(DK) The Religions Book (Big Ideas Simply Explained) 2018

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250 THE LAST SUPPER THE GOSPELS 251

See also: Covenants 44–47 ■ The Passover 72–73 ■ The Baptism of Jesus Herod’s Jerusalem
IN BRIEF 194–97 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Day of Pentecost 282–83
Seeking to establish his
PASSAGE their ancestors’ escape from reputation as Israel’s ruler
Luke 22:7–38 despite his association
Egypt: unleavened bread, roasted with the Roman overlords,
THEME lamb, bitter herbs, and wine. Herod the Great, King of
New symbolism Judea (37–4 bce), decided to
of Passover The table is set refurbish the Second Temple.
Later that day, Jesus and the rest For whenever you eat He aimed to nearly double
SETTING of the disciples arrive at the room this bread and drink its overall footprint with a
c. 29 ce An upper room of to share the meal. A low table is set, this cup, you proclaim vast paved court, and this
a house in Jerusalem on the and Jesus and the disciples recline the Lord’s death until work was still ongoing during
night of the Passover feast. around it, in the customary way. He comes. the time of Jesus. According
Stone jars filled with water stand 1 Corinthians 11:26 to historian Flavius Josephus
KEY FIGURES by the door, so that guests can wash (c.37–100 ce), the Temple was
Jesus The Messiah and Son their dusty feet before sitting down. “like a snow-clad mountain
of God in the period leading Usually, this task is done for them by for all that was not gold was
up to His crucifixion. a servant, but to their surprise, the gleaming white.” Situated
Peter and John Two of disciples watch as Jesus strips off alongside the Temple walls
was the Antonia Fortress,
Jesus’s disciples, who are His robe, ties a towel around His which Herod built to house
sent by Jesus to prepare the waist, and begins to wash their feet. a spiritual cleansing. All that Jesus the occupying armies. Other
Passover meal in Jerusalem. Peter is horrified: “Lord, are you is about to face in the next 24 hours major sites included his palace,
going to wash my feet?” he asks can be understood as Him serving the Praetorium, and the home
Judas Iscariot The disciple (John 13:6). In answer, Jesus tells them in the ultimate way—His of the Roman governor.
who goes on to betray Jesus the disciple that unless he allows sacrifice will cleanse the stain of Jerusalem’s population
in the Garden of Gethsemane. his feet to be washed by Him, Peter sin from their lives. around this time is estimated
will not be able to share the meal at 40,000, though at festival
with Jesus, or all it symbolizes. Preparing the disciples times, pilgrims coming into
Jesus is setting His disciples an As they eat bitter herbs and the city to worship could
example here, turning the usual roasted lamb and remember increase that number to about
expectations of greatness on their God’s deliverance of the Israelites 250,000. However, many of
head. Jesus, their honored leader, from Egypt, Jesus alludes to the these visitors would not find
is humbly serving them by washing significance of the occasion. “I have accommodation in the city;
instead, they would look for
their feet, an act that symbolizes eagerly desired to eat the Passover rooms in nearby villages—
with you before I suffer,” He says such as Bethany, where Jesus
s opposition mounts to Since they are staying at Bethany, A Flemish miniature by Simon (Luke 22:15), knowing that this will and His disciples stayed.
Jesus’s ministry, Jesus just outside the city, they need Bening (c.1525–30) shows Jesus be the last meal with His disciples
A decides to spend time to find a room in which to share preparing to wash the feet of His before His opponents lay hands
privately with His closest disciples, the meal. Jesus sends Peter and disciple Peter, an act normally on Him. As they share one of the
performed by a servant.
sharing with them the most John, two of His disciples, to traditional cups of wine around the
important occasion of the Jewish make the arrangements for the Very truly I tell you, table, Jesus notes with foreboding
year, the Passover supper. During feast. “Where do you want us to guest room, where I may eat the no servant is greater that He will not eat this meal with
this meal, they remember God’s prepare for it?” they ask (Luke 22:9). Passover with my disciples?’” (Luke than his master, nor is a them again “until the kingdom of
rescue of their ancestors from Jesus tells them that as they enter 22:11). Jesus tells the two disciples messenger greater than God comes” (Luke 22:18). Just as
slavery in Egypt. Like many the city, they will find a man that they will then be shown to a the one who sent him. the Israelites have shared a last
other Jews, they have traveled carrying a jar of water, quite an large upper room, where they can John 13:16 meal in Egypt before their divinely
to Jerusalem so that they can unusual sight in an age when this prepare for the meal. ordained rescue and journey to A model of Herod’s Temple
share the Passover meal within was considered to be a woman’s Peter and John go to the city, freedom, so this is Jesus’s last shows what it might have looked
the walls of their holy city, in task. They are to follow him back and find everything just as Jesus meal before the events that will like. The Temple was 164 feet
(50m) high and stood on the
proximity to the Temple, the to the house and say to the owner: has said. They buy all the elements bring about a new freedom for the highest hill in Jerusalem.
focus of their worship of God. “The Teacher asks: ‘Where is the that make the meal a reminder of world in the kingdom of God. ❯❯





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THE GOSPELS 251

See also: Covenants 44–47 ■ The Passover 72–73 ■ The Baptism of Jesus Herod’s Jerusalem
194–97 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Day of Pentecost 282–83
Seeking to establish his
reputation as Israel’s ruler
their ancestors’ escape from
Egypt: unleavened bread, roasted despite his association
with the Roman overlords,
lamb, bitter herbs, and wine. Herod the Great, King of
Judea (37–4 bce), decided to
The table is set refurbish the Second Temple.
Later that day, Jesus and the rest For whenever you eat He aimed to nearly double
of the disciples arrive at the room this bread and drink its overall footprint with a
to share the meal. A low table is set, this cup, you proclaim vast paved court, and this
and Jesus and the disciples recline the Lord’s death until work was still ongoing during
around it, in the customary way. He comes. the time of Jesus. According
Stone jars filled with water stand 1 Corinthians 11:26 to historian Flavius Josephus
by the door, so that guests can wash (c.37–100 ce), the Temple was
their dusty feet before sitting down. “like a snow-clad mountain
Usually, this task is done for them by for all that was not gold was
a servant, but to their surprise, the gleaming white.” Situated
disciples watch as Jesus strips off alongside the Temple walls
was the Antonia Fortress,
His robe, ties a towel around His which Herod built to house
waist, and begins to wash their feet. a spiritual cleansing. All that Jesus the occupying armies. Other
Peter is horrified: “Lord, are you is about to face in the next 24 hours major sites included his palace,
going to wash my feet?” he asks can be understood as Him serving the Praetorium, and the home
(John 13:6). In answer, Jesus tells them in the ultimate way—His of the Roman governor.
the disciple that unless he allows sacrifice will cleanse the stain of Jerusalem’s population
his feet to be washed by Him, Peter sin from their lives. around this time is estimated
will not be able to share the meal at 40,000, though at festival
with Jesus, or all it symbolizes. Preparing the disciples times, pilgrims coming into
Jesus is setting His disciples an As they eat bitter herbs and the city to worship could
example here, turning the usual roasted lamb and remember increase that number to about
expectations of greatness on their God’s deliverance of the Israelites 250,000. However, many of
head. Jesus, their honored leader, from Egypt, Jesus alludes to the these visitors would not find
is humbly serving them by washing significance of the occasion. “I have accommodation in the city;
instead, they would look for
their feet, an act that symbolizes eagerly desired to eat the Passover rooms in nearby villages—
with you before I suffer,” He says such as Bethany, where Jesus
(Luke 22:15), knowing that this will and His disciples stayed.
be the last meal with His disciples
before His opponents lay hands
on Him. As they share one of the
traditional cups of wine around the
Very truly I tell you, table, Jesus notes with foreboding
no servant is greater that He will not eat this meal with
than his master, nor is a them again “until the kingdom of
messenger greater than God comes” (Luke 22:18). Just as
the one who sent him. the Israelites have shared a last
John 13:16 meal in Egypt before their divinely
ordained rescue and journey to A model of Herod’s Temple
freedom, so this is Jesus’s last shows what it might have looked
meal before the events that will like. The Temple was 164 feet
(50m) high and stood on the
bring about a new freedom for the highest hill in Jerusalem.
world in the kingdom of God. ❯❯





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252 THE LAST SUPPER THE GOSPELS 253


According to John, this too has intimate and informal. In some
This is my body; this is my blood been foretold: “This is to fulfill this traditions, the ritual is called
In a Catholic mass, the passage of Scripture: ‘He who shared “communion,” because it is a
priest acts in persona The words that Jesus instructs In the 13th century, the great my bread has turned against me’” sharing with Jesus; in Catholicism,
Christi—in the person His disciples to use when they theologian St. Thomas Aquinas (John 13:18). it is called “mass,” from the Latin
of Christ. re-enact this meal together have explained this concept: while As the evening goes on, one I am the living bread words Ite, missa est, the dismissal,
provoked controversy through the physical characteristics
the centuries. Known as the of the bread and wine stay the disciple fulfills this prophecy. that came down from the concluding rite of the Eucharist
words of institution, the phrases same, the “substance” of them Judas Iscariot makes his excuses heaven. Whoever eats during the medieval period.
“this is my body” and “this is is transformed into the very and leaves, because he has made this bread will live forever. What all forms of the Eucharist
my blood” announce the special being of God. Other Christians arrangements to betray Jesus later This bread is my flesh, share is their connection to the
significance of the elements understand the words to be that night. The remaining disciples which I will give for meal that Jesus shared with His
of this special meal, now purely symbolic, inviting them continue with their evening of food, the life of the world. disciples that final night before
During the sacrament, celebrated in the Eucharist. simply to remember Jesus’s drink, prayer, and storytelling, until, His betrayal, arrest, and crucifixion.
he says: “Take this, Churches have differing suffering and sacrifice. In after a final hymn, they make their John 6:51 The Last Supper reveals the deeper
all of you, and eat of it: views about the force of the between these two views, a way to the Garden of Gethsemane significance of Jesus’s crucifixion
for this is my body word “is.” For some Christians, third understanding suggests
which will be given it means that Jesus becomes that Jesus is spiritually present on the Mount of Olives. and shows that He was well aware
up for you.” physically present in the “along with” the bread and the Everlasting sacrament of His impending confrontation
with the forces of evil and death.
elements, an understanding wine when Christians today Importantly, Jesus does not As Jesus says in John 10:18, He
known as “transubstantiation.” celebrate the Eucharist.
envisage His last supper as being Passover, which is celebrated gives His life freely: “No one takes
a one-off occasion for His disciples. once a year, the Last Supper will it from me, but I lay it down of my
Taking the unleavened bread, covenant with humanity, which Just like the Passover meal, it will be shared more frequently, even own accord. I have authority to lay
Jesus lifts it up and thanks God will be sealed by the sacrifice serve as a reminder to Jesus’s weekly in some church traditions. it down and authority to take it up
for it, tears it apart, and then of His only son. followers of the significance of Today, the Last Supper remains again. This command I received
Catholic dogma
teaches that when passes it to each of His disciples. Jesus has used the familiar His life and death. As the first a vital part of the life of the Church from my Father.” ■
this phrase is spoken “This is my body,” He says, “given Passover meal to teach His Christians gather in the days and is one of its “sacraments”—
by the priest, for you; do this in remembrance disciples about His impending following Jesus’s resurrection special activities that convey God’s Judas Iscariot (fifth from left) leans
transubstantiation occurs. of me” (Luke 22:19). Then, pouring death. Since Moses’s day, the lamb and ascension to heaven, they profound truth through physical back in shadow, his face turned away,
out another cup of wine, He raises at the Passover meal had been a share this meal together, joyfully actions. There are many ways of in Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper.
it in blessing, and gives it to reminder of the blood of the lamb remembering that Jesus’s death celebrating the Last Supper; some This 19th-century copy of the painting
them to share around: “This cup that the Israelites painted on the has brought them life. Unlike are highly formal, while others are is by Michael Kock.
is the new covenant in my blood, doorposts of their houses so that
which is poured out for you” God’s angel would “pass over” their
(Luke 22:20). homes and only bring destruction
to the Egyptian overlords. Now
This means that
although the bread Foretelling His death Jesus is offering Himself up as
remains unchanged With the words, “This is my body” a new Passover lamb, a perfect
in appearance … and “This is my blood,” Jesus lamb in accordance with God’s
brings a deeper significance to instructions to Moses. The goblet
the Passover meal. He foretells that of wine symbolizing the blood of
He will soon give Himself up for His sacrifice introduces the New
others, and during this last meal Covenant—the promise of eternal
with His disciples, He warns them life through Christ—foretold by
about the events that are about to Jeremiah (31:31–34).
… Catholics believe unfold: Jesus’s arrest and trial, His
that the essence crucifixion, and, after three days, Judas leaves
of the bread has His resurrection. The Gospels make During the Passover meal, Jesus
become the body it clear that these are not events also explains to His disciples that
of Christ. that will befall Jesus unexpectedly; one of them will betray Him to the
rather, they are part of God’s plan. authorities and trigger the events
They are integral to His new that will lead to His crucifixion.





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THE GOSPELS 253


According to John, this too has intimate and informal. In some
been foretold: “This is to fulfill this traditions, the ritual is called
passage of Scripture: ‘He who shared “communion,” because it is a
my bread has turned against me’” sharing with Jesus; in Catholicism,
(John 13:18). it is called “mass,” from the Latin
As the evening goes on, one I am the living bread words Ite, missa est, the dismissal,
disciple fulfills this prophecy. that came down from the concluding rite of the Eucharist
Judas Iscariot makes his excuses heaven. Whoever eats during the medieval period.
and leaves, because he has made this bread will live forever. What all forms of the Eucharist
arrangements to betray Jesus later This bread is my flesh, share is their connection to the
that night. The remaining disciples which I will give for meal that Jesus shared with His
continue with their evening of food, the life of the world. disciples that final night before
drink, prayer, and storytelling, until, John 6:51 His betrayal, arrest, and crucifixion.
after a final hymn, they make their The Last Supper reveals the deeper
way to the Garden of Gethsemane significance of Jesus’s crucifixion
on the Mount of Olives. and shows that He was well aware
of His impending confrontation
Everlasting sacrament with the forces of evil and death.
Importantly, Jesus does not As Jesus says in John 10:18, He
envisage His last supper as being Passover, which is celebrated gives His life freely: “No one takes
a one-off occasion for His disciples. once a year, the Last Supper will it from me, but I lay it down of my
Just like the Passover meal, it will be shared more frequently, even own accord. I have authority to lay
serve as a reminder to Jesus’s weekly in some church traditions. it down and authority to take it up
followers of the significance of Today, the Last Supper remains again. This command I received
His life and death. As the first a vital part of the life of the Church from my Father.” ■
Christians gather in the days and is one of its “sacraments”—
following Jesus’s resurrection special activities that convey God’s
and ascension to heaven, they profound truth through physical Judas Iscariot (fifth from left) leans
back in shadow, his face turned away,
share this meal together, joyfully actions. There are many ways of in Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper.
remembering that Jesus’s death celebrating the Last Supper; some This 19th-century copy of the painting
has brought them life. Unlike are highly formal, while others are is by Michael Kock.


































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254 THE GOSPELS 255

See also: The Last Supper 248–53 ■ Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■
The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71
THE HOUR HAS COME,

AND THE SON OF MAN Jerusalem at the time of Jesus

IS DELIVERED INTO THE 1. Garden of
Key:
HANDS OF SINNERS Gethsemane
2. Pool of Bethesda
3. Fortress of
MATTHEW 26:45, BETRAYAL IN THE GARDEN Antonia
4. Herod’s Temple
2 5. Court of the
BEZETHA Gentiles
6. Pool of Siloam
3
7. House of the Judas Iscariot
1 Last Supper
8. Palace of
15
Caiaphas The Greek version of the
14 4 9. Herod’s Palace Hebrew name Hudahudas,
fter the Last Supper, Jesus three Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, 10. Hasmonean
IN BRIEF retires to the Garden of Mark, and Luke) write that Judas 13 12 5 Palace Judas means “the one who
A Gethsemane to pray, in betrays Jesus with a kiss, which 11. Market praises.” No one knows what
PASSAGE an event which is often called the identifies Him to the guards. A kiss 10 11 12. Council House “Iscariot” truly means: some
Matthew 26:46–56; Mark “Agony of Jesus.” There He is was a significant gesture at the 9 13. Pool of believe that it is the now-

Amygdalon
14:42–52; Luke 22:47–53; “deeply distressed and troubled,” time, often given by a student to 8 UPPER 14. City Wall unknown place Judas came
John 18:1-11 CITY 15. Golgotha from, while others have
and tells His disciples: “My soul is a teacher as a sign of honor and 7 LOWER Valley of the Kidron suggested that the name
THEME overwhelmed with sorrow to the respect. It is notable that Judas CITY might relate to a group of
Betrayal of Jesus point of death” (Mark 14:34). Jesus calls Jesus “rabbi” and performs Zealots called the Sicarii.
knows that the end is near, and this gesture of respect in the 6 Scholars have long debated
SETTING indeed, the Garden of Gethsemane very moment he hands Him to Judas’s motives in betraying
c. 29 ce The Garden of is the place where Jesus is betrayed those who would kill Him. Valley of Hinnom Jesus. A popular theory was
Gethsemane, Jerusalem, in the by one of His own followers. that Judas wanted to bring
last week of the life of Jesus. This story is within the Gospel Necessary betrayal about a war between Romans
narratives called the Passion: the John is the only Gospel not to already knew that He would be only goes to the chief priests in the and Jews, and when Jesus
KEY FIGURES cycle of Jesus’s arrest, crucifixion, mention the kiss. Instead, he betrayed, and He knew that He was first place because he is possessed did not make this happen,
Jesus The Messiah and Son and resurrection. For the most focuses on a fight that breaks going to die. In fact, Jesus’s death by Satan (Luke 22:3). Judas turned Him in to the
of God at the end of His time part, all four Gospels agree in their out between the disciples and the and resurrection is a fundamental officials. In the so-called
on earth, as He prepares to depiction of the betrayal, albeit with guards, and one of the 12 (John pillar of Christian theology, which Garden motif “Gospel of Judas”—a 2nd-
century ce text composed by
be crucified in Jerusalem. different emphases. Judas, one of says it is Peter) cuts the ear off a makes Judas’s betrayal a crucial Whether it is the Hanging Gardens a Gnostic writer, comprised of
Judas Iscariot One of Jesus’s the 12 disciples, leads the Temple soldier. Jesus stops the violence act: Matthew 26:56 states that the of Babylon or the Garden of Eden, conversations between Judas
12 disciples, who betrays Him guards to Jesus in the garden. The and goes willingly—according to betrayal is necessary so that the the garden is seen as a special and Jesus—Jesus Himself
by leading the authorities to Luke, He even heals the soldier’s writings of the prophets are fulfilled. place in the ancient Near East. tells Judas to betray Him.
The betrayal ends with
Gardens—especially those in the
ear. He tells Peter “Put your sword
Judas, however, had his own
the Garden of Gethsemane.
away! Shall I not drink the cup the motives. Despite numerous desert—were understood as places not one death, but two.
Father has given me?” (John 18:11). theories, no one knows why he where the divine can interact with Matthew 27 states that after
His “cup” here is a metaphor for His decided to betray Jesus. According the earthly. While the Garden of Jesus is condemned, Judas
destiny. According to John 13, Jesus to Matthew 26:14–16, Judas betrays Gethsemane is not the Garden of returns the money and hangs
Jesus for money and he receives Eden, the story of Jesus’s betrayal himself in remorse. Acts 1:18
30 pieces of silver for leading the is related to that in Genesis. Adam has a gory alternative: Judas
Judas kisses Jesus in this scene guards to the garden. Luke agrees and Eve’s betrayal of God leads to buys a field with his blood
from the Santa Croce Altarpiece (1328) money and, falling down in it,
by Italian painter Ugolino di Nerio. The that Judas received money, but death entering the world, while dies, his body bursting open
panel sat at the altar’s predella (base) declines to inform the reader of the Judas’s betrayal of Jesus leads to and his intestines spilling out.
beside an image of the Last Supper. amount; according to Luke, Judas Him conquering death. ■





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THE GOSPELS 255

See also: The Last Supper 248–53 ■ Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■
The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71


