(DK) The Religions Book (Big Ideas Simply Explained) 2018

WISDOM AND PROPHETS 149

See also: The Ten Commandments 78–83 ■ The Wisdom of Solomon 120–23 ■ Sermon on the Mount 204–09 ■
The Golden Rule 210–11 ■ Parables of Jesus 214–15


example, says: “Go to the ant, you
sluggard; consider its ways and be
wise!” (Proverbs 6:6). Many of the
book’s maxims date back millennia,
and a number come from outside
the Israelite tradition—some, for
example, are borrowed from
Egyptian wisdom literature.

Historical collection
Authorship of much of the book of
Proverbs is attributed to King
Solomon, although this is unlikely.
It is more probable that the Proverbs
were gathered into collections at
various times in Israelite history
and then copied at the Judean
court of King Hezekiah in the late
8th century bce. In view of the
customs mentioned and the pure
monotheism espoused by the
text, the book as it appears today
almost certainly dates from the
late 6th century or 5th century bce, the post-Exile period, although it is Idleness is one of many vices that the
after the Judeans had returned labeled “The Proverbs of Solomon.” proverbs warn against. In Proverb 6,
from exile in Babylon. Next comes a long section (10:1– sluggards are advised to follow the
The scribes organized Proverbs 22:16) of short, mostly two-line productive ways of the ant.
into five sections with four short proverbs, attributed to Solomon,
appendices at the end. The first and then the section entitled “the This is followed by another short
section or prologue (chapters 1–9) sayings of the wise” (22:17–24:22), section on the same theme (24:23–
most obviously bears the imprint of which shows Egyptian influence. 34), and then another longer section
(chapters 25–29) attributed to
Wisdom literature written down around 1000 bce Solomon. The appendices make
but probably older than that— up the last two chapters and
Proverbs, along with the Books also follows a similar format. conclude with a famous poem
of Job and Ecclesiastes, belongs The section in Proverbs entitled extolling the virtues of “The Wife
to a well-established genre of “sayings of the wise” is clearly of Noble Character” (see p. 151).
the ancient Near East: wisdom modeled on Amenemopet’s
writing. Consisting of maxims maxims and includes some that Twin strands
and tales that reflect upon life are almost identical. Similarities Wisdom in Proverbs is delivered
wisely lived, this body of also exist with a Mesopotamian through two voices. One is that of
literature has deep roots. One work: the Story of Ahikar. The an elder—a parent, teacher, or
of the oldest known works is the tale of a chief counselor at the sage—giving instruction to a
Maxims of Ptahhotep, from the Assyrian court, it is peppered younger person. The book’s very
end of the 3rd millennium bce, with wise sayings. The sayings first exhortation is in this style:
which details the instructions include an earlier version of the “Listen, my son, to your father’s
of a vizier to his son. The Bible’s famous “spare the rod,
Instruction of Amenemopet— spoil the child” proverb. instruction and do not forsake your
mother’s teaching” (1:8). The ❯❯





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150 PROVERBS WISDOM AND PROPHETS 151


figure who conveys teaching is and good sense, the teachings a few lines long. The saying, the Familiar Proverbs Eshet Hayil
Wisdom, personified as a woman. of personified Wisdom are more form that dominates most later
“Out in the open Wisdom calls emotive, approaching at times the chapters, is more succinct. It is a Proverbs’ final half chapter
aloud, in the street, she raises her admonishing tones of the biblical statement, usually of two lines, that is an acrostic poem—one in
voice in the public square” (1:20), the prophet: “How long will you who presents a truth in a way intended “Open your mouth “Pride goes before which each stanza begins
with a succeeding letter of the
first proverb in the book relates. are simple love your simple ways?” to stay in the mind, often by virtue for the mute, for the rights destruction, a haughty Hebrew alphabet—extolling
There is a contrast in tone Wisdom cries out. “How long will of a paradox. Possibly the most of all who are destitute.” spirit before a fall.” the virtues of a woman of
between the two strands. While mockers delight in mockery and famous proverb of all works like Proverbs 31:8 Proverbs 16.18 “valor” or “noble character.”
the maxims of the elder, the bulk fools hate knowledge?” (1:22). this: “Whoever spares the rod hates Help those who cannot Be humble before Eshet Hayil in Hebrew, this
of the book, tend to appeal to reason Teaching in the proverbs is their children, but the one who help themselves. the Lord. woman is the perfect wife and
mostly presented in one of two loves their children is careful to mother, whose “worth is far
forms: the instruction and the discipline them” (13:24). more than rubies” (31:10).
St. Sophia the divine wisdom is saying. Used in the first nine A variation on the paradox is By no means confined to the
depicted in this 16th-century Russian home, she works hard, has
icon. In some forms of Christianity, her chapters, the former develops an the numerical proverb, which lists a good business head, and
figure of personified wisdom is seen idea—the perils of idleness, for items that have something in
as the second part of the Holy Trinity. example—in a poetic paragraph common and then ends with an is generous to the poor.
ironic twist. One example is this Presiding over her household
reflection: “There are three things with dignity, she brings honor
that are too amazing for me, four that to her husband, who finds
himself “respected at the
I do not understand: the way of an city gate, where he takes his
eagle in the sky, the way of a snake seat among the elders of the
on a rock, the way of a ship on the “Better a patient land” (31:23).
“Ponder the path of
high seas, and the way of a man your feet; then all your person than a warrior, The portrait the Eshet
with a young woman” (30:19). ways will be sure.” one with self-control than Hayil creates has resonated
one who takes a city.”
Proverbs 4:26 Proverbs 16:32 over the centuries, and in
Domestic focus Know the road you Seek inner peace before devout Jewish households it
Perhaps because of its place within are taking. the peace of others. is often sung or recited at
the wider wisdom tradition of the the start of the Kiddush, the
Near East, the Book of Proverbs Friday evening ceremony
differs from much of the rest of the that ushers in the Sabbath.
Hebrew Bible in that it never According to the mystical
mentions Israel’s history. Its observational. Proverbs is clear when He set the heavens in place” kabbalistic tradition of
approach is for the most part that God lies at the heart of reality (8:27). She even claims to have Judaism, it refers to God’s
Shekhinah, or divine presence,
and about the need to be humble been a craftsperson at God’s side associated with a maternal,
as a result. “Trust in the Lord with during creation. nurturing role. In other
all your heart and lean not on your This idea would be later interpretations, it can be seen
own understanding” (3:5) is one picked up and developed by more simply as the family
of its admonitions. Wisdom, it New Testament writers, notably paying tribute to the mother.
suggests, is learned through God. the author of John’s Gospel. The passage that proceeds the
Blessed are those who The maxims it offers on human He sets out the idea of the Logos, acrostic narrates the lessons
find wisdom, those who affairs focus on areas such as or Word, who “was with God in King Lemuel has received from
gain understanding, family, anger, poverty, and the beginning,” through whom his mother, so the poem may
for she is more profitable righteousness, but cannot be truly “all things were made” and who also be his own glorifying
than silver and yields better heeded without fear of the Lord. became incarnate as Jesus. eulogy for her in return.
returns than gold. Proverbs’ personified Wisdom In some households the
Proverbs 3:13–14 Wisdom incarnate contributed to the idea of God’s Eshet Hayil is balanced
Proverbs makes intriguing claims wisdom incarnate being a part with a recital of Psalm 112:
about God and heaven in the voice of the Holy Trinity, leading to “Blessed are those who fear
the Lord, who find great
of personified Wisdom. She speaks of the establishment of the later delight in his commands.”
how she is “the first of His works” doctrine of Jesus’s incarnation
(8:22), continuing: “I was there (see pp. 298–99). ■





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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 151


Familiar Proverbs Eshet Hayil
Proverbs’ final half chapter
is an acrostic poem—one in
which each stanza begins
“Open your mouth “Pride goes before with a succeeding letter of the
for the mute, for the rights destruction, a haughty Hebrew alphabet—extolling
of all who are destitute.” spirit before a fall.” the virtues of a woman of
Proverbs 31:8 Proverbs 16.18 “valor” or “noble character.”
Help those who cannot Be humble before Eshet Hayil in Hebrew, this
help themselves. the Lord. woman is the perfect wife and
mother, whose “worth is far
more than rubies” (31:10).
By no means confined to the
home, she works hard, has
a good business head, and
is generous to the poor.
Presiding over her household
with dignity, she brings honor
to her husband, who finds
himself “respected at the
city gate, where he takes his
“Better a patient seat among the elders of the
“Ponder the path of person than a warrior, land” (31:23).
your feet; then all your one with self-control than The portrait the Eshet
ways will be sure.” one who takes a city.” Hayil creates has resonated
Proverbs 4:26 Proverbs 16:32 over the centuries, and in
Know the road you Seek inner peace before devout Jewish households it
are taking. the peace of others. is often sung or recited at
the start of the Kiddush, the
Friday evening ceremony
that ushers in the Sabbath.
According to the mystical
observational. Proverbs is clear when He set the heavens in place” kabbalistic tradition of
that God lies at the heart of reality (8:27). She even claims to have Judaism, it refers to God’s
Shekhinah, or divine presence,
and about the need to be humble been a craftsperson at God’s side associated with a maternal,
as a result. “Trust in the Lord with during creation. nurturing role. In other
all your heart and lean not on your This idea would be later interpretations, it can be seen
own understanding” (3:5) is one picked up and developed by more simply as the family
of its admonitions. Wisdom, it New Testament writers, notably paying tribute to the mother.
suggests, is learned through God. the author of John’s Gospel. The passage that proceeds the
The maxims it offers on human He sets out the idea of the Logos, acrostic narrates the lessons
affairs focus on areas such as or Word, who “was with God in King Lemuel has received from
family, anger, poverty, and the beginning,” through whom his mother, so the poem may
righteousness, but cannot be truly “all things were made” and who also be his own glorifying
heeded without fear of the Lord. became incarnate as Jesus. eulogy for her in return.
Proverbs’ personified Wisdom In some households the
Wisdom incarnate contributed to the idea of God’s Eshet Hayil is balanced
Proverbs makes intriguing claims wisdom incarnate being a part with a recital of Psalm 112:
about God and heaven in the voice of the Holy Trinity, leading to “Blessed are those who fear
the Lord, who find great
of personified Wisdom. She speaks of the establishment of the later delight in his commands.”
how she is “the first of His works” doctrine of Jesus’s incarnation
(8:22), continuing: “I was there (see pp. 298–99). ■





