All About History - Issue 21-15

51

52

Washington: The First President




Washington


myths cut down


We get an expert
opinion on the
myths surrounding
this legendary man
Stephen Brumwell is a freelance
writer and independent historian
living in Amsterdam. His book, George Washington:
Gentleman Warrior, won the 2013 George
Washington Book Prize.
He had wooden teeth
George Washington was plagued with dental
problems from his twenties, and by 1789,
had just one of his own teeth remaining.
He owned several sets of false teeth, but
Washington none was crafted from wood. Instead,
Washington’s dentures incorporated
was one of the a variety of materials – bone, ‘sea-
horse’, or hippopotamus ivory,
tallest and biggest and human teeth – fixed by lead,
A depiction of gold and metal wire. The belief
Washington’s entry presidents at 1.88m that Washington’s false teeth were
into New York in 1759 (6’2”) and 90kg the brown-stained appearance of
wooden probably originated in
(200lb) surviving examples – apparently owing
to his fondness for port wine.
He cut down a cherry
tree and confessed to
his father
Perhaps the best known of
all the legends spun around
Washington, the ‘cherry tree
story’ first surfaced in a biography
written after his death by Mason Locke
Weems. Concerned with portraying Washington
as an exemplary role model for his countrymen,
Washington has been immortalised on Mount ‘Parson Weems’ concocted the fable of the six-year-old
Rushmore along with Thomas Jefferson, hatcheting his father’s prized cherry tree, and then
Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln deflecting parental wrath by frankly confessing to the
deed with the words “I can’t tell a lie, Pa.”
the United States. With victory “Washington he sat and listened silently to Washington was a moonshiner
declared, Washington disbanded the proceedings, speaking only While there’s no proof that Washington set up illicit
his army and wished farewell to did not see once. However, his prestige spoke liquor stills to make moonshine, he was certainly in
the forefront of American whiskey production. On the
the men who had valued him not volumes and those gathered there advice of his Scottish farm manager, James Anderson,
only as a leader, but also a fellow himself as a agreed the national government he established a whiskey distillery at Mount Vernon in
soldier. On 23 December 1783, in leader capable needed more authority – it needed 1797. By the year of Washington’s death, 1799, this was
producing almost 41,640l (11,000gal) of rye and corn
an action that would define him a figure strong and commanding whiskey, making it the largest US distillery of its day.
in the history books, he resigned of leading enough to maintain control.
as commander in chief of the Washington was unanimously He threw a silver dollar across
army and humbly returned to his such a vitally chosen to fulfil this role. the Potomac River
home in Mount Vernon. He became president of the Standing 188cm (6’2”) tall, and with a well-muscled
However, without him his important force” convention in 1787, and by 1789 physique, young George Washington was renowned for
his strength. Yet even Washington in his prime would
country was struggling. With he was unanimously elected once have struggled to hurl a silver dollar across the Potomac
nobody to unite them the states fought and more, but this time as the first-ever president of the River, which is more than 1.6km (1mi) wide opposite
his Virginian home at Mount Vernon. Also, silver dollars
squabbled among themselves over boundaries and United States – the only one in history to receive were only introduced in 1794, when Washington was
inflicted harsh taxes on their own citizens. The 100 per cent of the votes. He would serve two already in his sixties.
ex-commander watched from afar as the land he terms as president from 1789 to 1797 until he would
had led to freedom struggled to support itself. He yet again relinquish the power he could so easily He wore a wig
Although wigs were fashionable during Washington’s
was dismayed, but hesitant to act. It wasn’t until have exploited. In the spring of 1797, he finally
lifetime, he never wore one, preferring to keep his own
an armed uprising known as Shays’ Rebellion took returned to his precious Mount Vernon, realising, hair, which was reddish-brown, long and tied back in a
place in Massachusetts that Washington was finally perhaps more so than any one of the many people tight queue, or ‘pigtail’. However, Washington regularly
used the white hair powder that was customary among
persuaded to step into the limelight once more. who supported him, that ultimate power in the men of his wealthy social class, especially for formal
Washington quietly attended the Constitution land of the free could not lay solely in one man’s occasions, and this gave the impression of a wig,
Convention held in Philadelphia in 1787. There hands indefinitely. apparent in many of his portraits.
53

WAYS












GREECE





















Spread across the Mediterranean Sea in more than a thousand
small city-states, the secret of the Ancient Greeks’ greatness lay

in their extraordinary ambition and competitiveness

Written by Paul Fishman
54

10 Ways Ancient Greece Ch World






The Greeks’ new and
extremely disciplined
WARFARE
approach to warfare made
them a world power

No one had ever fought like the Greeks, and no
one had ever won like Alexander the Great
The Greeks are often credited with
inventing the ‘western way of war’,
fighting pitched battles on foot at
10fixed locations until one side was
defeated.Thismayseemordinaryenoughnow,
butinearlierperiodsandotherpartsoftheworld companion to the left with his shield and relying
fightingwasmoretentativeandlessbloody,more onhisright-handneighbourtodothesamefor
reliantonmissiles,manoeuvresanddisplaysof him. The line would always creep to the right as
force. Troops were also deployed much more eachsoldiertriedtomaximisehisshieldprotection.
loosely in non-Greek armies, fighting as individuals, Each rank of the phalanx would normally be at
not a unit. Although the Greeks used cavalry and least eight-men deep, making the pressure from the
lightly armed soldiers with javelins and the like hoplite line positively fearsome.
forskirmishing,theessenceofGreekwarfarelay Moralewascrucial.Theunprecedentedhorror
in heavily armed and armoured infantry in close of hoplite warfare – crushed from in front and
formation, fighting hand-to-hand to the death. behind, being attacked with spears and swords
Thisstyleoffightingbroughtanewintensityand from close range – was psychologically demanding.
deadliness to battles. Once it had proven decisive If soldiers from the front line broke and ran, the
ininternationalwarfare,mostnotablyagainstthe battlewasalmostinstantlylostandthefleeing
Persians and their huge multinational armies, army, encumbered by heavy equipment, could be
things would never be the same again. slaughtered. Spirits were shored up by wine with
Thebasisforthiswasthehoplitesoldier, the pre-battle breakfast, music during the advance
namedafterthetypeofshieldused.Hopliteswere towardtheenemy,andthe‘paean’,thefearsome
equipped with a bronze helmet, a leather or bronze ululating battle cry of ‘eleleleu.’
breastplate,bronzegreavesontheirshins,alarge This tactic was perfected by the Macedonian
circular shield (the ‘hoplon’) made from leather or kings Phillip II and his son, Alexander III – ‘the
woodfacedwithbronze,alongspearmadefrom Great’. Professional drill, greater tactical flexibility,
ash and tipped with an iron or bronze blade, and better equipment – including the sarissa, a long
a short sword, also made from iron or bronze. The piketoreplacetheearlierspears–andincreased
armourandweaponswerephysicallydemanding useofcavalrywereamongthefactorsthatallowed
forthesoldiers,requiringextremefitness. them to first conquer Greece and then reverse
Hoplites were also highly disciplined. They centuries of Persian expansion and conquer the
facedtheenemyshouldertoshoulderinthe Eastinthelate-4thcenturyBCE,changingthe
famousphalanxformation,eachmancoveringhis world forever.


Phalanx tactics



Advance in formation,
The first impact and spear blows are accompanied by music
followed by pressure from the rear ranks and war cries.
pushing forward, trying to drive holes in
the enemy formation.












Widen any gaps using
shields and swords until
the enemy breaks.
The sheer physical force and bone-
crushing proximity of the phalanx made it
terrifying to non-Greeks who weren’t used
to it. Strength was in numbers. 55

10 Ways Ancient Greece Changed the World





ARCHITECTURE







We can see the influence of the
Greeks in cities around the globe –
our world would literally not look
the same without them

Even after more than 2,000 years,
Ancient Greek buildings are among
the most recognisable in the world.
09Think of the skeletal remains on
the Acropolis framed against the Athenian skyline,
one of the most famous modern cityscapes.
These buildings were also influential, with a huge
number of public structures worldwide from the
Renaissance onward being their descendants,
including famous examples such as the British
Museum’s façade, the Brandenburg Gate and the
United States Capitol. The characteristic columns
and pediments (gables, triangular sloping roofs),
arranged with careful attention to symmetry and
proportion, are obvious and distinctive wherever
they appear; they are emblematic of the ancient The pediment
Mediterranean world and its civilisation. The pediment housed huge painted
The legacy isn’t only physical; Greek architectural sculptures telling the story of the goddess
principles were the foundation for Roman and then Athena. The statues represent a key part
later Western theory and practice, in particular for of Athenian civic culture. The pediment
itself is larger than normal because of the
public architecture, while the Greeks also invented unusually large number of columns.
entirely new types of building, such as
stadiums and theatres.
One feature of
Ancient Greek
architecture that didn’t
survive in the originals or
the later imitations was colour
– the Parthenon was probably
decorated in shades of red,
blue and gold. The metopes
The metopes were horizontal
rectangular panels and the
Parthenon’s were, of course,
huge. Displayed on them were
scenes from mythic battles
Public space showing Greek triumphs – this
The original Acropolis was especially significant
buildings were destroyed to emphasise the perceived
by the Persians in superiority to Persians.
480 BCE and the
new buildings were a
statement of civic pride.
The Acropolis was a
public space, built by
and for the Athenian
people. In other cultures,
monuments like this had
been reserved for kings
and emperors.









