and upon its discovery in
sculptures ever found. Due to Rome in 1506 the Pope’s
its full figure with emphasis architect, Bramante, held
placed on the woman’s a contest for sculptors
childbearing areas, it’s to recreate the missing
assumed that it was a fertility appendages. Ultimately,
symbol, though this isn’t Dating back to the Paleolithic however, these added
period, the Venus of Willendorf is
entirely certain. one of the oldest sculptures ever limbs were removed.
Art timeline O I smell a snake O The Alhambra O Belvedere O Back to basics
While it is first
Copied from the
torso
Often considered
Ancient Greeks, the built in the 9th Anonymous a mad genius,
O Venus of O Get her to the Romans re-create century, the for centuries, Messerschmidt’s
Willendorf Greek Laocoön And His Alhambra was the Belvedere sculptures
In 1908 Art thrives in Ancient Sons. Art from continually torso makes perfectly show the
archaeologists Greece. This creative the Ancient Greek renovated over its way into transition from the
discovered this period will provide and Roman times the centuries. the Vatican’s excessive Baroque
sculpture of a great inspiration is known as the 9th century collection. to simplistic
woman, dating from for the Renaissance Classical Antiquity. 16th century Neoclassicism.
the Paleolithic period. centuries later. 27 BCE-68 CE It’s thought the Belvedere 1736-1783
28000-25000 BCE 130-100 BCE
torso originates from the
Antiquity
28000 BCE 2868 BCE 130 BCE 30 BCE 0 100 800 1500 1600 1700 1800
O Egypt’s Old Kingdom O Rome wasn’t built O Artisreborn O Bigger is better O Edo period
Art flourishes in Ancient in a day Considered the Baroque art takes As Western art
Egypt, and the 4th During the Classical ‘rebirth’ of art, the the understated develops a more
dynasty is considered Antiquity, Rome’s Renaissance sees elegance of the ornate, stylised
to be the peak of its Colosseum and the artists referring back Renaissance and look, the Edo
cultural creativity. Pantheon are built. to the Antiquity for pushes it to its period in Japan
2868-2181 BCE 70-125 CE creative inspiration. ornamental limits. sees artists like
Ancient Egypt was home to 15th-17th century 16th-17th century Hiroshige and A portrait of the
the earliest known cultural Hokusai flourish. Japanese artist Hiroshige
pursuit of art 17th-19th century
The Sistine Chapel’s
Alhambra palace ceiling paintings are Sistine Chapel
SPAIN 9TH CENTURY famous around the world ITALY 1508-1512
Beginning life as a Moorish The Sistine Chapel is home to the
fortress in the 9th century, ceiling paintings of Renaissance artist
the Alhambra soon fell into Michelangelo. Painted between 1508-
disrepair. Upon its renovation 1512, he was influenced by the Belvedere
in the 11th century, however, torso – in the The Creation Of Adam,
it was considered one of the the Belvedere torso was re-created as
architectural wonders of the Adam’s body. Despite the ceiling’s status
world, and even today its in the canon of art, Michelangelo was
magnificence is hard to beat. known to despise it. In fact, he resented
In 1492 the Alhambra was working on it so much that he included
claimed by Christians when a miserable-looking self-portrait in a
The Moorish palace at Catholic rulers Ferdinand and separate commission for the Chapel,
Alhambra features intricate Isabel conquered Grenada. entitled The Last Judgement.
arcades and mosaics
14
Art
MESSERSCHMIDT The artist Courbet is
AUSTRIA 1736-1783 featured at the centre of
his own image
When it comes to the subject
of mad artists, Franz Xaver
Messerschmidt has long been
considered about as looney
as you can possibly get.
According to a contemporary
of his, he suffered from
delusions of a visiting demon
that taunted and crippled
him because he understood
too much about proportion. Man in the mirror
To banish these demons, FRANCE 1853
he sculpted a series of busts What would any artist be without the occasional self-portrait?
known as character heads. French painter Gustave Courbet probably wouldn’t hold his
While the validity of this esteemed place in the canon of art if it weren’t for his selfies.
extraordinary story is definitely In 1855 Courbet painted a work entitled The Painter’s Studio,
arguable, one certainty is that To rid himself featuring himself in the centre sat at a canvas. The artist is
of demons,
Messerschmidt was one of the surrounded by admiring gazes, from the woman stood naked
Messerschmidt
foremost pioneers of the swift apparently pinched at Courbet’s back and the adoring stare of a young child to the
development from Baroque himself and sculpted respectful glances of the men either side of the canvas. While
his reaction
to Neoclassical art during the there are plenty of interpretations of the artwork, its humorous
late-18th century. nature is typical of Courbet’s confident style.
O Keep it real O The Scream O Dalí’s O The art of war O Make it pop O Banksy
Gustave The four masterpiece LeeMiller,May With the rapid Anonymous
Courbet, the infamous After his Ray’smuseand development graffiti artist
father of artworks by surrealist film Un model, turns of society Banksy creates
the Realist Edvard Munch Chien Andalucia herhandtowar after the wars, provocative
movement, are created in 1929, Salvador photography, art takes and political
perfects the in oil, pastel, Dalí paints The capturing a radically spray-paint
19th-century tempura and as Persistence emotive shots exciting turn masterpieces in
self-portrait. a lithography Of Memory, of killed soldiers toward pop art. cities around the
1819-1877 respectively. perhaps his most in WWII. 1950s-‘60s Roy Lichtenstein is one of the world.
Courbet included himself in 1893 famous work. 1939-1945 world’s most respected and 1992-now
plenty of his artworks 1931 enduring pop artists
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2014
O Impressionism O Anew world O Anti-art reaction O The naked truth O David Hockney O Artforart’ssake
Painting becomes British art Asareactiontothe Oneofthe most British-born artist Audiences are left
more evocative and in particular warandpolitics,a iconic modern artists, David Hockney has scratching their heads
brushstrokesbecome is heavily group known as Lucian Freud, paints produced hundreds of after Damien Hirst
looser when deviant influenced by theDadaistsrevolts explorative nudes in works of art, including unveils his diamond-
artistsoftheeraturn theimpactof visually, declaring unflattering honesty. afamousseriesof encrusted skull
to Impressionism. WWI. themselves anti-art. 1951-2011 water studies. entitled For The Love
1870s-‘80s 1914-1918 1916-1923 The Dada movement was a 1960s-now Of God.
revolution against coherent 2011
art and literature
Impressionism Degenerate art Face the wall
FRANCE 1870S GERMANY 1937 INTERNATIONAL 1992-NOW
Impressionism was ridiculed WWI was the driving Anonymousgraffitiartist
and despised by traditional art force behind many artistic Banksy is no stranger to
movements of the time. Artists movements in Europe, from controversy. What’s usually
strove to capture a single moment the Dada movement to considered vandalism Banksy
in time in their art. Featuring Surrealism and Expressionism. has turned into an admired
underrated artists like Monet, Such provocative art was artform,butnotwithoutits
Degas and Renoir, the movement considered revolutionary and shareofcriticism.Graffiti
was also one of the first to actively Hitler knew its power. In an is illegal, and yet Banksy’s
acknowledge female artists attempt to purify German provocativeartseemsto
within the genre. Mary Cassatt art, he held an exhibition in standabovethis,withmany
and Berthe Morisot were two of Munich named ‘Degenerate statingthatBanksy’swork
the most respected artists of the Art’ that was meant to show Many recent works by Banksy should be protected both
Impressionist movement. The Nazis exhibited work they the decay of culture. have been placed behind clear physically and legally.
deemed degenerate Perspex sheets to protect them
© Alamy
15
Art
Hall of Fame
GREAT ARTISTS
From Rembrandt’s sultry self-portraits to Duchamp’s
upturned urinal, influential art takes many forms. Take
alookatartiststhat changed the courseofarthistory
Rembrandt van Rijn BERTHE MORISOT
DUTCH 1606-1669
Undoubtedly the most famous Dutch FRENCH 1841-1894
artist of the Baroque, Rembrandt One of only a few renowned female
became a master of depicting light artists in the history of art, Berthe
and shade, known as chiaroscuro, in Morisot was a popular and well-
his portraits and landscape paintings.
What he is best known for, however, regarded artist based in Paris. She
are the dozens of brutally honest and exhibited her art at the Salon de Paris
unscrupulous self-portraits that he for several years before turning
produced throughout his lifetime. to impressionism. Her ground-
From simple sketches and etchings of breaking work emphasised
expression to impressive mastery of
the painted canvas, Rembrandt’s the woman’s role in society
self-portraits have captivated While and appealed to a broad
viewers for centuries. audience, with depictions
Whether it’s the simple Rembrandt is of current fashions and
intimacy of seeing an now considered a
artist, or the analytical trends that reached out
gaze, Rembrandt’s master of the Dutch to a female audience
selfies set a precedent Golden Age, he never that had previously
for portraiture that been overshadowed
artists such as Joshua made a fortune out of and neglected by Morisot’s colour palette was
Reynolds, Francis Bacon his art and died relatively muted compared to
other Impressionists
and even Pablo Picasso a male-dominated
couldn’t ignore. poor Rembrandt was known for spectatorship.
using chiaroscuro to great
effect in his work
WILLIAM HOGARTH “ Everything alters me,
BRITISH 1697-1764 but nothing changes
Modern-day illustration and comics have much to thank
British satirist and artist William Hogarth for. With me” Salvador Dalí
hisseriesofpaintingsandengravingsdepicting the
corruptionandfallofvariouscharacters,Hogarth’s work
had tangible moral undertones and a characteristic style Katsusika Hokusai
thatmadehimidealforridiculingthestateof society. JAPANESE 1760-1849
Perhaps the most famous series created by Hogarth is ‘A Heavily inspiring the later work of
Harlot’s Progress’, that followed the demise and eventual artists ranging from Rodin to Van
Gogh, the Japanese Hokusai’s ukiyo-e
death of a country girl who moves to London. There’s no
style of art was revered and widely
disputing Hogarth’s influence on comics, and many modern-day admired centuries after he lived,
comics echo his biting wit and storytelling style. and still provides inspiration today.