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152 WISDOM AND PROPHETS 153

See also: The Psalms 138–43 ■ Proverbs 148–51 ■ The Way of Love 296–97
I AM MY



BELOVED’S … MY Israelites expressed in
As an allegory
for God’s love for the
the covenants.
BELOVED IS MINE . of marital love, intended anticipating the coming

As a celebration
As an allegory
to be recited at
of Christ, whom
6:3, SONG OF SONGS wedding ceremonies. Different Christians sometimes call
“the bridegroom.”
interpretations of
Song of Songs

ong of Songs is one of the Whoever the author was, Song As a paean to the
IN BRIEF Bible’s sweetest sections: of Songs is considered to be a universal presence of As a dramatic script
S a paean to marital ardor. masterpiece of erotic literature love, which is “as strong that was originally intended
PASSAGE The book opens with the line that captures the yearning of as death” (8:6).
Song of Songs 6:3 to be sung.
“Solomon’s Song of Songs” and love. It is a conversation between
THEME goes on to mention the ancient “He” (the “king”) and “She” (a
God’s love for His people Israelite king six more times woman sometimes referred to
(Song of Songs 1:5; 3:7; 3:9; 3:11; as Shulammite). The couple sexual references follow, with the like a flock of sheep, coming up book as resembling “locks to which
SETTING 8:11–12), leading some scholars to are occasionally interrupted by woman’s body compared to a palm from the washing. Each has its the keys have been lost.” God is
c. 970–930 bce, Solomon’s believe that the book was penned interjections from “friends,” who tree, her neck a rounded goblet, twin, not one of them is missing.” not mentioned once in the poem.
kingdom by Solomon himself. This theory is perform the role of an audience. her breasts like twin fawns of a In the course of the book, the However, some commentators
supported by 1 Kings 4:32, which gazelle. Subsequent analogies woman describes herself to the believe that the “king” in the poem
KEY FIGURES says that Solomon composed 1,005 Celebration of sexuality and a series of similarly explicit “daughters of Jerusalem,” likening symbolizes God, and the woman the
He An unspecified king. songs. Others believe the link with Early in the piece, the woman metaphors make it clear that her dark skin to the “tents of Kadar” Israelites, and what appears to be
It could be Solomon himself, Solomon is an editorial intervention entreats the king to take her sexual love is the principal subject and the “curtains of Solomon,” an erotic ode is an allegorical piece
but it is not clear whether to enhance the status of the poems. to his bedchambers. Explicit of discussion. Some of these while the king describes his lover’s describing God’s love for Israel.
he wrote the poem or if it comparisons may be amusing great beauty and her visits to him. At the same time, Christians have
is about him. to a modern audience: 6:6, for The book is further embellished viewed the song as a celebration of
Sensuality in Song of Songs
She A dark-skinned woman example, says: “Your teeth are by the sighting of a royal wedding the love of Jesus for the Church. ■
and the king’s new bride, “Let him kiss me with the kisses longing that exists between procession and third-party accounts
sometimes referred to as of his mouth” (1:1). From the the two narrators, while the of the woman’s beauty.
“Shulammite” – either the opening verse of Song of Songs, multiple references to vineyards
female form of “Solomon” sex, love, and the senses are at and wine help build the Interpreting the Song
its heart. Throughout the book
impression of lovers who are
The meaning and purpose of Song
or possibly a reference to the narrators—the Beloved intoxicated with one another. of Songs is a matter of debate. Rabbi
her place of origin. and her companion, the Lover— The image of the vineyard in Saadia Gaon al-Fayyumi, a medieval Many waters cannot
Friends An unnamed convey their love for one another bloom is just one of many Jewish commentator, described the quench love; rivers
with sensual imagery: perfumes
metaphors drawn from nature.
chorus of commentators. incomparable to her smell, his Twenty-five different plants, cannot sweep it away.
kisses more delightful than many fruit or perfume-bearing, A bride and groom exchange Song of Songs 8:7
wine, her breasts like clusters of are mentioned in the Songs, vows during an Armenian wedding.
fruit, his fruit sweet to her taste. underlining the relationship Viewed by many as an ode to
This tantalizing imagery brings between nature and fertility physical love within marriage, the
into vivid clarity the tension and and sexual desire. Song of Songs is often chosen as
a reading at weddings.





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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 153

See also: The Psalms 138–43 ■ Proverbs 148–51 ■ The Way of Love 296–97





As an allegory
for God’s love for the
Israelites expressed in
the covenants.

As a celebration As an allegory
of marital love, intended anticipating the coming
to be recited at of Christ, whom
wedding ceremonies. Christians sometimes call
Different “the bridegroom.”
interpretations of
Song of Songs

As a paean to the
universal presence of As a dramatic script
love, which is “as strong that was originally intended
as death” (8:6). to be sung.




sexual references follow, with the like a flock of sheep, coming up book as resembling “locks to which
woman’s body compared to a palm from the washing. Each has its the keys have been lost.” God is
tree, her neck a rounded goblet, twin, not one of them is missing.” not mentioned once in the poem.
her breasts like twin fawns of a In the course of the book, the However, some commentators
gazelle. Subsequent analogies woman describes herself to the believe that the “king” in the poem
and a series of similarly explicit “daughters of Jerusalem,” likening symbolizes God, and the woman the
metaphors make it clear that her dark skin to the “tents of Kadar” Israelites, and what appears to be
sexual love is the principal subject and the “curtains of Solomon,” an erotic ode is an allegorical piece
of discussion. Some of these while the king describes his lover’s describing God’s love for Israel.
comparisons may be amusing great beauty and her visits to him. At the same time, Christians have
to a modern audience: 6:6, for The book is further embellished viewed the song as a celebration of
example, says: “Your teeth are by the sighting of a royal wedding the love of Jesus for the Church. ■
procession and third-party accounts
of the woman’s beauty.

Interpreting the Song
The meaning and purpose of Song
of Songs is a matter of debate. Rabbi
Saadia Gaon al-Fayyumi, a medieval Many waters cannot
Jewish commentator, described the quench love; rivers
cannot sweep it away.
Song of Songs 8:7
A bride and groom exchange
vows during an Armenian wedding.
Viewed by many as an ode to
physical love within marriage, the
Song of Songs is often chosen as
a reading at weddings.





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154 WISDOM AND PROPHETS 155

See also: The Suffering of Job 146–47 ■ The Coming of Salvation 189 Jesus Christ: the
SURELY HE TOOK The Suffering Servant servant savior


The image of the Suffering
UP OUR INFIRMITIES The Suffering Servant Rejected by others, the Servant sank deep into the
Jewish imagination, enduring
into the early Christian one.
AND CARRIED is called by God to be Suffering Servant does In Luke’s Gospel, Jesus
announces His public ministry
not defend himself.
His “chosen one”.
with a passage from Isaiah
OUR SORROWS closely associated with the
Servant passages. “Today this
scripture is fulfilled in your
ISAIAH 53:4, THE SUFFERING SERVANT He allows himself to be The Suffering Servant is hearing,” Jesus tells the
synagogue in His hometown
wounded for others’ called to spread the of Nazareth. The people
transgressions. message of salvation. promptly reject Him, as was
the case for the Suffering
iblical scholars divide the from exile in Babylon in the 6th Servant. The servant theme
IN BRIEF book of Isaiah into three century bce, after Jerusalem has comes up time and again in
B sections. The first, believed fallen; a third section (56–66), Jesus’s teaching. He tells His
PASSAGE to be the work of Isaiah himself, Third Isaiah, is believed to date disciples that “the Son of Man
Isaiah 40–55 His suffering is an did not come to be served, but
was written when Assyria was from after the Exile. atonement for the sins to serve, and to give His life
THEME expanding westward, threatening of humankind. as a ransom for many.”
Suffering Judah. The book fulminates against God’s chosen one Echoes of the Servant
the sinful leaders of Jerusalem and Central to the Second Isaiah are Songs are unmistakable.
SETTING urges reform to avert calamity. The the Servant Songs: four poems that Peter writes about Jesus’s
6th century bce second section (chapters 40–55), by present a mysterious servant of Anointed with God’s spirit, the would be a friend and savior to silence in the face of His
The Babylonian empire, which an anonymous source known as the God, His “chosen one.” The poems man is gentle and unassuming—a the Jews, allowing them to return accusers. “When they hurled
is under threat from the Second Isaiah, or Deutero-Isaiah, have the same themes as First “bruised reed he will not break, and home and rebuild Jerusalem and their insults at Him … He did
Persians led by King Cyrus. is believed to have been written Isaiah, but preach a message of a smoldering wick he will not snuff their temple. Many Christians, not retaliate.”
greater hope and comfort. out” (42:3). He is the one God calls however, view the Suffering
KEY FIGURES The Servant Songs revolve not only to restore the exiled and Servant as a prophecy of Christ,
The Suffering Servant around the wretched character of dispersed people of Israel, but also in line with other messianic
A metaphorical character the “Suffering Servant.” There is to carry out an even wider task: to references in Isaiah. Most rabbinic
who symbolizes the nothing majestic or beautiful about be “a light for the Gentiles,” scholars believe he is a metaphor
Israelites’ suffering. him. Far from treating him with spreading God’s salvation to the for Israel itself, or rather those
“Second Isaiah” Unnamed respect, people despise and reject world. The life of the Suffering Israelites who have stayed true to
prophet who is thought to him, beating him and plucking out Servant is an atonement for sin. In God through humiliation and
have authored chapters 40–55 his beard. He utters no words of exchange for him bearing “the sins suffering. They are the “faithful
of the book of Isaiah in the protest. Instead, he sets his face of many,” God will raise him up. He remnant” (Malachi 3:15–16) of
prophetic tradition, who have
“like flint” (50:7) and endures. He
will “give him a portion among the
6th century bce.
does this for the sake of God and great”; kings and princes will one endured persecution not just from
Cyrus King of Persia from of others, even his very tormentors. day bow down before him. foreign oppressors but from the
558 to 530 bce. Seen by He is: a “man of sorrows” who takes Israelites who rejected the message
Second Isaiah and his up and carries the failings of others. A mysterious figure of repentance. Suffering has
disciples as a savior and The identity of the Suffering become part of their identity, but
Yahweh’s “shepherd.” Isaiah is one of seven Old Testament Servant has long been debated. in the Servant Songs this is not a The face of Christ on a statue
in Paris. The Book of Isaiah
prophets painted by Michelangelo in the One theory is that he could be negative thing: it is redemptive contains so many messianic
Vatican’s Sistine Chapel (1508–1512). Cyrus, the Persian king, who would and transforming. Through their references that it is sometimes
Isaiah (Greek “Esaias”) holds the Book overthrow the Israelites’ hated suffering for the failings of others, called the fifth Gospel.
of Isaiah under his arm. Babylonian oppressors. Cyrus humankind will be healed. ■