Jerusalem at the time of Jesus


Key:
1. Garden of
Gethsemane
2. Pool of Bethesda
3. Fortress of
Antonia
4. Herod’s Temple
5. Court of the
2
BEZETHA Gentiles
6. Pool of Siloam
3
7. House of the Judas Iscariot
1 Last Supper
8. Palace of
15
Caiaphas The Greek version of the
14 4 9. Herod’s Palace Hebrew name Hudahudas,
10. Hasmonean
12 Judas means “the one who
13 Palace
5 praises.” No one knows what
11. Market
11 “Iscariot” truly means: some
10 12. Council House
9 13. Pool of believe that it is the now-
8 UPPER Amygdalon unknown place Judas came
CITY 14. City Wall from, while others have
15. Golgotha
7 LOWER Valley of the Kidron suggested that the name
CITY might relate to a group of
Scholars have long debated
6 Zealots called the Sicarii.
Judas’s motives in betraying
Valley of Hinnom
Jesus. A popular theory was
that Judas wanted to bring
about a war between Romans
and Jews, and when Jesus
already knew that He would be only goes to the chief priests in the
betrayed, and He knew that He was first place because he is possessed did not make this happen,
Judas turned Him in to the
going to die. In fact, Jesus’s death by Satan (Luke 22:3). officials. In the so-called
and resurrection is a fundamental “Gospel of Judas”—a 2nd-
pillar of Christian theology, which Garden motif century ce text composed by
makes Judas’s betrayal a crucial Whether it is the Hanging Gardens a Gnostic writer, comprised of
act: Matthew 26:56 states that the of Babylon or the Garden of Eden, conversations between Judas
betrayal is necessary so that the the garden is seen as a special and Jesus—Jesus Himself
writings of the prophets are fulfilled. place in the ancient Near East. tells Judas to betray Him.
Judas, however, had his own Gardens—especially those in the The betrayal ends with
motives. Despite numerous desert—were understood as places not one death, but two.
theories, no one knows why he where the divine can interact with Matthew 27 states that after
decided to betray Jesus. According the earthly. While the Garden of Jesus is condemned, Judas
to Matthew 26:14–16, Judas betrays Gethsemane is not the Garden of returns the money and hangs
Jesus for money and he receives Eden, the story of Jesus’s betrayal himself in remorse. Acts 1:18
30 pieces of silver for leading the is related to that in Genesis. Adam has a gory alternative: Judas
buys a field with his blood
guards to the garden. Luke agrees and Eve’s betrayal of God leads to money and, falling down in it,
that Judas received money, but death entering the world, while dies, his body bursting open
declines to inform the reader of the Judas’s betrayal of Jesus leads to and his intestines spilling out.
amount; according to Luke, Judas Him conquering death. ■





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256 THE GOSPELS 257

See also: The Last Supper 248–53 ■ Betrayal in the Garden 254–55 ■ The Sanhedrin
The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71
I DON’T KNOW Described in all four Gospels,
the Sanhedrin was a body of
THIS MAN YOU’RE according to Mark’s Gospel elders and priests that met to
Peter’s three denials,
discuss religious and political
matters. According to Acts, it
TALKING ABOUT Accuser Peter convened several times a year.
The term Sanhedrin comes
from a Greek word meaning
MARK 14:71, PETER’S DENIAL “I don’t know or “assembly.” There were lesser
Sanhedrins that could form in
“You also were with that any town or province, but the
Nazarene, Jesus.” understand what you’re Great Sanhedrin was a large
talking about.” body of more than 70 elders
that met in Jerusalem. It
gathered to discuss the Law
and acted as a judiciary body.
redicted by the prophets is especially upset by this claim When Jesus met with
IN BRIEF of the Old Testament, the and argues that this will never “This fellow is one “Again he denied it.” the high priest elders, it is
P disciples’ abandonment happen: “even if all fall away on of them.” generally assumed that He
PASSAGE of Jesus in the period leading up account of you, I never will” (26:33). is meeting with the Great
Matthew 26:31–35, 69–75; to the crucifixion has long been a At this, Jesus sets him right; He Sanhedrin, whose members
Mark 14:27–31, 66–72; conflicting issue for many readers tells Peter that before the rooster will determine whether He
Luke 22:31–34, 54–65; of the New Testament. During crows, he will deny Him three has committed blasphemy.

John 13:38, 18:25–27 the Last Supper, Jesus quotes times. Peter, however, remains “Surely you are However, they are portrayed
in the Gospels as corrupt:
THEME Zechariah 13:7, which foretold how: adamant—he says he would one of them, for you “I don’t know this man Matthew writes that “the
you’re talking about.”
Peter denies Christ “This very night you will all fall rather die alongside Jesus than are a Galilean.” whole Sanhedrin were looking
away on account of me, for it is disown Him. for false evidence against
SETTING written: ‘I will strike the shepherd, Jesus so that they could put
c. 29 ce Jerusalem, the and the sheep of the flock will be The denials Him to death” (26:59), an
courtyard of the High scattered’” (Matthew 26:31). Jesus’s words come to fruition The third time Peter denies were required to take place after accusation that is repeated
Priest right before the Hearing this prophecy, the immediately after Judas betrays knowing Jesus, the rooster crows. daybreak if the Sanhedrin were to in Mark’s Gospel (14:55).
crucifixion of Jesus. disciples protest. Jesus tells them Him in the Garden of Gethsemane. Luke’s Gospel also says that at sentence the defendant to death.
that once He—the figurative Guards take Jesus to the high that Jesus turns to look at Peter
KEY FIGURES shepherd—is captured, His priest’s house to stand trial. Peter through an open window, as if Disciples forgiven
Jesus The Messiah and Son disciples, the sheep, will flee. Peter follows, waits in the courtyard, acknowledging His words coming The Gospels give no reasons for
of God, in His final days before and is approached by three people to pass; all accounts, however, the betrayal. Peter and the disciples
His crucifixion. (John mentions two) who ask if he describe how Peter weeps once are human, and may be afraid that
knows Jesus. Just as Jesus has he realizes what he has done. they, too, will be arrested. The
Peter Also called Simon Peter,
one of Jesus’s inner circle and predicted, when questioned, Peter Symbolic dawn Gospels frequently describe the
denies knowing Jesus, even after
disciples as vulnerable and even
seemingly the leader of the he is identified as a Galilean by his The crowing of the dawn rooster dimwitted: they constantly
disciples. Despite this, he still speech—and is recognized as a signifies not only the breaking of question Jesus and have difficulty
fears the officials.
disciple by a relative of the high dawn, but also that Jesus’s fate understanding His parables. Some
priest’s servant (Luke 22:59). has been decided upon. Dawn appear to be in denial that Jesus
signifies the new life that Jesus will die. Their fallibility, however,
will bring about through His shows that one does not have to Christ Before the High Priest
Peter denies Christ in a miniature death, as does the rooster itself, be perfect to be a servant of Christ. (c.1617), a painting by Gerrit van
by 15th-century Italian artist Cristoforo Honthorst, illuminates a book
de Predis. All four Gospels agree that a symbol of fertility. However, the Peter denies Jesus, yet he is the containing the Mosaic Law, which
Peter’s first denial is to a servant girl coming of dawn is significant for one who will eventually hold the Jesus is accused of breaking.
who accuses him of being with Jesus. another reason: at the time, trials keys to heaven. ■





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THE GOSPELS 257

See also: The Last Supper 248–53 ■ Betrayal in the Garden 254–55 ■ The Sanhedrin
The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71
Described in all four Gospels,
the Sanhedrin was a body of
Peter’s three denials, elders and priests that met to
according to Mark’s Gospel discuss religious and political
matters. According to Acts, it
convened several times a year.
Accuser Peter The term Sanhedrin comes
from a Greek word meaning
“assembly.” There were lesser
Sanhedrins that could form in
“I don’t know or
“You also were with that any town or province, but the
Nazarene, Jesus.” understand what you’re Great Sanhedrin was a large
talking about.” body of more than 70 elders
that met in Jerusalem. It
gathered to discuss the Law
and acted as a judiciary body.
When Jesus met with
“This fellow is one “Again he denied it.” the high priest elders, it is
of them.” generally assumed that He
is meeting with the Great
Sanhedrin, whose members
will determine whether He
has committed blasphemy.
However, they are portrayed
“Surely you are “I don’t know this man in the Gospels as corrupt:
one of them, for you you’re talking about.” Matthew writes that “the
are a Galilean.” whole Sanhedrin were looking
for false evidence against
Jesus so that they could put
Him to death” (26:59), an
The third time Peter denies were required to take place after accusation that is repeated
knowing Jesus, the rooster crows. daybreak if the Sanhedrin were to in Mark’s Gospel (14:55).
Luke’s Gospel also says that at sentence the defendant to death.
that Jesus turns to look at Peter
through an open window, as if Disciples forgiven
acknowledging His words coming The Gospels give no reasons for
to pass; all accounts, however, the betrayal. Peter and the disciples
describe how Peter weeps once are human, and may be afraid that
he realizes what he has done. they, too, will be arrested. The
Gospels frequently describe the
Symbolic dawn disciples as vulnerable and even
The crowing of the dawn rooster dimwitted: they constantly
signifies not only the breaking of question Jesus and have difficulty
dawn, but also that Jesus’s fate understanding His parables. Some
has been decided upon. Dawn appear to be in denial that Jesus
signifies the new life that Jesus will die. Their fallibility, however,
will bring about through His shows that one does not have to Christ Before the High Priest
death, as does the rooster itself, be perfect to be a servant of Christ. (c.1617), a painting by Gerrit van
a symbol of fertility. However, the Peter denies Jesus, yet he is the Honthorst, illuminates a book
containing the Mosaic Law, which
coming of dawn is significant for one who will eventually hold the Jesus is accused of breaking.
another reason: at the time, trials keys to heaven. ■





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SURELY THIS MAN WAS








THE SON OF


GOD









































MARK 15:39, THE CRUCIFIXION




















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260 THE CRUCIFIXION THE GOSPELS 261

See also: The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Nature of Faith 236–41 ■ The Last
IN BRIEF Supper 248–53 ■ Betrayal in the Garden 254–55 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71
PASSAGE Foreseeing that Pilate would not
Matthew 27; Mark 15; Luke consider the charge of blasphemy
23; John 18:28–19:42
to be sufficiently serious to merit
THEME execution, they tell him that Jesus
Jesus dies for the is a threat to security and guilty of
sins of many treason against Caesar. They know “Don’t you hear the
this will force Pilate to take action. testimony they are
SETTING All four Gospels record Pilate bringing against you?”
c. 29 ce The Antonia Fortress, asking Jesus: “Are you the king But Jesus made no reply.
Herod’s Palace, and Golgotha, of the Jews?” Jesus asserts that Matthew 27:13
in Jerusalem. He is, but points out that He is not
the kind of king who will cause a Pontius Pilate
KEY FIGURES military threat to Rome. He says,
Jesus The Messiah and Son “My kingdom is not of this world” Appointed by the Emperor
of God, accused of blasphemy (John 18:36). Impressed by the Tiberius, Pontius Pilate was
and treason. authenticity of Jesus’s words, Pilate the prefect (or governor) of
Judea and the neighboring
Pontius Pilate Roman realizes that Jesus does not pose under guard to Herod Antipas, the regions of Samaria and
governor who tries Jesus. a direct threat to Caesar. He then Jewish king appointed by Rome, Idumea from 26 to 36 ce.
goes back to the Jewish authorities who has jurisdiction in the region. He had a residence in the
Herod Antipas Son of Herod and tells them that Jesus is innocent Herod is delighted to see Jesus, provincial capital of Caesarea
the Great, who rules the of the charges they have brought because he has heard the stories and the use of the Antonia
regions of Galilee and Perea against Him. about Him and hopes to see some Fortress in Jerusalem.
as client king for the Romans. of the miracles for which He is Pilate’s responsibilities
Brought before Herod famous. When Jesus simply stands included taxation, public
Joseph of Arimathea Pilate’s verdict is not the one the in silence before Herod, saying spending, and law and order.
A member of the Jewish ruling Sanhedrin want. They insist and doing nothing, Herod is His relationship with the
council, the Sanhedrin, who is again that Jesus has been inciting frustrated. He orders his soldiers Jewish people was fragile,
sympathetic to Jesus. rebellion, beginning in the region to dress Jesus in a royal robe to particularly because he
of Galilee and spreading to mock the claim that He is a king. repeatedly disregarded their
Jerusalem itself. In Luke’s Gospel After they have had their fun, religious and social customs.
He minted coins bearing
(23:6), on hearing of Jesus’s link Jesus is escorted back to Pilate. pagan religious symbols
with Galilee, Pilate sends Him By this time, a crowd has and hung worship images
onsidering the short length In the eyes of the Sanhedrin, the In Hieronymous Bosch’s Mocking gathered at the palace. Pilate, of the emperor in Jerusalem.
of each of the four Gospels, Jewish court that first tries Jesus, of Christ (c.1500), the gauntlet of the who must now decide Jesus’s fate, In 36 ce, Pilate was
C it is remarkable how much He is guilty of blasphemy, for which man crowning Him with thorns and the considers a way to let Him go free. forced back to Rome after
space the authors give to the build- the penalty is death. However, they spiked collar worn by the figure on the It is his custom during Passover the Samaritans (an offshoot
right symbolize the mockers’ brutality.
up to Jesus’s crucifixion, known cannot enforce this: under the rules to release a prisoner (invariably of Judaism) lodged an official
as the “passion narrative”—passion of the Roman occupation, they do one of the Jews’ popular leaders) complaint about him with the
meaning suffering. While the not have the authority to execute themselves, since doing so would You disowned the Holy to please the crowds who arrive legate (in charge of provincial
Gospels (which differ in the level anyone, so, early in the morning, render them unclean and unable and Righteous One and in Jerusalem for the festival. Pilate governors) in Syria. Pilate
of detail but largely correspond) after Jesus’s arrest and trial, they to participate in the religious asked that a murderer says to the crowd, “There is no died shortly after his term of
are the accounts of the event drawn take Him to the palace of Pontius ceremonies later that day. Staying be released to you. basis for your charges against office in Palestine. According
on by Christians, various historical Pilate, the Roman governor, which outside the palace, they send Jesus Acts 3:14 Jesus. Therefore, I will punish to the Christian bishop and
sources also mention Christ’s trial is situated beside the Temple in in with their charges against Him: Him and then release him.” To historian Eusebius of
Caesarea, in Ecclesiastical
and crucifixion, including Annals the Antonia Fortress. As it is the “We have found this man subverting his surprise, the crowd cries out, History, Pilate killed himself
by the Roman historian Tacitus Passover festival, the Jewish our nation. He opposes payment of “Away with this man! Release on the orders of the Emperor
(56–120 ce) and Flavius Josephus’s leaders are careful not to set foot taxes to Caesar and claims to be Barabbas to us” (Luke 23:18). Caligula in 39 ce.
Antiquities of the Jews of c.94 ce. inside Pontius Pilate’s residence Messiah, a king” (Luke 23:2). Pilate is unable to believe his ❯❯





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THE GOSPELS 261

See also: The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Nature of Faith 236–41 ■ The Last
Supper 248–53 ■ Betrayal in the Garden 254–55 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71


Foreseeing that Pilate would not
consider the charge of blasphemy
to be sufficiently serious to merit
execution, they tell him that Jesus
is a threat to security and guilty of
treason against Caesar. They know “Don’t you hear the
this will force Pilate to take action. testimony they are
All four Gospels record Pilate bringing against you?”
asking Jesus: “Are you the king But Jesus made no reply.
of the Jews?” Jesus asserts that Matthew 27:13
He is, but points out that He is not
the kind of king who will cause a Pontius Pilate
military threat to Rome. He says,
“My kingdom is not of this world” Appointed by the Emperor
(John 18:36). Impressed by the Tiberius, Pontius Pilate was
authenticity of Jesus’s words, Pilate the prefect (or governor) of
Judea and the neighboring
realizes that Jesus does not pose under guard to Herod Antipas, the regions of Samaria and
a direct threat to Caesar. He then Jewish king appointed by Rome, Idumea from 26 to 36 ce.
goes back to the Jewish authorities who has jurisdiction in the region. He had a residence in the
and tells them that Jesus is innocent Herod is delighted to see Jesus, provincial capital of Caesarea
of the charges they have brought because he has heard the stories and the use of the Antonia
against Him. about Him and hopes to see some Fortress in Jerusalem.
of the miracles for which He is Pilate’s responsibilities
Brought before Herod famous. When Jesus simply stands included taxation, public
Pilate’s verdict is not the one the in silence before Herod, saying spending, and law and order.
Sanhedrin want. They insist and doing nothing, Herod is His relationship with the
again that Jesus has been inciting frustrated. He orders his soldiers Jewish people was fragile,
rebellion, beginning in the region to dress Jesus in a royal robe to particularly because he
of Galilee and spreading to mock the claim that He is a king. repeatedly disregarded their
Jerusalem itself. In Luke’s Gospel After they have had their fun, religious and social customs.
He minted coins bearing
(23:6), on hearing of Jesus’s link Jesus is escorted back to Pilate. pagan religious symbols
with Galilee, Pilate sends Him By this time, a crowd has and hung worship images
gathered at the palace. Pilate, of the emperor in Jerusalem.
who must now decide Jesus’s fate, In 36 ce, Pilate was
considers a way to let Him go free. forced back to Rome after
It is his custom during Passover the Samaritans (an offshoot
to release a prisoner (invariably of Judaism) lodged an official
one of the Jews’ popular leaders) complaint about him with the
You disowned the Holy to please the crowds who arrive legate (in charge of provincial
and Righteous One and in Jerusalem for the festival. Pilate governors) in Syria. Pilate
asked that a murderer says to the crowd, “There is no died shortly after his term of
be released to you. basis for your charges against office in Palestine. According
Acts 3:14 Jesus. Therefore, I will punish to the Christian bishop and
Him and then release him.” To historian Eusebius of
Caesarea, in Ecclesiastical
his surprise, the crowd cries out, History, Pilate killed himself
“Away with this man! Release on the orders of the Emperor
Barabbas to us” (Luke 23:18). Caligula in 39 ce.
Pilate is unable to believe his ❯❯





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262 THE CRUCIFIXION THE GOSPELS 263


The route of the crucifixion taken by pilgrims The Way to Calvary, by Marco
Palmezzano (c.1460–1539) shows
Jesus carrying His cross. Victims of
This map of modern Jerusalem shows crucifixion were required to carry their
the “stages of the cross”, where different Convent of the 2 1 own cross to the place of execution.
Sisters of Zion
episodes on the road to Jesus’s crucifixion
are believed to have happened. 3 “Come down from the
Church of Twelve hours after His arrest, Jesus cross, if you are
Condemnation looks down upon the crowd, who are the Son of God!”
4
mocking Him and baying for His Matthew 27:40
Church of Our
Church of the 7 Lady of the Spasm El-Omariye blood. “Father, forgive them, for they
Holy Sepulchre 8 VIA DOLOROSA School do not know what they are doing,”
He says (Luke 23:34). Taking no
13 12 11 10 notice, the soldiers gamble for the
Church of 6 5
9 St Veronica clothes of the crucified men, again
fulfilling a prophecy in Psalm 22:
14 He stumbles under the weight, “They divide my clothes among Speaking to His mother Mary,
Key: prompting the soldiers who are them and cast lots for my garment.” Jesus says “Dear woman, here is
1. Pilate condemns Jesus to die. 8. The women of Jerusalem weep
2. Jesus accepts His cross. for Jesus. escorting Him to haul out of the A crowd gathers to watch, and your son,” indicating John. And in
Ethiopian
Monastery 3. Jesus falls for the first time. 9. Jesus falls for the third time. crowd an unsuspecting pilgrim the Jewish authorities begin to turn, He says to John, “Here is your
4. Jesus meets His mother, Mary. 10. Jesus is stripped of His clothes. called Simon to help Jesus carry hurl insults at Jesus: “He saved mother.” Even in His own pain,
5. Simon helps carry the cross. 11. Guards nail Jesus to the cross.
6. A woman called Veronica is said 12. Jesus dies on the cross. the cross. While many look on, others; let Him save Himself if Jesus makes arrangements for John
Church of to have wiped the face of Jesus. 13. Jesus is taken down from the cross. jeering and shouting, others follow, He God’s Messiah, the Chosen to care for His grief-stricken mother.
the Redeemer 7. Jesus falls for a second time. 14. Jesus’s body is placed in the tomb. including women, who weep and One” (Luke 23:35). The darkness lasts for three
wail. The mournful procession hours, until the ninth hour of the
makes its way out to the hill. Darkest hours Jewish day, around 3 pm. As the ❯❯
ears—Barabbas is a hardened Jesus is handed to the Roman At midday, the sky grows dark,
Day of Preparation criminal, imprisoned for murder— guards to be crucified. They know Three crosses the sun blotted out of sight. In the
but the Jewish authorities had the process, and are practiced Along with Jesus, two criminals darkness, Jesus calls to the few Michele da Verona’s Crucifixion
Friday, the day before the been weaving through the crowd, at inflicting suffering on their are brought to be crucified. When followers who have remained with (c.1501) combines several scenes from
Sabbath, was known as inciting them to ask for Barabbas prisoners. First, Jesus is flogged, they arrive, the soldiers set to Him to the end: a small huddle of the event, including the centurion’s
the Day of Preparation, (Mark 15:11). then they dress Him in another work, nailing Jesus to the wooden women and His disciple John. conversion and the proffering of a
when Jews would prepare sponge soaked in vinegar.
themselves to keep the royal robe, twisting thorny branches crossbeams by His wrists and to
Sabbath “holy,” as instructed Sentenced by the mob together to make a crown. “Hail, the wooden upright through His
by the fourth of the Ten According to Matthew’s Gospel, King of the Jews!” they cry in ankles, fulfilling a prophecy in
Commandments. Food would Pilate’s wife, who had a disturbed mockery. Some spit, others prod Zechariah 12:10: “They will look
be prepared and cooked, and night’s sleep, then sends her Him with sticks, and still others on me, the one they have pierced.”
errands completed so that husband a message. “Don’t have hit Him across the head (Matthew The three crosses are then hoisted
the Sabbath would be free anything to do with that innocent 27:30). Humiliated and beaten, into position, with Jesus in the
for the worship of God. As man,” she says, worried by a dream Jesus then begins His painful center. The charge against Jesus
Jesus was crucified on the she has had (27:19). Once again, journey to the place where He will is nailed to the cross: “This is the
Day of Preparation, the Jewish Pilate asks the crowd: “Jesus be crucified, a publicly visible hill King of the Jews” (Matthew 27:37
authorities requested that His or Barabbas,” and together they called Golgotha (“place of the and Luke 23:38). The chief priests
body be taken down from the reply, “Barabbas.” Asking what he skull”), also known by the Latin protest against the sign, saying it
cross and buried. This was a should do with Jesus, the people translation Calvary, just outside implied that Pilate thought Jesus
break from Roman custom, shout “Crucify him! Crucify him!” the city wall. Crucifixions serve as was a king. It should say, they
which was to leave the body
on view as a deterrent. With Pilate realizes there would be a riot prominent reminders to the Jews said, “this man claimed to be the
the Sabbath starting at sunset if he didn’t give the crowd what that the Romans are in charge. King of the Jews” (John 19:21).
(around 6 pm), Jesus’s body they wanted, so, taking a bowl of A heavy wooden beam, which By retaining his description of
was taken down after He water, he washes his hands in full will become the cross on which Jesus, Pilate implies that those
died (around 3 pm). view, saying, “I am innocent of this He is crucified, is then thrust upon who demanded His death are the
man’s blood” (Matthew 27:24). Jesus. Weakened from the flogging, ones truly guilty of treason.