However, it was his series of work
entitled ‘36 Views Of Mount Fuji’
that made him an internationally
The
renowned artist. As the title suggests,
satirical Hokusai created 36 prints that all
depicted different views of Mount Fuji,
Hogarth excelled the most famous of which is entitled
at producing portraits Great Wave Off Kanagawa. Hokusai’s
prints emphasised the beauty and
that compared with simplicity of nature at a time when
those of other well- Western art was embracing the excess
Hogarth was known to love pugs Hokusai’s prints were collected of Baroque and Rococo art.
and they often made cameo regarded artists at by many Western artists like
appearances in his art the time Vincent Van Gogh
16
The Fountain
MARCEL DUCHAM nt missing after
FRENCH 1887-1968 as rejected by the
One of the most cont ty of Independent
art ever, Duchamp’s upende urinal, Artists – it’s thought it
known as Fountain, was submitted
under the pseudonym of R Mutt to was thrown in the
the 1917 exhibition for the Society of bin
Independent Artists. It was rejected,
and Duchamp, who was a member of
the board, resigned in protest. But the
story didn’t end there. Duchamp’s
Kahlo’s most
‘ready-made’ set the wheels of frequently used
controversy in motion and for the subject was herself
first time, people began to debate
Credited to R Mutt, Duchamp submitted thedefinitionofart.Duchamp
his work to the Society of Independent argued that art was conceptual
Artists under a pseudonym and that the idea was original and
deservingofartisticmerit.
“ I don’t believe in art. I believe in artists”
Marcel Duchamp
Khafre FRIDA KAHLO
TRACEY EMIN EGYPTIAN CA 2575 BCE-CA 2480 BCE MEXICAN 1907-1954
BRITISH 1963-PRESENT It’s not entirely certain, but it’s thought the Great Self-portraits in art are almost as common as the
Sphinx of Giza originated from the time of Khafre’s
In 1999 Tracey Emin’s work rule. Khafre may not have been an artist or architect smartphone selfie today, and Frida Kahlo certainly
My Bed questioned how himself, but he was a great patron, and under his wasn’t canvas-shy. Producing over 50 self-portraits,
reign art and culture flourished in Ancient Egypt. Not
audiences interact with an much is known about Khafre’s life or his rule – it’s not sheexplainedthatasshewasoftenalone,she
artist’swork.WhenEmin’swork Art and culture blossomed herself was her best-known subject. After an
even known how long he ruled for!
in the 4th dynasty in
wasexhibitedattheTateinLondon, Ancient Egypt accident during her youth, Kahlo was
two performance artists – collectively Ants plagued with health problems. While
knownasMadForReal–leaptonto are common her artistic career was successful, at
thebedandhadapillowfight.Inthe thetimeshedidn’treceivethesame
same way that Duchamp’s Fountain in Dalí’s work, often kind of reception that her husband,
questionedthedefinitionofart,Emin’s representing death fellow artist Diego Rivera, enjoyed.
work pushed this further, prompting and decay. It’s claimed
ideasofhowaudiencesshouldconnect
with art. he had a pet bat that
was once devoured
alive by ants
SALVADOR DALÍ both his outrageous
Dalí was known for
SPANISH 1904-1989 art and quirky look
The controversial With his otherworldly art, eccentric reputation and gravity-
My Bed was
covered in stains defying moustache, Dalí characterised himself as the
and litter stereotypical mad artist. Known for Surrealist paintings of Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man was
melting clocks and cosmic elephants, Dalí began his career based on principles of proportion
outlined in De Architectura
with short films, introducing motifs that were relevant Vitruvius
for much of Dalí’s work. Surrealism was considered ROMAN 80-70BCE-CA15BCE
anti-fascist, but when Dalí ambiguously claimed that Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius’s definitive guide to
Surrealist art could be apolitical, he was banished classical architecture, De Architectura – now known as The
Ten Books Of Architecture – shaped the course of art. From
from the Surrealist group, upon which he famously
explaining the science and mathematics behind functional
claimed, “I myself am surrealism.” buildings to exploring the significance of proportion, Vitruvius’s © Alamy; Getty Images
work inspired the style of Renaissance and Baroque art.
17
Art
Day in the life
ADISNEYANIMATOR
WORKING TIRELESSLY TO BRING COLOUR
TO A BLACK-AND-WHITE WORLD, THE
UNITED STATES, 1930S-1940S
In 1928 a young cartoonist named Walt Disney released an animated
short called Steamboat Willie, featuring a cheeky cartoon mouse, and
it took the world by storm. This foray into sound cartoon movies
began the period now known as the golden age of American
animation. Disney took dominance of this new world with vivid
colours, engaging stories and iconic characters, releasing
multiple titles every year. This inspired many young men
and women to become animators. Little did the cartoon-
loving population know that these animators were
working tirelessly 12 hours a day, seven days a
week, for minuscule salaries.
GET TO THE STUDIO ON TIME
During the most pressing periods, such as in the
run-up to the first full-length feature, Snow White,
animators and painters would rise as early as
4.30am to begin their shifts. Walt ran a
very tight ship, and at exactly 9am the
pen to sign in would be changed from
black to red. Many animators secretly
signed their coworkers in to help them
avoid punishment.
EXTENSIVE TRAINING Disney Studios has held
All new animators, no matter how gifted, had life-drawing classes for
to go through extensive training to ensure over 80 years
they could animate the correct ‘Disney’ way. Groups
of ten to 12 new animators would be supervised by
senior animators, and the newbies would usually
be given a scene to draw, receiving advice as they
worked. New animators often found themselves
overloaded with work to ensure Disney achieved the
maximum output needed for its productions.
LIFE-DRAWING CLASSES “Walt ran a very tight ship,
One of the cornerstones of Disney’s animator
training was free life-drawing classes. These classes and at exactly 9am the
included not only new recruits but seasoned staff
members who had worked for the company for pen to sign in would be
years. These classes were run by Art Babbit, creator
of the character Goofy, with the premise that a grasp changed from black to red”
of the basics of human anatomy would allow the
animators to extend their skills into the fantastical.
18
Art
LUNCH
A top animator could be paid $200 a week while
a cel painter scraped by on $12. With everyone
putting in 12-hour days seven days a week, some
of the new recruits could barely afford to eat. There
were cases of men living on turnips and bruised
fruit and passing out from malnutrition. After this
Walt agreed to up their wage to $18 a week so they
Animators would use their
life-drawing skills to translate could eat at a greasy spoon across the street with
their own expressions to a the other employees.
cartoon character
START DRAWING
Most of the animators’ days would be spent at their
desk drawing. The dialogue would be recorded first
and the animators would use it to make rough,
messy sketches of the characters. People known as
‘inbetweeners’ would finish the scenes and fill in
the gaps. Once finished the scenes would be copied
onto cels by inkers, which would in turn be painted
and a background added. All these elements were
combined and the film would be photographed and
put together.
LEARN FROM COWORKERS
Disney’s animation studios were a breeding ground
for imagination and creativity, and one of the
most valuable aspects of working there was the
opportunity to learn and converse with a host
of talented artists. Walt too was keen to utilise
the skills of his seasoned animators, and often
organised talks, lectures and classes where the
animators could swap ideas and further develop
their skills.
PLAY SOFTBALL WITH WALT
In the early days of Walt Disney Studios, Walt was
keen for his staff to be treated like one big family.
He would organise company softball games that
involved all the employees, including himself,
insisting all his staff call him ‘Uncle Walt.’ However,
many employees were not as comfortable with him
as he wished, as after the success of Snow White he
became incredibly controlling and wouldn’t hesitate
to fire anyone who crossed him.
GO ON STRIKE
On 29 May 1941 many Disney animators went
on strike. The animators found Walt’s seemingly
random method of awarding bonuses infuriating,
How do we know this? and were frustrated that they were seeing none
After the 1941 strike many animators were of the profits of the studio’s successful movies.
willing to speak about their working conditions.
Working With Walt features enlightening The most pressing issue, however, was that
interviews with a host of Disney animators such of anonymity, with many artists demanding
as Ken Anderson, Les Clark and many more. screen credit for their work. Walt saw the
To discover more about the development and strike as a major personal betrayal, and after
growing popularity of animation during the era,
Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation In Its it ended on 29 July the company transformed
Golden Age describes how this development from a big family into a corporate business.
affected the working life of Disney animators. © Corbis; Rex Feature
In 1942, Disney produced an
animated short that encouraged
people to pay their income tax 19
Art
THE REALISTICFEATURES
GRAND ART CENTRED IN REALITY
Anatomy Greek sculpture initially started with
straight-back figures facing forward, but
of the method developed rapidly during
the classical era to more realistic forms.
Poses became more natural and showed
real people rather than mythical figures.
During the Hellenistic period sculpture
AGREEKSCULPTOR while ideals of beauty and perfection
began to depict normal, common people,
were reserved to statues of gods.
ANCIENT ARTIST CREATING AND DRAPERY
SCULPTING TECHNICAL MASTERPIECES ADDING DRAMA AND FLAIR
ANCIENT GREECE, 800 BCE-600 CE Long,flowingdraperyisadefiningfactor
of Greek art and was especially prevalent in
sculpture.Thesedeepfoldswouldbehollowed
outusingadrillwitharoundchiselattached.
The draping fabric was designed to empathise
TOOLS the twisting and stretching of the body,
creating a vivid and dramatic line of movement.
EVERY SCULPTOR’S ESSENTIAL KIT
Sculptorswoulduseawideselectionoftools
while creating their masterpieces. The main STURDY MATERIAL
tool was the chisel, made from iron and used
to chip away at the stone. A hammer would
also be used with the chisel to allow greater TO STAND THE TEST OF TIME
control, while an emery stone was used to MostAncientGreekstatuesweremadefrom
smooth out the almost finished piece. marble and bronze. Once the sculpture was
carved it would be covered with oil and hot
wax to further protect it. Bronze was used for
over half the statues created, but most bronze
statues were sold for scrap and many of the
surviving marble statues were replicas of
bronze versions created for the Roman market.
SKILL
DEVELOPED AFTER RUINING PAINT
MANY BLOCKS OF MARBLE VIVID COLOURS FOR
It took great skill
and training THE ELITE OF SOCIETY
The usual appearance of
to become a
Greek statues uncovered
successful sculptor.
today is white marble,
Many artists were
but many statues at the
mentored and
time were painted. X-ray,
became apprentices
infrared and UV analysis
to celebrated
have found traces of
sculptors, while
colours which have faded
others, such as
and weathered over the
Lysippos, Alexander
the Great’s sculptor, centuries. Greeks liked to
taught themselves use bright colours to give
from an early age. extra detail and depth.
Sculptors had to
haveaskilledeye
as they didn’t create
each part one at a
time, but instead
worked around
thefigurestageby
stage.
© Kevin McGivern
20
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Art
How to
CHARACTERISTICS
BECOMEAFAMOUSOF POP ART
POPARTIST nothing about this art
Bold
colours
Typified by bright,
bold colours intended
to grab attention,
BECOME A HERO OF THE BRASH CULTURAL style is subtle.