56

10 Ways Ancient Gre ld







POLITICS





Before the Greeks, politics was just something people
did. They made it something people thought about
PoliticsisaGreek wasprobablytheirgreatestlegacy,
word meaning ‘affairs even more than their dramatic
ofthepolis’–polis experiments with democracy at one
08meant ‘city’ or ‘state’. end(Athens)andextremesocial
Democracy, oligarchy, monarchy control at the other (Sparta).
and tyranny are just some of the In the 5th century BCE, the Greek
many other terms we have taken worldbecameincreasinglydivided,
fromthem.Theywereprobablythe culminating in the Peloponnesian
first civilisation to really think about War(431-404BCE)inwhichAthens Pericles (ca 495-429 BCE)
politics. Unlike their contemporaries, and their allies fought against Sparta was a leading statesman
of Athenian democracy
they analysed different systems; they and their allies. Broadly speaking,
didn’t simply assume that their own the Athenians were pro-democracy,
waywastheonlyway,evenifthey while the Spartans favoured oligarchy
oftenthoughtitwasthebest. –rulebyanelite.Whilethiswasin Sparta Vs Athens
It was this critical some ways a straightforward power
thinking that struggle,acontestbetweentwo
Spartan citizens could vote on proposals IntheperiodoffulldemocracyinAthens
powerful states to dominate the made by their council of elders, but they allAthenianofficialswereelectedor
Greekworld,itwasalsooneofthe could not choose what to vote on or chosenthroughalottery,muchlike
debate. They voted by shouting. today’s jury service, where any
firstideologicalwars.Itwasn’tjust
They also voted for their chief VOTING free citizen could be chosen to
aconflictbetweenstates;itwas magistrates, the ‘ephors’, every serveforasetamountoftime.
aconflictofideals.TheSpartans year. The ephors served alongside Even generals were elected. Citizens
won and forced the Athenians twohereditarykingsinacomplex could debate all public policy and
political set-up. propose motions for debate.
to abolish democracy in favour of
oligarchy, although this didn’t last Sparta was a land power and was Athenswasaseapowerwitha
and popular rule was restored. largelyclosedtotheoutsideworld. thriving international trade, a
Out-and-out monarchy was rare Trade was insignificant and it powerful navy and a large body
onlyhadasmallnavyandno of non-Athenian residents –
inGreeceintheClassicalperiod, FOREIGN
merchant fleet. Precious few merchants, artisans, scholars
mostly confined to border states outsiders were welcome in POLICY andartists.UnlikeSparta,
likeMacedonia.However,thefuture Sparta,andtheycouldonlylive Athens was dependent on trade,
there by official invitation, which was especially grain imports, for its
laywiththeMacedoniankings,
extremely rare. survival and prosperity.
such as Alexander the Great – until
thesepolarideasofdemocracyand Although Spartan women were not full Women had few rights. Courtesans
totalitarian rule resurfaced thousands citizens in the sense that men were, mightbehavewithmorefreedom,but
ofyearslater,defininglargepartsof Spartan women were famous in ‘respectable’ women were expected
AncientGreecefortheirfreedom to be neither seen nor heard
the20thcentury. andpublicvisibility.Theywere WOMEN outside the home. Practice may
known as ‘thigh showers’ because have been more liberal than
oftheirshorttunicsandscandalised theory, however: one Greek comedy
non-Spartans with their public dancing haswomengoingona‘sexstrike’to
and sexual freedom. forcethementomakepeacewithSparta.
In English, the word ‘spartan’ means ThepublicbuildingsofAthens,especially
Doric order columns ‘austere,withoutcomfort’,andit’sno ontheAcropolis,wereamarvelofthe
The columns are in the traditional ‘Doric order’ style. surprise that Classical Sparta was ancient world, setting new standards
However, there are eight in front and 17 down the asimpleandbasiccityinevery of magnificence and innovation.
side, rather than the usual six and 13, while new ‘Ionian senseoftheword.Therewasno PUBLIC Theimpressivepublicspaces
order’ features (such as an elaborate frieze) are behind. SPACES
ostentatious public architecture, were heaving with activity. The
andthereweren’tevencitywalls cityitselfandtheneighbouring
–thecity’swallswereitsmen,the harbour,thePiraeus,wereenclosed
Spartans said. within near-unbreachable walls.
‘Laconic’, meaning ‘using few words’ in Training in public speaking was
English,comesfrom‘Laconia’,another animportantpartofawell-to-do
word for Sparta. Spartans were famed Athenian’s education. One of the
for their dry and abrupt wit. After mostfamousoratorsofalltime,
adisastrousseabattle,aSpartan ELOQUENCE Demosthenes, was an Athenian,
The Parthenon temple of the goddess sent one of the most laconic war though it should be said he was
Athena on the Athenian Acropolis (built despatches ever recorded: “Ships also famous for warning against the
447–438 BCE) was vast and built entirely gone;Mindarus[theadmiral]dead;the Macedoniansinspeechafterspeech–
from marble – 22,000 tons of it. Nothing menstarving;atourwits’endwhattodo.” andbeingignoreduntilitwastoolate.
quite like it had been seen before

57

10 Ways Ancient Greece Changed the World






MEDICINE HIPPOCRATES



Hippocrates believed most
“First do no harm,” said Hippocrates. He didn’t do a great deal of good to illnesses were caused by
the body’s natural balance
his patients, either, but he did lay the foundations for future medicine being disrupted and that the
role of the physician was
The Greek continued alongside the new methodofcloseobservation to help nature restore it.
contribution to rational medicine of Hippocrates to study individual diseases, Unfortunately, his ideas of
physiology were hopelessly
scientific medicine in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, identifying them and cataloguing wrong. He thought the
07was huge. While this was a significant stage in their symptoms. balance was between four
eventhebestoftheirdoctors thehistoryofmedicine;perhaps Hippocrates particularly ‘humours’: blood, phlegm,
yellow bile and black bile.
couldn’t cure many illnesses thesinglelargestshiftinmedical insistedonaselflessand
andtheywereprovenwrong thinking there has been. The compassionatedutyofcareto Purgatives and bloodletting
in many of their speculations, new physicians said that illness patients. The principles and If the humours were unbalanced by ‘too much’ blood or
bile, then the patient might be bled or given a laxative
their ethos and method had purely natural causes, methods were now in place to
or emetic.
were the foundation for later coming from within the body advance medical knowledge
developments and live on today. and the physical environment; and care, even if treatment was Diet and exercise
While supernatural diagnoses itwasnotacursefromgods often ineffective without today’s Regular exercise, bathing in the sea and avoiding
overeating were all recommended to help avoid illness.
andreligiousandmagicalcures or witches. They developed a knowledgeofphysiology. During illness a light or liquid diet would be prescribed.
Quiet and rest
A Greek physician Patients should not be disturbed and should rest to help
sees to a patient
conserve and restore their strength.























The snake and staff were
a symbol of Asclepius, the
Greek god of medicine




ART Perfection of form and realism
madeGreekartstandout.Hav
sculptures ever been bettered?

Sculpture and painting were be in conflict, but thi
without doubt the greatest of Greeks admired perfe
the Greek visual arts, especially bodies. What was be
06sculpture. The distinctive perfect. The realism
characteristics were a concentration on the –howtheformwasb
humanformratherthanlandscapesorstrange three-dimensionality
andinhumanfigures–suchasgods,monsters and stances for bodie
The Aphrodite
or demons; a focus on perfection and beauty; This, combined with of Praxiteles (4th
attentiontodetailandasenseofrealism.It enduring influence o century BCE)
mightseemthatrealismandperfectionwould to this day.


58

10 Ways Ancient Greece Changed the World
























SPORT





In Greece, the hunt for physical perfection and their extreme
competitivenesscreatedanew,everlastingspectatorevent…
Discus is still Greek athletes were celebrities and At first, the Olympics lasted a single day and
an Olympic
sport today adored to an extent that would comprisedasingleevent,afootraceakintotoday’s
make us blush. Winning an Olympic 200-metres sprint. Over time Olympic events
05victory for your city would bring grew, matching those commonly pursued in the
glory, popularity, a head start in politics if you Greek cities, although some – chariot racing, above
wantedit,andevenastatue.Richcitizenswould all–wereonlyfortheveryrich,orthosefunded
competetospendthemostonpreparing by the very rich. They resembled military
contestants – such as lavishing exercises, sometimes obsolete ones as
money on chariots, horses and The with the chariots. The games were
trainers. Make no mistake, perfect body eventually held over a full five
though;itwasthe days.Teameventswererare,
In any major Greek settlement there
winning that counted. would be images of the perfect body in all the because for the Greeks
Cheating and sharp public spaces: in statues, carved on walls and even theessenceofsportwas
tombs, painted on walls and crockery. It was fed by
practice were not their obsessive concern for symmetry and proportion, individual contest and
OLYMPIC unknown and would also have gymnasia. For the well-off (male) citizen personal victory. Events
as seen in their architecture. Every place of substance
included foot, horse and
could create lasting
chariot races; discus
EVENTS controversy and ill- hiring a personal trainer, watching your diet and exercising and javelin throw; the
to look good were all essential. All we have added to the
feeling, while injuries
mix is cosmetic surgery. We have celebrity and fitness
and deaths were magazines instead of public art. It seems very modern, long jump; wrestling;
Sprint an accepted part of but in fact it’s quite Greek. However, there was a more boxing; a pentathlon;
Skills required: Speed, acceleration and the fighting events. serious note to their exercise, because they were and pankration, a
strength and stamina when in armour also preparing to fight in battle. The physical
Is it still an Olympic event? Yes, though What’s more – much like and mental demands of hoplite warfare combinationofwrestling
neither naked nor in armour now – star athletes could would hardly have been possible and boxing. Athletes trained
be persuaded to represent without this preparation. in a quite modern way, except
Horseandchariotracing other, richer cities. that they were often naked, as
Skills required: Horsemanship, courage and
good funding Althoughwefocusonthe theywouldbeinmanyofthecontests
Is it still an Olympic event? There are Olympics,andrightlysoinmanyways, themselves.AswiththemodernOlympics,
equestrian events, but not races – or chariots sportandexercisewerepartofdailylifeformale theprizeforvictorywasatoken,anolivewreath,
Discus Greeks,aswellasyoungfemaleSpartans.Infact, butonlythewinnerwasrecognised–therewasno
Skills required: Strength and coordination sport and exercise were part of what made the reward for coming second.
Is it still an Olympic event? Yes Greeks different from their neighbours, and they Many of our sporting words, including ‘athletics’,
Boxing recognised and celebrated this fact. The Olympic ‘athlete’, ‘gymnastics’, ‘gymnasium’, ‘stadium’,
Skills required: Strength, stamina and Games,traditionallysaidtohavebegunin776BCE ‘hippodrome’ and – of course – ‘Olympics’ come
courage andalwaysheldatOlympia,wereonlyopento from Greek, suggesting just how much modern
Is it still an Olympic event? Yes, though unlike adult Greek-speaking males. sportowestothem.
the Greeks we use padded gloves
Pentathlon
Skills required: All the athletic skills, plus
stamina and courage
Is it still an Olympic event? Yes, although the
individualeventshavechan ed