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THE GOSPELS 263


The Way to Calvary, by Marco
Palmezzano (c.1460–1539) shows
Jesus carrying His cross. Victims of
crucifixion were required to carry their
own cross to the place of execution.
“Come down from the
Twelve hours after His arrest, Jesus cross, if you are
looks down upon the crowd, who are the Son of God!”
mocking Him and baying for His Matthew 27:40
blood. “Father, forgive them, for they
do not know what they are doing,”
He says (Luke 23:34). Taking no
notice, the soldiers gamble for the
clothes of the crucified men, again
fulfilling a prophecy in Psalm 22:
He stumbles under the weight, “They divide my clothes among Speaking to His mother Mary,
prompting the soldiers who are them and cast lots for my garment.” Jesus says “Dear woman, here is
escorting Him to haul out of the A crowd gathers to watch, and your son,” indicating John. And in
crowd an unsuspecting pilgrim the Jewish authorities begin to turn, He says to John, “Here is your
called Simon to help Jesus carry hurl insults at Jesus: “He saved mother.” Even in His own pain,
the cross. While many look on, others; let Him save Himself if Jesus makes arrangements for John
jeering and shouting, others follow, He God’s Messiah, the Chosen to care for His grief-stricken mother.
including women, who weep and One” (Luke 23:35). The darkness lasts for three
wail. The mournful procession hours, until the ninth hour of the
makes its way out to the hill. Darkest hours Jewish day, around 3 pm. As the ❯❯
At midday, the sky grows dark,
Three crosses the sun blotted out of sight. In the
Along with Jesus, two criminals darkness, Jesus calls to the few Michele da Verona’s Crucifixion
(c.1501) combines several scenes from
are brought to be crucified. When followers who have remained with the event, including the centurion’s
they arrive, the soldiers set to Him to the end: a small huddle of conversion and the proffering of a
work, nailing Jesus to the wooden women and His disciple John. sponge soaked in vinegar.
crossbeams by His wrists and to
the wooden upright through His
ankles, fulfilling a prophecy in
Zechariah 12:10: “They will look
on me, the one they have pierced.”
The three crosses are then hoisted
into position, with Jesus in the
center. The charge against Jesus
is nailed to the cross: “This is the
King of the Jews” (Matthew 27:37
and Luke 23:38). The chief priests
protest against the sign, saying it
implied that Pilate thought Jesus
was a king. It should say, they
said, “this man claimed to be the
King of the Jews” (John 19:21).
By retaining his description of
Jesus, Pilate implies that those
who demanded His death are the
ones truly guilty of treason.





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264 THE CRUCIFIXION THE GOSPELS 265


likened to a vineyard, charged with right to the end. The centurion
producing fine wine of holy lives for unwittingly blurts out the truth: The symbol of the cross Jesus’s life’s work, but rather
God. Here, Jesus tastes the best “Surely this man was the Son of the means through which He
they can offer, and it is sour. God” (Mark 15:39). For Christians today, the cross fulfilled His greatest task of
As Jesus hangs dead on the is a symbol of God’s love and triumphing over sin and offering
forgiveness. This turned the
forgiveness. Yet, when Jesus
And being found Last breath cross, the Jewish authorities died, it was clearly a symbol of symbolism of the cross on its
in appearance as Just as Jesus had told His disciples ask the soldiers to finish off the Roman power and oppression head. As the Apostle Paul put
a man, He humbled during His last supper with them crucifixions and take down the and of violence and torture. it, “the message of the cross
Himself by becoming the night before, He had now given bodies before nightfall, since the Many early Christians were also is foolishness to those who are
obedient to death— His life for them. Speaking with a next day would be the Sabbath. crucified for their belief in Him. perishing, but to us who are
even death on a cross! loud voice, Jesus cries out, “It is One of the soldiers pierces Jesus’s As early Christian believers being saved it is the power of
Philippians 2:8 finished” (John 19:30). With a final side with a spear, proving beyond shared the message that God God” (1 Corinthians 1:18). The
prayer of trust in God, quoting from doubt that Jesus is dead. had set up His kingdom on cross became the universal sign
Psalm 31, Jesus takes His last breath Two Jewish noblemen and Earth through Jesus, God’s true of Christian faith after the Crosses still represent death and
and dies: “Father, into your hands scholars, Joseph of Arimathea Son and king, they explained Christian conversion of the sacrifice, as at the Auckland War
I commit my spirit” (Luke 23:46). and Nicodemus, then get Pilate’s that Jesus’s death on the cross Roman Emperor Constantine Memorial Museum, New Zealand,
Matthew’s Gospel goes on to record permission to take Jesus’s body was not an embarrassing end to in the early 4th century. remembering soldiers killed in war.
how the ground then shakes, tombs for burial in Joseph’s garden tomb.
life drains from His body, Jesus split open, and the curtain of the Anointed in sweet spices and the charges that are brought Even though Jesus is innocent, otherwise drag them into eternal
grows weaker, but then He calls Temple in Jerusalem is rent in two. wrapped in linen, Jesus’s body against Him. Although He is the crucifixion narrative does not death. By dying, the sinless for
out in a loud voice: “Eloi, Eloi, lama Matthew, Mark, and Luke record is sealed in the tomb by a stone. convicted and condemned to death present Him as a passive victim. the sinful, Jesus clears the way
sabachthani,” Aramaic for “My one of the Roman guards, who in an alarmingly short space of All through His suffering, Jesus is for a new relationship with God
God, my God, why have you has witnessed many frantic last Why Jesus died time, both Pilate and Herod are in control and not at the mercy of to which all people are invited.
forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46). moments of the crucified, being The fact that Jesus died was unable to find any grounds for His circumstances. As Jesus had Yet, as Jesus’s body is sealed
Again, the words draw directly astonished at Jesus’s dignified central to early Christian belief. capital punishment. Jesus does not taught earlier, “No one takes my in the tomb for the Sabbath day,
on Psalm 22, the ancient Hebrew death, trusting in God as His Father Crucially, Jesus is innocent of die because He presents a military life from me, but I lay it down of no one has yet understood how
poem written by David. Having threat against the Roman Empire. my own accord” (John 10:18). The Jesus’s death is, in fact, good
memorized the psalm as a young His ministry has been filled with sinless Jesus took humanity’s sin news. That life-transforming
boy, Jesus now recognizes that it miracles of healing and teaching onto Himself, willingly drinking the awareness would only be possible
describes His present experience: to “love your enemies” (Matthew world’s cup of suffering (Matthew after the Sabbath had passed,
“All who see me mock me. … all 5:44), not with criminal behavior 26:39) in order to save others from as the story continues on the
my bones are out of joint” (Psalm or political revolution. Even the doing so. On the cross, Jesus was morning of Easter Day. ■
22:7–14). Some of those around the Sanhedrin’s charge that Jesus not a victim, but a savior.
cross mishear Jesus, thinking He had blasphemed against God
is calling for the prophet Elijah to by claiming to be God’s special Dying to save sinners
come and save Him. representative, the Messiah, is Jesus’s cross is seen as the
In the heat of the afternoon false, since Jesus is, in fact, who culmination of His life’s work, rather
sun, with pain taking its toll on He claims to be. than an unfortunate ending. When
His body, Jesus cries out “I thirst.” This lays the foundations for Jesus declares, “It is finished,” Fixing our eyes on Jesus,
Some of those nearby find a jar of the Church’s teaching about Christians believe He means that the pioneer and perfecter
sour wine—a vinegarlike liquid Jesus’s death: He did not die the mission He had been sent to of faith. For the joy set
considered to be a thirst-quenching because of His own wrongdoings, achieve is now complete: the before Him He endured
drink for the poor—and offer it to but because of those of humankind. kingdom of God has been set up the cross, scorning its shame,
Jesus on a sponge at the end of a By trying to protect their own as Jesus’s cross was raised into the and sat down at the right
stick. The Israelites had often been positions of authority by getting air. This kingdom, in which Jesus hand of the throne of God.
rid of Jesus as a troublemaker, is the king, is not a military state Hebrews 12:2
and condemning an innocent that uses violence to coerce
Deposition from the Cross, by man to death, the opponents of people into obedience, but rather
Antonio Allegri, c.1525, shows Mary
swooning over the dead Christ, a detail Jesus represent the pride and self- a kingdom of love, in which King
that became a popular embellishment centeredness that characterize Jesus lays down His life so people
of the story in the Middle Ages. the whole of humanity. can be free from the sin that would





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THE GOSPELS 265



The symbol of the cross Jesus’s life’s work, but rather
the means through which He
For Christians today, the cross fulfilled His greatest task of
is a symbol of God’s love and triumphing over sin and offering
forgiveness. Yet, when Jesus forgiveness. This turned the
died, it was clearly a symbol of symbolism of the cross on its
Roman power and oppression head. As the Apostle Paul put
and of violence and torture. it, “the message of the cross
Many early Christians were also is foolishness to those who are
crucified for their belief in Him. perishing, but to us who are
As early Christian believers being saved it is the power of
shared the message that God God” (1 Corinthians 1:18). The
had set up His kingdom on cross became the universal sign
Earth through Jesus, God’s true of Christian faith after the Crosses still represent death and
Son and king, they explained Christian conversion of the sacrifice, as at the Auckland War
that Jesus’s death on the cross Roman Emperor Constantine Memorial Museum, New Zealand,
was not an embarrassing end to in the early 4th century. remembering soldiers killed in war.


the charges that are brought Even though Jesus is innocent, otherwise drag them into eternal
against Him. Although He is the crucifixion narrative does not death. By dying, the sinless for
convicted and condemned to death present Him as a passive victim. the sinful, Jesus clears the way
in an alarmingly short space of All through His suffering, Jesus is for a new relationship with God
time, both Pilate and Herod are in control and not at the mercy of to which all people are invited.
unable to find any grounds for His circumstances. As Jesus had Yet, as Jesus’s body is sealed
capital punishment. Jesus does not taught earlier, “No one takes my in the tomb for the Sabbath day,
die because He presents a military life from me, but I lay it down of no one has yet understood how
threat against the Roman Empire. my own accord” (John 10:18). The Jesus’s death is, in fact, good
His ministry has been filled with sinless Jesus took humanity’s sin news. That life-transforming
miracles of healing and teaching onto Himself, willingly drinking the awareness would only be possible
to “love your enemies” (Matthew world’s cup of suffering (Matthew after the Sabbath had passed,
5:44), not with criminal behavior 26:39) in order to save others from as the story continues on the
or political revolution. Even the doing so. On the cross, Jesus was morning of Easter Day. ■
Sanhedrin’s charge that Jesus not a victim, but a savior.
had blasphemed against God
by claiming to be God’s special Dying to save sinners
representative, the Messiah, is Jesus’s cross is seen as the
false, since Jesus is, in fact, who culmination of His life’s work, rather
He claims to be. than an unfortunate ending. When
This lays the foundations for Jesus declares, “It is finished,” Fixing our eyes on Jesus,
the Church’s teaching about Christians believe He means that the pioneer and perfecter
Jesus’s death: He did not die the mission He had been sent to of faith. For the joy set
because of His own wrongdoings, achieve is now complete: the before Him He endured
but because of those of humankind. kingdom of God has been set up the cross, scorning its shame,
By trying to protect their own as Jesus’s cross was raised into the and sat down at the right
positions of authority by getting air. This kingdom, in which Jesus hand of the throne of God.
rid of Jesus as a troublemaker, is the king, is not a military state Hebrews 12:2
and condemning an innocent that uses violence to coerce
man to death, the opponents of people into obedience, but rather
Jesus represent the pride and self- a kingdom of love, in which King
centeredness that characterize Jesus lays down His life so people
the whole of humanity. can be free from the sin that would





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266 THE GOSPELS 267

See also: The Divinity of Jesus 190–93 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ Salvation Through Faith 301 ■
REMEMBER ME “has done nothing wrong” (23:41). Jesus forgives many types of sins
The Power of the Resurrection 304

WHEN YOU COME The thief then asks Jesus to

“remember me when You come
into Your kingdom” (23:42). The
INTO YOUR KINGDOM Jewish faith had long spoken about
a kingdom beyond death, in which

LUKE 23:42, THE REPENTANT THIEF God’s faithful people would enjoy
everlasting life. This, he realizes,
is the kingdom of which Jesus is
king. Jesus replies with assurance:
“Truly I tell you, today you will be
with me in paradise” (23:43). The sinful The tax collector
woman “Today salvation
Deathbed salvation “Her many sins have has come to this
esus is crucified between As Jesus hangs on the cross, the The repentant thief illustrates a been forgiven … whoever house, because this
IN BRIEF two criminals on the hill of crowds taunt Him and tell Him to vital aspect of the Christian faith. has been forgiven man, too, is a
J Golgotha, overlooking one come down if He really is God’s Acceptance into God’s kingdom little loves little.” son of Abraham.”
PASSAGE of the roads into Jerusalem. The chosen king. The criminal on is not dependent upon good works Luke 7:47 Luke 19:9
Luke 23:39–43
two men on either side of Him are Jesus’s left joins in: “Aren’t you the or a blameless life, since the thief
THEME “robbers” (Matthew 27:38) who Messiah?” he asks. “Save yourself clearly had no time to amend his
It is never too late may well have been comrades and us!” (Luke 23:39). As far as the ways. Instead, Jesus freely gives
for salvation of Barabbas, a resistance fighter thief is concerned, Jesus cannot places in His kingdom to those who
against Roman occupation of be the savior if He is unable to put recognize that He is their only hope.
SETTING Judea. Jesus, who is Himself an end to their suffering. Jesus’s promise to the thief, just Romans and Jews
c. 29 ce Golgotha, a hill being crucified on the charge of moments before his death, is also The repentant thief at His crucifixion
outside the walls of Jerusalem, rebellion, has taken Barabbas’s The thief calls out part of the rationale for the later “Truly I tell you, today “Father, forgive them, for
during Jesus’s crucifixion. place in execution, and occupies However, the second condemned practice of deathbed confession you will be with me they do not know what
the central of the three crosses. man realizes Jesus really is the and absolution, or last rites. In this, in paradise.” they are doing.”
KEY FIGURES savior. He sees now that the violent a dying person is given assurance Luke 23:43 Luke 23:34
Jesus The Messiah and Son attempts of Barabbas and his in their final moments that their
of God, who is crucified by comrades to resist Roman sins have been forgiven by God;
the Roman authorities in place occupation had been misguided, it is never too late to repent. ■
of the criminal, Barabbas. and that God desires something far
The repentant thief The deeper than political nationalism: a Crime and punishment in the time of Jesus
criminal to Jesus’s right: kingdom of people who follow Him
although unnamed in the through humility and service. Like any society, Jesus’s world citizens, especially those who
Calling over to the first man, the
Gospels, later Christian repentant thief tells him to stop had a complex system of law resisted their authority or slaves
tradition calls him “Dismas” mocking Jesus: while the two of and punishments. In Jewish found guilty of wrongdoing.
Crucifixion was a humiliating
law, the practice of reparation—
or “Demas.”
them are hanging on their crosses giving back what was taken death, in which the victim was
The unrepentant thief for real offenses, Jesus—despite with interest—was typical. stripped, flogged, and then
A fellow revolutionary who dying in the place of a criminal— Stoning to death was the form nailed to a horizontal beam of
of capital punishment favored by
wood through the wrists, and an
taunts Jesus; later tradition the Jews for serious offenses. upright beam through the ankles.
named him “Gestas.” The penitent thief’s soul is carried However, the Romans—the Jews detested it because of one Dressed as a Roman soldier,
into paradise by angels in James occupying overlords—routinely of their laws, which said “anyone a man carries a replica of a Roman
Tissot’s 1897 illustration. Tissot aimed used crucifixion to execute … hung on a pole is under God’s whip in a Good Friday procession
to portray the people and setting of the criminals who were not Roman curse” (Deuteronomy 21:23). in San Miguel de Allende, Mexico.
Gospels as faithfully as possible.





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THE GOSPELS 267

See also: The Divinity of Jesus 190–93 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ Salvation Through Faith 301 ■
The Power of the Resurrection 304


“has done nothing wrong” (23:41). Jesus forgives many types of sins
The thief then asks Jesus to
“remember me when You come
into Your kingdom” (23:42). The
Jewish faith had long spoken about
a kingdom beyond death, in which
God’s faithful people would enjoy
everlasting life. This, he realizes,
is the kingdom of which Jesus is
king. Jesus replies with assurance:
“Truly I tell you, today you will be
with me in paradise” (23:43). The sinful The tax collector
woman “Today salvation
Deathbed salvation “Her many sins have has come to this
The repentant thief illustrates a been forgiven … whoever house, because this
vital aspect of the Christian faith. has been forgiven man, too, is a
Acceptance into God’s kingdom little loves little.” son of Abraham.”
is not dependent upon good works Luke 7:47 Luke 19:9
or a blameless life, since the thief
clearly had no time to amend his
ways. Instead, Jesus freely gives
places in His kingdom to those who
recognize that He is their only hope.
Jesus’s promise to the thief, just Romans and Jews
moments before his death, is also The repentant thief at His crucifixion
part of the rationale for the later “Truly I tell you, today “Father, forgive them, for
practice of deathbed confession you will be with me they do not know what
and absolution, or last rites. In this, in paradise.” they are doing.”
a dying person is given assurance Luke 23:43 Luke 23:34
in their final moments that their
sins have been forgiven by God;
it is never too late to repent. ■

Crime and punishment in the time of Jesus

Like any society, Jesus’s world citizens, especially those who
had a complex system of law resisted their authority or slaves
and punishments. In Jewish found guilty of wrongdoing.
law, the practice of reparation— Crucifixion was a humiliating
giving back what was taken death, in which the victim was
with interest—was typical. stripped, flogged, and then
Stoning to death was the form nailed to a horizontal beam of
of capital punishment favored by wood through the wrists, and an
the Jews for serious offenses. upright beam through the ankles.
However, the Romans—the Jews detested it because of one Dressed as a Roman soldier,
occupying overlords—routinely of their laws, which said “anyone a man carries a replica of a Roman
used crucifixion to execute … hung on a pole is under God’s whip in a Good Friday procession
criminals who were not Roman curse” (Deuteronomy 21:23). in San Miguel de Allende, Mexico.