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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 155

See also: The Suffering of Job 146–47 ■ The Coming of Salvation 189 Jesus Christ: the
servant savior

The Suffering Servant The image of the Suffering
Servant sank deep into the
Jewish imagination, enduring
The Suffering Servant Rejected by others, the into the early Christian one.
is called by God to be Suffering Servant does In Luke’s Gospel, Jesus
announces His public ministry
His “chosen one”. not defend himself.
with a passage from Isaiah
closely associated with the
Servant passages. “Today this
scripture is fulfilled in your
hearing,” Jesus tells the
He allows himself to be The Suffering Servant is synagogue in His hometown
wounded for others’ called to spread the of Nazareth. The people
transgressions. message of salvation. promptly reject Him, as was
the case for the Suffering
Servant. The servant theme
comes up time and again in
Jesus’s teaching. He tells His
disciples that “the Son of Man
His suffering is an did not come to be served, but
atonement for the sins to serve, and to give His life
of humankind. as a ransom for many.”
Echoes of the Servant
Songs are unmistakable.
Peter writes about Jesus’s
Anointed with God’s spirit, the would be a friend and savior to silence in the face of His
man is gentle and unassuming—a the Jews, allowing them to return accusers. “When they hurled
“bruised reed he will not break, and home and rebuild Jerusalem and their insults at Him … He did
a smoldering wick he will not snuff their temple. Many Christians, not retaliate.”
out” (42:3). He is the one God calls however, view the Suffering
not only to restore the exiled and Servant as a prophecy of Christ,
dispersed people of Israel, but also in line with other messianic
to carry out an even wider task: to references in Isaiah. Most rabbinic
be “a light for the Gentiles,” scholars believe he is a metaphor
spreading God’s salvation to the for Israel itself, or rather those
world. The life of the Suffering Israelites who have stayed true to
Servant is an atonement for sin. In God through humiliation and
exchange for him bearing “the sins suffering. They are the “faithful
of many,” God will raise him up. He remnant” (Malachi 3:15–16) of
will “give him a portion among the prophetic tradition, who have
great”; kings and princes will one endured persecution not just from
day bow down before him. foreign oppressors but from the
Israelites who rejected the message
A mysterious figure of repentance. Suffering has
The identity of the Suffering become part of their identity, but
Servant has long been debated. in the Servant Songs this is not a The face of Christ on a statue
One theory is that he could be negative thing: it is redemptive in Paris. The Book of Isaiah
Cyrus, the Persian king, who would and transforming. Through their contains so many messianic
references that it is sometimes
overthrow the Israelites’ hated suffering for the failings of others, called the fifth Gospel.
Babylonian oppressors. Cyrus humankind will be healed. ■





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156 IN BRIEF See also: Moses and the Burning Bush 66–69 ■ The Golden Calf 84–85 ■ Elijah and the Prophets of Baal 125 ■ 157
WISDOM AND PROPHETS
BEFORE I PASSAGE The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■ Rebuilding Jerusalem 133


Jeremiah 1–52
Israelites out of Egypt, the young
Jeremiah makes excuses as to why
THEME
FORMED YOU Predestination he is not fit to extract the repentance I will answer you
of the people of Judah and fulfill the
SETTING
mission that God has assigned to
Around 626–570 bce
Call to Me and
him. He protests to God that he is
Jerusalem.
too young to take on such a role
IN THE WOMB KEY FIGURES and, like Moses, is not a sufficiently and tell you great and
unsearchable things
good speaker to cope with such a
Jeremiah Selected by God to
you do not know.
weighty task. In response, God
be a prophet “to the nations.”
reassures Jeremiah, as He did
Jeremiah 33:3
Born in Anathoth, a few miles
Moses, telling the prophet not to
I KNEW YOU north of Jerusalem, where his fear, as He will support and rescue
father Hilkiah was a priest.
him. The Lord then touches
Jeremiah’s mouth and says
Hananiah A false prophet
to him, “I have put my words in
preaching against Jeremiah.
you over nations and kingdoms to
JEREMIAH 1:5, THE PROPHET JEREMIAH your mouth. See, today I appoint calling on him to prophesy a
severe, cataclysmic event to
uproot and tear down, to destroy
and overthrow, to build and to the people—the destruction of
The desolation of Jeremiah is
hen God declares captured with dramatic intensity in plant” (1:9–10). their holy city Jerusalem by the
Jeremiah a prophet Cry of prophet Jeremiah on the Ruins Babylonians. Jeremiah’s task was
W He assigns him an of Jerusalem, painted in 1870 by the A dangerous mission to remind the people of their
unenviable mission: Jeremiah Russian artist Ilya Yefimovich Repin. Won over by God’s words, Jeremiah covenant with God and to dissuade
must make the people of Judah prepares to try and reconvert the them from breaking the laws
repent for years of bad behavior. errant sons and daughters of Judah. associated with it, despite any
Though faced with hatred and God selected Jeremiah before He begins his ministry around opposition he faced. Of their many
adversity, the reluctant prophet he was even born to exhort the 626 bce, in what was a tumultuous crimes, the idolatrous worship of
continues to discharge his task people of Judah to mend their period for the people of Israel. the false god Baal represented a
and spread the word of God right idolatrous and disrespectful ways. The message was dire. God was particularly disturbing offense. ❯❯
up until the end of his life. He later tells Jeremiah He made
Jeremiah is regarded, after him a prophet “in the womb” Predestination determinism or predeterminism.
Isaiah, as the second major prophet (Jeremiah 1:5). Despite an initial The dilemma that Christians
of the latter “writing” prophets reluctance to accept his role, The theological concept of face is whether they are able to
in Judaism (earlier figures, such Jeremiah ultimately accepts that "predestination" holds that freely make choices of their own
as Elijah, were “oral” prophets, his life’s work is predestined, and all events are willed and volition, as opposed to choices
who did not record their words). faithfully follows God’s carefully predetermined by God. The that are predetermined by God.
He is also known as the “Weeping mapped plan throughout his life. theory is aired in the Bible in Scholars have labored over the
Prophet,” as his eponymous book, Jeremiah 1:5, Romans 8:29, question for centuries. The
written around 585 bce, with Called to God’s work and Ephesians 1:5–14. The general consensus is that not
the help of the scribe Baruch, is Jeremiah was born in Anathoth, “paradox of free will,” long a all people live predestined lives
deeply melancholic. The epithet a small village 4 miles (6km) north subject of theological debate, and therefore enjoy free will.
is apt, given the nature of the of Jerusalem, the son of Hilkiah, a is the apparent incompatibility However, in Jeremiah’s case, he
prophet’s lifelong travails. Such priest. His lineage can be traced between God’s omniscience had little choice in the path that
his life would take; the events
and the free will of a human
is the notoriety of Jeremiah’s back to Moses, and there are being. In the ways shown in the shaping his existence were
thankless struggles that to this several parallels in the two men’s Bible, predestination usually preordained by God when he
day an angry or miserable person lives. Just as Moses demurs when amounts to a form of religious was in his mother’s womb.
is often referred to as a “Jeremiah.” God instructs him to lead the





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See also: Moses and the Burning Bush 66–69 ■ The Golden Calf 84–85 ■ Elijah and the Prophets of Baal 125 ■
The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■ Rebuilding Jerusalem 133