59

10 Ways Ancient Greece Changed the World






LITERATURE


The Greeks established many of EDUCATION
the genres of Western literature
The Athenians anticipated the widespread literacy and universities of
The first written western modern democracies, while Spartans inspired totalitarian regimes with
literature was the Iliad, a Greek
heroic poem probably written their fiercely regimented state schooling
04in the 8th century BCE. Lyric
and elegiac poetry — originally set to music As with so many training. Perhaps uniquely education, but the well-to-do
from the lyre and the flute, respectively — other things, among Ancient Greeks, girls wanted more to help them
were Greek creations. The Athenians alone Athens and were also educated, again with compete and excel in public life.
established two dramatic genres, tragedy 03Sparta educated an emphasis on physical and In the 5th and 4th centuries BCE
and comedy (in two different styles), while their children in very different mental toughness. higher education developed,
the philosopher Aristotle codified dramatic ways. Other Greeks had various In Athens, physical training incorporating elements of
principles in his influential Poetics. The Greeks approaches, but most were was also important, but there new thinking – philosophy,
also wrote novels, ornamental speeches closer to the Athenians, and by was much more emphasis on mathematics and the like –
and were the first people to write history; the late-4th century BCE the literacy and culture. It is thought although the early focus was on
Herodotus was the first historian of any sort, Athenian way was widespread. that a higher proportion of adult teaching ‘cleverness’, especially
while Thucydides was the first modern- One belief they all shared was male citizens could read and rhetorical tricks.
seeming historian. that education’s purpose was to write in 5th and 4th-century In time, schools such as those
Only a small portion of Greek literature produce good citizens. BCE Athens than in any modern founded by the philosophers
has survived, but what has – such as the epic In Sparta, a good citizen European state until the 20th Plato and Aristotle offered a more
poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus, meant being a good soldier. Boys century. This reflected the purely educational approach,
Sophocles and Euripides, the comedies of were taken from their families requirements and ambitions of providing the blueprint for
Aristophanes and Menander – is still read at seven, lived in communal an active democracy. modern universities. Academia
today, both in Greek and in translation. barracks and were subjected to Most Athenian boys probably and academics are named after
ferocious discipline and military only had a few years of formal Plato’s school, the Academy.

Athenian boys were taught
reading and writing, music,
maths and philosopy









































60

10 Ways Ancient Greece Changed the World






MATHS



The Greeks didn’t
invent maths, but they did
have a lot of Eureka! moments
MathematicsisaGreekword
for‘thatwhichislearned.’
Pythagoras,asemi-legendary
02and eccentric figure from the
islandofSamos–hewasavegetarianwho
forbadehisfollowersfromeatingbeans–is
said to have invented the word, and much
elsebesides.Howmuchofthisistruewecan’t
know, but it’s hard to dispute that many of the
terms, concepts and classical problems current in
maths today come from the Greeks, especially in the
field of geometry. Euclid is often called the ‘father of
geometry’, while Thales and Pythagoras’ theorems
arefundamental.Althoughpihadalreadybeen
calculated approximately in the Near and Far East, the
firstrecordedmathematiciantocalculateitrigorously
wastheGreekArchimedes,inaround250BCE.Even
where Greek mathematicians were unable to answer
questionsthemselves,theywereoftenaskingones
thatwouldprovefruitfulformathematiciansfor
millenniatocome.
Pythagoras shared
his knowledge
GREAT GREEK PHILOSOPHY with his students
PHILOSOPHERS
Greekphilosophersdidn’tonlyinventtheirown
Socrates
ApoorAthenian,hewasafamouslytoughsoldierduring subject; they also invented science
thewarsagainstSparta.Hewassentencedtodeathfor
‘introducing new gods’ to Athens and corrupting youth The word philosophy Whatwethinkofas‘criticalthinking’
through his ideas, and famously died by voluntarily drinking comes from the Greek owes much to Socrates, who made
hemlock.Socratesdidn’tleaveanywrittendocuments,but
hislegacycamethroughhispupils,especiallyPlato. for ‘love of wisdom’, many enemies by challenging lazy
01and is said to have first beliefs and conventional wisdom,
“The unexamined life been used by Pythagoras. The Greeks often with mischievous humour.
is not worth living” didn’t differentiate between what Plato was a pupil of Socrates,
we would think of as science and while Aristotle was a pupil of Plato’s.
Plato philosophy, and many philosophers Plato’s interests were widespread,
Born in the 420s BCE to a wealthy aristocratic Athenian were chiefly concerned with physics, but his greatest concern – the
family,hediedinthemid-4thcentury.Hetriedtoturn speculating on the nature of the subject for his masterpiece, The
Dionysius, the ruler of Syracuse, into a ‘philosopher-king’,
but was sold into slavery for his pains, though he was universe. Famously, Democritus (ca Republic – was justice. His belief in
quickly bought and freed by an admirer. He founded the 460-370BCE)expoundedanearly theinterconnectednessofthingsled
famous Academy. versionofatomictheory.Platoissaid himtostatethatjusticecouldonlybe
“Ignorance, the root to have despised Democritus to such seeninajuststate,forhimasortof
andstemofeveryevil” an extent that he wanted to burn all philosopher’s version of Sparta, which
his writings! influenced later totalitarian political
It wasn’t until Socrates (ca 470-399 thinking. Aristotle was more of a
Aristotle BCE) that subjects with humankind pragmatist and observer, a forerunner
Aristotle(384-322BCE)wasborninnorthernGreece,but
educatedfromtheageof18inAthensatPlato’sAcademy. as their focus, such as ethics, became of social scientists in some ways, as
He returned north to act as the future Alexander the fully recognised philosophical well as physical scientists.
Great’s tutor for several years, before returning to Athens concerns. Socrates also developed the Other major movements included
tofoundhisownschool,theLyceum.
dialectical method – roughly, question Epicurianism, Stoicism and Cynicism,
“Plato is dear to andanswerwithanemphasison allofwhichhavespawnedEnglish © Alamy; Getty; Sol 90 Images
me, but dearer still discovering true or false statements words based on simplified (and
is truth” anddefinitions–whichhasbeen somewhat misleading) versions of
hugely influential in many fields. their teachings.
61

















THEHUNTFORTHEREAL







Kng











Arthur












King,emperor,hero,god–thenameKingArthur

conjuresanarrayofimages,butjusthowmuch

truth is there to this ancient legend?


Written by Frances White



he armoured bodies lay so back. There was a moment of silence as the wind
thick on the ground that moved around them, then the two fell as one.
as the rain pelted the field, The tale depicts the legendary Battle of
it fell with an incessant Camlann, a conflict that saw the demise of one
ding-ding-ding upon metal. of the most famous kings in British history, a
There remained but two monarch so ingrained in the national conscience
figures facing each other that his tale appears on the halls of the British
across the plain; one raised his head toward the Parliament. A figure with such prominence that
other, his visor masking his face and his black some are so desperate to prove he was real that
spiked armour glinting as the rain ran down great excavations and archaeological digs are
the polished surface. The other stood against held in his name – King Arthur.
the setting sun, his helmet lost and his long But who was Arthur really? Did this ‘King of
golden hair wet against his forehead. There were the Britons’ ever even exist? Or is he simply a
wrinkles around his eyes, flecks of grey in his myth created to inspire a population in need of
beard and dinks in his gleaming silver armour, heroes? Although historians have failed to agree
but he grasped his long sword with a strong, firm on who exactly may have inspired the King
grip. His foe was the first to move, stabbing his Arthur we know today, there are many viable
sword forward with a jerky, sudden jab. The silver candidates. Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman
knight deflected him easily with a swift, fluid soldier of the late-2nd or early-3rd century is a
movement and thrust his sword forward, driving possible Arthur. This career warrior supposedly
it through his enemy’s chest. The gleaming led troops of Sarmatians against invading
sword sliced through the armour like silk. But his Caledonians in ancient Britain, all the while
foe had landed a blow too, blood seeping from grasping a standard bearing a large red dragon
his mouth, and with his final ounce of strength pendant – the inspiration for Arthur’s surname
he drove his sword through the silver knight’s ‘Pendragon.’ Historians hypothesise his military
70

The Hunt For The Real King Arthur





“A host of

Celtic literature

depicting

glorious

victories against

the invading

armies infested

the folklore”


































































71

The Hunt For The Real King Arthur










Camelot
The legendary castle of Camelot is at the
centre of many Arthurian legends and
serves as the home of the mighty King
Arthur and his court. Said to stand along
a river in the middle of a thick forest, Camelot is often portrayed
as a towering structure of impressive architecture and a symbol of
chivalry and might. The first mention of Camelot is in the Chrétien
de Troyes’ poem Lancelot, The Knight Of The Cart written in the
1170s, but it is only in passing, and Caerleon is identified as Arthur’s
home, a town in Wales. It wasn’t until the 13th century that Camelot
became more prominent. Arguments concerning its actual location
still continue; many believe it is in Carlisle or even Cadbury Castle
in Somerset, but Thomas Malory firmly placed Camelot in
Winchester, which encouraged the iconic depiction of
the castle. For many Camelot is not a literal place, but
rather a representation of Arthur’s power and the
3
realm the characters inhabited.