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268 IN BRIEF See also: The Divinity of Jesus 190–93 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Road to Emmaus 272–73 ■ 269
THE GOSPELS

BLESSED ARE PASSAGES The Word Spreads 288–89 empty on the Sunday morning,

Matthew 28:1–10;
Mark 16:1–8; Luke 24:1–12;
Turin Shroud
THOSE WHO John 20:1–18 In Jesus’s day, it was customary the linen cloths were found
neatly folded where Jesus’s
THEME
body had been (John 20:6–7).
for families to embalm a dead
The resurrection of Jesus
body in sweet-smelling spices,
The Turin Shroud is a large
HAVE NOT SETTING wrap it in linen cloth, and leave linen cloth kept in the cathedral
in Turin, Italy. The cloth bears
it until only the bones remained.
Spring c. 29 ce, during
From there, the skeletal remains
the faint image of a body, and a
Passover The garden tomb
would be gathered up into an
bearded man’s face. It is claimed
SEEN AND YET of Joseph of Arimathea in ossuary—a bone box, or chest— to be Jesus’s burial cloth, His
Jerusalem.
image having been impressed
which would then be placed
in the family vault.
on it when it was wound tightly
KEY FIGURES
around Him after death. This
After His crucifixion, Jesus
Mary Magdalene A
HAVE BELIEVED prominent disciple of Jesus. had been hastily wrapped in claim has been contested since
linen cloth and placed in the
the Middle Ages, and carbon
tomb of Joseph of Arimathea.
dating tests strongly suggest
Mary, the mother of the
the cloth is not old enough.
When the tomb was discovered
of Jesus in her own right.
JOHN 20:29, THE EMPTY TOMB Apostle James A follower grave by sunset, the start of the women stumble to the tomb in the sunset on Friday, no longer holds
Salome Another follower, and Jewish Sabbath day. The morning half light of dawn, clutching bags His body. Instead, the women see
probably the wife of Zebedee after Jesus’s grief-stricken friends of spices, which they will use to a few strips of linen cloth, carefully
and the mother of the Apostles observe the Saturday Sabbath, anoint Jesus’s body and counteract folded on the spot where His body
James and John. Mary Magdalene, Mary, the mother the anticipated odor of decay. had previously been.
of the Apostle James, and another In the Gospels of Matthew
Jesus This story tells of the woman called Salome visit the The empty tomb and Mark, the women then meet
first encounters with Jesus tomb to embalm Jesus’s body, As the women approach the tomb, God’s angel at the tomb (Luke
after His resurrection. according to Jewish custom. The however, the ground shakes reports the presence of a second
violently. Out of their sight, an angel). The message the women
angel of God appears at the tomb’s receive is one of reassurance: “Do
entrance and rolls back the stone not be afraid, for I know that you
sealing it. The guards that the are looking for Jesus, who was
Roman authorities had posted to crucified” (Matthew 28:5); “Why ❯❯
prevent the disciples from stealing
he events of the first Jesus’s body had fainted with fear
Easter morning are on seeing the angel and run off.
T foundational for the whole When the women arrive at the
of Christianity. One of the primary tomb, they are astonished to see
messages of Christian faith is that that it is already open. Wondering
Jesus could not be held by the who has arrived before them, they Some of our women …
power of death. look inside—but there is no one went to the tomb early
The Gospels give varying there. The rocky ledge, where Jesus this morning but didn’t
accounts of the dramatic events had been carefully laid down before find His body.
of that Sunday morning. Matthew, Luke 24:22–23
Luke, and Mark generally agree
that Jesus was buried in haste late In three Gospel accounts, an angel
(or angels), shown here in Gustave
on Good Friday afternoon, with Doré’s illustrated Bible of 1865, appears
only the minimum of preparation, to Mary, the mother of James, and Mary
so that His body would be in the Magdalene at the tomb’s entrance.




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THE GOSPELS 269

See also: The Divinity of Jesus 190–93 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Road to Emmaus 272–73 ■
The Word Spreads 288–89



Turin Shroud empty on the Sunday morning,
the linen cloths were found
In Jesus’s day, it was customary neatly folded where Jesus’s
for families to embalm a dead body had been (John 20:6–7).
body in sweet-smelling spices, The Turin Shroud is a large
wrap it in linen cloth, and leave linen cloth kept in the cathedral
it until only the bones remained. in Turin, Italy. The cloth bears
From there, the skeletal remains the faint image of a body, and a
would be gathered up into an bearded man’s face. It is claimed
ossuary—a bone box, or chest— to be Jesus’s burial cloth, His
which would then be placed image having been impressed
in the family vault. on it when it was wound tightly
After His crucifixion, Jesus around Him after death. This
had been hastily wrapped in claim has been contested since
linen cloth and placed in the the Middle Ages, and carbon
tomb of Joseph of Arimathea. dating tests strongly suggest
When the tomb was discovered the cloth is not old enough.

grave by sunset, the start of the women stumble to the tomb in the sunset on Friday, no longer holds
Jewish Sabbath day. The morning half light of dawn, clutching bags His body. Instead, the women see
after Jesus’s grief-stricken friends of spices, which they will use to a few strips of linen cloth, carefully
observe the Saturday Sabbath, anoint Jesus’s body and counteract folded on the spot where His body
Mary Magdalene, Mary, the mother the anticipated odor of decay. had previously been.
of the Apostle James, and another In the Gospels of Matthew
woman called Salome visit the The empty tomb and Mark, the women then meet
tomb to embalm Jesus’s body, As the women approach the tomb, God’s angel at the tomb (Luke
according to Jewish custom. The however, the ground shakes reports the presence of a second
violently. Out of their sight, an angel). The message the women
angel of God appears at the tomb’s receive is one of reassurance: “Do
entrance and rolls back the stone not be afraid, for I know that you
sealing it. The guards that the are looking for Jesus, who was
Roman authorities had posted to crucified” (Matthew 28:5); “Why ❯❯
prevent the disciples from stealing
Jesus’s body had fainted with fear
on seeing the angel and run off.
When the women arrive at the
tomb, they are astonished to see
that it is already open. Wondering
who has arrived before them, they Some of our women …
look inside—but there is no one went to the tomb early
there. The rocky ledge, where Jesus this morning but didn’t
had been carefully laid down before find His body.
Luke 24:22–23

In three Gospel accounts, an angel
(or angels), shown here in Gustave
Doré’s illustrated Bible of 1865, appears
to Mary, the mother of James, and Mary
Magdalene at the tomb’s entrance.





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270 THE EMPTY TOMB THE GOSPELS 271


do you look for the living among you into Galilee. There you will see simple word: “Greetings” (Matthew Thomas the Apostle doubts the
the dead?” (Luke 24:5); and an Him’” (Matthew 28:7). Galilee was 28:9). Falling to the ground, the man before him is the risen Jesus until
explanation for the empty tomb: a significant place for the disciples, women cling to His feet, realizing he touches His wounds. Jesus says,
“He has risen! He is not here!” since it was where much of Jesus’s what the angel had said was true— “Blessed are those who have not seen
(Mark 16:6). ministry had taken place. Jesus is really alive—and they and yet have believed” (John 20:29).
The women struggle to begin to worship Him. Stooping,
comprehend what the angel has The resurrected Jesus Jesus encourages them to their Jesus’s disciples begin to
told them. Jesus’s body has not The women, “afraid yet filled with feet and tells them to go and pass understand the logic of what had
been stolen—He is a living, joy” (Matthew 28:8), turn from the on their joyful news. happened: if Jesus is alive, that
breathing human being again. The tomb and head away to relate Women were not normally asked means death is not all-powerful
women then hear the angel give these incredible events to the to give testimony in Jesus’s day, and that sin—understood to be the
them a task. “Go quickly and tell other disciples. On the path, the since they were considered to be inevitable human tendency to turn
His disciples: ‘He has risen from women suddenly come across a incapable of presenting the truth. away from God, leading to death—
the dead and is going ahead of man. It is Jesus, who utters one Here was a clear signal that God’s does not have to mar human life
kingdom is turning expectations forever, but can be forgiven. Mary Magdalene
upside down, as women become
the first to meet and then share Faith and reason One of Jesus’s closest
news of the risen Jesus. All that Christianity believes followers, Mary Magdalene
about God—forgiveness, salvation, is remembered particularly
The Gospel of John for “teacher” (20:16). Jesus gently and transformation—depends on for being one of the early
witnesses to Jesus’s
John’s Gospel focuses on Mary tells her to return to the other Jesus’s resurrection. As Paul puts resurrection. Mary’s name
Magdalene’s experience that disciples to share the news of His it in 1 Corinthians 15:14, “if Christ indicates she was from the
morning. Upon seeing the empty resurrection. Back at the house has not been raised, our preaching town of Magdala Nunaya
chamber, she immediately rushes where they were gathered, Mary is useless and so is your faith.” on the shore of the Sea of
back to tell the other disciples that bursts in on the others, shouting, Still, the accounts of Jesus’s Galilee. Luke 8:2 records
“they have taken the Lord out “I have seen the Lord!” (20:18). resurrection raise many questions that she received healing
of the tomb, and we don’t know Mary’s mistake, thinking Jesus and demands for events to be from Jesus when He cast
where they have put Him!” (John was the gardener, is a profound explained in terms of natural seven demons out of her.
20:2). Peter and John race to the discovery: just as God planted the causes. In place of the Gospel’s Grateful for the wholeness
tomb and look inside, seeing for Garden of Eden at the beginning explanation, some have suggested that Jesus had given her,
themselves that Jesus’s body is of the Bible, now, through Jesus, that the disciples experienced she became a prominent
gone. Peter and John leave, but God is restoring that garden. mass-hallucination or that local disciple, accompanying Jesus
Mary, overcome with emotion, As Peter put it in his sermon a leaders hid Jesus’s body to prevent on His final trip to Jerusalem
and bearing witness to both
stays by the tomb. She sees a man few weeks later, human authorities His disciples from removing it His crucifixion and burial
near her and, presuming it to be may have killed Jesus, but God themselves and then proclaiming (Matthew: 27:56–61). Later
the gardener, says, “Sir, if you have raised Him to life (Acts 2:23–24). His resurrection. These theories tradition associated Mary
carried Him away, tell me where do not explain why the disciples Magdalene with Mary
you have put Him, and I will get would later allow themselves to be of Bethany, the prostitute
Him” (20:15). It isn’t the gardener, martyred for preaching a message who anointed Jesus’s feet
however; it is Jesus. Through her they knew to be false. with expensive perfume while
tears, Mary does not recognize If the Gospels are to be taken He was in the house of Simon
Jesus until He speaks her name. literally, the women discovered an the Pharisee (Luke 7:36–50),
When Mary realizes who it is, she God has raised this empty tomb; Jesus’s body was although most modern biblical
turns and clings to Him, crying Jesus to life, and we are never found, there or anywhere else; scholars believe that this
“Rabboni!,” the Aramaic word all witnesses of it. and the women and other disciples association is apocryphal.
Acts 2:32 met Jesus, not just as a memory It is noteworthy that
but as a living person. Discovering several of Jesus’s most faithful
Raphael’s The Resurrection what the resurrection of Jesus followers were women (Acts
of Christ (c.1501–1502) imagines 1:14) and that they continued
the reaction of the Roman guards. means is the concern of the rest to play key roles in the life of
Mathew’s Gospel says they “shook of the New Testament, and the the early Church.
and became like dead men” (28:4). ongoing task of the Church today. ■





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THE GOSPELS 271


Thomas the Apostle doubts the
man before him is the risen Jesus until
he touches His wounds. Jesus says,
“Blessed are those who have not seen
and yet have believed” (John 20:29).

Jesus’s disciples begin to
understand the logic of what had
happened: if Jesus is alive, that
means death is not all-powerful
and that sin—understood to be the
inevitable human tendency to turn
away from God, leading to death—
does not have to mar human life
forever, but can be forgiven. Mary Magdalene
Faith and reason One of Jesus’s closest
All that Christianity believes followers, Mary Magdalene
about God—forgiveness, salvation, is remembered particularly
for “teacher” (20:16). Jesus gently and transformation—depends on for being one of the early
witnesses to Jesus’s
tells her to return to the other Jesus’s resurrection. As Paul puts resurrection. Mary’s name
disciples to share the news of His it in 1 Corinthians 15:14, “if Christ indicates she was from the
resurrection. Back at the house has not been raised, our preaching town of Magdala Nunaya
where they were gathered, Mary is useless and so is your faith.” on the shore of the Sea of
bursts in on the others, shouting, Still, the accounts of Jesus’s Galilee. Luke 8:2 records
“I have seen the Lord!” (20:18). resurrection raise many questions that she received healing
Mary’s mistake, thinking Jesus and demands for events to be from Jesus when He cast
was the gardener, is a profound explained in terms of natural seven demons out of her.
discovery: just as God planted the causes. In place of the Gospel’s Grateful for the wholeness
Garden of Eden at the beginning explanation, some have suggested that Jesus had given her,
of the Bible, now, through Jesus, that the disciples experienced she became a prominent
God is restoring that garden. mass-hallucination or that local disciple, accompanying Jesus
As Peter put it in his sermon a leaders hid Jesus’s body to prevent on His final trip to Jerusalem
few weeks later, human authorities His disciples from removing it and bearing witness to both
His crucifixion and burial
may have killed Jesus, but God themselves and then proclaiming (Matthew: 27:56–61). Later
raised Him to life (Acts 2:23–24). His resurrection. These theories tradition associated Mary
do not explain why the disciples Magdalene with Mary
would later allow themselves to be of Bethany, the prostitute
martyred for preaching a message who anointed Jesus’s feet
they knew to be false. with expensive perfume while
If the Gospels are to be taken He was in the house of Simon
literally, the women discovered an the Pharisee (Luke 7:36–50),
God has raised this empty tomb; Jesus’s body was although most modern biblical
Jesus to life, and we are never found, there or anywhere else; scholars believe that this
all witnesses of it. and the women and other disciples association is apocryphal.
Acts 2:32 met Jesus, not just as a memory It is noteworthy that
but as a living person. Discovering several of Jesus’s most faithful
followers were women (Acts
what the resurrection of Jesus 1:14) and that they continued
means is the concern of the rest to play key roles in the life of
of the New Testament, and the the early Church.
ongoing task of the Church today. ■





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272 THE GOSPELS 273

See also: The Last Supper 248–53 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■ The Great Commission 274–77
WERE NOT OUR HEARTS


BURNING WITHIN US explain the cause of their grief to Women find Jesus’s

the “stranger”: the prophet and
miracle worker, Jesus, had died
WHILE HE TALKED WITH on the cross three days before. empty tomb.
They tell Him the story of the
US ON THE ROAD? women at the tomb and, finally, why do doubts rise in your
Why are you troubled, and
acknowledge their sorrow because
LUKE 24:32, ROAD TO EMMAUS they had formerly believed Jesus minds? Look at My hands
and My feet. It is I Myself!
was the Messiah. As they recount
recent events and admit to feeling Touch me and see; a ghost
disillusioned, they reveal their does not have flesh and Jesus appears to
denial of the truth of Jesus’s bones, as you see I have. Mary Magdalene
resurrection—while, unbeknown Luke 24:38 outside the tomb and to
to them, He stands right before three other women.
he good news of Jesus’s 7 miles (11km) from the city their eyes. Jesus then declares
IN BRIEF resurrection is first told to of Jerusalem. The two disciples, them ignorant of the scriptures
T female disciples by angels, one of whom is named Cleopas, are and proceeds to explain how Jesus
PASSAGE who appear to them at Jesus’s reflecting on recent events when is, indeed, the Messiah. Still, the
Luke 24:13–35
empty tomb. The angels remind Jesus starts traveling alongside disciples do not comprehend who
THEME the women that Jesus had already them. The disciples, however, do the man is or what He is saying. the dead. Unlike when the women
Despite the
Witnessing Jesus’s foretold His death and resurrection, not recognize Him. He probes them first reported the news, the others women’s testimony, the
resurrection and the women subsequently about their conversation and they Jesus is recognized believe their story, and tell them
report the miracle to the other The disciples finally become aware that “it is true! The Lord has risen disciples do not believe
SETTING disciples. However, the disciples of their companion’s identity when and has appeared to Simon” (24:34). the good news.
c.29 ce Jerusalem, at the do not believe them. Jesus takes supper at Emmaus with they stop for the evening and share Shortly before He joined Cleopas
end of Jesus’s ministry. Later that same day, two of the disciples. Like other Renaissance a meal. Jesus takes the bread, and and the other disciple on the road,
depictions of the event, Caravaggio’s
Jesus’s disciples make their way 1601 version includes an innkeeper not after blessing and breaking it, He Jesus had appeared to Simon
KEY FIGURES to a village called Emmaus, about mentioned in Luke’s account. gives it to the disciples—an action Peter in John 21.
Jesus The Son of God, reminiscent of the Last Supper in
crucified by the Romans Luke 22. With that action, they Witnesses of Christ
but resurrected days later. recognize Him as Jesus. Jesus appears on several other Jesus appears to

Jesus’s disciples A group of Luke highlights this moment occasions in the New Testament. Peter and also walks with
the two disciples on the 
men and women who followed with an inversion of a metaphor In 1 Corinthians 15:5–8, Paul road to Emmaus.
Jesus. They traveled with from the beginning of the story: provides a list of those who have
Him during His ministry and at first, the disciples did not witnessed Him, including: Peter;
preached about Him and His recognize Jesus (24:16), but now, the 12 disciples; 500 men and
teachings after His death. “their eyes were opened and they women “at the same time”; James;
recognized Him” (24:31). Before the the apostles; and Paul, the letter-
Peter Also called Simon Peter; disciples can even blink, however, writer himself. Other famous Gospel
one of Jesus’s closest disciples, Jesus disappears. Dumbfounded accounts include Jesus appearing
to whom Jesus appeared after and embarrassed, they remark that to Mary Magdalene (Mark 16; John The disciples
the resurrection. they had felt their hearts burn while 20) and Thomas (John 20). These realize the truth of
Jesus spoke to them on the road. stories function as proof for Jesus’s resurrection
Soon after their conversation, Christians that Jesus died and
the disciples return to Jerusalem, rose again; they also point to a and affirm their
find the other disciples, and share deeper theological belief that faith in Him.
the good news—also known as the Jesus conquered death and offers
Gospel—that Jesus has risen from everlasting life to others. ■





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THE GOSPELS 273

See also: The Last Supper 248–53 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■ The Great Commission 274–77



explain the cause of their grief to
the “stranger”: the prophet and
miracle worker, Jesus, had died Women find Jesus’s
on the cross three days before. empty tomb.
They tell Him the story of the
women at the tomb and, finally, Why are you troubled, and
acknowledge their sorrow because why do doubts rise in your
they had formerly believed Jesus minds? Look at My hands
was the Messiah. As they recount and My feet. It is I Myself!
recent events and admit to feeling Touch me and see; a ghost
disillusioned, they reveal their does not have flesh and Jesus appears to
denial of the truth of Jesus’s bones, as you see I have. Mary Magdalene
resurrection—while, unbeknown Luke 24:38 outside the tomb and to
to them, He stands right before three other women.
their eyes. Jesus then declares
them ignorant of the scriptures
and proceeds to explain how Jesus
is, indeed, the Messiah. Still, the
disciples do not comprehend who
the man is or what He is saying. the dead. Unlike when the women
first reported the news, the others Despite the
Jesus is recognized believe their story, and tell them women’s testimony, the
The disciples finally become aware that “it is true! The Lord has risen disciples do not believe
of their companion’s identity when and has appeared to Simon” (24:34). the good news.
they stop for the evening and share Shortly before He joined Cleopas
a meal. Jesus takes the bread, and and the other disciple on the road,
after blessing and breaking it, He Jesus had appeared to Simon
gives it to the disciples—an action Peter in John 21.
reminiscent of the Last Supper in
Luke 22. With that action, they Witnesses of Christ
recognize Him as Jesus. Jesus appears on several other Jesus appears to
Luke highlights this moment occasions in the New Testament. Peter and also walks with
with an inversion of a metaphor In 1 Corinthians 15:5–8, Paul the two disciples on the 
road to Emmaus.
from the beginning of the story: provides a list of those who have
at first, the disciples did not witnessed Him, including: Peter;
recognize Jesus (24:16), but now, the 12 disciples; 500 men and
“their eyes were opened and they women “at the same time”; James;
recognized Him” (24:31). Before the the apostles; and Paul, the letter-
disciples can even blink, however, writer himself. Other famous Gospel
Jesus disappears. Dumbfounded accounts include Jesus appearing
and embarrassed, they remark that to Mary Magdalene (Mark 16; John The disciples
they had felt their hearts burn while 20) and Thomas (John 20). These realize the truth of
Jesus spoke to them on the road. stories function as proof for Jesus’s resurrection
Soon after their conversation, Christians that Jesus died and
the disciples return to Jerusalem, rose again; they also point to a and affirm their
find the other disciples, and share deeper theological belief that faith in Him.
the good news—also known as the Jesus conquered death and offers
Gospel—that Jesus has risen from everlasting life to others. ■





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274 IN BRIEF See also: The Calling of the Disciples 200–03 ■ Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■ The Ascension 275
THE GOSPELS
GO AND MAKE PASSAGE The Road to Emmaus 272–73 ■ The Word Spreads 288–89 Forty days after Jesus’s