Israelites out of Egypt, the young
Jeremiah makes excuses as to why
he is not fit to extract the repentance
of the people of Judah and fulfill the
mission that God has assigned to
him. He protests to God that he is Call to Me and
too young to take on such a role I will answer you
and, like Moses, is not a sufficiently and tell you great and
good speaker to cope with such a unsearchable things
weighty task. In response, God you do not know.
reassures Jeremiah, as He did Jeremiah 33:3
Moses, telling the prophet not to
fear, as He will support and rescue
him. The Lord then touches
Jeremiah’s mouth and says
to him, “I have put my words in
your mouth. See, today I appoint
you over nations and kingdoms to calling on him to prophesy a
uproot and tear down, to destroy severe, cataclysmic event to
and overthrow, to build and to the people—the destruction of
The desolation of Jeremiah is plant” (1:9–10). their holy city Jerusalem by the
captured with dramatic intensity in
Cry of prophet Jeremiah on the Ruins Babylonians. Jeremiah’s task was
of Jerusalem, painted in 1870 by the A dangerous mission to remind the people of their
Russian artist Ilya Yefimovich Repin. Won over by God’s words, Jeremiah covenant with God and to dissuade
prepares to try and reconvert the them from breaking the laws
errant sons and daughters of Judah. associated with it, despite any
God selected Jeremiah before He begins his ministry around opposition he faced. Of their many
he was even born to exhort the 626 bce, in what was a tumultuous crimes, the idolatrous worship of
people of Judah to mend their period for the people of Israel. the false god Baal represented a
idolatrous and disrespectful ways. The message was dire. God was particularly disturbing offense. ❯❯
He later tells Jeremiah He made
him a prophet “in the womb” Predestination determinism or predeterminism.
(Jeremiah 1:5). Despite an initial The dilemma that Christians
reluctance to accept his role, The theological concept of face is whether they are able to
Jeremiah ultimately accepts that "predestination" holds that freely make choices of their own
his life’s work is predestined, and all events are willed and volition, as opposed to choices
faithfully follows God’s carefully predetermined by God. The that are predetermined by God.
mapped plan throughout his life. theory is aired in the Bible in Scholars have labored over the
Jeremiah 1:5, Romans 8:29, question for centuries. The
Called to God’s work and Ephesians 1:5–14. The general consensus is that not
Jeremiah was born in Anathoth, “paradox of free will,” long a all people live predestined lives
a small village 4 miles (6km) north subject of theological debate, and therefore enjoy free will.
of Jerusalem, the son of Hilkiah, a is the apparent incompatibility However, in Jeremiah’s case, he
priest. His lineage can be traced between God’s omniscience had little choice in the path that
his life would take; the events
and the free will of a human
back to Moses, and there are being. In the ways shown in the shaping his existence were
several parallels in the two men’s Bible, predestination usually preordained by God when he
lives. Just as Moses demurs when amounts to a form of religious was in his mother’s womb.
God instructs him to lead the





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158 THE PROPHET JEREMIAH WISDOM AND PROPHETS 159


Angry officials of King Zedekiah have listened to him and repented through Jeremiah, telling him
lower Jeremiah into a well for daring of their wrongdoing. They also ask he will bring them back after 70
to prophesy the capture of Jerusalem. his advice for where to go next. years and promising them a new
The punishment is illustrated here in a However, when he tells them “Do covenant. This covenant will
19th-century engraving by T.O. Barlow.
not go to Egypt” (42:19), Jeremiah succeed because God will put it in
is once more maligned by the people their mind, “write it on their hearts”
coming enslavement of the Israelite he is trying to save: he is branded and “forgive their wickedness and
people to the Babylonians. The a liar and taken to Egypt with the will remember their sins no more”
prophet then goes to Zedekiah, Israelites, where he dies soon (Jeremiah 31:33–34).
wearing the yoke, and says, “Bow afterward. Some extra-biblical This prophecy at the heart
your neck under the yoke of the sources suggest that he was stoned of the Book of Jeremiah gave the
king of Babylon” (27:12–13), so that to death by his angry countrymen. Jewish people great hope after
he and the nation might not die by the fall of Jerusalem in 586 bce.
“the sword, famine, and plague.” A new covenant Early Christians often applied
Jeremiah denounces the false Not all of the Book of Jeremiah the prophecy to Jesus. His death Jeremiah
prophets who favor opposition to prophesies misery and despair. on the cross was seen to herald
Babylon, as God has told him that Chapters 29–31 strike a fresh tone the promised new covenant, as The Prophet Jeremiah was
can only lead to Judah’s downfall. of positivity. In a letter to those it showed God’s forgiveness of the last prophet that God
He goes on to tell the priest and exiled in Babylon, God speaks their sins (Luke 22:20). ■ sent to preach to the southern
kingdom, home to the tribes
people, “Serve the king of Babylon of Benjamin and Judah. God
and you will live. Why should this had repeatedly warned the
city become a ruin?” (27:17). Israelites to cease their
The people, angry and afraid, Like Moses, Jeremiah initially rejects God's call to prophesy. idolatrous worship and evil
react badly to Jeremiah’s words. deeds, but his preaching had
Later, the false prophet Hananiah been continually ignored. With
seizes his chance and tears the the 12 tribes split, and the 10
yoke from Jeremiah’s neck and northern tribes lost among
breaks it on the ground, declaring the Assyrians, God's decision
that the Lord will break the yoke of to appoint Jeremiah as His
They had constructed high altars the stocks for a day (20:2), and at Nebuchadnezzar II within two years. Moses says: “… I have Jeremiah says: “I do not prophet constituted His final
to Baal, in which they burned their one point is thrown into a dark As in many other parts of his never been eloquent… know how to speak; attempt to bring the errant
I am slow of speech and
I am too young”
own children as sacrificial offerings. and muddy well (38:6). story, Jeremiah continues his tongue” (Exodus 4:10). (Jeremiah 1:6). southern tribes back into His
Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom mission despite his humiliation. fold. Jeremiah was around
and destruction are unpopular and Battles with false prophets The Lord tells him to go to 17 years old when God called
upon him. Privy to God’s
he becomes the target of much While Jeremiah is busy spreading Hananiah and say that in place most terrible plans for his
mockery, and several attempts are his apocalyptic messages, other of a wooden yoke, he will get compatriots, he cried tears of
made to kill him. When Jeremiah prophets are at work, sending out a yoke of iron. Jeremiah also sadness, because not only did
complains to God that he has a more positive message of peace prophesies that Hananiah will be … but God reassures he know what was going to
become a laughing stock for and prosperity (Jeremiah 27–28). dead within a year, for inciting … but God reassures Jeremiah … “Stand up and happen to the Israelites, he
spreading the word of the Lord, The most famous of these is rebellion against the Lord—a Moses … “I will help you say to them whatever was unable to convince them
he is told that he is destined to Hananiah, with whom Jeremiah statement that proves accurate. speak and will teach you I command you” of his knowledge. Although
endure more painful attacks over clashes throughout much of the what to say” (Exodus 3:12). (Jeremiah 1:17). he preached for 40 years,
the course of his mission. He cries central part of his narrative. Destruction foretold often entirely unaided, he was
and laments (the following biblical Things come to a head early Jeremiah’s terrible prophecies do unable to change or soften the
book, Lamentations, is a further in the reign of King Zedekiah in eventually come true; the people stubborn hearts and minds of
highly poetic expression of grief). Jerusalem. Jeremiah is determined witness their city being completely the Israelite people. In the face
Still God insists that the prophet to ensure Jerusalem’s surrender in destroyed by the Babylonians and of great hardships, Jeremiah's
legacy lies in the courage he
must continue to disseminate the face of the rapidly advancing most of their people are taken into Despite their initial reluctance, neither showed by teaching the word
His dire warnings to the people of Babylonian forces. He puts on a captivity. The survivors go to of the prophets can resist God's purpose. of God despite the significant
Judah. Further misfortunes befall yoke, or oxen harness, to symbolize Jeremiah and ask for forgiveness. aversion to His message.
Jeremiah; he is beaten and held in what God has told him about the They acknowledge that they should





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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 159


have listened to him and repented through Jeremiah, telling him
of their wrongdoing. They also ask he will bring them back after 70
his advice for where to go next. years and promising them a new
However, when he tells them “Do covenant. This covenant will
not go to Egypt” (42:19), Jeremiah succeed because God will put it in
is once more maligned by the people their mind, “write it on their hearts”
he is trying to save: he is branded and “forgive their wickedness and
a liar and taken to Egypt with the will remember their sins no more”
Israelites, where he dies soon (Jeremiah 31:33–34).
afterward. Some extra-biblical This prophecy at the heart
sources suggest that he was stoned of the Book of Jeremiah gave the
to death by his angry countrymen. Jewish people great hope after
the fall of Jerusalem in 586 bce.
A new covenant Early Christians often applied
Not all of the Book of Jeremiah the prophecy to Jesus. His death Jeremiah
prophesies misery and despair. on the cross was seen to herald
Chapters 29–31 strike a fresh tone the promised new covenant, as The Prophet Jeremiah was
of positivity. In a letter to those it showed God’s forgiveness of the last prophet that God
exiled in Babylon, God speaks their sins (Luke 22:20). ■ sent to preach to the southern
kingdom, home to the tribes
of Benjamin and Judah. God
had repeatedly warned the
Israelites to cease their
Like Moses, Jeremiah initially rejects God's call to prophesy. idolatrous worship and evil
deeds, but his preaching had
been continually ignored. With
the 12 tribes split, and the 10
northern tribes lost among
the Assyrians, God's decision
to appoint Jeremiah as His
Moses says: “… I have Jeremiah says: “I do not prophet constituted His final
never been eloquent… know how to speak; attempt to bring the errant
I am slow of speech and I am too young” southern tribes back into His
tongue” (Exodus 4:10). (Jeremiah 1:6). fold. Jeremiah was around
17 years old when God called
upon him. Privy to God’s
most terrible plans for his
compatriots, he cried tears of
sadness, because not only did
… but God reassures he know what was going to
… but God reassures Jeremiah … “Stand up and happen to the Israelites, he
Moses … “I will help you say to them whatever was unable to convince them
speak and will teach you I command you” of his knowledge. Although
what to say” (Exodus 3:12).
(Jeremiah 1:17). he preached for 40 years,
often entirely unaided, he was
unable to change or soften the
stubborn hearts and minds of
the Israelite people. In the face
of great hardships, Jeremiah's
legacy lies in the courage he
Despite their initial reluctance, neither showed by teaching the word
of the prophets can resist God's purpose. of God despite the significant
aversion to His message.