PHENOMENON, USA & EUROPE, 1950S-1960S
WARHOL’S Bold colours, loud cartoon-like spreads and famous
faces, the words ‘pop art’ immediately conjure up
STAR SUBJECTS strong,powerfulimages.AfterWorldWarIIthe
Westernworldexperiencedaneraofgrowing
MARILYN MONROE political and economic stability, and from this
bursttheageofretailandexcess.Popartwas
1962 morethanpaintingsonawall;itwasalifestyle,
Following her death, Warhol born in bustling cities straining at the seams with
made over 20 faded silkscreen commercialism. It was the most publicly accessible Celebrating Comic-book style
paintings of Monroe all based on the ordinary
the same photograph. art form yet, blurring the lines of elitist art and Roy Lichtenstein lifted some of
celebratingtheordinary.Thosewhomanagedto Taking normal objects and turning his pieces straight out of pages of
EDIE SEDGWICK captureandexpresstheelectricityoftheerafound them into art, such as Andy Warhol’s comic books with hard edges and
use of halftone – continuous dots
famous Campbell’s Soup can, was
1965 themselves elevated to fame and fortune. very popular during the era. that create a gradient in the image.
For Warhol, nobody represented
beauty in the way Sedgwick did. He
cast her in several of his films and
called her “the queen of The Factory.”
MICK JAGGER
1975
Jagger was the subject of ten
of Warhol’s screenprints, based
on photos he had taken himself.
Warhol also designed one of the
Rolling Stones’ album covers.
MAO
1977
Warhol was fascinated with the
political situation in 1970s China,
famously stating, “They don’t
believe in creativity. The only
picture they have is of Mao.”
EINSTEIN Study hard Be productive
Tobecomeafamousartistyou’llhavetoactually
Beforeyoueventhinkaboutthrowinglavishparties
1980 01 withnewcelebritypalsorcashingincheques,you’re 02 produce some notable work. Two popular mediums of
Part of his most controversial goingtohavetoworkhard.Althoughitispossibletomakeit popartarepaintingandsculpture,butWarholalsopopularised
series, Ten Portraits Of Jews Of
The Twentieth Century, critics asasuccessfulartistonmeritalone,thebiggestnamesofthe the silk-screening technique. You could focus on everyday
argued Warhol’s image of Einstein era – Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and James Rosenquist – objects, or perhaps draw your inspiration from comic books –
was “cold and unrevealing.” all studied and honed their craft at prestigious universities. justremember,keepithumorous,cheeky,brightandcolourful.
22
Art
4 FAMOUS…
How not to… handle fame
Caravaggio was an Italian Renaissance painter whose famous works such as The Death POP ARTISTS
Of The Virgin and David With The Head Of Goliath have prompted him to be hailed as
the father of modern painting. However, during his time scandal followed Caravaggio DAVID HOCKNEY
wherever he went. Thrust into fame at just 26 years old, Caravaggio’s nontraditional
depictions of biblical figures caused controversy, but it was his fiery temper that got 1937, BRITAIN
him into real trouble. Violent with a penchant for drinking and gambling, Caravaggio Hockney’s bright and colourful
was in and out of prison for attacking people, throwing artichokes at a waiter and work with magazine-inspired
even attacking Roman guards with stones. His violence reached a climax when he images quickly elevated him to
killed a Roman pimp. Caravaggio went on the run for years, sleeping fully clothed one of the leading figures of the
with a dagger at his side, but still continued to attack prominent men in society. As pop-art movement.
he sought a pardon from the Pope he died suddenly in mysterious circumstances. In
2010 high levels of lead were discovered in his bones, leading scientists to believe he
had been driven mad by lead poisoning.
ANDY WARHOL
1928-1987, USA
The most famous figure in pop
art, Warhol stunned the world
with controversial art across a
range of mediums.
Put on an exhibition Network
The key to getting your name out there is to hold Although your work should speak for itself, in the pop-
03 exhibitions. These events are a great place to meet other 04art world knowing the right people is key to success. To
artists, and you might actually sell something to be able to fund really throw yourself into the world you’ll have to hit the famous ROY LICHTENSTEIN
future endeavours. When Lichtenstein put on a show at the nightspots in New York and London. Pop artists featured in each 1923-1997, USA
Castelli Gallery in New York in 1962, the entire collection was other’s work, and also became famous couples, bending and Lichtenstein rose to fame with
purchased before the doors even opened. breaking social norms and mainstream ideas of sexuality. his parody comic-book-style
illustrations such as ‘Whaam!’ and
Drowning Girl.
CLAES OLDENBURG
1929, USA
Oldenburg and his wife Coosje
van Bruggen became known for
their larger-than-life sculptures of
everyday objects.
Expand into other art forms Become a VIP
Once you’ve made a name for yourself, it’s time to spread Now you’re part of the pop-art elite you may finally have
05 your wings into other art forms. Warhol made over 60 06 access to the most exclusive of artistic hubs – Warhol’s
films, such as Sleep, which featured a man sleeping for six hours, art studio known as The Factory. This silver-painted warehouse
and Eat, showing a man eating for 45 minutes. You can also became the beating heart of the pop art world and was filled
follow in the steps of Claes Oldenburg and create ‘happenings’, with hustlers, transvestites and famous names such as Truman
performance-art pieces intended to shock, surprise and amuse. Capote, Bob Dylan, Mick Jagger and even Salvador Dalí.
© Ed Crooks
23
Art
Unfi nished
Bookshelf painting
Da Vinci had a very limited education,
The Adoration Of The Magi
but taught himself Latin and advanced
was never completed,
mathematics in his adult life. Like many
but it gives us a good
intellectuals of the Renaissance period,
insight into how da Vinci
he studied the work of the ancient
created his masterpieces.
philosophers, and would have read Cennino
He would have started by
Cennini’s Treatise On Painting. inking the outlines before
DAVINCI’S yellow ochre.
colouring them in with
WORKSHOP
BACK ONCE AGAIN FOR THE
RENAISSANCE MASTER, Armoured car
1478-1482, ITALY Da Vinci has been
credited with
inventing the first tank
–anarmouredvehicle
that could move in
heRenaissancewasatimepoweredbyinnovation, any direction and was
rational thought and a return to classical art and loaded with cannons.
learning. At its heart was the city of Florence, and in Ithadaprotective
coverresemblinga
this city lived one of the greatest artists the world has
turtle’s shell, and had a
T ever known: Leonardo da Vinci. His Mona Lisa is the sighting turret on top.
single mostvisitedpieceof museumartonrecord,and The Last
Supper has inspired countless stories and films alike, but so
muchaboutthisgeniusofthe15thcenturyremainsamystery.
Manyofhisdesignsforinventions,suchashisflyingmachine,
went unrealised, and despite making several important
scientific discoveries, he never published them. No one knows
exactlywhathisworkshoplookedlike,butwecangetagood
ideabasedonwhathesaidanddid.
‘‘ Artists, philosophers,
scientists and writers
flocked to Florence to
enjoy a political system
that was dedicated to the
’’
welfare of the city
24
Art
Flying machine
Though fully fuctioning helicopters
weren’t built until 1936, da Vinci had
drawn a design for one over 400 years
previously. His ‘aerial screw’ measured
just over 4 metres (15 feet) in diameter
and was made of reed, linen and wire.
Robotic knight
In the 1950s, sketchbooks were
discovered containing design notes for a
humanoid robot. The robot could stand,
sit, raise its visor and independently
manoeuvre its arms using a system of
pulleys and cables.
Florence
Many of the changes
we associate with
the Renaissance
had their origin in
the Italian city of
Florence. Artists,
philosophers,
scientists and writers
flocked here to
enjoy the booming
economy and a
political system that
was dedicated to the
welfare of the city.
Dissection table
Many Renaissance artists
studied the human body
to improve their artwork,
but da Vinci’s fascination
with anatomy went further.
He performed countless
dissections and made some
significant discoveries
about the workings of the
human body.
Art materials
Artists of the time made their own
materials by mixing ground pigments with
water and egg yolks or oil. Da Vinci also
made several sketches using metalpoints
– a kind of pencil made from silver, gold,
copper or lead – as graphite pencils were
not invented until the 16th century.
© Adrian Mann
25
Top5facts
VINCENT
VANGOGH
TORTURED ARTIST WHO
FOREVER CHANGED THE
WORLD OF ART
01 HE
VINCENT VAN GOGH
Dutch, ONLY SOLD
30 March 1853 - 29 July 1890
ONE PAINTING
Now celebrated as one
Brief of the greatest painters
of all time, Vincent
Bio van Gogh spent most Considering
of his life struggling to
make ends meet. Battling mental van Gogh only
illness, he made hundreds of started painting
paintings now renowned for
their use of colour and emotion.
Although he didn’t achieve in the last ten
success in his life, van Gogh
posthumously made a huge years of his
impact on 20th-century art.
life, he created
an incredible amount of work. He
produced roughly 900 paintings and
1,100 sketches, but despite this, van Gogh
only sold one painting during his
lifetime – The Red Vineyard. It wasn’t
until many years later that his
work came to fame.
He was a late Vincent cut off Mispronunciation The nature of his
02 bloomer 03 his own ear 04 made him stop 05 death is still a
Van Gogh wasn’t immediately drawn Van Gogh invited Paul Gauguin, using his surname matter of debate
to painting; his initial plans were to a fellow painter, to stay with him The famous mispronunciation of For many years it was believed that
follow in his father’s footsteps and at his house in Provence. When his name – ‘van Gof’ also happened van Gogh committed suicide, but
become a pastor. He spent some Gauguin announced he was when he was alive, and was some experts disagree. Two van
time engaging in missionary work leaving, van Gogh threatened especially a problem in England. To Gogh biographers believe he was
and flitting between different jobs. him with a razor. On waking from overcome this he began to cut out accidentally shot by a boy he knew
His first painting was created when his fit of rage, van Gogh was so his last name totally and instead with a malfunctioning gun, and
he was 27 years old – ten years later remorseful that he took the razor signed his pieces only with his experts are divided on the true cause
he would be dead. and cut off part of his ear. forename, ‘Vincent.’ of his early demise.