Matthew 28:16–20
resurrection, He summons
His disciples to a hillside
THEME
near Bethany, just outside
DISCIPLES Spreading the good news Jerusalem. As He blesses
and commissions them, He
SETTING
is “taken up before their very
c. 29 ce Around Galilee
eyes” and hidden from sight
and Judea, during the
by a cloud (Acts 1:9). His
OF ALL 40 days following Jesus’s ascension is the end of His
resurrection.
earthly ministry; Christians
understand that He now
KEY FIGURES
ministers in God’s presence,
Jesus The risen Jesus,
praying for His disciples to
NATIONS who is both familiar and receive His Spirit and go out
unfamiliar to His disciples.
and gather more followers.
Aspects of the ascension are
He is often recognized by
familiar. The hill is a reminder
His actions or His words, or
of the mountain where Moses
MATTHEW 28:19, THE GREAT COMMISSION when He performs miracles. received God’s Law, the cloud
Peter A member of Jesus’s
is a visible image of God’s
presence during the Exodus
inner circle of disciples and
often a spokesman for the journey from Egypt, and
other disciples. Heaven was long perceived
as a physical realm above
The other disciples The the Earth. Theologically, the
remaining 10 disciples. significance of such imagery is
however, He is sending them out The risen Christ appearing to His to emphasize Jesus’s divinity.
on a permanent mission that would disciples in the 40 days before His
last the rest of their lives. Jesus ascension is depicted on a colorful,
understands that it will take some carved wooden frieze in the Cathedral
of Notre Dame, Paris, France.
persuasion to transform the fearful
or the 40 days following disciples into bold ambassadors for
His resurrection, Jesus His message and tells them that so, the net fills with so many fish
F spends time with His the Holy Spirit will support them. that it nearly breaks. One of the
disciples, teaching them about disciples exclaims, “It is the Lord!”
the significance of His death and Inspiration at Galilee Peter immediately jumps out of the
resurrection, and preparing them At the end of the Passover festival, boat and wades to the shore, and
for the future. On the evening of the disciples return to Galilee, the other disciples follow in the
His resurrection, He had told where they had first met Jesus, vessel, towing the net full of fish.
them, “As the Father has sent and had been called to follow Him. On the shore, Jesus has already
me, I am sending you” (John 20:21). Peter decides to go fishing and prepared a “fire of burning coals”
Although they have spent three several disciples accompany him. with fish and bread on it. He
years traveling with Jesus, only They catch nothing all night, but asks them to bring a few more
now do they begin to appreciate as morning breaks, they turn fish and they all sit down to eat
what He is asking them to do. In toward the shore and see a man breakfast together.
the past, He had sent them out to on the beach. He calls out to them, After breakfast, Jesus turns to The Ascension of Christ (1884)
neighboring villages and towns “Friends, haven’t you any fish?” Peter and asks him, “Do you truly painted by the Polish artist Jan
to tell people about the kingdom of “No,” they reply. He tells them to love me?” Peter says that he does. Matejko shows Christ in a cloud
known as an “aureola,” often used
God that would soon be arriving throw the net out to the right of the Then Jesus says, “Feed my lambs.” by artists to depict God or Christ.
through Jesus (Luke 9:1–6). Now, boat. Miraculously, when they do Twice more, Jesus repeats the ❯❯





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THE GOSPELS 275

See also: The Calling of the Disciples 200–03 ■ Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■ The Ascension
The Road to Emmaus 272–73 ■ The Word Spreads 288–89
Forty days after Jesus’s
resurrection, He summons
His disciples to a hillside
near Bethany, just outside
Jerusalem. As He blesses
and commissions them, He
is “taken up before their very
eyes” and hidden from sight
by a cloud (Acts 1:9). His
ascension is the end of His
earthly ministry; Christians
understand that He now
ministers in God’s presence,
praying for His disciples to
receive His Spirit and go out
and gather more followers.
Aspects of the ascension are
familiar. The hill is a reminder
of the mountain where Moses
received God’s Law, the cloud
is a visible image of God’s
presence during the Exodus
journey from Egypt, and
Heaven was long perceived
as a physical realm above
the Earth. Theologically, the
significance of such imagery is
however, He is sending them out The risen Christ appearing to His to emphasize Jesus’s divinity.
on a permanent mission that would disciples in the 40 days before His
last the rest of their lives. Jesus ascension is depicted on a colorful,
understands that it will take some carved wooden frieze in the Cathedral
of Notre Dame, Paris, France.
persuasion to transform the fearful
disciples into bold ambassadors for
His message and tells them that so, the net fills with so many fish
the Holy Spirit will support them. that it nearly breaks. One of the
disciples exclaims, “It is the Lord!”
Inspiration at Galilee Peter immediately jumps out of the
At the end of the Passover festival, boat and wades to the shore, and
the disciples return to Galilee, the other disciples follow in the
where they had first met Jesus, vessel, towing the net full of fish.
and had been called to follow Him. On the shore, Jesus has already
Peter decides to go fishing and prepared a “fire of burning coals”
several disciples accompany him. with fish and bread on it. He
They catch nothing all night, but asks them to bring a few more
as morning breaks, they turn fish and they all sit down to eat
toward the shore and see a man breakfast together.
on the beach. He calls out to them, After breakfast, Jesus turns to The Ascension of Christ (1884)
“Friends, haven’t you any fish?” Peter and asks him, “Do you truly painted by the Polish artist Jan
“No,” they reply. He tells them to love me?” Peter says that he does. Matejko shows Christ in a cloud
known as an “aureola,” often used
throw the net out to the right of the Then Jesus says, “Feed my lambs.” by artists to depict God or Christ.
boat. Miraculously, when they do Twice more, Jesus repeats the ❯❯





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276 THE GREAT COMMISSION THE GOSPELS 277

The number 12 question, and both times Peter after Judas’s betrayal and suicide— and faith. The Great Commission
replies that he does. Both times, have become “Apostles,” from the subverts this idea. Rather than
Throughout the Bible, the Jesus also instructs Peter to take Greek word meaning “sent.” For people converging on Jerusalem,
number 12 recurs often, and care of His sheep—a reference to three years, Jesus has drawn them the apostles must go from the city
signifies the complete people the family of believers. Peter, who closer to Him, demonstrating the to the four corners of the world,
of God. Early on, Abraham’s Therefore I want you
grandson Jacob has 12 sons. had denied that he knew Jesus reality of God’s kingdom through even to those Gentiles who have
They become the fathers of three times in the high priest’s stories, teaching, and miracles. no regard for Jewish faith at all. to know that God’s
the 12 tribes of Israel, God’s courtyard during Jesus’s trial, is Now, His “inner circle” can no longer Baptism in the name of the Father, salvation has been
special people and a sign of now restored as a faithful disciple stay by His side, but must go and Son, and Holy Spirit becomes the sent to the Gentiles,
His presence in the world. For of Christ and instructed to take announce the good news of Jesus initiation ritual for new believers. and they will listen!
this reason, Jesus chooses 12 care of the community of believers and His resurrection to all the world. Those who are baptized must Acts 28:28
disciples to be the foundation that would soon grow. center their lives, not on the Temple
of a renewed family of God, A blessing for all in Jerusalem, but on Jesus and His
marked out by faith. After his Telling the world The Great Commission must have presence in their lives through the
betrayal of Jesus, the disciples During this period, Jesus often been both daunting and exciting Holy Spirit. The Great Commission
have to find a replacement for meets the disciples as they eat A 5th-century Roman mosaic from for a group of ordinary men from thus fulfills an older promise given
Judas in order to restore their together. On one occasion, He tells an eastern Mediterranean church has Galilee and Judea. For a long time, to Abraham that through his
number to 12. The criteria for them to “wait for the gift my Father the cross as a central image, testimony the Jewish people had thought descendants “all people on earth ends of the known earth within
apostleship was personal promised, which you have heard to the spread of Christianity at the time. that the appeal of their God would will be blessed”. the first two centuries ce. Today, the
knowledge of Jesus’s ministry, It is now in the Louvre, Paris.
so that the apostle could me speak about” (Acts 1:4). The gift bring people of all nations streaming After two millennia, the Great mission is as focused on sharing
provide witness to the fact is God’s Holy Spirit, whom He has to the Temple of Jerusalem. Converts, Commission remains a regular the message of the resurrection as
and significance of Jesus’s told them is “power from on high” known as “the Great Commission.” or proselytes, would then have to impetus of the Christian faith. The it is about journeying to the other
life, death, resurrection, and (Luke 24:49) that will strengthen First, He reminds the disciples of commit to Jewish customs of life teachings of Jesus reached the side of the world. ■
ascension. The disciples chose them in their mission. God’s power the significance of His resurrection
Matthias. The number 12 also will be essential, because Jesus is from the dead: “All authority in
appears frequently in the Book sending them to take His message heaven and on Earth has been Spread of early Christianity
of Revelation, referring to the not just to Judea and Galilee, but given to me” (Matthew 28:18).
final completeness of God’s also to Samaria (a region often By defeating death, Jesus proves
worldwide family. avoided because of longstanding that God has validated His life and Area mostly Christian Key:
by 325 ACE
political tension) and “to the ends teaching, and has granted Him Area mostly Christian 1. Londinium
2. Lutetia
of the earth’” (Acts 1:8). divine authority over all things. North by 600 ACE 3. Colonia
At the end of the 40 days, in He then commissions the disciples Sea Spread of Christianity 4. Massalia
His last moments with the disciples, to bring others into His kingdom: 1 5. Rome
6. Syracuse
Jesus sums up all He has taught “Therefore go and make disciples 3 7. Athens
them in words that have become of all nations, baptizing them in the Atlantic 2 EUROPE 8. Pergamum
Ocean
9. Ephesus
name of the Father and of the Son 10. Sirmium
and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching 26 Caspian Sea 11. Byzantium
them to obey everything I have 25 4 10 12. Sinope
commanded you” (Matthew 28:19– 11 Black Sea 13. Antioch
14. Damascus
20). Jesus will be with the disciples, 24 5 12 15. Jerusalem
but is now entrusting His divine 23 16. Alexandria
Declare His glory mission to human hands and feet. 22 21 20 8 17. Memphis
among the nations, 19 7 13 18. Cyrene
19. Carthage
His marvelous deeds From disciples to apostles 6 9 20. Caesarea
among all peoples. Jesus’s Great Commission signals a Mediterranean Sea 14 21. Tingis
Psalm 96:3 change in the identity of His closest 15 22. Gades
23. Corduba
followers. Throughout His ministry, 16 24. Carthago Nova
The Tree of Life bore 12 crops the 12 have been called “disciples,” 18 ASIA 25. Tarraoo
of fruit in John of Patmos’s vision of which comes from a Greek word AFRICA 17 26. Burdigala
Eden restored (Revelation 22:2), Red Sea
one for every month. meaning “learners’” or “followers.”
Now, the 11 disciples remaining—





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THE GOSPELS 277


after Judas’s betrayal and suicide— and faith. The Great Commission
have become “Apostles,” from the subverts this idea. Rather than
Greek word meaning “sent.” For people converging on Jerusalem,
three years, Jesus has drawn them the apostles must go from the city
closer to Him, demonstrating the to the four corners of the world,
reality of God’s kingdom through even to those Gentiles who have Therefore I want you
stories, teaching, and miracles. no regard for Jewish faith at all. to know that God’s
Now, His “inner circle” can no longer Baptism in the name of the Father, salvation has been
stay by His side, but must go and Son, and Holy Spirit becomes the sent to the Gentiles,
announce the good news of Jesus initiation ritual for new believers. and they will listen!
and His resurrection to all the world. Those who are baptized must Acts 28:28
center their lives, not on the Temple
A blessing for all in Jerusalem, but on Jesus and His
The Great Commission must have presence in their lives through the
been both daunting and exciting Holy Spirit. The Great Commission
for a group of ordinary men from thus fulfills an older promise given
Galilee and Judea. For a long time, to Abraham that through his
the Jewish people had thought descendants “all people on earth ends of the known earth within
that the appeal of their God would will be blessed”. the first two centuries ce. Today, the
bring people of all nations streaming After two millennia, the Great mission is as focused on sharing
to the Temple of Jerusalem. Converts, Commission remains a regular the message of the resurrection as
or proselytes, would then have to impetus of the Christian faith. The it is about journeying to the other
commit to Jewish customs of life teachings of Jesus reached the side of the world. ■


Spread of early Christianity



Area mostly Christian Key:
by 325 ACE
1. Londinium
Area mostly Christian 2. Lutetia
North by 600 ACE 3. Colonia
Sea
Spread of Christianity 4. Massalia
5. Rome
1
6. Syracuse
3 7. Athens
Atlantic 2 EUROPE 8. Pergamum
Ocean
9. Ephesus
10. Sirmium
26 Caspian Sea 11. Byzantium
12. Sinope
25 10
4 Black Sea 13. Antioch
11
12 14. Damascus
24 5 15. Jerusalem
23 16. Alexandria
22 20 17. Memphis
21 8
7 18. Cyrene
19 13 19. Carthage
6
9 20. Caesarea
14 21. Tingis
Mediterranean Sea 22. Gades
15 23. Corduba
16 24. Carthago Nova
18 ASIA 25. Tarraoo
AFRICA 26. Burdigala
17
Red Sea

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ACTS,ACTS,
















EPISTLES, AND EPISTLES, AND















REVELATIONREVELATION











































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ACTS,
















EPISTLES, AND















REVELATION











































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280 INTRODUCTION ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 281




Paul is arrested in Paul asserts the Paul warns against John of Patmos
The Apostles receive Philip converts Jerusalem and is Trinity in a blessing “false teachers” in his receives a series
the Holy Spirit on an official of the imprisoned for two at the end of a letter letter to the Philippians of dramatic and
the feast of Pentecost Queen of Ethiopia years, after which he writes to the and urges belief in terrifying visions
in Jerusalem. on the road to Gaza. he is taken to Rome. Corinthians. the resurrection. of the apocalypse.





ACTS ACTS ACTS REVELATION
2:1–47 8:26–38 21:17–26:32 2 CORINTHIANS PHILIPPIANS 3 1–20


ACTS ACTS 1 CORINTHIANS EPHESIANS JAMES REVELATION
3:1–10 9:1–30 12:27 2:1–10 2:14–26 21–22







Peter performs the Saul, a persecutor Paul tells the Paul tells the Ephesians James rejects passive After the Final
Apostles’ first miracle of Christians, Corinthians they are that personal faith and praises active Judgment, John’s
when he heals a is miraculously the body of Christ salvation can only faith that honors God vision shows heaven
beggar outside the converted on the and each one of happen through faith, through good deeds. and Earth renewed in
Temple in Jerusalem. road to Damascus. them is a part of it. not good deeds. the New Jerusalem.


he Acts of the Apostles Acts demonstrates the struggles “speak” with the reader when that they were written to churches nature of the societies in which the or Luke. Some modern scholars
is the first Christian work of the early Christians to deal face-to-face conversation was scattered over a wide geographical recipients lived. One important area have also challenged authorship of
T to trace the dissemination with persecution, hypocrisy, old impossible. They often followed range, or to all Christians wherever of discussion focuses on opponents certain Pauline epistles (especially
of the Gospel message. Written jealousies, and the cultural divide the same basic structure: an they might be found. The Book of called “false teachers,” which are Ephesians) and 1–2 Peter.
by the author of the Gospel of Luke, between Jews and Gentiles. It also introduction of the author and the Revelation, while not a letter in its mentioned and/or rebutted several
the book presents key events and narrates the spread of the Gospel recipients, a short prayer before the entirety, begins with seven brief times in the Epistles. The false A new beginning
speeches in support of the mission through the eastern Roman main text of the letter, concluding letters to churches in Asia Minor. teachers included practices and Taken together, the Book of Acts
that Jesus gave His followers: “You Empire by means of the preaching greetings to mutual acquaintances, Its apocalyptic message describing philosophies, such as Jewish and the New Testament Epistles
will receive power when the Holy and church-founding efforts of and a brief blessing. Christ as the Final Judge of the legalism and mysticism, popular demonstrate that the resurrection
Spirit comes on you; and you will Paul. Descriptions of Paul’s ministry Thirteen of the New Testament wicked and vindicator of believers Greek philosophical and religious of the crucified Jesus was not the
be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in Corinth, and the churches of letters name Paul as their author. was partly an encouragement to ideas, speculation about angels and end of God’s work in the world,
in all Judea and Samaria, and to Galatia, Ephesus, Philippi, and Most of them address churches or those experiencing persecution. spiritual powers, and ascetic and but a new beginning through the
the ends of the Earth” (Acts 1:8). It Thessalonica, provide valuable groups of churches with which Paul ritual practices. Holy Spirit. The Epistles, while
describes the coming of the Holy contextual material for the New had contact. Others (1–2 Timothy, Academic debates Fierce debate also rages about written by men, are included in
Spirit at Pentecost, the witness Testament Epistles. Titus, and Philemon) address Given their nature as letters, the the authorship of several Epistles. the canon because they are seen as
of the disciples in Jerusalem and specific individuals, but with the Epistles give readers access to one Since the 2nd century CE, scholars divinely inspired. They unpack the
Judea, and the persecution that The Epistles apparent intention of being read side of a conversation. Readers can have speculated about the significance of the Gospel message
drives the Apostles through the Part of a larger tradition of letter- in the recipient’s churches. The “overhear” the authors speak to authorship of Hebrews. An of faith in Christ, in the service of
Roman Empire. A pivotal point writing in the Greco-Roman world, remaining letters (James, 1–2 Peter, congregations and individuals. The early tradition attributed Hebrews “teaching, rebuking, correcting,
is the conversion of the zealous the Epistles comprises 20 of the 1–3 John, and Jude) are known situation being addressed, however, to Paul, but others credited Peter’s and training in righteousness,
persecutor Saul into the missionary 27 books of the New Testament. collectively as the “general” or must be inferred from the letters companion Silvanus, the early so that the servant of God may
Paul, the most influential leader in Letters were taken to be a way for “catholic” (meaning “universal”) themselves. This has led modern preacher Apollos, or one of Paul’s be equipped for every good work”
the early Church. the author to be “present” and epistles. This designation indicates scholars to speculate about the companions—Barnabas, Priscilla, (2 Timothy 3:16–17). ■





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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 281




Paul asserts the Paul warns against John of Patmos
Trinity in a blessing “false teachers” in his receives a series
at the end of a letter letter to the Philippians of dramatic and
he writes to the and urges belief in terrifying visions
Corinthians. the resurrection. of the apocalypse.






2 CORINTHIANS PHILIPPIANS 3 REVELATION
1–20


EPHESIANS JAMES REVELATION
2:1–10 2:14–26 21–22







Paul tells the Ephesians James rejects passive After the Final
that personal faith and praises active Judgment, John’s
salvation can only faith that honors God vision shows heaven
happen through faith, through good deeds. and Earth renewed in
not good deeds. the New Jerusalem.


that they were written to churches nature of the societies in which the or Luke. Some modern scholars
scattered over a wide geographical recipients lived. One important area have also challenged authorship of
range, or to all Christians wherever of discussion focuses on opponents certain Pauline epistles (especially
they might be found. The Book of called “false teachers,” which are Ephesians) and 1–2 Peter.
Revelation, while not a letter in its mentioned and/or rebutted several
entirety, begins with seven brief times in the Epistles. The false A new beginning
letters to churches in Asia Minor. teachers included practices and Taken together, the Book of Acts
Its apocalyptic message describing philosophies, such as Jewish and the New Testament Epistles
Christ as the Final Judge of the legalism and mysticism, popular demonstrate that the resurrection
wicked and vindicator of believers Greek philosophical and religious of the crucified Jesus was not the
was partly an encouragement to ideas, speculation about angels and end of God’s work in the world,
those experiencing persecution. spiritual powers, and ascetic and but a new beginning through the
ritual practices. Holy Spirit. The Epistles, while
Academic debates Fierce debate also rages about written by men, are included in
Given their nature as letters, the the authorship of several Epistles. the canon because they are seen as
Epistles give readers access to one Since the 2nd century CE, scholars divinely inspired. They unpack the
side of a conversation. Readers can have speculated about the significance of the Gospel message
“overhear” the authors speak to authorship of Hebrews. An of faith in Christ, in the service of
congregations and individuals. The early tradition attributed Hebrews “teaching, rebuking, correcting,
situation being addressed, however, to Paul, but others credited Peter’s and training in righteousness,
must be inferred from the letters companion Silvanus, the early so that the servant of God may
themselves. This has led modern preacher Apollos, or one of Paul’s be equipped for every good work”
scholars to speculate about the companions—Barnabas, Priscilla, (2 Timothy 3:16–17). ■





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282 ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 283

See also: The Calling of the Disciples 200–03 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■
EVERYONE WAS drunk. At this point, Peter, the put into the mouths of leading
The Great Commission 274–77