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160 WISDOM AND PROPHETS 161

See also: Entering the Promised Land 96–97 ■ The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■
MY HEART IS all the people, and burning the city Lamentations is full of references
The Prophet Jeremiah 156–59 ■ Daniel in Babylon 164–65


to tears and crying, including the
to the ground. The survivors are
POURED OUT described in detail, with harrowing agonizing and despair of Jeremiah
himself. Lamentations 4:6 states
accounts of how mothers ate their
own children in order to survive,
that the punishment of the people
ON THE GROUND children beg for bread but no one of Jerusalem is greater even than City of Babylon
gives them any, and young and
that of the people of Sodom. The
extent of God’s wrath is made
old lie in the dust of the streets
Babylon, where the Israelites
abundantly clear as the narrative
(Lamentations 2:20–21 and 4:4).
LAMENTATIONS 2:11, LAMENT FOR THE EXILES Terrible punishments unfolds. However, the underlying were taken as slaves and
exiles, was the capital city of
tone throughout the book is that,
After the fall of Jerusalem, worldly though His anger knows no limits, Babylonia in southwest Asia,
possessions and wealth now mean God suffers Himself at having to now southern Iraq. The city sat
nothing: Chapter 4:1 describes how wreak such terrible carnage in on the Euphrates River, north
he aptly named Book of during the Babylonian invasion, gold has lost its luster and precious the first place. of the modern town of Hillah.
IN BRIEF Lamentations concerns the which culminated in the siege stones are scattered on every street At the heart of Lamentations The fall of the city, and
T destruction of Jerusalem of the holy city in 586 bce. corner. It appears that all hope is is an important message of peace the end of the neo-Babylonian
PASSAGE at God’s behest. The book is Lamentations opens with the lost, such is the misery and despair and reconciliation, which points empire with it, is predicted
Lamentations 1–5 by the prophets in Isaiah 14:4
traditionally attributed to Jeremiah, foreboding words “How deserted that is recounted. Nevertheless, to the inexhaustible possibilities and 21:9, as well as Jeremiah
THEME known as the “Weeping Prophet,” lies the city, once so full of people!” despite inflicting such a terrible for redemption and forgiveness if 50–51. The city was under
God suffers when His and it serves as a postscript to the From this gloomy start, the punishment on His people, Jeremiah the exiles maintain their faith in Babylonian control until 539
people suffer Book of Jeremiah. However, most narrative becomes progressively suggests that there is still reason to God. He is angry—but He also bce, when Cyrus the Great
scholars believe that it is by an darker, describing the Babylonian hope: “For no one is cast off by the grieves that the longstanding
SETTING anonymous source. army breaching the city walls of Lord for ever. Though He brings heinous behavior by the Israelite of Persia invaded and killed
586 bce, Jerusalem The book comprises five poems, Jerusalem, killing or enslaving grief, He will show compassion, so people has forced Him to punish king Belshazzar. However,
Babylon was fairly unscathed
each arranged in a series of short, great is His unfailing love. For He them so harshly. The message of
KEY FIGURES rhymeless stanzas, describing does not willingly bring affliction Lamentations is clear: when God’s by the invasion and continued
Narrator Widely believed to the state of Jerusalem after its By the Waters of Babylon (1882–1883), or grief to anyone” (3:32–33). to flourish under Persian rule.
be Jeremiah, the “Weeping annihilation by the Babylonians an oil painting by Evelyn De Morgan, people suffer, God suffers, too. ■
Prophet,” to whom the Book under Nebuchadnezzar II. The depicts an exiled patriarch (under the
of Lamentations is attributed. prophet Jeremiah lived in Judah tree) with other exiles weeping over
the loss of their Promised Land.
The people of Jerusalem Hosea 11:8
Survivors of the Babylonian God cannot bear to
invasion, desperately trying punish His people for
to remain alive. Genesis 6:6: rejecting Him.
God grieves over Luke 19:41
Nebuchadnezzar II King of the wickedness Jesus weeps for the lost
Babylon, who leads his army of humankind. souls of Jerusalem.
in destroying the holy city of
Jerusalem and is supported
by God as punishment for the
God suffers
Judeans’ unfaithful behavior. with His people.
Jeremiah 14:17 John 11:35
God’s eyes overflow Jesus weeps when
with tears for the He sees Mary grieving
Israelites’ suffering. over Lazarus.








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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 161

See also: Entering the Promised Land 96–97 ■ The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■
The Prophet Jeremiah 156–59 ■ Daniel in Babylon 164–65


all the people, and burning the city Lamentations is full of references
to the ground. The survivors are to tears and crying, including the
described in detail, with harrowing agonizing and despair of Jeremiah
accounts of how mothers ate their himself. Lamentations 4:6 states
own children in order to survive, that the punishment of the people
children beg for bread but no one of Jerusalem is greater even than
gives them any, and young and that of the people of Sodom. The City of Babylon
old lie in the dust of the streets extent of God’s wrath is made
(Lamentations 2:20–21 and 4:4). abundantly clear as the narrative Babylon, where the Israelites
unfolds. However, the underlying were taken as slaves and
Terrible punishments tone throughout the book is that, exiles, was the capital city of
After the fall of Jerusalem, worldly though His anger knows no limits, Babylonia in southwest Asia,
possessions and wealth now mean God suffers Himself at having to now southern Iraq. The city sat
nothing: Chapter 4:1 describes how wreak such terrible carnage in on the Euphrates River, north
gold has lost its luster and precious the first place. of the modern town of Hillah.
stones are scattered on every street At the heart of Lamentations The fall of the city, and
corner. It appears that all hope is is an important message of peace the end of the neo-Babylonian
lost, such is the misery and despair and reconciliation, which points empire with it, is predicted
that is recounted. Nevertheless, to the inexhaustible possibilities by the prophets in Isaiah 14:4
despite inflicting such a terrible for redemption and forgiveness if and 21:9, as well as Jeremiah
50–51. The city was under
punishment on His people, Jeremiah the exiles maintain their faith in
suggests that there is still reason to God. He is angry—but He also Babylonian control until 539
bce, when Cyrus the Great
hope: “For no one is cast off by the grieves that the longstanding of Persia invaded and killed
Lord for ever. Though He brings heinous behavior by the Israelite king Belshazzar. However,
grief, He will show compassion, so people has forced Him to punish Babylon was fairly unscathed
great is His unfailing love. For He them so harshly. The message of by the invasion and continued
does not willingly bring affliction Lamentations is clear: when God’s to flourish under Persian rule.
or grief to anyone” (3:32–33). people suffer, God suffers, too. ■




Hosea 11:8
God cannot bear to
punish His people for
rejecting Him.
Genesis 6:6:
God grieves over Luke 19:41
the wickedness Jesus weeps for the lost
of humankind. souls of Jerusalem.



God suffers
with His people.
Jeremiah 14:17 John 11:35
God’s eyes overflow Jesus weeps when
with tears for the He sees Mary grieving
Israelites’ suffering. over Lazarus.








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162 WISDOM AND PROPHETS 163

See also: Entering the Promised Land 96–97 ■ The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■ Lament for the Exiles 160–61 ■
The New Jerusalem 322–29
I WILL REMOVE … wings, each of which have four spokesman—which is forcefully Visions of Ezekiel

YOUR HEART OF aspects to their faces—one of a underlined by His command to eat

human, one of a lion, one of an ox,
the scroll—shows that the Lord
and one of an eagle.
is leaving an important prophet,
STONE AND GIVE YOU the words, “Son of man, eat what whose word is true, with the exiles.
God hands Ezekiel a scroll with
Thus, the Israelites are assured that
is before you, eat this scroll; then go
if they follow Ezekiel’s prophecies
A HEART OF FLESH and speak to the people of Israel” and return to God, their nation will
(3:1). He tells Ezekiel to eat the scroll, ultimately be restored.
This message is reinforced by
EZEKIEL 36:26, THE PROPHET EZEKIEL so that his words will literally be three more significant visions. In The wheels of Crawling things
those of God. Ezekiel does as he
is bidden and then climbs aboard the first, Ezekiel is taken to the God’s chariot are and unclean animals
God’s incredible flaming chariot. Temple of Jerusalem, and finds it able to move “in (Ezekiel 8:10) are
symbolic of the
any one of four
He is then transported to Babylon, covered in crawling things and directions.” This false idolatry that
he Book of Ezekiel charts where Ezekiel joins the exiles and unclean animals. As he stands is a metaphor for led to the downfall
IN BRIEF the lives and experiences begins his life’s work preaching there, the “glory of God” rises His omnipresence. of the Israelites.
T of the Israelites during about the restoration of the Jewish from the sanctuary and leaves
PASSAGE Babylonian captivity. For most people and nation. the temple and Jerusalem. In the
Ezekiel 1–48
of the book, the picture is bleak second, however, he is shown a
THEME but the last section (Ezekiel 33–38) Coming redemption valley of dried human skeletons,
God’s people will offers hope and the prospect of Ezekiel’s strange vision is designed called “the people of Israel,” whom
be restored revival and redemption in the wake to emphasize two key points at this God restores to full life before
of the destruction of Jerusalem. important stage in the plight of the his eyes (37:11). The third is a
SETTING Ezekiel was a contemporary of Jewish people. First, it is made profoundly positive vision of the
c. 590s–570s bce Babylon, the prophet Jeremiah and a priest clear that although God’s chosen future. Ezekiel sees Jerusalem’s
Mesopotamia. at the Temple of Jerusalem, prior people are in exile in Babylon, He Temple—huge and magnificent— The dry bones of Jerusalem’s
“the people of Israel”
future temple
to the destruction of the city. He will still be with them. This is why and imagines a “New Jerusalem,” are given life in will be measured
KEY FIGURES therefore occupied a prominent He flies in His flaming chariot from a fully restored Israelite kingdom Ezekiel’s visions, according to God’s
Ezekiel A priest from the role in Israelite society. Owing Jerusalem to Babylon. Second, that henceforth will be ruled only which represent law. Once restored,
Temple in Jerusalem, now to his elevated status, Ezekiel God’s appointment of Ezekiel as His by God (40–48). ■ their ultimate return it will be honest,
to their own land.
pure, and true.
exiled in Babylon. He is a was among the first wave of exiles
prophet of the Lord, appointed that went to Babylon with King In Raphael’s Ezekiel’s Vision (c.1518),
to help instruct the exiles. Jehoiachin and his court in the prophet sees God in all His majesty Glory of God However, due to the fact that
human beings are created in His
The Israelites God’s chosen around 597 bce, nine years prior raised by cherubim—fantastical In the Christian religion, “glory”— image, they can share (albeit
winged creatures that perform a
people, now living in exile in to Jerusalem’s final destruction protective role in the Bible. derived from the Latin gloria, imperfectly) in disseminating
Babylon, Mesopotamia. in 586 bce. This meant that, while meaning “renown”—is used divine glory as “image bearers.”
Jeremiah stayed in Jerusalem, to describe the manifestation They cannot match the glory of
trying to persuade the Israelites of a man, yet from the “waist up of God’s presence when it is God Himself, but can spread it
to reform their ways, Ezekiel was He looked like glowing metal, actively perceived by human among others. This concept is
prophet to the exiles, 1,000 miles as if full of fire … and brilliant beings. In Ezekiel, and elsewhere best explained in Matthew 5:16,
(1,600km) away in Babylon. light surrounded Him” (1:27). in the Bible, God appears in many which states: “let your light
God is standing astride a throne- different guises and various shine before others, that they
Amazing illusions like chariot made of lapis lazuli fantastical forms—or is merely may see your good deeds and
Ezekiel’s strange, intensely mystical with wheels that resemble topaz. heard or sensed by His subjects. glorify your Father in heaven.”
In religious media today,
Divine glory is an extremely
career as a prophet begins when he The chariot flies through the air at A tetragrammaton as depicted in important motif in theology, in glory is often conveyed by the
experiences an incredible vision great speed and is surrounded by a the window of the Karlskirche, Vienna. which God is the most glorious use of a halo, or white robes,
Often translated as Yahweh, this
beside the River Chebar. God ring of fire. It is borne by cherubim symbol asserts God’s omnipotence. being in existence. crowns, jewels, gold, or stars.
appears before him in the form with lions’ bodies and eagles’