BELIEVABILITY SCORE





















“The perfect
intermingling of
fact and fiction

In legend, Camelot is a castled city for a nation who
home to a church and famously, the
Round Table needed a strong
figure”
A depiction of King
Arthur fighting Saxons
in the 6th century













Badbury Rings in Dorset is said to be
the site where King Arthur won his
greatest victory against the Saxons

72

The Hunt For The Real King Arthur






Geoffrey of Monmouth recorded
(falsely) that Ambrosius Aurelianus
ordered the building of Stonehenge
























A monument
for the Lady
in the Lake, a
mythical figure Arthur
victories prompted him to connected to know, but one thing we can
be raised to a figure of great Arthur trace reasonably accurately is was a
bravery among the Welsh, and Arthur’s emergence and journey
thus the character of Arthur was through literature.
born. The problem with Artorius, Theveryearliestmentionof warrior
just like Arthur, is that there is a Arthur is in Historia Brittonum written Althoughitmaybeimpossibleto
staggering lack of historical recording of his in 830 by Nennius, a Welsh monk, which pin an exact person to King Arthur,
supposed impressive deeds, which people would says: “Then in those days Arthur fought against it is more likely that his deeds and
expect from a figure so prominent he became a them with the kings of the Britons, but he was fighting prowess were inspired by real-
near-immortal legend. commander in those battles.” Because of the vague world heroes. It is commonly believed
A man actually called ‘King of the Britons’ in mentionitisdifficulttoassesswhetherthisArthur that Arthur was based on a Roman
ancient sources is Riothamus who lived in the wasactuallyakinghimselforsimplyamighty warrior who led the British against
5th century. Riothamus reportedly travelled into warrior. Nevertheless he goes on to list 12 battles the invading Saxon forces during the
Gaul twice, just as Arthur did, and was betrayed Arthurwasinvolvedin,12battlesthatoccurover 5thand6thcenturies.Theconflict
by a close friend, just as Arthur was. And when such great distances and lengths of time that it at Badon Hill is mentioned in one of
Riothamus died he was near a town called Avallon, wouldbeimpossibleforonemantofightin the sources of the Saxon invasion.
while Arthur was supposedly carried off to ‘Avalon’ them all. This somewhat fictional ‘historical’ list KingArthurhasbeenlinkedtothis
upon his death. Comparisons have also been sowstheveryfirstseedsofdoubtofArthur’s battle but his name was not actually
drawn between Arthur and Ambrosius Aurelianus, legitimacy – or perhaps instead, the mentionedatallintheoriginalsource.
a Romano-British leader who was well known for origins of a myth. The Battle of Badon reportedly saw
his victorious campaigns against the Saxons. There the Britons halt the Saxon expansion
are also theories that Aurelianus commanded King Arthur’s thanks to the leadership of Ambrosius
the forces at the Battle of Bandon Hill, the very legend is
linked with Aurelianus.Itisalsowrittenthatafter
same battle where Arthur apparently led an army.
the influx of the success at Badon Hill all the people
Aurelianus is recorded as having the virtues of a Saxon culture of Britain, kings and commoners alike
‘gentleman’ and was a Christian – two key qualities “lived orderly according to their several
Arthur shares. vocations”, indicating a period of
One of the more unusual origin theories of great peace and unity after the battle,
Arthur’s origin comes from his name itself. backed up by archaeological evidence.
Deriving from the Celtic word ‘Art’, meaning ‘bear’, Because the sources are so limited it is
it is possible that Arthur is simply a personification impossible to ascertain any details or
of a Celtic bear god. The Celtic tradition of legitimacy about the battle, but it does
worshipping revered animal spirits was popular, not take a leap of imagination
so it would make sense for their celebrated hero to to imagine that if such
originate from such beliefs. a victory did occur it
There are plenty more candidates for possible would help to inspire
Arthurs, as any warrior who was successful in creation of many
ancient Briton with a vaguely similar name seems 6 figures of lore.
to be a feasible option, whether any of these are
actually the true Arthur of legend we may never BELIEVABILITY SCORE
73

The Hunt For The Real King Arthur


































Merlin

Edward Burne Jones’s
Merlinthewizardisalmostas famous artwork, The
Last Sleep Of Arthur
famous as King Arthur himself, born
ofamortalwomanandanincubus.
Merlin inherited powerful magical The next time Arthur crops up is in the work barbarians and waged war against the Romans,
powers and became a sage. He then of Geoffrey of Monmouth, another Welsh cleric. which was subtly and cleverly linked to real-world
manufactured the birth of Arthur In his mammoth chronicle Historia Regum events, like the battle of Mount Badon (which
and served as an advisor to the Britanniae, Arthur takes on new life and some of Arthur is not mentioned in relation to until Historia
young king. Commonly depicted as the best-known parts of his tale come into being. Brittonum) was the perfect intermingling of fact
a wise old man dressed in a tall hat Apparently based on a lost Celtic manuscript that and fiction for a nation that needed a strong figure
and long flowing robes, Merlin first – conveniently enough – only Geoffrey was able to to help them keep a hold on their identity.
appeared in his recognisable form read, the apparent historical book details the story However, it was Arthur’s emergence into French
in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia of King Arthur’s life from his birth to his betrayal culture that gave the tale some of its most notable
Regum Britanniae but he is likely anddeath.Thisisalsothefirstinstance aspects. When Henry II married Eleanor
a combination of many mythical we are introduced to some of the of Aquitaine, the very English world
figures of Welsh folklore. most famous people in his of Arthur was introduced into
One of these was the 6th-century story, such as Guinevere the romantic and sublime
Welsh bard Myrddin – a legendary and Merlin. The book was world of French literature.
figure who was the combination of an instant success and “It is possible One of the most famous
prophet and madman. Monmouth 200 manuscripts are that Arthur French writers of the
combined this famous mythical still around today – a period, Chrétien de
figure with the Romano-British war tremendous number is simply a Troyes, was enraptured
leader Ambrosius Aurenlianus – for a Medieval work, by the idea of the
who many believe was the real life which demonstrates personification noble warrior king and
Arthur – and named his character just how successful it of a Celtic penned new tales of
Merlin Ambrosius. The wise old was. But why did the Arthur and his court,
wizard character became popular Britonstakeonthistale bear god” transforming him from
and was incorporated into many later of an ancient king so a mighty warrior into a
adaptations such as a poem by Robert enthusiastically? What was leader of a spiritual quest,
de Boron. Merlin became intrinsically it about Arthur that made him turning his world from one of
linked to King Arthur’s tales and so popular? blood and steel to courtly romance
entered the cultural mythology Theanswerisprettysimple, and the search for the mysterious Holy
along with him. Despite there being andrathercliché–Britainneededahero. Grail. The iconic Holy Grail first appeared in
absolutely no historical basis for After the Norman invasion of 1066 the kingdom Chrétien’s poem Perceval, The Story Of The Grail,
his existence, many travel wasinturmoil,anditwasn’tjustArthur’s which he claimed was written from a source given
to Brittany to visit his tale that emerged – a host of Celtic literature to him by Philip, Count of Flanders.
alleged burial place in depicting glorious victories against the invading It is unclear whether people in the Medieval
the legendary forest of armies infested the folklore. These tales became era considered Arthur fact, fiction or a mixture
Broceliande. 7 interlinked with history, demonstrating the of both, but just 100 years after Monmouth’s
illustrious and noble past of the Celts. Geoffrey’s book was published one person was very keen to
BELIEVABILITY SCORE tale of a strong Celtic king who defeated the demonstrate it was as close to fact as it could be

74

The Hunt For The Real King Arthur
























7

BELIEVABILITY SCORE


TheRoundTable


TheRoundTableisaniconoftheArthurianlegendasitsshape
doesnotallowa‘head’ofthetabletoexist,givingallpresentequal
status,believedbymanyasaperfectrepresentationofthechivalry
presentinArthuriantales.ThelegendarytablefirstappearsinWace’s
verse history Roman De Brut in 1155, telling the story of how Arthur
established the table to prevent quarrels between his barons. This tale
has been linked to the Celtic custom of round tables where kings and
warriors sat, as well as Emperor Charlemagne who reportedly had
hisownroundtabledecoratedwithamapofRome.TheRound
TablecametoinspirethetournamentsoftheMiddleAgeswhere
knights would masquerade as the popular characters of
Arthur’s court and engage in jousts. During excavations
at Roman ruins in Cheste,r it was suggested that
the Chester Roman Amphitheatre was the
prototype for the Round Table, but this
claim was later disputed.





















Sir Lancelot Sir Percival Sir Galahad

POSITION: CHAMPION KNIGHT POSITION: KNIGHT OF THE ROUND TABLE POSITION: KNIGHT OF THE ROUND TABLE
MAIN SKILLS: SWORDMANSHIP, BRAVERY MAIN SKILLS: RISING THROUGH SOCIAL RANKS MAIN SKILLS: SAVING MAIDENS IN DISTRESS
Lancelot began as just one of the Knights of Raised in the woods by his mother, when Galahad was the son of Lancelot and Elaine of
the Round Table, then rose to prominence as Percival witnessed passing knights he was Corbenic, who the knights mistook for Queen
Arthur’s finest champion, but his affair with inspired to join them. He became involved in Guinevere. According to legend, Galahad went
Queen Guinevere is believed to have caused the search for the Holy Grail, accompanying on to become one of the greatest knights in the
Arthur’s death and doomed the kingdom. He Galahad on his quest, in some versions playing world and ultimately discovered the Holy Grail
later becomes a priest in regret of his betrayal. the hero himself. before ascending to heaven.
75

The Hunt For The Real King Arthur






Landmarks of the

Arthurian legend







adrian’s Wall
HHadrian’sWallplaysarole
in many Arthurian myths, as
one of the most pivotal events amburgh Castle
ofthelegendplacestheBattle
BHaving existed since as early as
of Badon, between Arthur’s 547, it is said to be Lancelot’s fortress,
Britons and the enemy Saxons,
called Joyous Guard. It was originally
just north of the wall.
calledDolorousGuardandownedbya
wicked despot before Lancelot took it
byforceandchangedthename.




ardsey Island
BOf all the places
on this map, Bardsey
Island has perhaps the
most enduring link with
King Arthur, namely that
of being the mythical
Avalon itself. That myth ast Glen
has drawn artists, poets
and musicians here, ERiver
Alsoknownasthe
seeking inspiration right
up to the modern day. River Glen, this river
in Lincolnshire is
said to be the site
of Arthur’s first
battle – which he
won, of course.


– King Edward. It would have been advantageous
for the king who led a crusade of the Holy Land
to prove his connection to the mightiest and most
revered king in British history – Arthur. With his
spin doctors demonstrating proof that Edward was
a descendant of Arthur himself, it added weight to
his right to unite all the people, and he successfully
subjected a rebellious Wales to English law. In a
world where the king’s word was law, Arthur’s
legitimacy wasn’t even brought into question.
intagel
TCastle Edward wasn’t the last king to use the strength
According of Arthur’s legend to cement his own hold on the
to Geoffrey throne. The Tudor monarchs claimed their lineage
Monmouth’s
(dubious) sources, could be traced directly to the legendary king
Tintagel Castle is and used the power of the legend to prove the
where Arthur’s legitimacy of their claims to the English and Welsh
father, Uther
Pendragon, lived, thrones, vital for a dynasty that originated from an
and where Arthur illegitimate child of English royalty.
was conceived. Henry VIII was a very vocal supporter of King
Arthur and the concept of honour, and even
commissioned the Winchester Round Table,
most likely created in the reign of Edward I, to be
repainted with himself in the position of Arthur.
inchester Castle Again in the midst of national change during the
tonehenge WWinchesterCastleinHampshire
SAgain according to wassaidtobewhereArthurgathered Industrial Revolution, Britain’s monarch called
Monmouth, Stonehenge hisknightsatthefamedRoundTable, upon the power of the legend of King Arthur,
was built by Merlin the andisthemostenduringlocationfor
76 wizard after a great battle. the famed Camelot.