FILLED WITH leader of the disciples, stands figures in order to comment upon

the events they describe.
up and addresses the crowd.
Peter’s speech begins with
The strange phenomena they
AWE AT THE MANY are witnessing, he announces, are filled with the Holy the words of the Prophet Joel, who
All of them were
not the result of drunkenness, but
said the Spirit would be poured out
they are the work of God—as
on God’s people at a critical point
WONDERS AND SIGNS foretold by the Prophet Joel in the to speak in other in history: “Even on my servants,
Spirit and began
Hebrew scriptures. He reminds his
both men and women, I will pour
ACTS 2:43, THE DAY OF PENTECOST listeners of Jesus, who was God’s tongues as the Spirit out my Spirit in those days, and
prophet and Messiah and whom
they will prophesy. ... And everyone
enabled them.
the people of Jerusalem have Acts 2:4 who calls on the name of the Lord
recently killed. This same Jesus, will be saved” (Joel 2:18–32). Peter
God has now raised from the dead. goes on to argue that God had
ust as thunder, lightning, pray, as they have done regularly Peter’s speech has an empowered Jesus’s life and ministry,
IN BRIEF and dense cloud accompany since His ascension, ten days electrifying effect on the crowd, leading to His crucifixion. He quotes
J the giving of the Torah in previously. Suddenly, a noise like many of whom are “cut to the David’s words that God would not
PASSAGE Exodus, so dramatic phenomena that of a strong wind fills the house heart” and beg to know what they abandon His holy one to death
Acts 2:1–47
accompany the giving of God’s where the disciples are meeting can do in an attempt to make things to be witnesses to His resurrection, (Psalm 16:8–11), noting that while
THEME Spirit at the beginning of Acts. and tongues of fire come to rest on right. Peter exhorts them to repent beginning in Jerusalem (Acts 1:8). David’s body was still in its tomb,
The day of Pentecost This happens during the feast their heads. Impelled by a strange and become baptized. According At Pentecost, God gives His Spirit— God had raised Jesus and poured
of Pentecost, or Shavu’ot—one of inner power, the disciples find to the Book of Acts, some 3,000 dramatically and emphatically— out His Spirit as promised. Jesus
SETTING three great pilgrimage festivals themselves speaking in languages pilgrims follow his command, to the disciples. Just as the Spirit had then risen into heaven in
c. 29 ce Jerusalem. The city that each year brought throngs of they do not know. creating a massive increase in enabled the disciples to speak in fulfillment of God’s command that
is full of Jewish pilgrims, Jews from across the known world the number of believers. other languages, so He inspires the Messiah sit at His right hand
who converge there annually to Jerusalem. Also in Jerusalem, A great confusion Peter’s speech to the people of until God defeated all the Messiah’s
for the feast of Pentecost according to Acts, is the core group The disciples make so much noise The Pentecost event Jerusalem. Some scholars, however, enemies (Psalm 110:1). Luke reports
(Shavu’ot), seven weeks of Jesus’s disciples, who have met to that a crowd gathers, including Acts presents Peter’s speech as think that Luke—the author of that 3,000 of the assembled people
after Passover. many of the pilgrims who have a work of the Holy Spirit. At His Acts—employed a literary device, of Jerusalem, convinced by Peter’s
come to Jerusalem from other parts ascension, Jesus promises that the common among ancient Greek words, repent their sins and receive
KEY FIGURE of the world. These foreigners are Spirit would empower His disciples historians, in which speeches are forgiveness and the Holy Spirit. ■
Peter Despite his denial astonished because the disciples,
of Jesus following Christ’s who by now appear to have spilled
arrest, Peter is again leader out onto the street, are miraculously The early Christian distributing the money that
they raised according to people’s
among the core disciples. speaking to them in their native community needs—all in a spirit of gladness
languages, telling them about the and generosity.
Other disciples According Luke’s account of the events of
All four elements were no
to Acts, the male disciples “wonders of God.” Pentecost concludes with a brief doubt present in the early
In response to these strange
number about 120. Alongside happenings, some of the onlookers description of the community Christian community of
them are Jesus’s mother Mary are skeptical and dismissive, that emerged in Jerusalem as a Jerusalem, but later in Acts,
result of that day’s conversions.
and the other female disciples.
accusing the disciples of being This is marked, says Acts, by Luke reveals tensions among
four elements: teaching by the them as well. Attempting to
Apostles; fellowship; the win unwarranted regard, some
Celebrating the ascension (top) breaking of bread; and prayer. lie about their generosity and
and Pentecost, this miniature is from The fellowship is radical: the are judged by the Holy Spirit The Apostles Going Forth to
La Somme le Roi, an illuminated believers are said to have (Acts 5:3–5). For Christians Preach, a 15th-century miniature
manuscript produced in France owned everything in common, since, it has remained an by the Limbourg brothers, shows
between 1290 and 1300 and now selling their possessions and inspiration and a challenge. the Christian community at work.
held in the British Museum.





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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 283

See also: The Calling of the Disciples 200–03 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■
The Great Commission 274–77


drunk. At this point, Peter, the put into the mouths of leading
leader of the disciples, stands figures in order to comment upon
up and addresses the crowd. the events they describe.
The strange phenomena they Peter’s speech begins with
are witnessing, he announces, are the words of the Prophet Joel, who
not the result of drunkenness, but All of them were said the Spirit would be poured out
they are the work of God—as filled with the Holy on God’s people at a critical point
foretold by the Prophet Joel in the Spirit and began in history: “Even on my servants,
Hebrew scriptures. He reminds his to speak in other both men and women, I will pour
listeners of Jesus, who was God’s tongues as the Spirit out my Spirit in those days, and
prophet and Messiah and whom enabled them. they will prophesy. ... And everyone
the people of Jerusalem have Acts 2:4 who calls on the name of the Lord
recently killed. This same Jesus, will be saved” (Joel 2:18–32). Peter
God has now raised from the dead. goes on to argue that God had
Peter’s speech has an empowered Jesus’s life and ministry,
electrifying effect on the crowd, leading to His crucifixion. He quotes
many of whom are “cut to the David’s words that God would not
heart” and beg to know what they abandon His holy one to death
can do in an attempt to make things to be witnesses to His resurrection, (Psalm 16:8–11), noting that while
right. Peter exhorts them to repent beginning in Jerusalem (Acts 1:8). David’s body was still in its tomb,
and become baptized. According At Pentecost, God gives His Spirit— God had raised Jesus and poured
to the Book of Acts, some 3,000 dramatically and emphatically— out His Spirit as promised. Jesus
pilgrims follow his command, to the disciples. Just as the Spirit had then risen into heaven in
creating a massive increase in enabled the disciples to speak in fulfillment of God’s command that
the number of believers. other languages, so He inspires the Messiah sit at His right hand
Peter’s speech to the people of until God defeated all the Messiah’s
The Pentecost event Jerusalem. Some scholars, however, enemies (Psalm 110:1). Luke reports
Acts presents Peter’s speech as think that Luke—the author of that 3,000 of the assembled people
a work of the Holy Spirit. At His Acts—employed a literary device, of Jerusalem, convinced by Peter’s
ascension, Jesus promises that the common among ancient Greek words, repent their sins and receive
Spirit would empower His disciples historians, in which speeches are forgiveness and the Holy Spirit. ■

The early Christian distributing the money that
community they raised according to people’s
needs—all in a spirit of gladness
Luke’s account of the events of and generosity.
Pentecost concludes with a brief All four elements were no
description of the community doubt present in the early
that emerged in Jerusalem as a Christian community of
result of that day’s conversions. Jerusalem, but later in Acts,
This is marked, says Acts, by Luke reveals tensions among
four elements: teaching by the them as well. Attempting to
Apostles; fellowship; the win unwarranted regard, some
breaking of bread; and prayer. lie about their generosity and
The fellowship is radical: the are judged by the Holy Spirit The Apostles Going Forth to
believers are said to have (Acts 5:3–5). For Christians Preach, a 15th-century miniature
owned everything in common, since, it has remained an by the Limbourg brothers, shows
selling their possessions and inspiration and a challenge. the Christian community at work.






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284 IN BRIEF See also: The Raising of Lazarus 226–27 ■ Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■ The Great Commission 274–77 ■ 285
ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION

IN THE NAME OF PASSAGE The Day of Pentecost 282–83 ■ The Word Spreads 288–89 and jumping, and praising God”

Acts 3:1–5:42
Peter (right) heals the lame man
in this detail from Renaissance master
JESUS CHRIST THEME Raphael’s depiction of the miracle. It is (3:8)—a triumphant sight that
draws a large crowd. This gives
The disciples work
one of a set of tapestries by the artist
Peter an opportunity to make
in Jesus’s name
depicting the works of Peter and Paul.
a speech similar to the one he
SETTING
OF NAZARETH, c. 29–31 ce Jerusalem. beggar’s feet and ankles heal in made at Pentecost: he reminds his
listeners of their guilt in handing
an instant. He jumps up and walks
Jesus over to be killed, telling them
KEY FIGURES
to “repent … and turn to God” (3:19).
for the first time in his life. Peter
Peter A leader among the
WALK believers, twice imprisoned by has just performed an astonishing, Disciples on trial
awe-inspiring miracle—the very
the Sanhedrin but defiantly
kind, in fact, that Jesus used to
Some 5,000 people are converted
loyal to God. Peter was in
perform before He was killed.
that day, although some scholars
ACTS 3:6, THE HEALING OF THE BEGGAR Jesus’s inner circle of disciples. Powerful proof suggest that this figure given by
Luke is not meant to be taken
John Brother of James, son
of Zebedee. He is with Peter Following Pentecost, Jesus’s literally—it simply suggests a large
when they heal the beggar. disciples continue to preach and number. However, while ordinary
the Beautiful Gate—possibly the perform great works. Luke, the people react with jubilation and
Sanhedrin A supreme court bronze-clad Nicanor Gate, between author of Acts, gives many awe to the healing of the beggar,
in Jerusalem presided over by the court of the Gentiles and the examples of signs and wonders that it also attracts negative attention
the high priest. court of the women. the disciples perform. As Jesus had from the authorities, who are
The beggar asks the disciples promised them, His believers start greatly disturbed by the events.
for money, and both of them look to do even greater things in His That same evening, the Temple
him directly in the eyes. “Look at name than He himself did during guards arrest the two Apostles and
us!” Peter says, and so the beggar His three-year ministry. throw them into prison overnight,
looks. “Silver or gold I do not have, The healing of the beggar is, before bringing them before the
but what I do have I give you. In the as it were, the inaugural miracle of high priest and Sanhedrin the next
name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, the post-Pentecost order. According morning. Standing before them, a
walk” (Acts 3:4–6). Peter then takes to Luke, the beggar goes with Peter Spirit-emboldened Peter speaks out
the beggar by the hand and the and John into the Temple, “walking yet again about Jesus, in whose ❯❯
cts 3 tells the story of Almsgiving
one of the first holy works
A performed by Jesus’s For people with disabilities— (giving to the poor) as one of
disciples in the wake of His death, such as Bartimaeus, the blind the three prime works of piety,
resurrection, and ascension. Peter man whom Jesus healed outside along with prayer and fasting
and John approach a gate of the Jericho (Mark 10:46–52), and (Matthew 6:1–4). From the point It is by the name of
Temple in Jerusalem. It is a time the man at the Beautiful Gate— of view of beggars hoping to Jesus Christ of Nazareth,
of prayer, and they have come to begging was not demeaning, receive alms, location was key. whom you crucified but
pray, but they stop at the gate but simply one of the few ways Bartimaeus positioned himself whom God raised from
when they come across a beggar. they could make a living. Giving by one of the gates into Jericho, the dead, that this man
Crippled from birth, this beggar to the poor was encouraged by to benefit from the constant flow stands before you healed.
is a familiar figure at the Temple; Jewish scripture—“I command of people into and out of the city; Acts 4:10
he is carried there each day by you to be open-handed toward the man at the Beautiful Gate
… the poor and needy in your
relied on the visiting pilgrims
friends or family to beg for money land” (Deuteronomy 15:11)—and who were especially aware, as
from the worshippers who stream by Jesus. In the Sermon on the they entered or left the Temple,
by. On this day, the beggar is being Mount, He names almsgiving of their religious duty to give.
carried to what was referred to as





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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 285

See also: The Raising of Lazarus 226–27 ■ Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■ The Great Commission 274–77 ■
The Day of Pentecost 282–83 ■ The Word Spreads 288–89


Peter (right) heals the lame man and jumping, and praising God”
in this detail from Renaissance master (3:8)—a triumphant sight that
Raphael’s depiction of the miracle. It is draws a large crowd. This gives
one of a set of tapestries by the artist Peter an opportunity to make
depicting the works of Peter and Paul.
a speech similar to the one he
made at Pentecost: he reminds his
beggar’s feet and ankles heal in listeners of their guilt in handing
an instant. He jumps up and walks Jesus over to be killed, telling them
for the first time in his life. Peter to “repent … and turn to God” (3:19).
has just performed an astonishing,
awe-inspiring miracle—the very Disciples on trial
kind, in fact, that Jesus used to Some 5,000 people are converted
perform before He was killed. that day, although some scholars
suggest that this figure given by
Powerful proof Luke is not meant to be taken
Following Pentecost, Jesus’s literally—it simply suggests a large
disciples continue to preach and number. However, while ordinary
the Beautiful Gate—possibly the perform great works. Luke, the people react with jubilation and
bronze-clad Nicanor Gate, between author of Acts, gives many awe to the healing of the beggar,
the court of the Gentiles and the examples of signs and wonders that it also attracts negative attention
court of the women. the disciples perform. As Jesus had from the authorities, who are
The beggar asks the disciples promised them, His believers start greatly disturbed by the events.
for money, and both of them look to do even greater things in His That same evening, the Temple
him directly in the eyes. “Look at name than He himself did during guards arrest the two Apostles and
us!” Peter says, and so the beggar His three-year ministry. throw them into prison overnight,
looks. “Silver or gold I do not have, The healing of the beggar is, before bringing them before the
but what I do have I give you. In the as it were, the inaugural miracle of high priest and Sanhedrin the next
name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, the post-Pentecost order. According morning. Standing before them, a
walk” (Acts 3:4–6). Peter then takes to Luke, the beggar goes with Peter Spirit-emboldened Peter speaks out
the beggar by the hand and the and John into the Temple, “walking yet again about Jesus, in whose ❯❯

Almsgiving

For people with disabilities— (giving to the poor) as one of
such as Bartimaeus, the blind the three prime works of piety,
man whom Jesus healed outside along with prayer and fasting
Jericho (Mark 10:46–52), and (Matthew 6:1–4). From the point It is by the name of
the man at the Beautiful Gate— of view of beggars hoping to Jesus Christ of Nazareth,
begging was not demeaning, receive alms, location was key. whom you crucified but
but simply one of the few ways Bartimaeus positioned himself whom God raised from
they could make a living. Giving by one of the gates into Jericho, the dead, that this man
to the poor was encouraged by to benefit from the constant flow stands before you healed.
Jewish scripture—“I command of people into and out of the city; Acts 4:10
you to be open-handed toward the man at the Beautiful Gate
… the poor and needy in your relied on the visiting pilgrims
land” (Deuteronomy 15:11)—and who were especially aware, as
by Jesus. In the Sermon on the they entered or left the Temple,
Mount, He names almsgiving of their religious duty to give.







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286 THE HEALING OF THE BEGGAR ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 287


name the beggar has been healed. opposition they face from the persecution from the authorities, end, the Apostles are flogged, once
Baffled at such eloquence in the authorities, the believers pray to at which point Luke’s narrative more told not to speak in Jesus’s
mouth of these two “unschooled, God for renewed boldness in telling borders on comedy. Once more the name, and allowed to go free. Yet
ordinary men” (4:13)—and by the the world about Jesus. They ask, Apostles are arrested and thrown again they ignore the Sanhedrin’s
undeniable fact that a great miracle “Lord, consider their threats and into prison, but during the night an orders. They continue, Luke writes,
has taken place—the council enable your servants to speak your After they prayed, the angel comes and opens the prison joyfully “teaching and proclaiming
commands the Apostles to keep word with great boldness” (4:29). place where they were doors, allowing them to go free. The the good news that Jesus is the
silent from now on. The Greek word that Luke uses for meeting was shaken. angel tells them to go back to the Messiah” (Acts 5:42).
Peter and John’s reply is simple: this boldness is parrhesia, also Acts 4:31 Temple and preach as they usually
“Which is right in God’s eyes: to meaning “free speech,” “frankness,” do. When morning comes, the Inherited leadership
listen to you, or to Him? You be the even “plain speaking.” As a sign of Sanhedrin meets and sends for the Throughout this narrative, Luke
judges! As for us, we cannot help divine approval, the building where prisoners. Shocked officers return makes important theological
speaking about what we have seen the believers are meeting shakes. empty-handed with this report: points. With their bold Spirit-
and heard” (4:19–20). The council Thereafter, the community of “We found the jail securely locked, empowered preaching, confirmed
members threaten them further, believers in Jerusalem prospers: with the guards standing at the by God in signs and wonders, the Simon Peter
but with so much excitement at “all the believers were one in heart lied—wanting to receive praise, doors; but when we opened them, Apostles have established that they
the miracle, the Sanhedrin has no and mind” and they shared their they pretend to hand over all we found no one inside” (5:23). stand in a clear line of continuity One of Jesus’s closest disciples
option but to let the men go free. possessions among each other their property while keeping reaching back as far as Abraham, Simon Peter became a leading
(4:32). Most but not all of the some back for themselves. Outwitting the council Moses, and the prophets of the member of the early Church.
The second Pentecost believers are willing to take part The community thrives, as Baffled once more, the Sanhedrin Hebrew scriptures. God has been His real name was Simon, but
Jesus called him “Rock”:
Peter and John return to their in this. Acts 5 tells the story of many more signs and miracles then receive a report from the faithful: the great covenants He “Peter” in Greek, “Cephas”
community. What follows is Ananias and Sapphira, a couple lead to an impressive growth in Temple: the men imprisoned last made with Abraham and the in Aramaic. He and his brother
sometimes called the “second who suddenly fall down and die numbers. Inevitably, however, such night are there teaching the people. Hebrew patriarchs have found Andrew were both fishermen,
Pentecost.” Aware of the growing after Peter reveals that they have success brings further jealousy and Yet again the Apostles are arrested. fulfillment in Jesus, the promised and worked with another pair
When upbraided for continuing to Messiah, whom God affirmed with of brothers, James and John.
teach about Jesus, they reply: “We miraculous works—notably, the John’s Gospel says Peter met
must obey God rather than human supreme miracle of His resurrection. Jesus through Andrew, who
Peter raises Tabitha, beings!” (5:29). Infuriated, many of Now though, the traditional leaders was a disciple of John the
a disciple, from the dead. the Sanhedrin want to put them of the Jews, the Sanhedrin refuse Baptist. However, the Gospels
(Acts 9:36–42) to death and are only dissuaded to accept Jesus as the Son of God, of Mark and Luke report
by the more cautious counsels of and so the leadership of God’s that Peter and Andrew were
Peter heals Paul exorcises a Pharisee named Gamaliel. In the people passes out of their hands working as fishermen when
a paralytic man a possessed girl. and to the Apostles. The believers Jesus called them to be
named Aeneas. (Acts 16:16–18) are portrayed by Luke as the “new His disciples.
During the ministry of
(Acts 9:33–35) Israel,” true heirs of the covenant Jesus, Peter was one of the
promises of the Old Testament. inner circle of three disciples,
The miracles performed In this context, the fact that along with James and John,
by the Apostles show that Peter and John heal the beggar in but when Jesus was arrested,
Jesus was working through People brought the the name of Jesus is important. Peter denied Him three times.
them and granting them sick into the streets and Peter’s speech acknowledges that This failure marked a turning
spiritual authority. laid them on beds and not only are the disciples following point in Peter’s life; he was
mats so that at least in the tradition of Jesus’s ministry, forgiven by Jesus and soon
Paul heals a Paul cures Peter’s shadow might the power they are exercising is emerged as a dauntless leader
man who cannot Publius’s father fall on some of them not their own: Jesus now works in the early Church. He was
walk in Lystra. of dysentery. as he passed by. through them. Peter, John, and also the first to share the
(Acts 14:7–9) (Acts 28:7–8) Acts 5:15 their fellow disciples have been Christian message and baptism
empowered by the Holy Spirit to with non-Jews. Peter was
Paul raises a young man, continue Jesus’s work on Earth, famously crucified upside-
Eutychus, from the dead. and have been given the authority down during the persecution
(Acts 20:9–12) unleashed by Emperor Nero
to carry out this task because of in 64–68 ce.
their faith in Him. ■





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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 287


persecution from the authorities, end, the Apostles are flogged, once
at which point Luke’s narrative more told not to speak in Jesus’s
borders on comedy. Once more the name, and allowed to go free. Yet
Apostles are arrested and thrown again they ignore the Sanhedrin’s
into prison, but during the night an orders. They continue, Luke writes,
angel comes and opens the prison joyfully “teaching and proclaiming
doors, allowing them to go free. The the good news that Jesus is the
angel tells them to go back to the Messiah” (Acts 5:42).
Temple and preach as they usually
do. When morning comes, the Inherited leadership
Sanhedrin meets and sends for the Throughout this narrative, Luke
prisoners. Shocked officers return makes important theological
empty-handed with this report: points. With their bold Spirit-
“We found the jail securely locked, empowered preaching, confirmed
with the guards standing at the by God in signs and wonders, the Simon Peter
doors; but when we opened them, Apostles have established that they
we found no one inside” (5:23). stand in a clear line of continuity One of Jesus’s closest disciples
reaching back as far as Abraham, Simon Peter became a leading
Outwitting the council Moses, and the prophets of the member of the early Church.
His real name was Simon, but
Baffled once more, the Sanhedrin Hebrew scriptures. God has been Jesus called him “Rock”:
then receive a report from the faithful: the great covenants He “Peter” in Greek, “Cephas”
Temple: the men imprisoned last made with Abraham and the in Aramaic. He and his brother
night are there teaching the people. Hebrew patriarchs have found Andrew were both fishermen,
Yet again the Apostles are arrested. fulfillment in Jesus, the promised and worked with another pair
When upbraided for continuing to Messiah, whom God affirmed with of brothers, James and John.
teach about Jesus, they reply: “We miraculous works—notably, the John’s Gospel says Peter met
must obey God rather than human supreme miracle of His resurrection. Jesus through Andrew, who
beings!” (5:29). Infuriated, many of Now though, the traditional leaders was a disciple of John the
the Sanhedrin want to put them of the Jews, the Sanhedrin refuse Baptist. However, the Gospels
to death and are only dissuaded to accept Jesus as the Son of God, of Mark and Luke report
by the more cautious counsels of and so the leadership of God’s that Peter and Andrew were
a Pharisee named Gamaliel. In the people passes out of their hands working as fishermen when
and to the Apostles. The believers Jesus called them to be
His disciples.
are portrayed by Luke as the “new During the ministry of
Israel,” true heirs of the covenant Jesus, Peter was one of the
promises of the Old Testament. inner circle of three disciples,
In this context, the fact that along with James and John,
Peter and John heal the beggar in but when Jesus was arrested,
People brought the the name of Jesus is important. Peter denied Him three times.
sick into the streets and Peter’s speech acknowledges that This failure marked a turning
laid them on beds and not only are the disciples following point in Peter’s life; he was
mats so that at least in the tradition of Jesus’s ministry, forgiven by Jesus and soon
Peter’s shadow might the power they are exercising is emerged as a dauntless leader
fall on some of them not their own: Jesus now works in the early Church. He was
as he passed by. through them. Peter, John, and also the first to share the
Acts 5:15 their fellow disciples have been Christian message and baptism
empowered by the Holy Spirit to with non-Jews. Peter was
famously crucified upside-
continue Jesus’s work on Earth, down during the persecution
and have been given the authority unleashed by Emperor Nero
to carry out this task because of in 64–68 ce.
their faith in Him. ■





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288 ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 289

See also: Ruth and Naomi 108–09 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Great Commission 274–77 ■
HE TOLD HIM Wherever the believers go, they
The Day of Pentecost 282–83 ■ The Road to Damascus 290–91


“preach the word” to the great joy
THE GOOD NEWS of those who hear and accept it.