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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 163

See also: Entering the Promised Land 96–97 ■ The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■ Lament for the Exiles 160–61 ■
The New Jerusalem 322–29


wings, each of which have four spokesman—which is forcefully Visions of Ezekiel
aspects to their faces—one of a underlined by His command to eat
human, one of a lion, one of an ox, the scroll—shows that the Lord
and one of an eagle. is leaving an important prophet,
God hands Ezekiel a scroll with whose word is true, with the exiles.
the words, “Son of man, eat what Thus, the Israelites are assured that
is before you, eat this scroll; then go if they follow Ezekiel’s prophecies
and speak to the people of Israel” and return to God, their nation will
(3:1). He tells Ezekiel to eat the scroll, ultimately be restored.
so that his words will literally be This message is reinforced by
those of God. Ezekiel does as he three more significant visions. In The wheels of Crawling things
is bidden and then climbs aboard the first, Ezekiel is taken to the God’s chariot are and unclean animals
God’s incredible flaming chariot. Temple of Jerusalem, and finds it able to move “in (Ezekiel 8:10) are
symbolic of the
any one of four
He is then transported to Babylon, covered in crawling things and directions.” This false idolatry that
where Ezekiel joins the exiles and unclean animals. As he stands is a metaphor for led to the downfall
begins his life’s work preaching there, the “glory of God” rises His omnipresence. of the Israelites.
about the restoration of the Jewish from the sanctuary and leaves
people and nation. the temple and Jerusalem. In the
second, however, he is shown a
Coming redemption valley of dried human skeletons,
Ezekiel’s strange vision is designed called “the people of Israel,” whom
to emphasize two key points at this God restores to full life before
important stage in the plight of the his eyes (37:11). The third is a
Jewish people. First, it is made profoundly positive vision of the
clear that although God’s chosen future. Ezekiel sees Jerusalem’s
people are in exile in Babylon, He Temple—huge and magnificent— The dry bones of Jerusalem’s
future temple
“the people of Israel”
will still be with them. This is why and imagines a “New Jerusalem,” are given life in will be measured
He flies in His flaming chariot from a fully restored Israelite kingdom Ezekiel’s visions, according to God’s
Jerusalem to Babylon. Second, that henceforth will be ruled only which represent law. Once restored,
their ultimate return
it will be honest,
God’s appointment of Ezekiel as His by God (40–48). ■ to their own land. pure, and true.
Glory of God However, due to the fact that
human beings are created in His
In the Christian religion, “glory”— image, they can share (albeit
derived from the Latin gloria, imperfectly) in disseminating
meaning “renown”—is used divine glory as “image bearers.”
to describe the manifestation They cannot match the glory of
of God’s presence when it is God Himself, but can spread it
actively perceived by human among others. This concept is
beings. In Ezekiel, and elsewhere best explained in Matthew 5:16,
in the Bible, God appears in many which states: “let your light
different guises and various shine before others, that they
fantastical forms—or is merely may see your good deeds and
heard or sensed by His subjects. glorify your Father in heaven.”
A tetragrammaton as depicted in Divine glory is an extremely In religious media today,
the window of the Karlskirche, Vienna. important motif in theology, in glory is often conveyed by the
Often translated as Yahweh, this which God is the most glorious use of a halo, or white robes,
symbol asserts God’s omnipotence. being in existence. crowns, jewels, gold, or stars.






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164 WISDOM AND PROPHETS 165

See also: ■ Joseph the Dreamer 58–61 ■ The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■
The Prophet Jeremiah 156–59 ■ Lament for the Exiles 160–61
MY GOD SENT HIS Nebuchadnezzar’s dream The episode of Daniel in the lions’

ANGEL, AND HE Head den is thus seen as proof that God

protects those who honor Him.
(Babylonian
SHUT THE MOUTHS Chest and arms Purpose and meaning
empire)—gold
After Daniel 6, the book shifts and
becomes apocalyptic in tone. Daniel
OF THE LIONS (Medo Persian interprets his visions and describes
empire)—silver
events in which empires will fall
DANIEL 6:22, DANIEL IN BABYLON Belly and and the kingdom of heaven will
be established forever. For many
thighs (Grecian readers, this signifies the literal Daniel
empire)—bronze end of the world.
Notably, in the Hebrew canon The name Daniel means
he eventful Book of Daniel resolving to “not defile himself” Daniel is not regarded as a prophet. “God is my Judge.” He is said
IN BRIEF celebrates people of vision (Daniel 1:8) by eating food the Legs (Roman However, in the Christian Bible the to have been selected to be
T and courage—those who Israelites considered unclean. empire)—iron book of Daniel is included among an official for Nebuchadnezzar
PASSAGE dare to stand steadfast in their faith Although he is a Judean exile, the Major Prophets. As the Book because he was handsome,
Daniel 1–12 without blemish, and “quick
in the Lord, whoever the adversary Daniel is made “ruler of the entire of Daniel was largely written in to understand” (Daniel 1:4).
THEME and no matter how bad the situation. province of Babylon” (2:48) after Feet (divided Aramaic, and explicitly describes the However, Daniel believes he
kingdoms)—iron
God’s protection In 586 bce, Nebuchadnezzar II he interprets a mystifying dream and clay coming of Alexander (10–12) and derives all of his abilities from
of Babylon destroys Jerusalem of Nebuchadnezzar’s. Daniel’s the wars that followed, scholars date the Lord. As an interpreter
SETTING and deports many of its citizens elevated status lasts into the reign Rock—God it to the period after the region was of dreams for a foreign king,
c. 605–538 bce Babylon. to Babylon. Several of the exiled of the king’s successor, Belshazzar. conquered by Alexander the Great. Daniel’s experience echoes
KEY FIGURES aristocrats are given official Writing on the wall Nebuchadnezzar dreamed of a For this reason, some believe the that of Joseph in Genesis
(37–50), who interprets
statue made of various materials that
Book of Daniel essentially functions
positions, including the Judean
Daniel Wise man and prophet Daniel. Despite being offered choice In Daniel 5, a hand appears from crumbled as a rock struck its base. as propaganda, describing the fall dreams for Pharaoh in Egypt.
in exile from Judea and food and wine from the royal table, thin air to write on the wall as Daniel interpreted the dream as the of an oppressive empire and the Daniel is considered a
interpreter of dreams. impending destruction of all kingdoms. prophet by Christians and
Daniel remains true to his religion, King Belshazzar holds a banquet. rise of an Israelite kingdom. ■ his apocalyptic visions are
Nebuchadnezzar II King Daniel is brought in to translate mentioned in the Apocryphal
of Babylon, patron of Daniel, and interpret the four Hebrew king. Advisers jealous of Daniel’s book 2 Esdras and in Matthew
and destroyer of Jerusalem. words for the astonished king: growing power dupe King Darius 24. In Judaism, Daniel is often
“God has numbered the days into decreeing that all should pray represented as a wise man,
Belshazzar Son of King of your reign … You have been only to him, knowing that Daniel but his book is not included
Nabonidus and the final weighed on the scales and found would refuse. When Daniel violates in those of the prophets in the
documented ruler of Babylon. wanting … Your kingdom is the decree by continuing to pray No wise man, Jewish canon. In pre-Israelite
divided” (5:26–28). Daniel is again to God, Darius reluctantly has him enchanter, magician, Canaanite literature, there
Darius the Mede Successor rewarded for his efforts and thrown into the lion’s den overnight or diviner can explain to was a figure named Daniel,
to Belshazzar as King of becomes the third highest ruler as punishment. The king returns to the king the mystery he who was a wise man and
Babylon, according to the in the kingdom. King Belshazzar his palace and frets over Daniel’s fate. has asked about, but adjudicator of justice. Scholars
Book of Daniel. His historical is slain “that very night” (5:30). When Darius returns the next there is a God in heaven liken the biblical Daniel to
existence is doubted by Darius the Mede becomes the new morning, he finds Daniel unharmed. who reveals mysteries. this figure.
most researchers. Daniel tells him, “My God sent Daniel 2:27–28 Regardless of the slightly
His angel, and He shut the mouths differing views of his status,
Blessed with the protection of of the lions. They have not hurt me, Daniel is consistently described
an angel of the Lord, Daniel is saved as being devout, morally
from the lions’ mouths in the den. He because I was found innocent in His astute, and unwavering in his
is replaced by King Darius’s jealous sight” (6:22). Darius issues a decree devotion to God.
advisers, who are all eaten alive. that praises both God and Daniel.