The Hunt For The Real King Arthur































A famous depiction of King
Arthur and Morgan Le Fey
on the isle of Avalon


An artist’s illustration of
Lancelot and Guinevere

“In a world where
theking’sword
waslaw,Arthur’s
legitimacy wasn’t
even brought
into question”




with Queen Victoria using the image of Arthur’s certainlynot.Althoughit’s
chivalrous knightsoftherealminconnectionwith highlylikelyhewasbased
Britain’s imperialistnatureastheempireexpanded. onbravewarriorsoftheera,allthe
Bolstered by the people’s faith that Britain was evidence points to King Arthur being borne from
creating a worldwideCamelot,theBritishEmpire theimaginationofthemenwhorecordedhis
grew to become the largest of all time. tales.Butdoesthismeanheisn’treal?Notreally.
It would be easy to assume from this that King Whether he exist
Arthur was nothingmorethanapoliticalploy,an talesofchivalrou
inspirationaltaleusedbyopportuniststofurther deep effect on Br
the power of British monarchs over the people, than any living p
but Arthur’s influence stretches further than that. and his thrilling a
More than apoliticalmyth,thestoryofArthur’s developing into n
righteous andheroiccourtbegantoembodyBritain with the country
itself. DuringtheMiddleAgesitwastheArthurian a noble warrior be
tales of just and noble conduct, of brave knights shining light of go
rescuing maidens in distress, that inspired the thesoldiersinthe
knights’ codeofchivalry.Thisideaofaknight’s Perhaps the most
duty to his countrymen and fellow Christians of an actual king
helped to launch ships, win battles and change and accepted swo
the political landscapeoftheworldasweknowit. dwellers, but inste
This in turn encouraged the creation of a code of someone who did
etiquette and morals that Britain is, for many, still embedded himse
defined by today. entire history and
So did theKingArthurweknowoffromthe that even today, o
tales actually exist – drawing swords out of stones after his creation,
and taking advice from an elderly wizard? Almost possibility of him The true location of the
mythical Camelot has
never been fully resolved
77

In the world of Hollywood cinema, the Old West was an outlaw

wilderness filled with trigger-happy cowboys and blood-thirsty Indians,



but what was life really like out on the American Frontier? Written by Dom Reseigh-Lincoln














































































78

he legend of the Old West isn’t a story about events such as the bloody Indian Wars – tales that
outlaws running amok with six-shooters helped fuel the imagination of future generations to
and Native American tribes routing isolated come. It was also a dull period in which an initially
settlements. It’s the story of an untamed small contingent of immigrants attempted to tame
T country’s road to becoming a united nation; a country that had more than doubled in size in the
of how one group of people attempted to tame a space of a few years. A place where people tried, and
wild frontier while another refused to accept the more often than not struggled, to make a safe new
unstoppable tide of progress. It’s the story of the New life in the plains of a new home.
World’s transformation into a global powerhouse. It all started in 1803 when the United States’ third
It’s a fascinating tale, but one so drenched in president, Thomas Jefferson, agreed on a deal with
popular fiction and romanticism that the truth the French Republic to acquire 2.1 million square
has been lost to childhood games and Spaghetti kilometres (820,000 square miles) of French-owned
Westerns. The Old West wasn’t a brief flash in the land known as Louisiana for 80 million francs.
pan of America’s timeline, either; it was a century- Napoléon Bonaparte met with Jefferson on 1 April
long melting pot of violence, poverty, opportunity that year to sign the deal. By December the land was
and expansion. It was filled with striking figures free to explore. In the space of 12 months, the United
such as the outlaw-cum-lawman Wild Bill Hickok States had expanded by a staggering 140 per cent.
and the Sioux leader Crazy Horse, as well as defining And just like that, the American Frontier was born.


79

Theeasternmostpointof
the railroad was in Omaha,
Nebraska.Itwasfromthis
pointthattheUnionPacific
Railroad Company began its
work on the new railroad


























ThetideofindustryrodetheFirst
Transcontinental Railroad that finally

tamed the wilderness

hePacificRailroadbeganasnothingmore thatfocusedondetermining
than an idea in the head of American thebestrouteforanew
businessman Dr Hartwell Carver. In 1832, railroadtofollow).The
Carver published an article in the New York surveys took a while to
T Courier And Enquirer that detailed quite the conductforareason–more
ambitious plan. He believed it was time for the than 1 million square kilometres (400,000 square acontingentofworkersfromChinaandIrish
eastandwestcoastsoftheUnitedStatestofinally miles) of American wilderness were to be charted. workersseekinganewlifeontheFrontier.
be linked together by a series of interconnected CongresspassedthePacificRailroadActsof1862 But how did the Native American nations
railroads.Thesheercostoftheplanwassohigh and1864.Theseactswerevitaltotherailroad’s react to this spine of industrial development as
that most investors balked at the idea, but Carver future – they guaranteed the railroad companies it was carved through their lands? One tribe, the
wasundeterred.By1847hehadpresentedhis were issued government bonds and grants of Pawnees,actuallywelcomedtherailroadontheir
plansinadocumententitleda‘ProposalForA land so the railroad could progress at an efficient land, but others reacted far more defensively. The
CharterToBuildARailroadFromLakeMichigan pace through the Frontier. However, money and Siouxtribewouldconductraidingpartiesonthe
ToThePacificOcean’toCongressinthehopeof land weren’t enough to build moving ‘Hell on Wheels’ settlements
swaying governmental funding. By working with an almost 3,200-kilometre thatmovedwiththerailroadas
enthusiasticcivilengineerTheodoreJudah,the (2,000-mile)-long railway – the itwasconstructed.Bythetime
design for the United States’ first transcontinental railroad companies needed it was finished, with the ‘last
railroadwasfastbecomingareality. bodies on the ground. Apart spike’ driven into the tracks in
Itwouldtakeanothersixyearsforthe from American workers, all Utah on 10 May 1869, the First
wheels to finally start turning, but the House of of the organisations involved Transcontinental Railroad was
Representatives would eventually request the relied heavily on immigrant a staggering 3,069 kilometres
PacificRailroadSurveys(athree-year-longprogram labour. These included (1,907 miles) long.
80

In 1862, the original Pacific Railroad Act chartered bytheamendedactof1864)and$48,000for
two companies – the Union Pacific Railroad every 1.6 kilometres (one mile) of track built. While
and Central Pacific companies – with the task the Central Pacific struggled eastward in the
of building the line as soon as possible. The mountains of Sierra Nevada, the Union Pacific laid
companies would start almost 3,200 kilometres trackatafarmorerapidpacewestwardfromthe
(2,000 miles) apart and race one another across the Missouri River. However, it would take until 1865
country until they met somewhere in the middle. andtheendofCivilWarforbothcompaniesto
Itwouldbecomeanintenseseven-yearracefor startlayingtrackwithvigour.Bythetimethetwo
two important reasons: First, there was no defined railroads met at Promontory Point, Utah in 1869,
meeting point, and second, Congress would grant the Union Pacific had covered almost twice as
6,400acres(2,590hectares)ofland(laterdoubled much distance as its rival.


Union
Pacific
Railroad
Company

Chairman Central Pacific Western Pacific
Dr Thomas Clark Durant Railroad Company
Railroad Company
Their plan Chairman
Tolayarailroadtrackfromthe Chairman
Leland Stanford Timothy Dame
eastern terminus on the Eastern
shore of the Missouri River all the Their plan
way to the Promontory Summit in Their plan To lay track between Oakland and
Utah Territory. To lay track east from Sacramento to
Promontory Summit, Utah. Sacramento, completing the railroad
by linking it to the West Coast.
Were they successful?
Yes, the Union Pacific successfully Were they successful? Were they successful?
built1,746km(1,085mi)oftracksover Yes, the Central Pacific successfully
built 1,110km (690mi) of track before Yes, the Western Pacific successfully
almost three years, laying more than built 212km (132mi) of track that
the two other companies combined. linking up to the Union Pacific portion
of the railroad. extended the Central Pacific Railroad.





AssettlersattemptedtotamethewildAmericanFrontier,bur
sprungupacrossthenation.Hereareafewofthevocationstha



Skills needed
A classic cowboy would
need strong experience
with horseriding, a sense
of navigation, the skill of
branding and the ability to
rope cattle on the move.
Main difficulties
Asmallgroupofcowboys
Skills needed Skills needed (usually 12 or so) could be
A strong sense of navigation; experience Goodpeopleskills;experiencewithpouring
looking after anything up
with cartography; knife skills for skinning. drinks;agraspofhowtofirearifle.
3,000 cattle in a single cattle
drive. Cattle rustlers were also a
Main difficulties Main difficulties common problem for herders.
Hadtodealwithtreacherousconditions, Drunkenfightsbetweenpatrons.When
animal attacks and hostile Indians. used,gunswerewildlyinaccurate.
Did you know?
CowboysintheWildWestlived
Did you know? Did you know? unwrittencodethatincludedne
They would catch and skin everything The‘batwing’doorsaren’tafictitious
riding another man’s horse with
fromwolvestobeaverstomeetthe elementaddedbyHollywood.Agreat permission and never waving at
booming fur demand. number of saloons had this iconic feature.
manorwomanonahorse.

Soda Springs
Located on a short detour
from Fort Bridger, the Soda
Springs had been a popular
stopping point for Indian
tribes and fur traders for
decades before the Oregon
Trail was completed. Local
Oregon City waters were naturally
While it was officially carbonated by volcanic
founded in 1842, the site activity and were especially
of Oregon City served popular for medicinal
as a popular trading purposes and bathing.
post between American
settlers and friendly
Indian tribes. As a natural
stopping point for the
Oregon Trail, Oregon
City swelled as pioneers
settled to make a life for
themselves in a rapidly
growing settlement.