The Ethiopian
ABOUT JESUS In Samaria, Philip, a former
associate of the martyred Stephen,
makes an impact. He was one of
seven men appointed to oversee
ACTS 8:35, THE WORD SPREADS the distribution of food to widows
in Jerusalem. Now in Samaria,
he preaches to large crowds and
performs dramatic healings.
Luke describes two aspects
ife for most of the believers garments. Luke’s Gospel describes of the events that follow. On one
IN BRIEF in Jerusalem is relatively Saul going from house to house, level is the persecution that
L peaceful in the period after dragging off men and women scatters the believers, who then
PASSAGE Pentecost, despite some conflicts and throwing them into prison. set out to preach the word. On the
Acts 7:54–8:40
between the Sanhedrin and the other is the direct intervention of
THEME Apostles. However, this changes From curse to blessing God, whose influence becomes
God’s word is for everyone when the Sanhedrin, alarmed The Apostles stay in Jerusalem to clear when He sets Philip a new
by the evangelical success of face the persecution, while the rest task. As Philip returns to Jerusalem
SETTING a Hellenistic Christian called of the community scatter across from Samaria, an angel tells him to
c. 32–35 ce The countryside Stephen, sentences him to death Judea and Samaria to escape the take the road to Gaza. He sets out
around Jerusalem. by stoning. Stephen’s execution violence. However, what at first and sees a chariot ahead. God’s
begins “a great persecution” seems like a setback leads to the Spirit tells Philip to catch up with of the Suffering Servant Songs The Ethiopian eunuch is baptized
KEY FIGURES against the Jerusalem Church, fulfillment of Jesus’s prophecy it, and there he finds a high official from the Book of Isaiah, which by Philip the Evangelist, in a
Saul of Tarsus A Hellenistic masterminded by a young man at His ascension: “You will be my of the Queen of Ethiopia, a eunuch speaks of the arrival and suffering stained-glass window in Brackley,
(Greek-speaking) Jew later called Saul, at whose feet Stephen’s witnesses in Jerusalem, and … who has been to Jerusalem to of the Messiah. Philip asks the England. This act symbolized the
known as Paul. At this stage, killers had laid their outer to the ends of the Earth” (Acts 1:8). worship. The man is reading one eunuch if he understands what start of the Ethiopian Church.
he is a diehard persecutor of he is reading. The eunuch replies
the fledgling Church. that he does not and invites Philip the “good news” has spread from
Proselytes and God-fearers
Philip One of the “Seven” to sit with him to explain the Jerusalem into Judea and Samaria.
appointed to oversee the In the period after Jerusalem’s proselytes and God-fearers were passage. Philip agrees and tells Now, with the conversion of the
distribution of food to widows Temple was rebuilt in the 6th drawn to the teaching of Jesus the man “the good news about Ethiopian, it pushes farther afield.
in Jerusalem. He spreads the century bce, there was a growth and His disciples. They all paid close attention Jesus,” as predicted by Isaiah.
word of God. in the number of “proselytes”— In Matthew’s and Luke’s to what He said. For with Later, when they pass a stretch God of all
those who went through the full Gospels, a Roman centurion of water, the eunuch asks Philip The conversion of the eunuch
Ethiopian official Chief rites of conversion to Judaism, whose servant Jesus heals may shrieks, impure spirits came to baptize him. Philip does so, shows a key difference between
treasurer to the Queen of including circumcision—and well be a God-fearer, as may the out of many, and many and then the “Spirit of the Lord” Judaism and Christianity. For Jews,
Ethiopia; a eunuch who is “God-fearers,” who followed Ethiopian official in Acts. Two who were paralyzed or miraculously takes Philip away, castration was unlawful, so, as a
many Jewish religious practices
converts in Acts—the centurion
baptized by Philip. without full conversion. This Cornelius, and Lydia, a cloth lame were healed. depositing him on the coast near eunuch, the Ethiopian would not
growth resulted partly from dealer in Philippi—are described Acts 8:6–7 Caesarea. The eunuch, meanwhile, have been allowed to worship in
continues on his way, rejoicing.
the Temple. God, however, prompts
increased contact between as God-fearers. Cornelius and
Jews and non-Jews, and partly his household are baptized after Joy thus marks the spreading Philip to baptize the man. The
because of the missionary zeal hearing Peter preach, Lydia and of the Gospel—a process that episode is seen as proof that the
of the Pharisees. Later, many hers after hearing Paul. Saul’s persecution has only, in the word of God was meant for the
end, promoted. As Jesus foretold, whole world—not just the Jews. ■




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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 289

See also: Ruth and Naomi 108–09 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Great Commission 274–77 ■
The Day of Pentecost 282–83 ■ The Road to Damascus 290–91


Wherever the believers go, they
“preach the word” to the great joy
of those who hear and accept it.

The Ethiopian
In Samaria, Philip, a former
associate of the martyred Stephen,
makes an impact. He was one of
seven men appointed to oversee
the distribution of food to widows
in Jerusalem. Now in Samaria,
he preaches to large crowds and
performs dramatic healings.
Luke describes two aspects
of the events that follow. On one
level is the persecution that
scatters the believers, who then
set out to preach the word. On the
other is the direct intervention of
God, whose influence becomes
clear when He sets Philip a new
task. As Philip returns to Jerusalem
from Samaria, an angel tells him to
take the road to Gaza. He sets out
and sees a chariot ahead. God’s
Spirit tells Philip to catch up with of the Suffering Servant Songs The Ethiopian eunuch is baptized
it, and there he finds a high official from the Book of Isaiah, which by Philip the Evangelist, in a
of the Queen of Ethiopia, a eunuch speaks of the arrival and suffering stained-glass window in Brackley,
who has been to Jerusalem to of the Messiah. Philip asks the England. This act symbolized the
worship. The man is reading one eunuch if he understands what start of the Ethiopian Church.
he is reading. The eunuch replies
that he does not and invites Philip the “good news” has spread from
to sit with him to explain the Jerusalem into Judea and Samaria.
passage. Philip agrees and tells Now, with the conversion of the
the man “the good news about Ethiopian, it pushes farther afield.
Jesus,” as predicted by Isaiah.
They all paid close attention Later, when they pass a stretch God of all
to what He said. For with of water, the eunuch asks Philip The conversion of the eunuch
shrieks, impure spirits came to baptize him. Philip does so, shows a key difference between
out of many, and many and then the “Spirit of the Lord” Judaism and Christianity. For Jews,
who were paralyzed or miraculously takes Philip away, castration was unlawful, so, as a
lame were healed. depositing him on the coast near eunuch, the Ethiopian would not
Acts 8:6–7 Caesarea. The eunuch, meanwhile, have been allowed to worship in
continues on his way, rejoicing. the Temple. God, however, prompts
Joy thus marks the spreading Philip to baptize the man. The
of the Gospel—a process that episode is seen as proof that the
Saul’s persecution has only, in the word of God was meant for the
end, promoted. As Jesus foretold, whole world—not just the Jews. ■





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290 ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 291

See also: The Word Spreads 288–89 ■ The Council of Jerusalem 292–93 ■
I AM JESUS,
Paul’s Arrest 294–95 ■ The Power of the Resurrection 304–05


WHOM YOU ARE




PERSECUTING





ACTS 9:5, THE ROAD TO DAMASCUS Paul, Apostle to
the Gentiles

Paul was born in the city of
he conversion of Paul on Saul, who has fallen to the ground,
IN BRIEF the road to Damascus is asks who is speaking. The voice Tarsus, in today’s Turkey,
to a family of Hellenistic
T one of the most dramatic replies, “I am Jesus, whom you
PASSAGE episodes in the Book of Acts. are persecuting. Now get up and (Greek-speaking) Jews. The
Acts 9:1–19 well-educated young man
The most fanatical persecutor go into the city, and you will be had a knowledge of Greek
THEME of the early Christians has an told what you must do” (9:5–6). thought and studied under
Miraculous conversions overwhelming experience with Finding himself blinded, Saul the famous Pharisee Rabbi
the risen Jesus and becomes is taken into Damascus by his Gamaliel in Jerusalem.
SETTING a member of the very community traveling companions. After three Paul makes reference to
c. 33–36 ce The road to he has previously attacked. Within days, the Lord appears to a local his conversion in his letters to
Damascus, Syria, where many a short space of time, Paul became believer named Ananias and tells the Galatians and Corinthians.
Jews have become Christians. one of his new community’s most him to visit Saul. Ananias does as Paul adds to Luke’s account in
eloquent preachers, earning him the Lord says and baptizes Saul, Acts, saying he traveled from
KEY FIGURES many converts but also the enmity who receives the Holy Spirit and Damascus to Arabia after his
Saul Better known by his of his former allies. Not once but the return of his sight. conversion and that it was
Latin name Paul, Saul is twice he has to flee for his life. According to Luke, Saul is three years before he went
initially a fanatical persecutor The arch-persecutor thus joins the soon preaching about Jesus in the to Jerusalem to meet Peter
of Christian believers. ranks of the persecuted. Damascus synagogues, arousing and the other Apostles.
In the years that followed,
Ananias A Christian believer the animosity of local Jews, who Paul traveled around the
in Damascus who was a Saul’s vision conspire to murder him. eastern Mediterranean,
former disciple of Jesus. The story in Acts begins with Lowered in a basket from the story three times (Acts 9, 22, and The drama of Paul’s experience is preaching the Gospel and
captured by Caravaggio’s Conversion
Described as a “devout Paul, who is then known by his city wall by his disciples, Saul 26). His aim is clear: to establish on the Way to Damascus (1601), in establishing communities
of Christians in the major
observer of the Law,” he Hebrew name, Saul, “breathing escapes the conspirators and goes Paul as an apostolic and prophetic which the blinded Saul is thrown cities. The hostility of Jewish
to Jerusalem, where he makes
out murderous threats against the
figure, who was called, revealed,
was sent to heal Paul and Lord’s disciples” (Acts 9:1). Armed contact with the initially suspicious and confirmed as such by God. into a pool of light. opponents led to his eventual
bring him the Gospel. arrest in Jerusalem and then
with warrants from the high priest, Apostles. Once again, his preaching
he is on his way to Damascus to earns him the hostility of certain God’s prophet Hebrew prophets who came before transportation to Rome for
hunt down believers and bring them Jews—probably the very group of As in the rest of the Bible, God Him. As God reveals to Ananias, He trial. The New Testament
back to Jerusalem as prisoners. Just diaspora Jews with whom he had works through signs and wonders, has selected the former enemy of gives no account of his death,
but an early tradition asserts
outside the city, however, he has an previously associated—and he has but also through suffering. The His people to become His “chosen that he died by beheading
extraordinary encounter. A “light to flee, this time to his home city of fact that Paul is now persecuted instrument to proclaim My name during the persecution
from heaven” flashes around him, Tarsus. The conversion of Saul is so affirms both the power of God and to the Gentiles. … I will show him unleashed in 64 ce by the
and a voice says, “Saul, Saul, why fundamental to the evolution of the the status of Paul as God’s prophet, how much he must suffer for my Roman Emperor Nero.
do you persecute me?” (9:3–4). early Church that Luke tells the suffering with Jesus and the name” (9:15–16). ■





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See also: The Word Spreads 288–89 ■ The Council of Jerusalem 292–93 ■
Paul’s Arrest 294–95 ■ The Power of the Resurrection 304–05

















Paul, Apostle to
the Gentiles

Paul was born in the city of
Tarsus, in today’s Turkey,
to a family of Hellenistic
(Greek-speaking) Jews. The
well-educated young man
had a knowledge of Greek
thought and studied under
the famous Pharisee Rabbi
Gamaliel in Jerusalem.
Paul makes reference to
his conversion in his letters to
the Galatians and Corinthians.
Paul adds to Luke’s account in
Acts, saying he traveled from
Damascus to Arabia after his
conversion and that it was
three years before he went
to Jerusalem to meet Peter
and the other Apostles.
In the years that followed,
Paul traveled around the
eastern Mediterranean,
story three times (Acts 9, 22, and The drama of Paul’s experience is preaching the Gospel and
26). His aim is clear: to establish captured by Caravaggio’s Conversion establishing communities
Paul as an apostolic and prophetic on the Way to Damascus (1601), in of Christians in the major
figure, who was called, revealed, which the blinded Saul is thrown cities. The hostility of Jewish
into a pool of light.
and confirmed as such by God. opponents led to his eventual
arrest in Jerusalem and then
God’s prophet Hebrew prophets who came before transportation to Rome for
As in the rest of the Bible, God Him. As God reveals to Ananias, He trial. The New Testament
works through signs and wonders, has selected the former enemy of gives no account of his death,
but an early tradition asserts
but also through suffering. The His people to become His “chosen that he died by beheading
fact that Paul is now persecuted instrument to proclaim My name during the persecution
affirms both the power of God and to the Gentiles. … I will show him unleashed in 64 ce by the
the status of Paul as God’s prophet, how much he must suffer for my Roman Emperor Nero.
suffering with Jesus and the name” (9:15–16). ■





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292 ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 293

See also: The Nature of Faith 236–41 ■ The Word Spreads 288–89 ■ Salvation Through Faith 301 ■
HE PURIFIED Paul and Barnabas, James, an
The Power of the Resurrection 304–05


increasingly influential leader in
THEIR HEARTS the Jerusalem church, cites the The elders of the Church
meet in Jerusalem.
prophet Amos to show that it was
always God’s intention that people
The rest of mankind
BY FAITH from other nations would “seek even all the Gentiles Some argue that because
may seek the Lord,
the Lord” (15:17). Like Peter, he
concludes that “we should not
who bear my name.
make it difficult for the Gentiles
ACTS 15:9, THE COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM who are turning to God” (15:19). Acts 15:17 Christianity is the fulfillment
of promises made in the
A compromise Pentateuch …
James proposes a compromise:
there will be no circumcision for
he growing influx of Barnabas deny this, insisting Gentile believers, but they will be
IN BRIEF Gentile believers posed that circumcision is not necessary required to observe certain Jewish
T problems for the early for Gentile believers. The debate dietary and cleanliness laws, between God and His people, as
PASSAGE Church. Questions arose as to becomes so heated that the Antioch chiefly to ensure that Jewish and reflected in a famous clause from
ACTS 15:1–35 … Gentiles converting to
whether they should be regarded church sends a delegation, led by Gentile believers can eat together. the letter the Council sends to the Christianity should be
THEME as full members of the Church, or Paul and Barnabas, to consult the James’s proposal is accepted, and believers in Antioch: “It seemed circumcised, according
Accommodating Gentiles have to meet further requirements elders of the founding church in so believers from Jerusalem are good to the Holy Spirit and to us to Mosaic Law.
to put them on an equal footing a meeting that became known as chosen to go back to Antioch with not to burden you” (15:28). In the
SETTING with Jewish followers of Christ. the Council of Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas, bearing a letter new “kingdom” that is therefore
c. 49 ce Antioch and Jerusalem. According to Acts, these burning confirming the Council’s resolutions. established, Gentile believers
The Council of Jerusalem is a
KEY FIGURES questions come to a head in Antioch The Council meets watershed. It stresses above all the enjoy full and equal citizenship
with Jewish ones. Faith alone
In Jerusalem, much like in Antioch,
after Paul’s return to the city at the
Paul The Apostle argues in end of his first missionary journey. the debate becomes vigorous. Peter importance of understanding that gives entry. With these truths But the Council decides that
both Antioch and Jerusalem Jewish believers, having recently speaks first, insisting that faith God wants to reach out to Gentiles, firmly established, the rest of Acts salvation does not require
against an insistence on arrived from Judea, are teaching that alone is necessary for salvation. as He did with Cornelius and his is dominated at the human level by adherence to the Law …
Gentile circumcision. all believers must be circumcised, He cites the recent conversion of household, and the Gentile converts Paul, God’s “chosen instrument”
Barnabas Paul’s longtime according to the Law of Moses. the Roman centurion Cornelius Paul and Barnabas made in their (9:15), for bringing the message
friend accompanies him on Paul and his long-standing ally and his household, who heard the travels. This creates a consensus of the Gospel to the Gentiles. ■
his journey to Jerusalem. Gospel from Peter and believed.
God confirmed their salvation by Paul and Peter’s fight at Antioch
Peter The Apostle speaks filling them with the Holy Spirit, ... and makes no faith
decisively at the Council of just as He did with Jewish In his letter to the Galatians, yet you live like a Gentile … distinction between
Jerusalem against the need believers. God, Peter says, “did Paul describes a combative How is it, then, that you force Gentile and Jew.
for circumcision. not discriminate between us and encounter in Antioch with the Gentiles to follow Jewish
them, for He purified their hearts Apostle Peter over Jewish customs?” (2:14).
James A leader of the by faith” (Acts 15:9). As a result, no dietary laws. Paul publicly These were difficult issues
Jerusalem church, James sums extra yoke, such as circumcision, accuses Peter of inconsistency for leaders of the early Church.
up the Council’s findings. should be placed on their necks. and hypocrisy because Peter As shown at the Council of
Following further testimony from sometimes eats with Gentile Jerusalem, Peter and other
believers, but at other times Church leaders eventually agree This decision preserves
refrains from doing so for fear that outreach to the Gentiles the unity of the Church
A Bible study card (c.1900) illustrates of offending Jewish visitors from was God’s initiative through and takes its reach beyond
Acts 15:22–33, in which the Gentile Jerusalem (Galatians 2:11–12). Christ and could not be ignored that of Judaism.
believers of Antioch are told which Paul argues, “You are a Jew, by the Church.
of Moses’s Laws they must keep.