26
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CONSERVATION RESEARCH DISSEMINATION
Heroes & Villains
BLACKBEARD
“Despite his fearsome
appearance, there are
no verified accounts of
Blackbeard ever having
murdered or harmed
those he held captive”
Despite
his enduring
fame and notoriety,
Blackbeard’s career as a
pirate lasted just two
years, between 1716
and 1718
Blackbeard’s appearance, no less than his
reputation, instilled fear in any enemies
he came across on the seas
28
Heroes & Villains
Blackbeard
Blackbeardissynonymouswiththegoldenageof
Blackbeard’s famous ship was the illegally
piracy,butwasheaformidablepirateoramasterful obtained Queen Anne’s Revenge
image cultivator? Life in the time
of Blackbeard
Written by Rachel England
Queen Anne’s War
Blackbeard’s career as a pirate coincided with
the end of the War of the Spanish Succession,
which meant thousands of seamen were
relieved of military duty, creating a huge
earsome pirate and terroriser of the oceans, goldandsilver–sopiratesreliedonlootinggeneral number of highly trained, but bored sailors at a
time when the cross-Atlantic colonial shipping
Blackbeardhasbecomealegendaryfigurein goodssuchascocoa,cottonandrum,eitherfortheir trade began to boom. As such, pirate captains
seafaring stories, making his mark on history ownuse,ortosellforreasonableamountsatports.
had a constant pool of recruits.
booksdespiteacareerspanningjusttwoyears. Hornigold and Teach’s strategy, however, seemed
F LittleisknownaboutearlylifeofEdward mixed.InSeptember1717,forexample,theycaptured Pirates as patrons
Teach – the moniker ‘Blackbeard’ not coming to life theshipBetty,fromVirginia,butonlytookitsstores While pirates of the time were often viewed
untilmanyyearsafterhisbirth,whichhistorians of Madeira wine before sinking the ship and its
as despicable rogues of the sea, official views
estimate to be around 1680. Little is known of remaining cargo. were sometimes quite different, with the
his true identity, either. Records exist for Edward Come the end of 1717 – by which time Teach, English government considering privateers
Teach, Thatch and Thack, among others, and it was now known as Blackbeard thanks to his impressive who became pirates a kind of informal ‘reserve
commonatthetimeforpiratestousefakenames, facialhair,hadhisownship–thevaluablecargo naval force’. Royal pardons were regularly
soasnottotarnishtheirfamily’sreputation.Hisreal from British ships had become too tempting for the issued to pirates and public opinion was often
favourable toward them.
identity will probably always be unknown. fleet’s crew. Fearing mutiny, Hornigold retired
Teachwasraisedintheseaportof from piracy, leaving Teach in charge
Bristolandlikelybeganhiscareeras andacceptingaroyalpardon.Itwas Female pirates
aprivateer,or‘corsair’–aperson around this time that Stede Bonnet, Piracy was certainly seen as a man’s game,
which is why the two famous female pirates
authorised by a government to The wreck of also known as ‘The Gentleman – Anne Bonny and Mary Read – disguised
attack foreign vessels during Blackbeard’s mighty Pirate’, joined Teach. A land themselves as men. When their ship was
wartime – during the Spanish ship, Queen Anne’s owner and military officer from assaulted in 1720, the two women – along
WarofSuccession,alsoknown Revenge, was found in a wealthy family, Bonnet was with just one other man – were the only ones
asQueenAnne’sWar. unable to control his rowdy to defend it, as the other crew members were
After the war, he set off to 1996 off the coast of crew and so ceded control to too drunk to fight.
theislandofNewProvidence, Carolina Teach. The expanded party sailed
alargelyuninhabitedarea together as one. A pirate’s life
home only to pirates, traders and Upuntilnow,Teach,orBlackbeard, Life aboard a sailing ship was anything but
transients, where law and order dared as official reports had begun referring comfortable. The crew lived in cramped and
filthy quarters, food spoiled quickly and fresh
not tread. Here he met renowned pirate to him, had proven himself to be a strong, water was hard to come by (which is why so
Benjamin Hornigold, and like others looking for respected leader and a capable pirate, but it was in
many pirates drank rum instead). One dietary
a life of adventure and riches, joined his ship as a November 1717 that the legend really came to life. staple was ‘hard tack’, a type of biscuit that
crewman. But Hornigold saw something special in After attacking French merchant vessel La Concorde sailors often ate in the dark to avoid seeing
Teach. As historian Charles Johnson wrote in his off the coast of Saint Vincent, Teach took the ship the weevils infested within.
1724 book, A General History Of The Robberies And as his own, renaming it Queen Anne’s Revenge and
Murders Of The Most Notorious Pyrates, Teach “had equipping it with 40 guns. It was a large, imposing Superstition at sea
often distinguished himself for his uncommon vessel, flying a sinister flag showing a skeleton Pirates and sailors were notoriously
boldness and personal courage.” Hornigold put Teach spearing a heart – an image that quickly became superstitious, believing that having women
in command of a sloop, a small sailing boat with a synonymous with terror on the high seas the world on board their ship was bad luck – which
single mast, and together they began a reign of terror over, and one that perfectly fit the image Blackbeard was surely a problem for the crew of the
womanising Blackbeard – and that whistling
along colonial shipping lanes. had cultivated. on a ship would create a storm, hence the
The duo were successful, but inconsistent. Ships A tall, broad man with a thick beard covering phrase ‘whistle up a storm’. Many pirates also
at the time very rarely carried precious cargo – and most of his face, Blackbeard was a frightening figure believed having pierced ears would improve
certainly it would be rare to happen upon chests of – something he played to during battle, when he their eyesight.
29
Heroes & Villains
Despite
BLACKBEARD his fearsome
reputation,
Blackbeard was
wore three pistols across his something of a ladies’ Blackbeard scrambled out for
chest and put lit matches under man, and is said to fresh air, with the captain later
hishattocreateaterrifying emerging, snarling, “Damn ye, I’m a
mist from which he would have had 14 wives better man than all ye milksops put
emerge like the devil himself. As together!” Some even claim Blackbeard
Johnsonwrote,hewas“suchafigure would force his young wives to prostitute
thatimaginationcannotformanideaof themselves to groups of his companions,
afuryfromhelltolookmorefrightful.”Blackbeard while he would look on, laughing.
wasamanwhounderstoodtheimportanceof In May of 1718, Blackbeard once again
appearances, and thought it better to strike fear into demonstrated his dual personality, during the
theheartsofhisenemiesthanrelyonskillalone. Blockade of Charleston where he showed both
But despite his fearsome appearance, there are mercy and menace. His flotilla blocked the port of
no verified accounts of Blackbeard ever having Charleston, and with no guard ship at the port the
murdered or harmed those he held captive – pirates had their pick of ships. They took over the
althoughthecannonfireinvolvedinforcingother Crowley, a vessel bound for London carrying a group
ships into subservience no doubt killed many. Those of prominent Charleston citizens, including Samuel
whosurrenderedwereallowedto sailfree,albeit Wragg, a member of the Council of the Province of
Pieces of eight without their possessions. Those that resisted were Carolina. Blackbeard demanded a chest of medical
supplies from the South Carolina government, and
marooned and their ships torched, but still they
Thanks largely to fictionalised stories such as escaped with their lives. threatened to execute his captives if his demands
Treasure Island, the idea of ‘buried treasure’ Howevertherearenumerouslegendsand were not met.
is commonly associated with pirates from newspaper clippings that suggest – despite his Wragg – acting as spokesperson for the hostages
this era, and Blackbeard is no exception. But
there’s no evidence to suggest that he ever relativemercytowardcapturedships–hewasa and no doubt using his social standing to his
buried any valuables, and nothing that’s been manofcruelty.Onestoryclaimsheshothisown advantage – agreed, and one hostage, Mr Marks,
unearthed – save for the wreckage of Queen firstmate,saying“ifhedidn’tshootoneortwo was sent with two pirates to retrieve the supplies.
Anne’s Revenge – has ever been attributed [crewmen] now and then, they’d forget who he was.” Blackbeard imposed a deadline of two days. After
to him. In fact, the only known pirate to ever Anothersaysthatafteralongdrinkingsessionhe three days, the party hadn’t returned, and the
bury anything valuable was William Kidd, who challengedhiscrewtositintheship’sholdwhile hostages became frantic, fearing Blackbeard’s
sailed the seas long before Blackbeard. But they set alight several pots of sulphur. All except wrath. Eventually a message arrived: Mark’s boat
that’s not stopped adamant treasure hunters
from combing the Carolina coast, just in case.
The booty that Blackbeard and his “Teachtooktheshipas
contemporaries would plunder was more likely
to be composed of perishable items such
as cocoa and rum, rather than the chests of hisown,renamingit
gold and silver commonly described in myth
and legend. These goods in bulk still held Queen Anne’s revenge
value, and given the dangers of piracy at the
time, most knew it was foolish to transport and equipping it with
valuables across the sea.
40 guns”
Legend
has it that his Defining moment
skull was used to
make a silver drinking Teach becomes a pirate 1716-1717
After the singing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which established
chalice, with one 1930s peaceafterQueenAnne’sWar,Teachmovestothe
uninhabitedislandofNewProvidence,withineasyreach
judge in Carolina ofmajorshippinglanesandhometopirates,tradersand
claiming to have transients–aplacewherelawandorderareunheardof.Here,
hemeetsrenownedpirateBenjaminHornigoldandjoinshis
drunk from it crew,commandeeringasloopHornigoldhadtakenasaprize.
Shortlyafter,thepairgoonapillagingrampagethroughthe
waters, capturing boats from Havana, Bermuda, Madeira and
Timeline Virginia.Teachisrecordedasapirateinhisownright.
1680
O EdwardTeachisborn O Learning the ropes A legend is born O Going it alone O The blockade of Charleston
There’snofirmrecordof Teach serves as a privatee The name As his crew becomes Blackbeard strikes terror into the
Edward Teach’s birth, but during Queen Anne’s War, ‘Blackbeard’ enters disgruntled with the lack town of Charleston after blockading
historians suspect it was a struggle between France official records for of pillaging, Benjamin its wealthy port, plundering merchant
likely around 1680, and and Britain for control the first time in a Hornigold steps down ships and seizing passengers and crew
that he was probably born of North America. This report to a British as pirate captain and of the Crowley. After his demands
in Bristol, an important period of his life gives rise colonial council retires from piracy, leaving for medicinal supplies are met, he
international sea port at to the name of his ship, about Hornigold’s Blackbeard in charge. The releases the hostages, without their
the time. Queen Anne’s Revenge. operations. pair never meet again. valuables – or clothes.
1680 1701-1714 Spring 1717 Late 1717 May 1718
30
Heroes & Villains
BLACKBEARD
had capsized. Blackbeard granted a reprieve of two
further days, but still the party did not return.
Yet the captain did not brutally execute his
hostages, as threatened. Instead, he moved a number
of his ships into the Charleston harbour, causing
panic in the town. Eventually Marks returned
with the medical supplies. It emerged that on his
arrival to South Carolina’s government offices the
drugs had been provided swiftly, but the pirates he
had travelled with had disappeared to go drinking
with friends. They were finally discovered, drunk
and entirely incapable of manning a boat back to
Blackbeard. The pirate captain kept his word, though,
and the ships and prisoners were released, albeit
without their valuables.