Whitman Mission
Founded in 1836, the Whitman Mission provided
supplies and medical care to travellers on the
Oregon Trail and the local Cayuse Indian tribe for
well over a decade. However, in 1847 a measles
epidemic killed most of the Indian residents.
In retaliation, the tribe murdered every white
survivor and burned it to the ground.
Fort Laramie
Fort Laramie was one of the first
major forts on the Oregon Trail, so it
was an incredibly important station
on the route’s opening stretch. Built
in 1834, it existed to protect and
resupply those travelling down the
long road to Oregon City.
Native American camps
The Oregon Trail passed two major tribes: the
Cheyenne and the Pawnee. Travellers lived
in fear of attacks, but most of the time these
never came. Instead, the majority of contact
with the tribes was friendly, with Native
Americans offering assistance and trade.







The Oregon Trail wasn’t one, long Originally laid down by fur
uninhabited road – the route had
tens of forts and stations placed traders at the beginning of
along it so travellers could trade for
the 19th century, the Oregon
new materials and food
Trail has become an iconic
chapter in American history


Before the First Transcontinental Railroad made
traversing the West an easier – and less dangerous –
venture, the Oregon Trail remained the most direct
route from Missouri on the edge of the Frontier to
Oregon on the west coast of North America. This
3,500-kilometre (2,200-mile)-long route passed six
different states and took 30 years to map.
For years it was only accessible on foot or
horseback, but by 1836 it was suitable for wide-
82

1ST Founders of the ill-fated



Whitman Mission, Marcus
and Narcissa Whitman
were some of the first
people to use the Trail

1,
The Trail begins in 1836
The Oregon Trail took three
decades to complete and was
essentially lots of small trails
mapped and discovered by
different trappers, which were The number of people that took to the Oregon Trail en
then linked up to create a route masse in 1847, the first large group to travel the route
through much of the Frontier.
Independence, Missouri
became a ‘jumping-on’ point for
the Trail due to high influx of
Mormons that used it.





In order to travel the Oregon Trail in the average time
of four to six months, this was the amount of distance
a wagon would need to cover per day

It would take one year to
travel to Oregon by sea
The Rocks around the West Coast
Courthouse Rock and Jailhouse – this is why the Oregon
Rock were some of the first major Trail was so popular among
landmarks travellers on the Oregon travellers
Trail would see as they journeyed
across the West. The two large rock
formations are found near the Platte
River, but both have eroded heavily
since the days of the Old West.
Despite its popularity, the Oregon Trail
was not a smooth route and most covered
wagons used slower and hardier
animals such as oxen
instead of horses



wheeled wagons to traverse, numbers. Indian attacks,
which had a big impact on the contrary to popular fiction,
settlement of families, ranchers, were rare at best. Native
farmers and businessmen. The Americans often came into
Great Migration of 1843 saw contact with travellers on the
over 1,000 missionaries making trail but most of them provided
their way through the trail. advice or traded goods. Attacks Large
Close to 60,000 Mormons also usually fell on solitary wagons groups of
followed the trail west from if they happened to stray into wagons did indeed
form circles at night, but
Missouri to Utah in an exodus the path of a roving raiding this was usually to provide
that saw the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter- party. It’s estimated that around 20,000 people a rudimentary paddock for
day Saints establish a firm grip on the Frontier that died on the Oregon Trail, but the vast majority of livestock to graze, rather
than a way to defend
would last out the century. In January 1848, the those came from illness, not violence. The first
against Indian
Gold Rush hit the country like wildfire and Oregon major outbreak of cholera in 1849 killed thousands attacks
Trail became a highway for citizens from the east of travellers, as did a number of typhoid pandemics
coast making their way toward the goldfields. – even something as treatable as dysentery was
Wagons were known to travel alone, but most enough to kill someone out in the wilderness of a
formed ‘wagon trains’ in order to find safety in developing country.
83

What were the major Native
American tribes of the Frontier?
WhatweretheNativeAmericansreallylike?Anddidthey
come into contact with cowboys as much as we think?
Location: Arizona, New
Mexico, Colorado, Texas and
Oklahoma Unsurprisingly, many of the Indian tribes that when they did they were often bloody affairs.
Biggest rivals: Mexican populated the wilds of the Frontier were not best These conflicts raged from the very beginning of
settlers, American settlers pleasedwiththeincursionswhitesettlerswere American settlement to the latter part of the 19th
and the Comanche
making on their reservations. Their collective century, collectively known as the Indian Wars.
Perhaps one of the most animosity wasn’t without reason – the arrival In truth, most of the major conflicts between
misrepresented tribes in the of Christopher Columbus and other European the more aggressive tribes such as the Sioux were
history of the American Frontier, explorers was disastrous for the Indian nations, fought with the Union Army rather than cowboys,
the Apache people remain an
incredibly fascinating culture. Painted with hundreds of thousands dying from Columbus’ which aimed to stamp out the raids that formed
as bloodthirsty savages by popular fiction, the near-genocide alone. an integral part of many Indian cultures. Cowboys,
Apaches were simply a tribe that employed their Duringthe19thcentury,therelationship the cattlemen and women who drove large herds
ownuniquetakeonwarfare.Apacheraidingparties
weren’t rogue parties who attacked settlers for sport betweentheIndiannationsandtherapidly from ranchers to cowtowns such as Dodge City, did
– Apache warriors believed that open warfare was expanding American settlers deteriorated further come into contact with Indian tribes, but usually
dishonourable as it involved endangering innocent with every passing decade. The building of the only ever during large cattle drives. The Indian
lives. Apache society wasn’t based around the skills First Transcontinental Railroad in the 1860s Removal Act of 1830 had forced the Indian
of farming like their neighbours, the Navajo. Instead,
Apache placed a central focus on the ability to hunt servedasoneofthefiercestcatalystsas nations into designated reservations to
and kill effectively. thousandsofsettlersfromEngland, meet the ever-increasing need for new
Ireland and beyond travelled land developments, so thousands
tocarveoutanewlifeonthe of longhorns moving across the
Location: Oklahoma plains of the New World. plains became too enticing a
Biggest rivals: Osage, Sioux Violent clashes occurred with target for many of the struggling
more aggressive tribes, and tribes to resist.
Originally one of the
largestandmostprolific
Indian tribes, the Pawnee
spent the latter part of the
18th century in a peaceful
coexistence with French
settlers. France’s take on the A photo of Robert McGee, who was
New World was far more pragmatic scalped by a Sioux chief as a child
than their American counterparts,
using their relationship with the Indian tribes
to build a peaceful fur-trade business. Once the
French withdrew following the Louisiana Purchase,
the Pawnee had little contact with the encroaching
American settlers. This isolation kept the Pawnees
away from the infectious diseases that ravaged
their fellow nations, but by 1859, increased contact
had eventually reduced its population from around
12,000 to as little as 3,000.



Location: Northern USA and
southernmost Canadian
regions
Biggest Rivals: Pawnee,
Cheyenne
The Sioux people (meaning
‘little snakes’) were one of the
most powerful tribes on the
Great Plains, with a total of seven
individual sub-tribes within their
nation (the Mdewakanton, the Sisseton,
the Teton, the Wahpekute, the Wahpeton, the
Yankton and the Yanktonai) but they were generally
known by two separate names – the Lakota and the
Dakota. The Sioux were both farmers and hunters,
but they relied heavily on the buffalo herds that
roamed the Great Plains. As American settlers hunted
them into extinction, the Sioux were soon driven into
reservations that drastically changed their way of life.


84

An Apache
fiddler – the
Apache were
not as brutal as
popular fiction
depicts them





































Gunfightsandshoot-outslikethose
in Hollywood Westerns were rare in
therealOldWest




A depiction of the capture of Native
American leader Sitting Bull in
South Dakota, 1890

MythseestheWildWestasalawlessplacepavedwiththe
bodiesofgunslingers,buttherealitywasfarmorecivilised

Hollywood, with all its choreographed gunfights didn’ttoleratecivilunrest.Butonthe‘wrongside
and blood-soaked ambushes, would have you of the tracks’, things were much rowdier. This part
believe the Frontier was a hellish killing field. The of town played home to The Red Light House, a
reality couldn’t have been more different. Guns brothelsorougheventhegirlswerearmed.
wereanecessityoutinthewild;peoplehadthe MaintaininglawontheFrontierwasnotaneasy
righttodefendtheirlivesandpossessionsfrom task,butitwastakenveryseriouslybythosewith
bandits, hostile Indians and local wildlife, but in something to lose. In the settlements and cities
thecowtownsandotherurbansettingsgunlaws that rose from the dust, the safety of its citizens
were stricter in the 19th century than they are in wasupheldeitherbysheriffsappointedbythe
themodern-dayUnitedStates. government or by privately funded ‘lawbringers.’
Most towns strictly prohibited the carrying of These men were essentially mercenaries, hired
firearms within city limits. It was a common sight fortheirproficiencywithtakingaliferatherthan
toseeasignoutsideacityortownthatread‘Leave theirdesiretopreservethecommongood.Asthe
YourRevolversAtPoliceHeadquartersAndGetA more isolated towns were linked by the expanding
Check.’ Only lawmen – be they city sheriffs or US railway in the 1870s onward, these private killers
marshals – were legally allowed to carry heat on the were soon replaced by official sheriffs.
streetsandmostweren’taversetoconvincingyou However,theuseofprivatelawbringersfounda
of their authority from the business end of rifle. Of more fortuitous home in other areas of the West.
course, such order could only survive as long as Wagon trains employed them to ensure infighting
someone was willing to enforce it. andviolencewaskepttoaminimum,asdid
Sometowns,suchasDodgeCity,hadtwovery mining communities across the Frontier. In fact, © Alamy; Abigail Daker
differentdistricts.Onesidehaditsownlawmen majorcasesofviolenceweremostlyfromclashes
thatkeptthepeace;here,saloonsandcathouses between hostile Indian tribes and the military.
85

Book Reviews






BOOKREVIEWS







All About History’s pickofthenewestand

most interesting history books




EMPIRE OF SIN




A riveting account of the unruly jazz age

Author Gary Krist Publisher Amberley Price £20 Released November 2014
his gripping account of turn-of-the-century precision of a detective, using police reports and background, Krist succeeds in evoking the music
NewOrleansnarratesexactlywhatitsays court transcripts to provide a balanced and accurate oftheageinawaythatisaccessibletoallreaders.
on its evocative tin: the city’s booming sex accountofthegrimaffair,andthenleavingittothe His inclusion of the memoirs of such jazz ‘kings’ as
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colourful, captivating and often heart-breaking crimes and social atrocities that plagued New of these legendary characters.
historyofthisculturalmeltingpot,andexplains Orleans in the early-20th century, the story of jazz Recent stories of corruption and racism within
howitovercametheobstaclesofsegregation, providesafoundationuponwhichtherestofthe theUSpoliceforceappearasgloomyshadowsof
prohibition and war. narrativeisbuilt.Onceconsideredan“affrontto thetragediesthatoccurredoveracenturyago,and
Dividedintofourpartscoveringtimeperiods decency” by the elite classes for its association with makeKrist’sbookallthemorerelevanttotoday’s
between1890and1920,itsshortchaptersmakethe sex, alcohol, drugs and inter-racial mixing, the tale readers. Empire Of Sin isatriumph,provingthat
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talesofseveralofthecity’sdegenerateswithin history risk alienating readers of a non-musical Alicea Francis
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primarysource.Everypieceofdialogueiscited
in an extensive notes section at the back of the
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86