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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 293

See also: The Nature of Faith 236–41 ■ The Word Spreads 288–89 ■ Salvation Through Faith 301 ■
The Power of the Resurrection 304–05


Paul and Barnabas, James, an
increasingly influential leader in The elders of the Church
the Jerusalem church, cites the meet in Jerusalem.
prophet Amos to show that it was
always God’s intention that people
from other nations would “seek The rest of mankind
the Lord” (15:17). Like Peter, he may seek the Lord,
concludes that “we should not even all the Gentiles
make it difficult for the Gentiles who bear my name. Some argue that because
who are turning to God” (15:19). Acts 15:17 Christianity is the fulfillment
of promises made in the
A compromise Pentateuch …
James proposes a compromise:
there will be no circumcision for
Gentile believers, but they will be
required to observe certain Jewish
dietary and cleanliness laws, between God and His people, as
chiefly to ensure that Jewish and reflected in a famous clause from … Gentiles converting to
Gentile believers can eat together. the letter the Council sends to the Christianity should be
James’s proposal is accepted, and believers in Antioch: “It seemed circumcised, according
so believers from Jerusalem are good to the Holy Spirit and to us to Mosaic Law.
chosen to go back to Antioch with not to burden you” (15:28). In the
Paul and Barnabas, bearing a letter new “kingdom” that is therefore
confirming the Council’s resolutions. established, Gentile believers
The Council of Jerusalem is a enjoy full and equal citizenship
watershed. It stresses above all the with Jewish ones. Faith alone
importance of understanding that gives entry. With these truths But the Council decides that
God wants to reach out to Gentiles, firmly established, the rest of Acts salvation does not require
as He did with Cornelius and his is dominated at the human level by adherence to the Law …
household, and the Gentile converts Paul, God’s “chosen instrument”
Paul and Barnabas made in their (9:15), for bringing the message
travels. This creates a consensus of the Gospel to the Gentiles. ■


Paul and Peter’s fight at Antioch
... and makes no faith
In his letter to the Galatians, yet you live like a Gentile … distinction between
Paul describes a combative How is it, then, that you force Gentile and Jew.
encounter in Antioch with the Gentiles to follow Jewish
Apostle Peter over Jewish customs?” (2:14).
dietary laws. Paul publicly These were difficult issues
accuses Peter of inconsistency for leaders of the early Church.
and hypocrisy because Peter As shown at the Council of
sometimes eats with Gentile Jerusalem, Peter and other
believers, but at other times Church leaders eventually agree This decision preserves
refrains from doing so for fear that outreach to the Gentiles the unity of the Church
of offending Jewish visitors from was God’s initiative through and takes its reach beyond
Jerusalem (Galatians 2:11–12). Christ and could not be ignored that of Judaism.
Paul argues, “You are a Jew, by the Church.






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294 ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 295

See also: Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Word
Spreads 288–89 ■ The Road to Damascus 290–91
I ADMIT THAT I

WORSHIP THE GOD OF the Greek into parts of the Temple
forbidden to Gentiles. A riot ensues
in which, according to Acts, the
OUR ANCESTORS AS A Asian Jews drag Paul from the
Temple and try to kill him. He is
FOLLOWER OF THE WAY saved only by the intervention of My brothers … I stand
on trial because of the
a Roman commander who takes
ACTS 24:14, PAUL’S ARREST him into protective custody and, hope of the resurrection
of the dead.
after discovering a plot within the
Jewish Sanhedrin to murder Paul, Acts 23:6
sends him to the headquarters of
the Roman governor, Felix.
Paul remains a prisoner there
for two years until Felix is replaced
espite it leading to his this. “I am going to Jerusalem,” he by another Roman governor, Festus,
IN BRIEF arrest and near lynching tells friends, “not knowing what who reviews the case alongside Persecution
D at the hands of a mob, the will happen to me there. I only the Herodian King Agrippa. He death, and he is sent on to Rome and martyrdom
PASSAGE Apostle Paul’s decision to return to know that in every city the Holy proposes another meeting with to live under house arrest for a
Acts 21:17–28:31 For prophets in the Bible,
Jerusalem from Rome is made for Spirit warns me that … hardships the Sanhedrin, but Paul, revealing further two years, before he faithfulness to God draws
THEME a simple and virtuous reason: he are facing me” (Acts 20:22–23). that he is a Roman citizen, insists eventually gains his freedom. hostility. Jeremiah speaks for
Faith under trial wants to hand over money that on his case being referred to Rome. many when he begs God to
has been collected among Gentile Pain and trials While imprisoned, Paul tells Gospel parallels “think of how I suffer reproach
SETTING churches to relieve the poor of It is not long until Paul must face the story of his conversion outside Throughout the trials of Paul, there for your sake” (Jeremiah
c. 57–60 ce Jerusalem and the Judean Church. The intent is these hardships. His first act Damascus twice and portrays the are parallels with the account in 15:15). Likewise, Jesus makes
Caesarea Maritima. generous, yet, as Luke makes clear, upon arriving in Jerusalem is to risen Jesus he encountered there Luke’s Gospel of the trial of Jesus, clear in the New Testament
by traveling to the Jewish capital, meet with James, the leader of as the fulfillment of all that God has who, like Paul, strived to spread the that just as He will suffer,
KEY FIGURES Paul is entering dangerous territory. the Judean Church, who warns promised the Jewish people. In the word of God amid often barbaric so will the disciples that
Paul An Apostle of Christ. spread His message: “they
The Apostle is only too aware of him that many believers in Judea end, Festus and Agrippa can find opposition. Unlike his portrayal of
Claudius Lysias A tribune think Paul is subverting the Law no just cause to sentence Paul to Jesus, who remained largely silent will seize you and persecute
you … all on account of my
(high-ranking military officer) of Moses because of a rumor that during His torments and judgment, name” (Luke 21:12).
in command of the Roman Paul has been teaching Jews to in Acts Luke records three major The changing meaning of
garrison in Jerusalem. abandon their obedience to that speeches in which Paul defends the Greek word transliterated
law. To prove them wrong, he himself and his record. Moreover, as “martyr” reflects this
Roman procurators suggests that Paul join four local Paul advocates for his own holiness close link between preaching
Governors of Judea, first believers who are about to undergo with a vehemence that Jesus does and suffering. In the New
Marcus Antonius Felix a Jewish purification rite. Paul I am saying nothing not display, arguing that he is not Testament, the word occurs
c.52–60 ce, then Porcius agrees and reaches the last day of beyond what the prophets merely a Jew, but a Pharisee, and often, meaning “witness”—
Festus c.60–62 ce. the rite before he is spotted in the and Moses said would thus, like all Pharisees, fully believes someone who bears witness
Temple by Jews from Asia. He has happen—that the Messiah in bodily resurrection, like that to Christ. By the end of the
Agrippa II Great-grandson also been seen in the company of a would … bring the message experienced by Jesus. 1st century ce, as witnessing
of Herod the Great. A Roman- Greek from Ephesus, and the Jews of light to his own people Although the trajectories of increasingly began to lead to
appointed king whose realms assume he has sacrilegiously taken and to the Gentiles. Jesus and Paul are not identical— persecution and death, the
include Galilee. Acts 26:22–23 after all, within biblical scripture word took on its modern
Paul escapes his mission alive— meaning of one who suffers
The arrest of Paul is a popular both men represent devout teachers and dies for the sake of their
subject in religious artwork, such as religious beliefs. Paul himself
this fresco from the Papal Basilica of of the word of God who, despite was beheaded on the orders
St. Paul Outside the Walls, which was suffering, choose to persist under of Emperor Nero.
built on the site of Paul’s burial. the burden of their holy mission. ■





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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 295

See also: Peter’s Denial 256–57 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ The Word
Spreads 288–89 ■ The Road to Damascus 290–91


the Greek into parts of the Temple
forbidden to Gentiles. A riot ensues
in which, according to Acts, the
Asian Jews drag Paul from the
Temple and try to kill him. He is
saved only by the intervention of My brothers … I stand
a Roman commander who takes on trial because of the
him into protective custody and, hope of the resurrection
after discovering a plot within the of the dead.
Jewish Sanhedrin to murder Paul, Acts 23:6
sends him to the headquarters of
the Roman governor, Felix.
Paul remains a prisoner there
for two years until Felix is replaced
by another Roman governor, Festus, Persecution
who reviews the case alongside and martyrdom
the Herodian King Agrippa. He death, and he is sent on to Rome
proposes another meeting with to live under house arrest for a For prophets in the Bible,
the Sanhedrin, but Paul, revealing further two years, before he faithfulness to God draws
that he is a Roman citizen, insists eventually gains his freedom. hostility. Jeremiah speaks for
on his case being referred to Rome. many when he begs God to
While imprisoned, Paul tells Gospel parallels “think of how I suffer reproach
the story of his conversion outside Throughout the trials of Paul, there for your sake” (Jeremiah
Damascus twice and portrays the are parallels with the account in 15:15). Likewise, Jesus makes
risen Jesus he encountered there Luke’s Gospel of the trial of Jesus, clear in the New Testament
as the fulfillment of all that God has who, like Paul, strived to spread the that just as He will suffer,
promised the Jewish people. In the word of God amid often barbaric so will the disciples that
end, Festus and Agrippa can find opposition. Unlike his portrayal of spread His message: “they
no just cause to sentence Paul to Jesus, who remained largely silent will seize you and persecute
during His torments and judgment, you … all on account of my
name” (Luke 21:12).
in Acts Luke records three major The changing meaning of
speeches in which Paul defends the Greek word transliterated
himself and his record. Moreover, as “martyr” reflects this
Paul advocates for his own holiness close link between preaching
with a vehemence that Jesus does and suffering. In the New
I am saying nothing not display, arguing that he is not Testament, the word occurs
beyond what the prophets merely a Jew, but a Pharisee, and often, meaning “witness”—
and Moses said would thus, like all Pharisees, fully believes someone who bears witness
happen—that the Messiah in bodily resurrection, like that to Christ. By the end of the
would … bring the message experienced by Jesus. 1st century ce, as witnessing
of light to his own people Although the trajectories of increasingly began to lead to
and to the Gentiles. Jesus and Paul are not identical— persecution and death, the
Acts 26:22–23 after all, within biblical scripture word took on its modern
Paul escapes his mission alive— meaning of one who suffers
and dies for the sake of their
both men represent devout teachers religious beliefs. Paul himself
of the word of God who, despite was beheaded on the orders
suffering, choose to persist under of Emperor Nero.
the burden of their holy mission. ■





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296 ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 297

See also: The Golden Rule 210–11 ■ The Road to Damascus 290–91 ■
Paul’s Arrest 294–95 ■ Fruits of the Spirit 300
LOVE IS PATIENT ,

LOVE IS KIND. IT DOES Types of love in the Bible

NOT ENVY, IT DOES NOT

BOAST, IT IS NOT PROUD.


1 CORINTHIANS 13:4, THE WAY OF LOVE


Agape—Divine love Eros—Romantic love Corinth
Love found between God and Jesus, The “erotic” or romantic love between
Jesus and His disciples, believers and two lovers (spouses), as depicted in The believers in Corinth were
God, and also among believers. Song of Songs. citizens of a rich, culturally
diverse metropolis. Much of
he Apostle Paul’s letters Paul’s extended “hymn” to love,
IN BRIEF to the Corinthians are which itself forms the heart of a its prosperity was because
T his response to various discourse by Paul on how believers of its location on the isthmus
PASSAGE questions the Corinthian believers should behave and relate when connecting the Peloponnese
1 Corinthians 13:1–13 with the rest of mainland
have sent him on topics ranging they meet for worship. Greece, commanding not one
THEME from marriage and divorce to the For Paul, as for all other New but two trade routes: from the
Love is everlasting use of spiritual gifts, such as Testament writers, love is the south to the north between
speaking in tongues. In his first touchstone of the Christian faith; the Peloponnese and the rest
SETTING letter, he describes seven things this begins with God’s love. In of the mainland, and west to
54 ce Ephesus, a province that love is and does—love is the words of John’s Gospel: “God Philia—Brotherly love Storge—Familial love east between the Adriatic and
in modern-day Turkey. patient; is kind; rejoices with so loved the world” (3:16) that He Love found in close friendships, such The love between family members, as Aegean seas. The capital of
truth; protects; trusts; hopes; and sent His own son to die for the as that between Jonathan and David shown in the Bible between Jacob and the Roman province of Achaea,
KEY FIGURES perseveres; and, eight that it is not sins of man. That son, Jesus, in the Old Testament. Isaac, or Mary, Martha, and Lazarus. Corinth had sizable foreign
Paul Apostle who became a or does not do—does not envy or shows that same love with acts communities, which included
Christian after Jesus’s death. boast; is not proud, rude, self- of mercy, healing, and forgiveness, command: “Love your neighbor things last: faith, hope, and love. Egyptians and Jews, as well
One of the leading figures in seeking, or easily angered; keeps and tells His followers that love is as yourself” (Romans 13:9). Writing Of these three, Paul writes, the as many native Greeks.
the early Church, he travels no record of wrongs; and does not the greatest commandment of all: to the Corinthians, Paul applies this greatest is love. Love is produced According to Acts 18:1–11,
extensively, preaching the delight in evil. This is the core of love your neighbor, and “love the “royal law” in a particular context. by God’s Spirit and should guide Paul arrived in Corinth for the
word of God. Lord your God with all your heart The Corinthians, he believes, are the use of the Spirit’s gifts. While first time around 50 ce during
his second missionary journey,
Corinthian believers The … with all your soul and with all far too individualistic. They pride tongues and other gifts may fade and stayed for 18 months with
community in Corinth, who your mind” (Matthew 22:37). themselves on spiritual gifts, such and cease, love brings humility, a Jew, Aquila, and his wife,
are prone to factionalism as speaking in tongues or prophecy, unity, and peace. Priscilla. The couple had fled
and cliquishness. Above all else in a way that causes division. Love from Rome the year before,
Writing to the Romans, Paul says: is missing, and Paul highlights the Apostle of love after the Jews were expelled
“you shall not commit adultery,” emptiness this causes in the first Some describe Paul as the “Apostle from the city.
“you shall not murder,” “you shall part of his hymn: “if I speak in the of love.” As he writes in his letter The fractious church Paul
not steal,” “you shall not covet,” tongues of … angels, but do not to the Galatians—where the issue helped to establish in Corinth
which are summed up in one have love, I am only a resounding is “Judaising” believers trying to remained close to his heart,
gong or a clanging cymbal” impose circumcision on Gentile and was the recipient of a
(1 Corinthians 13:1). believers—“neither circumcision number of the Apostle’s
The martyrs Spes, Caritas, and Fides, The last section of Paul’s letter nor uncircumcision has any value. letters and appeals. Two of
or Hope, Love (a modern translation for these letters became part
Caritas), and Faith, named after the begins with the declaration, “love The only thing that counts is of the New Testament as the
three virtues, depicted in the Church never fails” (13:8). In a world of faith expressing itself through books of 1 and 2 Corinthians.
of St. Martin, Cumbria, England. constant change, he says, just three love” (Galatians 5:6). ■





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ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 297

See also: The Golden Rule 210–11 ■ The Road to Damascus 290–91 ■
Paul’s Arrest 294–95 ■ Fruits of the Spirit 300


Types of love in the Bible












Agape—Divine love Eros—Romantic love Corinth
Love found between God and Jesus, The “erotic” or romantic love between
Jesus and His disciples, believers and two lovers (spouses), as depicted in The believers in Corinth were
God, and also among believers. Song of Songs. citizens of a rich, culturally
diverse metropolis. Much of
its prosperity was because
of its location on the isthmus
connecting the Peloponnese
with the rest of mainland
Greece, commanding not one
but two trade routes: from the
south to the north between
the Peloponnese and the rest
of the mainland, and west to
Philia—Brotherly love Storge—Familial love east between the Adriatic and
Love found in close friendships, such The love between family members, as Aegean seas. The capital of
as that between Jonathan and David shown in the Bible between Jacob and the Roman province of Achaea,
in the Old Testament. Isaac, or Mary, Martha, and Lazarus. Corinth had sizable foreign
communities, which included
Egyptians and Jews, as well
command: “Love your neighbor things last: faith, hope, and love.
as yourself” (Romans 13:9). Writing Of these three, Paul writes, the as many native Greeks.
According to Acts 18:1–11,
to the Corinthians, Paul applies this greatest is love. Love is produced Paul arrived in Corinth for the
“royal law” in a particular context. by God’s Spirit and should guide first time around 50 ce during
The Corinthians, he believes, are the use of the Spirit’s gifts. While his second missionary journey,
far too individualistic. They pride tongues and other gifts may fade and stayed for 18 months with
themselves on spiritual gifts, such and cease, love brings humility, a Jew, Aquila, and his wife,
as speaking in tongues or prophecy, unity, and peace. Priscilla. The couple had fled
in a way that causes division. Love from Rome the year before,
is missing, and Paul highlights the Apostle of love after the Jews were expelled
emptiness this causes in the first Some describe Paul as the “Apostle from the city.
part of his hymn: “if I speak in the of love.” As he writes in his letter The fractious church Paul
tongues of … angels, but do not to the Galatians—where the issue helped to establish in Corinth
have love, I am only a resounding is “Judaising” believers trying to remained close to his heart,
gong or a clanging cymbal” impose circumcision on Gentile and was the recipient of a
(1 Corinthians 13:1). believers—“neither circumcision number of the Apostle’s
letters and appeals. Two of
The last section of Paul’s letter nor uncircumcision has any value. these letters became part
begins with the declaration, “love The only thing that counts is of the New Testament as the
never fails” (13:8). In a world of faith expressing itself through books of 1 and 2 Corinthians.
constant change, he says, just three love” (Galatians 5:6). ■





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298 ACTS, EPISTLES, AND REVELATION 299

See also: The Divinity of Jesus 190–93 ■ The Nature of Faith 236–41 ■ Council of Nicaea
The Council of Jerusalem 292–93 ■ Salvation Through Faith 301
THE GRACE OF THE Constantine the Great’s
Council of Nicaea was the first
LORD JESUS CHRIST Holy Trinity of seven ecumenical councils
held between 325 and 787 ce.
AND THE LOVE OF GOD The Trinity The purpose of each of these
refers to the
meetings was to address
existence of
some of the heresies that
AND THE FELLOWSHIP The Father Jesus Christ God as three were arising within the
(The Son)
consubstantial
Church and answer difficult
persons. These
OF THE HOLY SPIRIT God three persons questions raised by Christian
skeptics. Constantine realized
are distinct—
that by establishing universal
2 CORINTHIANS 13:14, THE HOLY TRINITY The Father, doctrines that could be widely
Christ, and Holy
The Holy Spirit Spirit—yet share shared and promulgated,
one nature. the Church, and his empire,
would strengthen and expand.
he church in Corinth, dignity of the three persons. It Prior to the Council of Nicaea,
IN BRIEF which the Apostle Paul had is thus one of the most complete doctrine had been decided at
T founded and led for several references in the New Testament Jesus is God (John 5:22–23), and but most eventually agreed that the local level, such as at the
PASSAGE years, faced many difficulties after to the concept of the Trinity. the Holy Spirit is God (Matthew to deny the deity of Jesus was to Council of Jerusalem in 50 ce.
2 Corinthians 13:1–14 Constantine himself
Paul left to continue his missionary 12:32). Christians have therefore render dependence upon Jesus presided over the council
THEME work, mainly arising from the arrival Three in one concluded that the Bible teaches for salvation and that worship of meeting, even though he
The Trinity of teachers opposed to Paul. These The New Testament affirms that its readers that, while there is only Him was a form of idolatry. While was a Catechumen (the
problems prompted two letters there is only one true God, yet also one divine being, there are three Arians affirmed that Jesus had name given to an adherent
SETTING from the Apostle to correct and asserts that the Father is God, divine persons within that being. a nature that was homoiousios of Christianity who had not
54–55 ce Corinth, a major city redeem the wayward church. Reinforcing this idea are texts in (similar) to that of God the Father, been baptized). The rest of
in Greece and the provincial Writing from Ephesus in Asia which each Person is present but defenders of the Nicene Creed the council was made up of
capital of the Roman province Minor, Paul takes a sharp tone distinct, such as in the baptismal insisted that Jesus’s nature was representatives drawn from
of Achaea. It was occupied by in 2 Corinthians, but ends on a formula in Matthew 28:19; and the homoousious (same). In English, across Christendom.
Rome until around 521 ce. gentle note. In the final paragraph “confessions” of faith in Ephesians the latter idea is expressed by the
(13:11–14), he exhorts his readers 4:4–6 and 1 Peter 1:1–2. word “consubstantial” or “being of
KEY FIGURES to become spiritually mature and to one substance with the Father.” ■
Paul The Apostle who come together, reminding them The Nicene Creed
founded the church at Corinth that God is hard at work among In 325 ce, centuries after Paul’s
in around 50 ce during his them to this end. Paul then ends death, Church leaders met at
ministry in the Aegean. by blessing the entire congregation, Nicaea (modern Iznik, Turkey) to
The Corinthians Christians concluding, “May the grace of the address the teachings of Arius. His
in the troubled church of Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of followers defended the uniqueness I believe in the Holy Spirit,
Corinth, who have been led God, and the fellowship of the Holy of God and the personal distinction the Lord, the giver of life,
Spirit be with you all” (13:14).
between the Father and Son by
astray by teachers opposed In this blessing, Paul combines denying the godhood of Jesus, who proceeds from the
to Paul.
three ideas about the relationship arguing that the Son merely had Father and the Son, who
of God, Christ, and the Holy Spirit a nature “similar” to the Father’s. with the Father and the Son
to Christians, affirming the equal The Council of Nicaea developed is adored and glorified.
the ideas essential to the doctrine The Nicene Creed
of the Trinity: the uniqueness of Constantine the Great presides
The Holy Trinity (1440) by the Master God, the divinity of the Father and at the Council of Nicaea, in 325 ce,
of the Darmstadt, an anonymous artist in a 12th-century fresco in the
from Germany, shows God holding the Son, and the personal distinction Bachkovo Monastery in Bulgaria.
body of His Son, and the Holy Spirit between them. Christians argued The figure below him is Arius.
represented by a dove. over these concepts extensively,





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