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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 165

See also: ■ Joseph the Dreamer 58–61 ■ The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■
The Prophet Jeremiah 156–59 ■ Lament for the Exiles 160–61


Nebuchadnezzar’s dream The episode of Daniel in the lions’
den is thus seen as proof that God
Head protects those who honor Him.
(Babylonian
empire)—gold
Purpose and meaning
After Daniel 6, the book shifts and
Chest and arms becomes apocalyptic in tone. Daniel
(Medo Persian
empire)—silver interprets his visions and describes
events in which empires will fall
and the kingdom of heaven will
Belly and be established forever. For many
thighs (Grecian readers, this signifies the literal Daniel
empire)—bronze end of the world.
Notably, in the Hebrew canon The name Daniel means
Daniel is not regarded as a prophet. “God is my Judge.” He is said
to have been selected to be
Legs (Roman However, in the Christian Bible the an official for Nebuchadnezzar
empire)—iron book of Daniel is included among because he was handsome,
the Major Prophets. As the Book without blemish, and “quick
of Daniel was largely written in to understand” (Daniel 1:4).
Feet (divided Aramaic, and explicitly describes the However, Daniel believes he
kingdoms)—iron coming of Alexander (10–12) and
and clay derives all of his abilities from
the wars that followed, scholars date the Lord. As an interpreter
Rock—God it to the period after the region was of dreams for a foreign king,
conquered by Alexander the Great. Daniel’s experience echoes
Nebuchadnezzar dreamed of a For this reason, some believe the that of Joseph in Genesis
statue made of various materials that Book of Daniel essentially functions (37–50), who interprets
crumbled as a rock struck its base. as propaganda, describing the fall dreams for Pharaoh in Egypt.
Daniel interpreted the dream as the of an oppressive empire and the Daniel is considered a
impending destruction of all kingdoms. prophet by Christians and
rise of an Israelite kingdom. ■
his apocalyptic visions are
mentioned in the Apocryphal
king. Advisers jealous of Daniel’s book 2 Esdras and in Matthew
growing power dupe King Darius 24. In Judaism, Daniel is often
into decreeing that all should pray represented as a wise man,
only to him, knowing that Daniel but his book is not included
would refuse. When Daniel violates in those of the prophets in the
the decree by continuing to pray No wise man, Jewish canon. In pre-Israelite
to God, Darius reluctantly has him enchanter, magician, Canaanite literature, there
thrown into the lion’s den overnight or diviner can explain to was a figure named Daniel,
as punishment. The king returns to the king the mystery he who was a wise man and
his palace and frets over Daniel’s fate. has asked about, but adjudicator of justice. Scholars
When Darius returns the next there is a God in heaven liken the biblical Daniel to
morning, he finds Daniel unharmed. who reveals mysteries. this figure.
Daniel tells him, “My God sent Daniel 2:27–28 Regardless of the slightly
His angel, and He shut the mouths differing views of his status,
Daniel is consistently described
of the lions. They have not hurt me, as being devout, morally
because I was found innocent in His astute, and unwavering in his
sight” (6:22). Darius issues a decree devotion to God.
that praises both God and Daniel.





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166 WISDOM AND PROPHETS 167

See also: The Tower of Babel 42–43 ■ Sodom and Gomorrah 48–49 ■ The Ten Commandments 78–83 ■
The Psalms 138–43 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71
JONAH WAS IN THE describes how he has been brought The disobedience of Jonah

BELLY OF THE FISH low, but the power of the Lord will Jonah shirks God’s command to preach in Nineveh and flees.

save him, suggesting he is willing
to do what is commanded of him.
THREE DAYS AND Jonah appears to allude to the
Psalms in the prayer. He includes
the word sheol in Hebrew, which is
THREE NIGHTS typically translated in the Psalms, He is angry that God is compassionate toward Nineveh.
and elsewhere, as the grave, or
JONAH 1:17, THE DISOBEDIENT PROPHET abode of the dead. Little is known
about the ancient concept of sheol,
but scholars believe it is a place
where the presence of the Lord He then asserts his own prophecy and judgment.
cannot be felt.
he story of Jonah, which Jonah ends the prayer by
IN BRIEF also occurs in the Qur’an, vowing to reform. Echoing Psalm
T is found among the short 3:8, he says: “Salvation comes
PASSAGE prophet books, often called the from the Lord” (Jonah 2:9). After Jonah is rebuked by God for wanting
Jonah 1–4
Minor Prophets or the Twelve this, the fish spits Jonah out. to influence what only He controls.
THEME Prophets. Most biblical scholars
God’s omnipresence extrapolate two major themes God’s compassion
from the story of Jonah: first, the Chastised by his experience, Jonah
SETTING omnipresence of God, and second, travels to Nineveh, where he fulfills To teach Jonah a lesson—prophets Through this act, God both forgives
786–746 bce The reign of His willingness to forgive those God’s command. He tells the sinful are the messengers of the Lord; and punishes Jonah. But Jonah
Jeroboam. The Mediterranean who repent. Although Jonah hears Ninevites to repent and prophesies they are not supposed to punish or remains angry. God then says to
Sea; Nineveh, the capital God, he does not want to listen. their destruction. However, when act independently—God grows a Jonah, “Should I not have concern
of Assyria. they do repent, and the Lord vine (generally thought to be a for the great city of Nineveh, in
Punished prophet forgives them, Jonah is angry that gourd) over Jonah to provide shade which there are more than a
KEY FIGURES The story opens with God telling God should show mercy to enemies while he waits near Nineveh, but hundred and twenty thousand?”
Jonah Reluctant prophet, Jonah to go to Nineveh, the capital of Israel and deny his prophecy. then commands a worm to eat the (4:10). While Jonah believes
son of Amittai. of Assyria, to preach against sin. He obstinately sits outside the vine, and sends a scorching east salvation should be for the Israelites

Sailors The polytheistic crew Instead, Jonah runs away to city, waiting for its destruction. wind so that Jonah grows faint. alone, God’s mercy extends to all. ■
of a ship that Jonah boards Joppa (Jaffa) and boards a ship Jonah is devoured by a “huge fish”
to escape God’s command to sailing to Tarshish, whose location with gills in this 15th-century French Interpretations of the story of Jonah
miniature from the Bible of St. John
preach in Nineveh. is unknown today. However, he
cannot run from an omnipresent XXII. Contrary to popular myth, the For many, it is puzzling to see also mentions that, just as Jonah
Fish or whale An instrument God. While Jonah is on the boat, Bible does not specify a whale. a prophet of the Lord being was in the fish for three days, He
of God. the Lord sends a violent storm. disobedient and the enemies will be three days and nights “in
When the sailors discover that sea calms and the sailors offer of Israel receiving forgiveness. the heart of the earth.”
The Ninevites Enemies of Jonah is a Hebrew, and that the a sacrifice to the Lord. God then However, God mentions that all Many readers focus on the
Israel whose wickedness has Lord is angry with him, they ask sends a fish to swallow Jonah, nations are under the Lord’s fish, or whale, but what all the
drawn the attention of God. Jonah what to do to calm the who stays in the belly of the fish dominion and Ezekiel 21 states interpretations show is the
sea. Jonah tells them to throw him for three days and nights. that even Babylon is the tool of centrality of repentance and
into the water. At first, they ignore the Lord. In Matthew 12:39–41, forgiveness. In Judaism, Jonah
is read during Yom Kippur (Day
Jesus equates Himself to Jonah:
Jonah’s advice, as they do not want Jonah’s prayer He applauds that the people of of Atonement) in remembrance of A 4th-century mosaic in the
to kill an innocent man, but when While in the fish, Jonah says a Nineveh repented, but says that God’s forgiveness, even to the Basilica di Santa Maria Assunta,
Aquileia, Italy, shows Jonah resting
their attempts to row back to land prayer in poetic form similar to that His work will be greater. Jesus enemies of Israel. under the gourd vine sent by God.
fail, they throw him overboard. The of many of the Psalms of lament. He




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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 167

See also: The Tower of Babel 42–43 ■ Sodom and Gomorrah 48–49 ■ The Ten Commandments 78–83 ■
The Psalms 138–43 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71


describes how he has been brought The disobedience of Jonah
low, but the power of the Lord will
save him, suggesting he is willing
to do what is commanded of him. Jonah shirks God’s command to preach in Nineveh and flees.
Jonah appears to allude to the
Psalms in the prayer. He includes
the word sheol in Hebrew, which is
typically translated in the Psalms, He is angry that God is compassionate toward Nineveh.
and elsewhere, as the grave, or
abode of the dead. Little is known
about the ancient concept of sheol,
but scholars believe it is a place
where the presence of the Lord He then asserts his own prophecy and judgment.
cannot be felt.
Jonah ends the prayer by
vowing to reform. Echoing Psalm
3:8, he says: “Salvation comes
from the Lord” (Jonah 2:9). After Jonah is rebuked by God for wanting
this, the fish spits Jonah out. to influence what only He controls.