Book Reviews





IN 1876: BANANAS

& CUSTER


The definitive guide to a year in history
RECOMMENDS…
Author Robert Cormican Publisher Miles from the Madding Crowd Price £6.99
Released 19 April 2014
Hitler’s First Victims
n 1876: Bananas & last, jump to the date of your choice or even choose Author: Timothy W Ryback
Price: £12.99
Custer is a detailed and to navigate by a varied and entertaining selection of
Publisher: The Bodley Head
innovative record of the themes, ranging from ‘Animal Kingdom’ to ‘Predictions’
There has
events occurring over to ‘Spot the Difference.’ long been a
Ione year in history, and Among the informative and often amusing retelling debate about
yes, both General Custer and of the days’ events there are little goodies littered about, whether
the Nazi
bananas feature here. such as the occasional pop quiz, maps, images and Holocaust
True to the title, the book even handy links to other related articles in the book, was pre-
features a mixture of earth- so you can easily follow one single story through the planned or
whether their
shattering events alongside year. Almost every entry is backed up with extracts from
international
curious and bizarre goings- newspapers and books from the period, adding a factual network of
on, which all took place during 1876. Diaries of years or basis to the entertaining prose. death camps
and murder
even centuries in history have been published before, Because of the staggering size and depth of this book,
squads
but what is unique about this offering is the form it it’s unlikely to be something you read from metaphorical n inevitable
takes. Published exclusively for the iPad, this entire cover to back in one sitting, but what it does provide consequ nce of policy. It’s one of
interactive book has been created with the medium is an engaging way to fully immerse yourself in the history’s darkest subjects, and in
Hitler’s First Victims Timothy W Ryback
firmly in mind. You are perfectly free to read it as you events that defined 1876. The best thing about this book explores it with a compelling tale
would an ordinary book, but that would deprive you is that there is no ‘proper’ way to read it; instead it puts of a quiet hero who stood up to the
of some of the most innovative and engaging aspects the knowledge and the information in the hands of the might of the Third Reich at the precise
moment the killing began.
of the publication. You can choose whether you’d like reader to do with as we see fit.
toexploretheyearinorderfromthefirstdaytothe Frances White
HISTORY THROUGH
COINS
MAPPING THE Home study coin collecting
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SECOND WORLD WAR how to identify and photograph
them. A must for every new
collector. Makes a great present!
A new point of view of WWII
Author Michael Swift & Michael Sharpe Publisher Conway Price £20
Released 9 October 2014
Support whilst you learn
here is a staggering composed in varying style and detail. And with each Course material supplied on
CD, USB or as download
amount of overview entry, the reader gets a deeper understanding of not
literature on the only the Second World War, but also the staggering Coins available for purchase
Second World War, importance of the cartography side of warfare in a time HISTORYCOINS.CO.UK
T about 70 years’ long before the advent of satellite navigation and Google
worth of it, in fact. Therefore Maps. Here, a single wrong detail in a U-boat recon map
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rarity to see a book that covers doom for hundreds or thousands of soldiers.
this world-defining conflict from Another fascinating element is the inclusion of ‘fake AUTHORS
maps’ for feigned manoeuvres or assaults. One of those
However, Mapping The Second World War: The Key is the plan of the feigned assault at El Alamein, which is
Battles Of The European Theatre From Above does literally interestingly clearer and more detailed than many of the Please submit
that, by collating maps of all the most important battles, real mission maps, as if its suspiciously straight lines and synopsis plus three
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feigned ones) and even a prisoner-drawn sketch of the the enemy should they get their hands on the map itself. consideration to:
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explaining the event behind it and the most important by opening up on a random page each time for a 60 Cannon St,
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there is surprisingly little repetition, as the maps are Erlingur Einarsson www.olympiapublishers.com

Book Reviews






MAGNA CARTA


AgreattalefortheanniversaryofEngland’sGreatCha

Author Dan Jones Publisher Head of Zeus Price £14.99 Released 11 December

ummer2015seesthe‘GreatCharter’ 1215, and then goes on to answer this question
reach its ninth century, and so telling in one of the most thorough and entertaining
its story is a fitting way to celebrate. historical tales we’ve read in a long time. His
That’s a tougher job than its sounds, account is relatively short but vividly detailed
Sthough; the history of this seminal punctuated with full-colour illustrations and
piece of English legislation is convoluted and appended with the Medieval English translatio
archaic, weaving around Medieval law and an of the Magna Carta, as well as the original
ancient system of government in a way that Latin version; the latter of which was pretty
could easily leave the reader cold. much lost on us, but by that point we’d learne
However, Dan Jones charts the making of more of 13th-century English
the Magna Carta through to its legacy, leaving history in a few hours’
no stone unturned in his telling, painting lurid reading than at a whole year
pictures of an unscrupulous Medieval king and of school.
greedy barons, their wicked machinations and As a historian, journalist
the jaw-dropping lengths they went to achieve and television presenter for
their goals. He asks how England’s subjects both the BBC and Channel
were able to bind the unbending plantagenate 5, Jones’s pedigree is clear.
monarch,KingJohn,toalegaldocumentin Butit’shispassionforthis
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punctuated with full- Magna Carta foranyone–

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OMNIBUS: A SOCIAL HISTORY

OF THE LONDON BUS


110yearsofthewheelsgoing‘roundand‘round
Author Various Publisher London Transport Museum Price £25.00 Released 13 November 2014

rom horse-drawn boxes to hydrogen- affordable, the bus carried you to work and school
cell engines, buses have been an iconic and was your ticket out of the big city for holidays
part of any visit to London down the and summer breaks. What the book really gets
years. Written as part of 2014’s Year of across is the huge role the bus had – and still has –
F the Bus celebrations, Omnibus: A Social to play in society. The vivid images of the old-style
History Of The London Bus has been compiled to buses are a joy and showcase a bygone era.
celebrate 110 years of the London General Omnibus Perhaps most impressive are the images of the
Company. Across its 292 pages, the book focuses Blitz that show a group of gas-masked evacuees
on various topics; from the interwar ‘pirate’ buses waiting at a bus stop
to the new fleet of this millennium. Containing a by their tickets, which
real passion for all things London, it is both light- remind the civilians t
hearted and immaculately detailed. There are 449 “not leave your gas m
fantastic illustrations on offer with the most notable on the bus!” A release
being Simon Murphy’s culture section, which is that could have so ea
infused with colour as it showcases the portrayal of become a dull textbo
the bus in popular culture. A highlight is the 1970s Omnibus: A Social His
children’s show Here Come The Double Deckers Of The London Bus is
which features the niche subject of seven children’s from that and is a sui
adventures on an old bus. celebration for what h
An institution older than the London become a true
Underground, there is a surprising amount on British icon.
show in Omnibus. Before the family car became Jack Griffiths
88

Book Reviews





ARTILLERY SCOUT


A personal account from the trenches of WWI

Author James G Bilder Publisher Casemate Price £19.99
Released 19 November 2014

hen writing about a subject that overlooked in war literature, so Bilder has found a
affected the lives of millions of new element to an incredibly crowded market.
people around the Earth, it can While there was plenty of historical information
be easy to get lost in the sheer presented in a light, easy-to-read fashion, the way
W scale of the event. This is why Bilder occasionally pushes Len back into the story
James G Bilder based this World-War-I book around is done a little clumsily. The passages in which Len
just one person – his grandfather Len. is actively involved read very well and as the book
By building a narrative around this one man, and story progress it becomes easy to empathise
Bilder hopes to humanise the conflict and draw with Len.
the reader into a personal story of love, tragedy Overall this is a fresh, well-researched
and sacrifice. He paints an engaging picture of his perspective on an heavily covered subject. There
grandfather and grandmother in the early days of is plenty to interest the military enthusiast, while
their relationship in the United States, forged amid the emotional angle of Bilder’s grandfather acting
rising tensions in Europe. We then follow Len on as the narrative’s central character works very well,
a journey to France to take part in a war he didn’t even though he sometimes feels just a little bit
believe the US should even be involved in. shoehorned in.
The majority of this book is a lively account Jamie Frier
of the 58th Field Artillery Brigade’s role in World
War I. Len was an artillery scout, whose principle “As the story progresses
job was to look for enemy guns and provide it becomes easy to
intelligence so the American gunners could
aim their artilleries accurately. This role is often empathise with Len”

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Sendyourquestionsto [email protected]


Is it true that
Papa Doc used
voodoo during his
rule in Haiti?
Gloria Smith, Corby
The island of Haiti endured tyranny and ruin
under the rule of Francois Duvalier (1907 to
1971), also known as Papa Doc. Elected on a
nationalist and populist platform in 1957, he
traded on anti-communism in the wake of
the nearby Cuban Revolution, extracting as
much US aid as he could, almost all of which
was expropriated. But when the Kennedy
administration cut off aid in mid 1962, an
enraged Duvalier put an ‘ouanga’ (curse)
on the president, more than a year before
his assassination. The cross-breeding of
Christian and African folk beliefs, known as
voodoo, formed part of Duvalier’s dreadful
personality cult. He recruited a rural militia
of thugs known as the Tonton Macoute, the
The Black Death killed tens of millions name being derived from ‘Uncle Knapsack,’
in several outbreaks worldwide a Creole bogeyman who kidnaps children.
He even composed his own ‘revolutionary’
What is the closest humanity has catechism, where the Lord’s Prayer began:
“Our Doc, who art in the National Palace for
life, hallowed be thy name by present and
ever come to being wiped out? future generations. Thy will be done in the
capital Port Au Prince and in the provinces…”