However, while Blackbeard was to some
extent an honourable man, he was
still a pirate, and his willingness to Blackbeard
double-cross others – his own men, wasn’t the most
in fact – was never clearer than
in June 1718. His former captain successful pirate ever
and mentor Benjamin Hornigold – Henry Avery once
had previously accepted a royal took a single ship worth
pardon, and it seems likely that more than Blackbeard After discussing the matter While out on an expedition, he encountered
around the time of the blockade with Bonnet, he sent his pirate Charles Vane, another English pirate, and he, Vane
of Charleston, Blackbeard had been took in his career companion and trusted friend to and a group of other notorious individuals, including
considering seeking one, too. Pardons Bath Town to surrender. Bonnet Israel Hands, Robert Deal and Calico Jack, spent
were regularly issued, with officials in received a full pardon and then several drunken evenings together. This party of
England taking a rather relaxed view of piracy. travelled back to Blackbeard to collect his dangerous figures caused panic for local officials,
For example, pirate Francis Drake was knighted by ship, the Revenge, and the remainder of his crew. in particular Governor Alexander Spotswood of
Queen Elizabeth in 1581 when he returned from a Upon his return, however, he found that Virginia, who had limited tolerance for piracy. The
round-the-world expedition with a booty of more Blackbeard had disappeared, having stripped the governor commissioned Lieutenant Robert Maynard
than £1 million. Revenge of its provisions and marooned its crew. to capture Blackbeard and his crew, offering a hefty
The pardon was open to all pirates who Blackbeard, without knowing the outcome incentive from the Assembly of Virginia.
surrendered before 5 September 1718, but also of Bonnet’s pardon, then sought his own from But Blackbeard was outsmarted. Believing that
stipulated that immunity was only assured on Governor Eden in June 1718, and settled in the town Maynard had only a small crew with him, the pirates
crimes committed before 5 January of that year. of Bath, where he took a wife and found work as a boarded Maynard’s ship. No sooner had they set foot
In theory, this would mean death for Blackbeard privateer – a burgeoning industry that was helpful on the vessel than a veritable army came bursting
for his actions at Charleston. It was likely that this in keeping restless former pirates occupied. But forth from the ship’s hold, shouting and firing,
misdemeanour would be waived, but he was a this was to be the beginning of the end for the overpowering the pirates with superior training and
smart man and wanted his safety to be assured. legendary seaman. weaponry. Blackbeard and Maynard fought head-to-
head, and as Maynard drew back to fire at the pirate,
Defi ning moment Defi ning moment Blackbeard advanced and was cut down by one of
Blackbeard gets his treasure The beginning of the end Maynard’s men before being brutally attacked – and
November 1717 October 1718 eventually killed – by Maynard’s crew.
On 28 November, Blackbeard’s two ships attack French Blackbeard parties at Ocracoke Island with a cohort that It was a grisly death for the legendary pirate, but
merchant vessel La Concorde transporting slaves includes dubious characters Charles Vane, Israel Hands he fought to the end: his body revealed at least five
off the coast of Saint Vincent, firing cannons across and ‘Calico Jack’ Rackham. The governor of Virginia, bullet wounds and 20 stab wounds suffered before
its bulwarks and forcing its captain to surrender. Alexander Spotswood, had issued a proclamation that he was brought down. His corpse was thrown
Blackbeard gives the crew of La Concorde the smaller of all former pirates must make themselves known to the
his two ships and renames La Concorde ‘Queen Anne’s authorities, and not travel in groups larger than three. overboard and his head hung from the bow of
Revenge’. He equips the ship with 40 guns, making it The governor orders a number of captains, including Maynard’s ship – the final humiliation for a man
one of the world’s most formidable pirate ships. Lieutenant Robert Maynard, to capture Blackbeard. who had for so long proudly dominated the seas.
1719
O Double cross O A quiet life O Off the wagon The end of a golden age Setting an example O
Queen Anne’s Revenge Blackbeard seeks his After months of relative peace Maynard tracks Blackbeard Blackbeard’s
runs aground, and while pardon from the governor and quiet, Blackbeard sails down, and the pirates open associates are tried
his partner Bonnet is away of Virginia, and finding to St Thomas on a sloop he fire. Mistakenly believing in Williamsburg,
seeking a pardon from kind hospitality from renames Adventure, seeking they’ve won the battle, the Virginia. Records
Governor Charles Eden, a town in need of an a commission as a privateer. pirates board Maynard’s ship, show that one is
Blackbeard strips his ship economic boost, decides He returns to piracy, and but are quickly overpowered. acquitted and one
of valuables and maroons to settle down in Bath and the governor of Pennsylvania Blackbeard is killed after a is pardoned, but the © Look and Learn; Thinkstock
Bonnet’s men. take a wife. issues a warrant for his arrest. brutal fight. rest are hanged.
June 1718 June 1718 Summer 1718 November 1718 March 1719
31
Gas victim
The chlorine gas used by the Germans at
Ypres was denser than the atmosphere,
meaning it quickly flooded the British
trenches. The casualty rate inflicted by the
gas was high, with many soldiers suffering Not pressing the advantage
painful deaths.
Despite successfully causing large amounts of
damage to the Allied forces, the Germans were
slow to press the advantage, so as a result didn’t
gain as much ground as they could have done.
War dead
Thanks in large part to the use of
gas, the Second Battle of Ypres saw
a high amount of casualties on both
sides. The Allies saw over 70,000
lost, while the German total was
around half that at 35,000.
32
Greatest Battles
Holding the line
Despite the devastating assaults levelled
upon them by the German forces, the
Allied troops managed to stay strong
for the most part, staving off defeat, but
losing some of the tactical advantage of
high ground.
THE SECOND
BATTLE OF YPRES
YPRES, BELGIUM, 21 APRIL - 25 MAY 1915
hen recalling some of the hugely 24 April at the Battle of St Julien against Canadian
destructive trench-warfare battles of forces. Again, the losses were heavy, although
World War I, Ypres is one of the first despite being pushed back, the Canadian troops
names that comes to mind. While the managed to hold on, having developed the method
W First Battle of 1914 stands out due to the of holding urine-soaked rags to their faces in
catastrophic death toll, the Second Battle retains order to counteract the effects of the gas. British
historical significance for a different – but equally reinforcements arrived on 3 May, by which point
sinister – reason: it marked the first use of poison the Allies had suffered around 1,000 fatalities.
gas in battle on the Western Front. After the Allied troops fell back closer to the
The first instance of its use happened at the town of Ypres – recognising that only a large-
start of the Battle of Gravenstafel – the first of six scale assault would push the Germans back,
smaller battles that collectively form the larger something they didn’t at that time have the
Second Battle of Ypres. After first shelling the manpower to commit – the battle recommenced
French territorial and Algerian/Moroccan forces on 8 May. Although the Germans were able to
with howitzer fire, the German troops unleashed occupy Frezenberg Ridge and continued to inflict
their 5,700 canisters’ worth of chlorine gas, carried devastating assaults on the Allied forces, they
toward the Allies by the prevailing winds. managed to hold the line.
Its impact was instant and catastrophic. Of the A further assault at Bellewaarde on 24 May by
10,000 troops, around 6,000 were dead within the German forces (again by poison gas) forced
minutes. When combined with water, chlorine the Allied troops to withdraw and retreat by about
becomes acidic – in the process destroying the eyes a kilometre (0.6 miles). Prevented from making
and lungs. The surviving French troops scattered, further advances due to a lack of personnel and
leaving a seven-kilometre (4.3-mile)-wide gap for supplies, they instead resorted to bombing the
the Germans to advance through. town – by the battle’s end, Ypres was little more
However, the German forces became victims than a pile of rubble.
of their own success. Not anticipating the The death tolls make for particularly dire
effectiveness of gas, much of their reserves had reading: the combined Allied forces experienced
been transferred west to the Russian front. Coupled around 70,000 casualties; the Germans 35,000.
with their weariness of possible Allied traps and Furthermore, the effectiveness of gas as a weapon
the adverse effects of the still-lingering gas, they had been clearly and brutally demonstrated.
advanced slowly. Their reticence gave the Allied Although its use was widely condemned, the
troops time to counter-attack, successfully driving British adopted its use, putting it into effect at Loos
the German troops back, but not without casualties. later that year. Thus, the after-effects of one of the
Having seen the brutal efficiency of gas as a bloodiest battles of the war would continue to
weapon, the Germans used it again – this time on linger on.
33
Greatest Battles
Allied Army Unsuccessful gas
01 attack
TROOPS EIGHT The German troops carry around
5,730 gas canisters – each
DIVISIONS weighing 41kg (90lb) – into battle
CASUALTIES 70,000 by hand. They are opened and
operated by hand, and rely on
the wind direction directing the
poisonous clouds toward the
enemy combatants. This method
of execution is far from foolproof,
with a number of German
troops managing to injure or kill
themselves in the process. The
first three attempts at dispersal 03
are unsuccessful.
GENERAL SIR HORACE
SMITH-DORRIEN 02 Successful
LEADER gas attack
The Allied troops’ luck
On 6 May, Smith-Dorrien was relieved
from duty by General French, replaced doesn’t hold. At about 5pm
with Herbert Plumer. on 22 April, having been
Strengths Very organised and successfully unleashed by
pragmatic decision-maker. theGermanforces,acloud 09
Weakness Poor relationship with of chlorine gas descends
commanding officer led to his onanumberofbattalions,
ultimate dismissal. with the Algerian and
French forces the worst
affected. There are around
6,000 instant casualties,
withthemajorityofthe
rest of them abandoning
their positions in their
desperation to get away
from the gas.
03 Germans
ALLIEDSOLDIER advance
The retreating Allied
KEY UNIT forces leave the way
clear for the German
The Allied Army comprised British,
forces to advance into
French, Canadian and African
the now-unoccupied
forces, with soldiers from other
territory, which they
Commonwealth countries.
do at around 5.15pm.
Strengths Included the well-trained
Moving 3-4km (1.9-
British Expeditionary Force.
2.5mi) into French
Weakness Defending a vulnerable
territory, they capture
position; couldn’t defend against gas.
Pilckem Ridge by the
village of Pilckem,
achieving their first
objective of the battle.
04 GERMANS ESTABLISH BRIDGEHEADS 05 The Canadians
counter-attack
In danger of being exposed, the 13th
Many of the German reserves have been Battalion of the 1st Canadian Division
HOWITZER join up with some surviving French
KEY WEAPON sent to fight on the Russian front, but they troops and launch a counter-attack
on the left flank on the road between
Faced with gas attacks and long- make use of what they have, with the 45th
St Julien and Poelcappelle. In doing
range artillery assaults, the British this, they successfully manage to
replied with fire of their own. and 46th Reserve Divisions setting up
halt the advance of the German 51st
Strengths Long range and bridgeheads by the Yser Canal at Steenstraat Reserve Division, preventing them from
potentially devastating. assisting with the main offensive.