Rebecca Bullen, Cheltenham out of the Indonesian island of It has been noted there is little
Epidemics such as the Plague of Sumatra by a volcanic explosion, genetic diversity in humans
Justinian (541 to 543) and the Black making it the most devastating compared with our nearest animal
Death (1346 to 1353) killed off tens eruption on Earth in 2 million relative, the chimpanzee. In 2003,
of millions, but did not extend to years. Everything within an a study by Stanford University and
all continents. The superpowers 800-kilometre (500-mile) radius the Russian Academy of Science
risked a nuclear holocaust during was completely destroyed and showed that a ‘bottleneck’ event
the 1962 Cuban Missile crisis but volcanic ash spread two-thirds of occurred around 70,000 years
pulled back in the end. However, the way across the Indian Ocean. ago. Humanity, then confined to
some 70,000 years ago, the global The Toba eruption lasted a week, Africa, was decimated by the Toba
human population dropped down during which it discharged an eruption, which sparked a six-year
to the 10,000-mark. When Lake estimated 28,000 cubic kilometres volcanic winter and a 1,000-year
Toba erupted, a 100 x 30-kilometre (6,717.6 cubic miles) of magma into ice age. We are all the descendents Jean Francois ‘Papa Doc’ Duvalier used
(62 x 19-mile) crater was blasted the atmosphere. of the very few who survived. Voodoo as part of his cult of personality
between 1957 and 1971

Thisdayinhistory 8January

1642 1745 1790 1877

O Death of Galileo Galilei O The 2nd Jacobite Uprising O Washington delivers the first State O Crazy Horse and his men fight their
The Italian astronomer who used Charles Edward Stuart and his of the Union address last battle
thefirstmoderntelescopetomap forces attempt to regain the Bornintothelandedclass,Washington TheOglalaLakotaleaderhadinflicteda
thephasesofVenusandthemoons throne from the Hanover dynasty. had presided over the drafting of the stunning defeat upon General George
ofJupiterdies.Hiscontentionthat The uprising culminates in the US Constitution and established a form Custer’s 7th Cavalry at Little Bighorn,
the Earth was not at the centre of Battle of Culloden the following ofgovernmentstillinusetoday.Hehad MontanainJune1876.Hedecidesto
the universe earned him charges of year, the last pitched battle fought commanded the Continental Army during surrender with his men, dying that
heresy by the Catholic Church. on British soil. theRevolutionaryWarof1775-1783. SeptemberatCampRobinson,Nebraska.

92

History Answers






The Taj Mahal at dawn, recognised as one of
the ten modern wonders of the world Why was the Taj YOUR
Mahal built?

Mary Dudley, Southampton TWEETS
One of the world’s most
recognisable buildings, Follow us at…
the Taj Mahal in Agra, @AboutHistoryMag
was built between 1632 @AboutHistoryMag
and 1653 at the behest @Books_Imagine Imust
of Shah Jahan, the get this immediately!
#wantforchristmas
fifth Mughal emperor. @NippDawg
Shah Jahan was a
@AboutHistoryMag Just
patron of painting
completedyourmagazine
and architecture; Episode06/2014,cantwaitto
the Taj Mahal, a buy the new one tomorrow!
MUMTAZ MAHAL mausoleum devoted Really excited, love every
article!! :)
1593-1631, Mughal to his beloved third wife. The Mughal Empire was @BastiNeCePa
under siege during his rule. Khandahar, in present-day
Mumtaz Mahal was Afghanistan, was lost to the Persians in 1649 and Shah @AboutHistoryMag
Brief born Arjumand Banu Jahan faced uprisings in the Deccan Plateau. He was Informative issue as always
@quizaddictblog
Begum in 1593 of
Bio Indian and Persian fighting one of the latter campaigns when Mumtaz
descent. Aged 19,
she married Prince Khurram, died in childbirth. The devastated emperor
crowned Shah Jahan in 1628. entered seclusion for a year, reportedly
The emperor was devoted to re-emerging with white hair and a stoop.
her and she accompanied the
royal entourage. In 1631 she It is said that his dying wife requested he
died in Burhanpur giving birth never remarry and that she be honoured
to their 14th child, a girl named
Gauhara Begum. with a mausoleum.
How much longer AdolfHitler‘spublic
imagebelieda
might Hitler have myriad of health
problems including
lived? Parkinson’s disease
Elsie Taupiri, Dudley
Hitler had multiple health issues even before
World War II. By the time the 56-year-old
Hitler died, he was taking 28 pills per day
and was afflicted by skin lesions, irregular
heart beat, syphilis, coronary sclerosis and
irritable bowel syndrome. The trembling
hand characteristic of Parkinson’s disease
had appeared in the 1930s, around the
same time the Führer began popping
amphetamines, becoming heavily addicted
around 1942.
Hitler’s mother died of cancer while still
in her forties and neither his father nor Learn whether V
his sister lived beyond their mid-sixties. were as fiery as
Had he survived beyond 1945, increasingly
debilitated by multiple illnesses, perhaps still historyans
addicted to drugs, it’s difficult to imagine
him living to a ripe old age.




1918 1935 1940 1973

O Woodrow Wilson announces O The king of rock is born O Britain introduces rationing O Trials of Watergate burglars
his ‘14 Points’ On the same date 19 years Initially rationing applies to begin
The US president envisions a post- later, a former truck driver, bacon, butter and sugar but A break-in occurred the previous
warworldbasedoninternational Elvis Aaron Presley, pays $4 soon extends to a wide range of June at the Democratic national
co-operation, free trade and to a small Memphis studio foodstuffs, fuel and consumer headquarters at the Watergate
democracy. Wilson’s speech is to record two songs, Casual goods. A black market soon office complex in Washington DC.
theonlyexplicitstatementofwar Love and I’ll Never Stand In emerges. Rationing continues The scandal leads to the resignation
aims by a belligerent power. Your Way. after the war, up until July 1954. of President Richard Nixon in 1974.

93

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Photos O YOUR PHOTOS O
Scansofsnapsthat
offerinsighttothepast
Antiques and A pair of war heroes
objects
Show off your family heirlooms,
mementos and retro curios Ted Cardwell friendship developed between the two and together
Letters from the past Iwasgoingthroughmyfather’s they trained at Salisbury Plain, were both posted
belongings when I uncovered to North Africa and ended up parachuting into
Oldcorrespondencecanholdawealthof
some very interesting items Arnhem together. The two men were inseparable.
historical info and fascinating stories
from World War II, which got me It seems that their friendship became somewhat
News clippings thinking about the exciting life legendary, as when I was working as a cab driver I
Articles reporting on iconic events he led and the amazing things pickedupapassengerwhorevealedtomehewas
Amazing stories he had achieved. Among the anoldsoldier.Wegottalkingandheaskedmeif
medals,servicecardsandprogrammesforvictory the names Snake Hip Johnson and Frankie Peacock
Interestingorinsightfultalespassed
showsthereareafewrarephotographsofTed meantanythingtome.Irespondedthatyes,Snake
down from your ancestors
inhisyouth,butnoneofthesetrulycapturehis Hip Johnson was my dad’s nickname when he was
Eyewitness accounts experienceofthewar,soIdecidednowisthe serving. The old soldier immediately recounted
Didyouwitnessahistoriceventin perfecttimetotellhisstory. memories of my father, about how he got shot in
person? Share it today My father served in the Airborne 4th parachute thearm,andhowFrankiegotascaronhischeek.
squadron where he rose to the rank of sergeant, However, most vivid to me were the memories
Family trees andhisnumberwas1952760.Whenhefirstjoined herecountedofthetwomen,knownasthe‘terrible
Achancetoboastaboutfamousor theforceheimmediatelybondedwithanother twins’,riskingtheirownlivestodragsoldiersoutof
significant ancestors youngmancalledFrankiePeacock.Aquick the way of oncoming German tanks at the Battle of
Send your memories to: [email protected]



94

All About
YOURHISTORY
























The back side of a Christmas
card from Ted, with his message
to his family in Surrey















A selection of Sgt
Cardwell’s medals












Arnhem.
the soldie y
about this.
My father was captured at [the Battle of] Arnhem
with over 6,000 other Allied soldiers and was
taken to a camp near Hanover, where he worked
in a sugar factory for six weeks. My dad received
many medals for his heroism and service during
World War II, such as The Star, The France and
Germany Star, The Defence Medal and another
medal, all of which are now in my possession. He
was also a life member of the Royal Engineers
Association and the Arnhem Veterans Club. At
his funeral there was one very important speech,
spoken by his old friend Frank Peacock. I still have
the speech today, something I treasure perhaps
even more than his medals


Do you have any
family stories to

/AllAboutHistory
@AboutHistoryMag
News clippings recounting
the achievements of the
British war heroes

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97

HISTORY HOLLYWOOD

VS





Fact versus fi ction on the silver screen






































What they got right
African slaves are shown fighting
among the British forces. The
redcoats recruited many slaves
THE PATRIOT Revolution, such as the Ethiopian
to fight during the American
Regiment, and these slave soldiers
were promised their freedom in
return for their service. Native
American soldiers are also shown,

Director: Roland Emmerich Starring: Mel Gibson, Heath Ledger, which is true to history.
Joely Richardson Country of origin: USA Year made: 2000
Does this Hollywood depiction of the American
Revolutionary War come under heavy fire?


WHATTHEYGOTWRONG…



Gibson’s Benjamin Martin The film’s portrayal of One of the film’s harshest Martin’s sister-in-law In the film Cornwallis
01 is based on militia leader 02 slavery has come under 03 criticisms is for its portrayal 04 Charlotte is shown 05 orders to “Sound the
Francis Marion, portrayed in the criticism as “a whitewashing of of atrocities committed by the wearing a selection of dresses retreat” at the end of the Battle of
film as a family man and a hero. history”. In the film Martin doesn’t British. The redcoats are shown that at the time would have Guilford Courthouse, while the
In reality, Swamp Fox, as Marion own slaves, but this is unlikely killing POWs and even burning been considered revealing and Americans celebrate victory. In
was known, was a serial rapist who considering his status and the a church packed with unarmed scandalous. She is also shown reality, the British won this battle
murdered Cherokee Indians in the film’s era, and even Gibson called civilians. This has no factual basis wearing her hair down, which was and Nathanael Greene’s American
name of fun. this decision “a cop-out”. in any 18th-century war. considered risqué. army was forced to retreat.







© Alamy


98

The Rise and Fall of

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