Weakness Found themselves in and Het Sas. They infiltrate a gap in the front
a tactically inferior position, which
reduced effectiveness. line, with Ypres now exposed.
34
Greatest Battles
10 GERMANS German Army
SHELL YPRES TROOPS SEVEN
Germans bombard DIVISIONS
01 the town of Ypres CASUALTIES 35,000
with artillery fire,
with their aim of
making it harder for
the Allies to bring in
reinforcements. By
07
the time they
are done, Ypres
06 ALBRECHT, DUKE OF
has been heavily WÜRTTEMBERG
02 damaged. LEADER
The head of the German house of
09 Germans Württemberg was a decorated army
04 halt advance general during WWI.
By around 8.30pm on 23 Strengths Previous experience of
April, the German forced victory at the Battle of the Ardennes
cease their assault. This is earlier in WWI.
10 partly because they have Weakness His overly cautious
nature cost him further advances.
already achieved one of
their main objectives of
capturing Pilckem Ridge
– which is on high ground
05 and thus a tactically
08 advantageous spot – but
also because they lack
the manpower to sustain
a continuous assault,
despite having wreaked a
high casualty rate on the
GERMAN SOLDIER
Allied forces.
08 KEY UNIT
Canadians The German forces came prepared,
attack again ready to use a deadly new weapon
Afterthefailureof that would alter the game.
theFrenchassault, Strengths Possessed the tactical
theCanadian3rd advantage of high ground.
Infantry Brigade Weakness Lacking sufficient
plan another assault numbers to complete their objective
for11.30pm.This and win the campaign.
is later postponed,
before commencing
againintheearly
hoursof23April.
Langemarck 07 FRENCH COUNTER-ATTACK HALTED
06 captured
French soldiers occupying the Six companies of the French 7th Battalion
village of Langemarck avoid the Zouaves make another counter-attack at about CHLORINE GAS
gas, but quickly find themselves KEY WEAPON
overwhelmed by the German 8pm from Boesinghe, crossing the Yser Canal in The first time it was used in a large-
forces, who defeat them and the direction of Pilckem. They eventually come scale offensive assault was in the
capture the area. protracted Second Battle of Ypres.
into contact with German forces, but despite Strengths Devastatingly effective,
difficult to defend against.
several hours of fighting, little progress is made. Weakness Dangerous to carry –
wind blowing in the wrong direction
© Nicolle R Fuller
can make it fatal to friendly forces.
35
Through History
FLYING MACHINES
Humanity has dream
the skies for centuries
major milestones in d
HOT-AIR BALLOON 1783
In 1782, Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne
Montgolfier discovered that hot air rises whe
‘Zeppelin’ became
they tried holding a flame under a paper bag synonymous with
The brothers made their first public display airships of all types
this discovery on 4 June 1783 in
the marketplace in Annonay,
southern France. Their balloon
rose around 900 metres
(3,000feet)intotheair Wernher
and remained aloft for ten ZEPPELIN 1895-1940S Von Braun
minutes. After the brothers The German former general Count Ferdinand 1912-1977, GERMAN
had experimented with von Zeppelin patented a design for a rigid Von Braun was behind the Nazi
ballistics programmes of WWII. The V-2
animals, Jean Francois Pilâtre airship in 1895. Zeppelins flew commercially
was the first man-made object to reach
de Rozier and Francois Laurent with DELAG, the world’s first airline, from near space. From September 1944, over
d’Arlandes became the first 910 onward, and were used by the Germans as 3,000 missiles were launched. Despite
humanpassengersonanunteth mbers in World War I. By the early-1930s they were later leading the US space programme,
his Nazi past was controversial:
Montgolfierballoon,ascendingo king regular transatlantic flights, but on 6 May
construction of the V-2 had
Parison21November1783. 1937 the hydrogen-filled Hindenburg burst into flames involved concentration-
Hot-air balloons while attempting to dock in New Jersey, killing 35 camp labour.
were the first people. This disaster, and the coming of faster aircraft
human-carrying Le Bris and his
flying machines in World War II, led to the demise of the Zeppelin. Albatros II in 1868
Biplanes were popular
during the early days of
20th-century aviation
GLIDER 1849
The first non-balloon, man-carrying
PROPELLER PLANE 1903 aircraft were built by Sir George Cayley,
whose ‘gliders’ successfully achieved brief
Americans Wilbur and Orville Wright conducted the wingborne hops. Jean Marie Le Bris then
first successful aeroplane flight near Kitty Hawk, North went on to construct a flying machine called
Carolina, on 17 December 1903. The Wright brothers “The Wright brothers’ the Albatross, which was pulled along on
successfully grasped the fundamentals of flight a horse-drawn cart in order to take off. His
dynamics, allowing the pilot to steer the aircraft and first successful glider reached heights of 100 metres (330
maintain equilibrium. Their first flight lasted 12 seconds feet), making it the first one to fly higher
and covered 37 metres (120 feet). World War I accelerated aeroplane flight than its point of departure. After World War I,
aeroplane technology; when Captain John Alcock and recreational gliders were built, which became
Lieutenant Arthur Brown made the first non-stop lasted 12 seconds and widely popular in the 1930s. This is now their
transatlantic flight from Newfoundland to Ireland, they main application.
flew a wartime Vickers Vimy bomber. covered 37 metres”
36
Through History
HELICOPTER
19TH CENTURY
In 1861 the word ‘helicopter’ was coined by Frenchman
Gustave de Ponton d’Amécourt who built a small steam-
powered variety. The Russian-American Igor Sikorsky Leonardo An illustration
of Paul Cornu’s
began work on helicopters as early as 1910 and his VS-300 da Vinci 1907 design for a
became the model for all modern single-rotor helicopters. 1452-1519 ITALIAN working helicopter
His R-4 was the world’s first mass-produced helicopter Da Vinci sketched flying machines
from the early-1480s. Studying the flight
and went into service with the US Navy in 1943.
patterns of birds, he designed an aircraft
Designed in 1946 by Arthur Young of the in 1502’s Codex On The Flight Of Birds. One
B llAi ftC pany theBellModel of his designs was for an ornithopter that
a full mimicked the flapping of a bird’s wing.
His machines were impractical, but
st
Da Vinci did contribute to the
and understanding of gravity
30 years. and aerodynamics.
The Concorde was
SPACE ROCKET 1944 the first supersonic
allistic missiles JET PACK 1952 commercial airliner
re introduced The first jet pack was d
n1944when Moore, which succeede
gswaffe-2 (V-2) airforafewseconds.In
against Allied theJumpbeltallowedthewearertoleapseveral CONCORDE 1969-2003
rld War II. The metres into the air with a slightly longer flight By the early 1970s package tourism
Wernher Von time. The Bell Rocket Belt was then developed had put foreign travel (at least to the
to the United afewyearslaterfortheUSArmy,butplans continent) within the reach of most
he war. The Cold for a jet-powered version were scrapped when Britons. But exclusivity and expense
race to the Moon themilitarydecideditwastoolargeand were major drawbacks with Concorde.
ywaysarivalry heavy. Since then, jet-pack development has Introduced into commercial service on
on Braun and his been handled almost entirely by independent 21 January 1976, the supersonic aircraft
nterpart, Sergei companies.ASwisspilotcalledYvesRocher travelled at twice the speed of sound
epioneering createdoneofthefewexistingjetpacksinthe at an altitude of 16,760 metres (55,000
h men drove worldin2006,whichachievedspeedsof200 feet). However, only 20 aircraft were ever
ration forward. kilometres (124 miles) per hour. builtforusebyAir France and British
board Vostok-1, Airways. And while Concorde could get
ut Yuri Gagarin from London to New York in 3.5 hours,
the first human ticket prices were very high, often up to
eon12April1961. five times higher than for a ‘subsonic’
sident John F flight. In July 2000, a Concorde crashed
edy committed the in Gonesse near Paris, killing
dStatestoputting The all its crew and passengers.
nontheMoonby Wright By October 2003, the
endofthe1960s. brothers British and French had
en Apollo 11 carried WILBUR (1867-1912) & ORVILLE (1871-1948),
first astronauts to AMERICAN
Moon in July 1969, The Martin As children, their interest in flight was
Jetpack is among piqued by a propeller-driven toy that their
mission’s lunar the newest, most father bought for them. When it broke,
ule was carried high-tech versions they built another of their own. In 1909
of jet packs they set up the Wright Company,
amassiveliquid-
which built around 120 aeroplanes
dSaturnVrocket. of different designs over
five years.
The Space Shuttle
is one of humanity’s
most ambitious
flying machines to SPACEPLANE 1959
this date
The X-15 was the first rocket-powered a
of outer space and return safely to Eart
the world record for the highest speed
aircraft, at 7,274 kilometres (4,520 mile
only four other spaceplanes have flown Virgin Galactic’s
Shuttle, Buran, SpaceShipOne and X-37 SpaceShipTwo
suffered a crash
made the news when it crashed during during a test flight
setback for space tourism. in 2014
What if…
The USA had
won the
Vietnam War?
VIETNAM, 1955-1975
Written by Calum Waddell
What would have happened if the United States had the first Bush and then with Bill Clinton. The reason the US
DR ANDREW WIEST won the Vietnam War? didnotrelyonitsmilitary,onanygreatscaleatleast, to solve
Dr Andrew Wiest There are a lot of academics and historians who look at problems during the 1970s and the 1980s was all down to the
currently lectures
at the University Vietnam as a part of something much bigger – namely the country’s failure in Vietnam.
of Southern Cold War. So if the US had won, the Cold War would probably
Mississippi and have ended a little sooner and the dawn of that unilateral When the Vietnam War began to cross into Cambodia
is the founding
director of the Dale Centre for superpower controlling things would have come quicker. it created the environment in which Pol Pot and the
War and Society. His books In Southeast Asia, everything would be radically different – Khmer Rouge came to power. What resulted was a four-
include The Boys Of ’67: Charlie
Company’s War In Vietnam, including a faster and more thorough confrontation between year holocaust. Could this have been avoided?
Vietnam’s Forgotten Army: the USA and China. I doubt China would have sat by and let If the USA was ever going to win the Vietnam War it would
Heroism And Betrayal In The an American victory happen without repercussion – even have been during the Tet Offensive of 1968. That was the
ARVN and Vietnam: A View
From The Front Lines. He has though they were not exactly fans of the Vietnamese either. turning point and that was when the public, back in the
also organised trips for Vietnam I don’t think Beijing would have invaded Vietnam to repel United States, saw the North Vietnamese were not just going
veterans suffering from PTSD, the Americans, as they did in Korea, but it certainly would to retreat and surrender – it was literally a fight to the death.
to visit the country they once
fought in. Wiest has developed have been the USA against China and Russia. And it would Of course, there was no big, magical American victory during
a ‘study abroad’ programme for have been a war that was not just cold but glacial. American Tet, but let’s imagine there was. Let’s imagine the US had
US students wishing to soak up
Saigon or Hanoi. politics would certainly have been more tumultuous as well. repelled that attack quickly and conclusively and the war
If you look at the US presidential elections since the 1960s was essentially over as a result. At that point in time, the
– every one of them has been fought over Vietnam to one Khmer Rouge was not a big player in the conflict. It is only
extent or another. It is still the most controversial aspect of a after the US began its military incursions into Cambodia and
controversial time period. Had they come out of that smiling, the government in that country began to fall that everything
with another greatest generation on their hands, US politics became out of hand. A victorious USA in Vietnam would not
would have looked quite different. For instance, it is hard have required any entrance into Cambodia and, as a result,
to see the Republican revolution taking place. Republicans you almost certainly would not have seen the rise of the
typically have an aggressive foreign policy, it is one of their Khmer Rouge. They are intrinsically tied to how the Vietnam
tropes, but if Democratic policy had won in Vietnam – because War progressed, no doubt about that.
it was the Democrats who started the war in Southeast Asia –
that would have taken a lot of heat away from their rivals. Would we ever have seen a situation like in Korea
where the communist North and the democratic South
Would they have become involved in more conflicts? are split down the middle, even to this day?
Yes, I think the USA would have been much less gun-shy No, that was never going to happen. One side was going to
during the 1970s and 1980s. Reagan tinkered with it but that reunify the country, no matter what. So if there was a big
use of force to solve conflicts didn’t really come back until American victory, one situation you have is reunification under
38
What if…
THE USA HAD WON THE VIETNAM WAR?
If the US campaign in Vietnam had proven successful,
we might have seen an even greater influx of American
influence than has already happened
39
What if…
THEUSAHADWONTHEVIETNAMWAR?
CHINA
A successful campaign Attention from towards Asia the USA is presently taking would
non-communist rule. As a result of that, the turn
the north have happened then as opposed to now. We would
Having conquered Hanoi
and North Vietnam, have had an immediate conflict with China. Unlike the
a new Cold War front
is established at the North Koreans, the North Vietnamese were much less
northern border to China, likely to accept the scenario where the country remained split.
BURMA NORTH VIETNAM whose government
feels threatened by the If you look at their leadership, and their pronouncements and
US-allied Vietnam. their goals, they were not going to go for a ‘tie’. In addition,
the tactical situation in Vietnam was much trickier. This is
LAOS
because the border between North and South Vietnam is so
A reversal of fortune long and porous that it would be very difficult to police – and
A successful defence of the
Tet Offensive in January 1968 that is why you had the Ho Chi Minh trail, the excursions into
spurs the US-backed South Cambodia and Laos and all of that other stuff. So it might be
across the Demilitarized Zone
into North Vietnam, resulting in convenient to think we could replay the Korean War and end
a westernised, unified Vietnam. Vietnam with a stalemate, but that was never going to happen.
People also forget the South Vietnamese wanted reunification
In the balance too – just under different circumstances.
With two superpowers next
door to each other, Laos and
Thailand become fair game THAILAND If John F Kennedy had not been assassinated, would
for the US and China’s race
for influence and allegiance Atrocities averted the Vietnam War have been avoided?
in Southeast Asia. By avoiding a campaign into That is a controversial question. There have been so many
Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge arguments about this – and, of course, Kennedy’s legacy is
don’t gain traction in the country,
avoiding the genocide under such a sacred thing in the States that it is political kryptonite
Pol Pot that would otherwise
CAMBOD have taken place. Cambodia is to touch it. The pro-Kennedy forces argue he wanted to
stronger as a result. withdraw most of the 16,000 military advisors that were over
there. However, before Kennedy there were only 600 military
advisors over there. He had begun a war over there and I
SOUTH VIETNAM think there are two things that still would have hamstrung
him – even if he wanted out. The first is that he still wanted
his political party to win another term, and if the Democrats
had wiped their hands of Vietnam there is a good chance they
would not have achieved that. The second is that Kennedy
wanted his brother to be the next man in the White House.
To mess that up, by handing Vietnam to the communists,
“If the USA was ever going to win would have sunk this. I would also argue that Robert
McNamara, who was Kennedy’s confidant in the first place,
the Vietnam War it would have been and the architect of the Vietnam War, was going to give him
during the Tet Offensive of 1968” the same advice he gave Lyndon B Johnson – which was to
go in with all guns blazing. You have to remember that both
O The Geneva Conference
How would it be diff erent? France agrees to the decolonisation of
Vietnam. Free elections are promised, but
the USA suspects communist Ho Chi Minh
may win. It installs a brutal dictator, Ngô Đình
Diêm, in South Vietnam. He is viewed by Ho
Chi Minh and the North as a puppet ruler.
21 July 1954
Real timeline Real timeline O Assassination of Đình Diêm
Diêm – whose anti-Buddhist
policies famously caused
the monk Thích Quang Đúc
to light himself on fire – is
1945 murdered in a brutal but
mysterious coup d’état.
O Vietnamese Declaration O Ho Chi Minh contacts 2 November 1963
of Independence President Truman
Based on the American The Vietnamese
Declaration of revolutionary writes to
Independence, Ho Chi Minh Truman asking him to Alternative timeline O USA reunites Korea
asks the USA and the West “urgently interfere” in the Fears that China would support
to oppose French colonial foreign rule of his country. the North prove unfounded.
rule in Vietnam and support Truman fears Vietnam The USA manages to push back
what will be “a free and becoming communist and the comparatively minimal army
independent country.” instead backs the French. of Kim Il-sung and successfully
2 September 1945 28 February 1946 reunites the two Koreas. Seoul
aligns itself as a Western-
friendly government.
27 July 1953
40
What if…
THE USA HAD WON THE VIETNAM WAR?
A man suspected of supporting the Viet Cong forces being arrested A convoy of US
and detained by US forces tanks in Vietnam
Kennedy and Johnson faced the post-World War II consensus: he lived longer, with all of his clout, I think that is the best Have your say
to fight a difficult, problematic and long war against what chance we would have had to avoid starting a war out there. Do you agree with our
they perceived as a communist threat or to embark on social
changes back home – in particular the civil-rights movement. I Vietnam is now awash with KFC restaurants, Coca- expert’s view?
believe Kennedy was also going to veer toward the civil-rights Cola, multiplexes and other instances of American pop /AllAboutHistory
movement – just as Johnson did. But I don’t think you get culture. So who really won the war?
both – civil rights and the end of Vietnam. That mixture would Well, that is the thing – they are now America’s staunch allies. @AboutHistoryMag
have brought the Democrats down at the voting booth. It shows that – first of all, as Sun Tzu said, the best tool to win
a war is not always the military. It was American culture that
Is there any way you can see that the Vietnam War may eventually prevailed. If you look at things like Rambo and all
have been avoided? these other Hollywood movies that attempted to justify the
Asking anyone to do the right thing back then was difficult. conflict, it is obvious how much impact it had on the USA. But
Had Franklin Roosevelt lived, maybe things could have been it was just a blip on the radar to the Vietnamese. It cost them
avoided. He had a guy on his team who was a communist, many more lives, but it was all part of a bigger struggle to
namely Stalin, and Roosevelt was not a fan of European independence. Today, Vietnam has a huge young generation
colonialism. So he may have sided with Ho Chi Minh’s desire and this is all ancient history to them. They have moved on,
to have an independent Vietnam, free from French rule. Had but ironically it is the face of the USA they now buy into.
O Gulf of Tomkin fabrication O The My Lai Massacre O Paris Peace Accords O Fall of Saigon
North Vietnamese ships are reported At My Lai, families are raped, Nixon’s government agrees to a The war ends with the North
to have fired on a US patroller, The tortured and killed by US soldiers. cease-fire, with US ground troops Vietnamese taking Saigon by force
Maddox, in the South China Sea. Lieutenant William Calley, who and POWs returning home. The and celebrating a reunified country.
President Johnson uses the event instigated the horror, walks free, reunification of Vietnam is now Ho Chi Minh, who died in 1969,
to justify going to war. Declassified but world opinion becomes a matter between the respective remains a national icon. Saigon is
documents later confirmed that no opposed to ‘America’s war.’ Saigon and Hanoi governments. now known as Ho Chi Minh City.
attack happened. 2 August 1964 16 March 1968 27 January 1973 30 April 1975
O Tet Offensive O Ho Chi Minh at the UN O Gulf of Tomkin fabrication O Failed Tet Offensive
On Vietnamese New Year, the Ho Chi Minh, gives a rousing Johnson, respecting The North Vietnamese conduct
North surprises the South with speech at the UN. But with Kennedy’s opposition to a failed attempt to take Saigon,
a sudden offensive. The city the new Korea becoming an communism in Asia and Latin Huê and other cities in South
of Huê is hit with extensive international trading partner, America, fabricates the Gulf Vietnam. Forewarned about
fighting. South Vietnam and its Western nations side with of Tomkin incident to justify the attack, the US Army quickly
allies suffer drastic losses. the USA on Vietnamese war in Vietnam. repels their enemies.
30 January - 3 March 1968 reunification. December 1956 2 August 1964 30 January - 14 February 1968
O Free elections O Fixed elections? O Kennedy’s speech O Cambodia’s involvement O Fall of Hanoi
Pressured into elections, US President Eisenhower releases a Concluding upon how close the The White House offers to On Ho Chi Minh’s birthday,
fears come true and Ho Chi statement claiming that, “after world came to nuclear meltdown supply Cambodia’s Communist the North Vietnam capital
Minh becomes president of extensive CIA investigation during the Cuban Missile Crisis, Party of Kampuchea guerrilla collapses under the military
Vietnam. However, believing we can reveal the elections in President Kennedy affirms that fighters in aid and arms if they might of the US army. The © Daniel Sinoca; Dreamstime
this would sustain the South Vietnam were rigged.” South all communist countries must be canoffertheUSdetailsofthe war is over. China becomes
Vietnamese to communist rule, Vietnam is to continue with a treated as rogue states. Military HoChiMinhtrailsupplyroute. so concerned that Mao
the Eisenhower government ‘democratic’ regime headed by involvement is increased heavily Thedealisonlyrevealed immediately agrees to a
argues the elections were fixed. an interim coalition of allied in Vietnam. decades later. trade pact with Coca-Cola.
January 1956 countries. March 1956 October 1962 August 1967 19 May 1968
41
Bluff er’s Guide
Russian Revolution
RUSSIA, 1917-1918 Adominoeffect
The Russian Revolution had a
knock-on effect on their Baltic
neighbours. Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania, which had all been
ruled by Russia since the end of
the 18th century, declared their
independence shortly after. However,
this didn’t last long; after World War
II the states were incorporated into
the USSR, and it wasn’t until the
Singing Revolution of 1987 to 1991
that the countries were finally free
of Russian rule.
What was it? When did it happen? Why did it happen?
TheRussianRevolutionwasaseriesof There had been simmering discontent and After the failure of the 1905 revolution,
uprisingsthatsawtheimperialauthority strikes since early-February 1917, and on 7 communist protest had already begun. Food
that had led Russia for centuries replaced March the workers of a large industrial plant shortages as a result of WWI plagued the
by the communist Bolshevik government. announced a strike. By the 10th, these strikes cities and workers demanded higher wages,
ThefirststageoftheRevolutionwas had descended into nationwide riots, and while Germany was pumping propaganda
encouraged by the widespread poverty Nicholas II abdicated the throne on the 15th. A into the country. This combined with the
thatoccurredasaresultofWWIand provisional government held power until they tsar’s ineptitude meant the monarchy
eventually led to civil war. were overthrown later that year on 7 November. crumbled when the Revolution began.
42
Bluffer’s Guide
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Key figures
Nicholas II
1868-1918
The reluctant emperor’s
disastrous leadership caused
Russia to go from a world power
Military mutiny to near economic collapse.
As the riots became more violent, troops of the Petrograd army Vladimir Lenin
1870-1924
garrison assembled onto the streets. The soldiers opened fire Leader of the Bolshevik Party,
on the demonstrators, killing many of them, but the protestors Lenin helped to mastermind the
continued to stream into the streets. Many of the soldiers began overthrow of the government.
Over a thousand people to sympathise with the protestors, military insubordination
lost their lives in the Leon Trotsky
February Revolution spread and the wave of revolution became impossible to stop.
1879-1940
An influential member of the
The legend of the A royal massacre Bolsheviks, Trotsky founded and
led the Red Army, which went
surviving Romanov On 17 July 1918 the Romanov family on to win the Russian Civil War.
After the slaughter of Tsar Nicholas II and his family, and three of their servants were led Alexander Kerensky
rumours began to emerge that his youngest daughter, 1881-1970
Anastasia, had survived. Multiple ‘Anastasias’ cropped up, down to the basement of the house Kerensky became the prime
minister of the Russian
all claiming to be the missing daughter, all with tales of where they were imprisoned and
their escape. These claims have now been proven false, provisional government until it
was overthrown.
as her body was later discovered in a mass grave with her then shot. The emperor was the first
family members. to die while three of the girls had Grigori Rasputin
Failure of the Duma to be run through with bayonets as 1869-1916
This mystical faith healer’s
influence on the monarchy
The provisional government put in place was headed by the precious jewels sewn into their was loathed by the nation and
moderate bourgeois members who had little in common contributed to their downfall.
with the Russian population. They failed to address two dresses deflected the bullets.
pressing points of unrest – Russian involvement in World
War I and redistribution of land. This general discontent Key events
with the government meant the Bolsheviks were able to
seizepowerinavirtuallybloodlesscoup. Bloody Sunday
22 January 1905
Red vs White About 1,000 unarmed
protestors are killed when they
The October Revolution wasn’t supported by all the are fired on by soldiers of the
population, and in 1918 a civil war broke out between the Imperial Guard.
Bolshevik Red Army and the Whites – bourgeoisie against 1905 Revolution
the Bolsheviks. Although the Whites had international
22 January 1905 - 16 June 1907
backing, the Reds had internal support and managed A wave of mass unrest sweeps
to defeat their opposition, consolidating the remaining across the Russian Empire.
Russian Empire into the Soviet Union. Although the revolutionaries are
defeated the state Duma are put
The hero of the revolution in place.
There have been multiple arguments over World War I
1914-1918
who was the true mastermind behind the The staggering Russian losses
and military defeats lead to
October Revolution. Bolshevik leader low morale and devastate the
Russian economy.
Vladimir Lenin led the uprising based
The tsar abdicates
on his Marxist ideas, but he was 15 March 1917
absent during the takeover of the Nicholas II of Russia abdicates
the throne and the following
Winter Palace, which was organised day a provisional government is
put in place.
by Leon Trotsky. Joseph Stalin
A bloodless coup
would later be painted as Lenin’s 7 November 1917
Bolshevik revolutionaries lead
Bolshevik propaganda right-hand man, but he didn’t take an assault on the Winter Palace
painted Lenin as the
saviour of the country part in storming the palace either. and overthrow the provisional ©Alamy
government seated there.
43
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46
In his
final will
+ +
+
+
Washington
freed all his
+
+
slaves
+
The First President
WASHINGTON
+
Today George Washington is hailed as
+
the father of the USA, but his journey to +
+
legendary hero was a perilous
and difficult one +
+
+ Written by Frances White +
+ + +
ong Island was supposed to be a success. help conceal his soldiers as they climbed into in Brooklyn, today Washington himself is
The enemy was stronger and greater every available boat he could get his hands cloaked and obscured by layers of myths and
in number but the rebels had got there on. He waited until the last man was on board legends. He has become an almost messianic
first. The commander had prepared before he boarded himself. As the boat drew figure in the United States, a legend of justice
L everything for his foe’s arrival in New away the commander looked back through the and freedom, a brilliant commander who led
York, strengthening his batteries and placing his thick fog that had descended over the bay. The his underdog army to the greatest victory in US
generals perfectly. But the British had broken mist had concealed them from the British, his history. But as with most legends, the stories
through. First Sullivan fell, then Stirling, and the men were safe, but Brooklyn had been lost. are not always true. Far from being a brilliant
commander could only watch as the lives of his This is not the story of a failed general, military strategist, Washington actually lost
brave men were brutally wiped away. Knowing forgotten by the history books, but instead that more battles than he won. He was no Alexander
all was lost he ordered his men to retreat before of the most glorified and worshipped president or Caesar, but an entirely different kind of hero
the carnage could reach them. As relentless rain in US history – George Washington. Just as his altogether – one who persevered in the face of
pelted down he used the cover of darkness to men were hidden by the fog that grim morning devastating failure for his men and country.
Making History
3 reasons why Washington is considered the USA’s greatest leader
1 Virtue 2 Commitment 3 Persistence
to country
Washington twice gave up the chance of
Washington was not the most gifted
ultimate power. First at the end of the
Revolutionary War when he surrendered his Washington did not become involved in the military leader; he suffered multiple
losses and personal humiliations, but his
role as commander in chief, and again when he refused hostile arguments and squabbling of political debates, determination to persevere in spite of repeated setbacks
to rule as president for a third term. When George III was but instead acted as a peacekeeper between the groups. inspired his soldiers to do the same, which resulted in him
presented with the idea of Washington doing this, he said, A true non-partisan, his primary aim was always the creating one of the most celebrated underdog success
“If he does that he will be the greatest man in the world.” betterment of the country, rather than any personal gain. stories in world history.
47
48
49
Washington: The First President
the Continental Army on 14 June 1775 and it had to rely on his own intelligence and courage
needed a leader. Reluctant and somewhat modest, to have any hope of snatching victory from his
Washington did not see himself as a leader capable seasoned, experienced rivals.
of leading such a vitally important force, but for This inexperience manifested itself in the
those around him there was no other choice. With crippling defeat the commander suffered during
proven military experience, a devoted patriot and the Battle of Long Island. In an effort to seize New
a strong, commanding presence, Washington was York, the British general William Howe unleashed
appointed commander in chief of the force that a devastating campaign that Washington failed
would take on the mightiest nation on Earth. to subdue. So great was the British attack that
It did not take long for the new commander to Washington was forced to retreat his entire army
prove his worth. In early-March 1776, Washington across the East River under cover of darkness.
turned the Siege of Boston around by placing Although this feat itself was remarkable, for the self-
artillery on Dorchester Heights, low hills with a critical leader it was a swift and brutal reminder of
good view of Boston and its harbour. The perfectly his own inadequacies as a general, and he quickly
placed, powerful cannons forced the British to realised this war would not be easily won.
retreat from the city, and the American commander But the British had a crippling weakness, too.
moved his army into New York City. Even the They were simply too sure they were going to
critical British papers couldn’t deny the skills of the win. Howe so fatally underestimated the will of
captivating and exciting new leader who seemed the American troops and their reckless leader that
capable of repelling their great empire with ease. he left his Hessian soldiers at Trenton, confident Rebels
Victory and gossip aside, in truth Washington the war would be won in the next few months.
was out of his depth. He had commanded men Washington, on the other hand, was acutely aware
before, but only a force of a thousand soldiers – far of the morale of his soldiers. After the defeat in Organisation
from the tens of thousands at his disposal now. He New York and the humiliating retreat, they needed
had only fought in frontier warfare, far removed something positive to inspire them, and Trenton There were 35,000 continentals in the
from the open-field battles he now faced. He had was right there for the taking. United States with 44,500 militia. Their
never commanded legions of cavalry or artillery – The plan was one only Washington could have French allies increased their numbers
he was constantly learning on the job. Washington thought up – bold, gutsy and downright dangerous, with 12,000 French soldiers in America
he led his soldiers across the perilous and icy and 63,000 at Gibraltar. They also had 53
Delaware River on a freezing Boxing Day in 1776. ships in service throughout the war. George
Washington was commander in chief and
Valley Forge Only 2,400 of his men were able to make it across Nathanael Greene served as major general.
Pennsylvania, 28 January 1777 Weapons
When the war began the colonies did
not have a professional standing army of
any kind, with many colonies only able
to supply minutemen who were required
to equip themselves – with most carrying
rifles. The army’s weapon of choice
was the flintlock musket and they also
carried bayonets.
Resources
The Continental Army suffered from
massive supply issues. Supplies were
repeatedly seized by British patrols. They
also had to combat a primitive road system,
which resulted in regular shortages of food,
clothing, ammunition, tents and a host of
essential military equipment, constantly
pitching the odds against them.
Morale
The rebels’ greatest weapon was the belief
in their grand cause – fighting for their
liberty from the oppressive British Crown. It
was this strong morale belief in their cause
that encouraged American leaders, who
knew they were facing a well equipped and
disciplined foe, to push on despite multiple
crippling defeats.
50
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