God’s compassion
Chastised by his experience, Jonah
travels to Nineveh, where he fulfills To teach Jonah a lesson—prophets Through this act, God both forgives
God’s command. He tells the sinful are the messengers of the Lord; and punishes Jonah. But Jonah
Ninevites to repent and prophesies they are not supposed to punish or remains angry. God then says to
their destruction. However, when act independently—God grows a Jonah, “Should I not have concern
they do repent, and the Lord vine (generally thought to be a for the great city of Nineveh, in
forgives them, Jonah is angry that gourd) over Jonah to provide shade which there are more than a
God should show mercy to enemies while he waits near Nineveh, but hundred and twenty thousand?”
of Israel and deny his prophecy. then commands a worm to eat the (4:10). While Jonah believes
He obstinately sits outside the vine, and sends a scorching east salvation should be for the Israelites
city, waiting for its destruction. wind so that Jonah grows faint. alone, God’s mercy extends to all. ■


Interpretations of the story of Jonah
For many, it is puzzling to see also mentions that, just as Jonah
a prophet of the Lord being was in the fish for three days, He
disobedient and the enemies will be three days and nights “in
of Israel receiving forgiveness. the heart of the earth.”
However, God mentions that all Many readers focus on the
nations are under the Lord’s fish, or whale, but what all the
dominion and Ezekiel 21 states interpretations show is the
that even Babylon is the tool of centrality of repentance and
the Lord. In Matthew 12:39–41, forgiveness. In Judaism, Jonah
Jesus equates Himself to Jonah: is read during Yom Kippur (Day A 4th-century mosaic in the
He applauds that the people of of Atonement) in remembrance of Basilica di Santa Maria Assunta,
Nineveh repented, but says that God’s forgiveness, even to the Aquileia, Italy, shows Jonah resting
His work will be greater. Jesus enemies of Israel. under the gourd vine sent by God.







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168 IN BRIEF See also: The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ Lament for the Exiles 160–61 ■ 169
WISDOM AND PROPHETS

AND WHAT PASSAGE The Birth of Jesus 180–85 An 1865 engraving of Micah by cause or of an abstract concept of

Book of Micah
Gustave Doré. The prophet reproaches
justice. Instead, he speaks to the
DOES THE THEME the Israelites for idolatry in the days of people on behalf of God. He has
Forgiveness through
Jotham and Hezekiah, kings of Judah,
holy visions, and is “filled” with
repentence for sinning
and exhorts the people to repent.
God’s power and spirit (Micah 3:8).
SETTING
LORD REQUIRE c. 750–700 bce The Southern village of Moresheth, southwest of picture of Judah. He describes how,
Micah paints a disturbing
Kingdom of Judah.
Jerusalem. Micah was aware of the
in the early hours of the morning,
Assyrian threat to Judah, but his
people who are already rich and
KEY FIGURES
OF YOU? Micah A prophet from main concern was the suffering powerful lie in bed plotting ways
in which to further increase their
he saw in the farmsteads, villages,
Moresheth in the Shephelah
wealth. The moment dawn breaks,
and small towns of Judah, caused
region of southwest Judah.
not by foreign oppressors, but by
they start executing their plans,
MICAH 6:8, THE PROPHET MICAH Jotham King of Judah until bulk of its population. In 701 bce, his people’s own rulers and leaders. seizing the fields and houses of
the poor and weak. Micah describes
742 bce. Micah’s earliest
prophecies are said to date they came close to doing the same Inspired by God how the women of Judah are driven
from his reign. to the Judean kingdom and its The book that bears Micah’s name onto the streets, their children
capital, Jerusalem, in the south. alternates between threats of doom deprived of a secure home; social
Hezekiah King of Judah from Micah was from Judah. Unlike and promises of God’s mercy. As a dysfunction and injustice are
727–698 bce. He repels the the urban aristocrat Isaiah, Micah prophet, Micah speaks not in his rampant as the rich get away
Assyrian King Sennacherib’s was a country dweller from the own name, nor even in the name of a with murder; and the poor and ❯❯
attempt to destroy Jerusalem
in 701 bce, but loses territory
and remains a vassal. The Book of the Twelve
Hoshea Last king of the The Hebrew Bible’s 12 short Hosea Prophesies to the Northern Kingdom, Israel.
Northern Kingdom, Israel. writings known as the “Minor
After his reign, the Assyrians Prophets” were kept on a Joel Prophesies after the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple.
destroy the northern capital, single scroll and regarded
Samaria, in 722 bce and deport as one book, the Book of the Amos Prophesies to Israel, though he was from Judah.
large parts of the population. Twelve. These writings clearly
reflect the historical context Obadiah Prophesies against the Edomites.
in which each prophet was
active. Hosea, Amos, and Jonah Disobeys God’s command to prophesy to the city of Nineveh.
Micah, for example, are
contemporaries of Isaiah, and Micah Prophesies to the Southern Kingdom, Judah.
date from the 8th century
bce—a time dominated by the
or hundreds of years, the threat of the Assyrian Empire, Nahum Prophesies against the city of Nineveh.
ancient Assyrian Empire, which destroyed Israel’s
F based in the northeast of capital of Samaria in 722 bce. Habakkuk Dialogues with God about injustice in the world.
what is now Iraq, posed a constant Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and
threat to smaller, neighboring Nahum prophesied just prior Zephaniah Prophesies to Judah.
nations, including the two Israelite to the fall of Nineveh in 612 Haggai
kingdoms of Israel and Judah. In bce. By this time, Assyria Exhorts returned exiles to finish rebuilding Jerusalem’s temple.
722 bce, during the prophet Micah’s was in decline and a renewed Zechariah Foretells the coming of a savior or Messiah.
lifetime, the Assyrians destroyed Babylon now threatened the
Samaria, the capital of the Northern southern Kingdom of Judah. Malachi Prophesies a catacylsmic future Day of Judgment.
Kingdom of Israel, and deported the





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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 169

See also: The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ Lament for the Exiles 160–61 ■
The Birth of Jesus 180–85


An 1865 engraving of Micah by cause or of an abstract concept of
Gustave Doré. The prophet reproaches justice. Instead, he speaks to the
the Israelites for idolatry in the days of people on behalf of God. He has
Jotham and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, holy visions, and is “filled” with
and exhorts the people to repent.
God’s power and spirit (Micah 3:8).
Micah paints a disturbing
village of Moresheth, southwest of picture of Judah. He describes how,
Jerusalem. Micah was aware of the in the early hours of the morning,
Assyrian threat to Judah, but his people who are already rich and
main concern was the suffering powerful lie in bed plotting ways
he saw in the farmsteads, villages, in which to further increase their
and small towns of Judah, caused wealth. The moment dawn breaks,
not by foreign oppressors, but by they start executing their plans,
his people’s own rulers and leaders. seizing the fields and houses of
bulk of its population. In 701 bce, the poor and weak. Micah describes
they came close to doing the same Inspired by God how the women of Judah are driven
to the Judean kingdom and its The book that bears Micah’s name onto the streets, their children
capital, Jerusalem, in the south. alternates between threats of doom deprived of a secure home; social
Micah was from Judah. Unlike and promises of God’s mercy. As a dysfunction and injustice are
the urban aristocrat Isaiah, Micah prophet, Micah speaks not in his rampant as the rich get away
was a country dweller from the own name, nor even in the name of a with murder; and the poor and ❯❯


The Book of the Twelve

The Hebrew Bible’s 12 short Hosea Prophesies to the Northern Kingdom, Israel.
writings known as the “Minor
Prophets” were kept on a Joel Prophesies after the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple.
single scroll and regarded
as one book, the Book of the Amos Prophesies to Israel, though he was from Judah.
Twelve. These writings clearly
reflect the historical context Obadiah Prophesies against the Edomites.
in which each prophet was
active. Hosea, Amos, and Jonah Disobeys God’s command to prophesy to the city of Nineveh.
Micah, for example, are
contemporaries of Isaiah, and Micah Prophesies to the Southern Kingdom, Judah.
date from the 8th century
bce—a time dominated by the Nahum
threat of the Assyrian Empire, Prophesies against the city of Nineveh.
which destroyed Israel’s Habakkuk
capital of Samaria in 722 bce. Dialogues with God about injustice in the world.
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and
Nahum prophesied just prior Zephaniah Prophesies to Judah.
to the fall of Nineveh in 612
bce. By this time, Assyria Haggai Exhorts returned exiles to finish rebuilding Jerusalem’s temple.
was in decline and a renewed
Babylon now threatened the Zechariah Foretells the coming of a savior or Messiah.
southern Kingdom of Judah.
Malachi Prophesies a catacylsmic future Day of Judgment.






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170 THE PROPHET MICAH WISDOM AND PROPHETS 171


Battle scenes depicted on a relief in showed you, O man, what is good,”
King Sennacherib’s palace in Nineveh, Micah announces. The answer
in present-day northern Iraq, show the is simple: to “act justly and to love
conquest of the Judean city of Lachish mercy and to walk humbly with
by the Assyrian Army in 701 bce.
your God” (Micah 6:8). Sincere
Your rich people are violent; internal repentance reaches God, Who is a God like you,
in Judah try to silence Micah, your inhabitants are not empty external displays. who pardons sin and
convinced that his message of liars and their tongues forgives the transgression
doom is exaggerated. They ask, speak deceitfully. Scholarly interpretation of the remnant of his
“Is not the Lord among us?” (3:11) Therefore, I have begun The Book of Micah is not confined inheritance? You do not
and give bland, empty assurances to destroy you, to ruin to the words of the prophet alone. stay angry for ever but
that no disaster would befall the you because of your sins. For the ancient Israelites, prophecy delight to show mercy.
nation. Micah, however, is adamant. Micah 6:12–13 was for all time. The words of a Micah 7:18
Through its sins, the nation is prophet would be reflected upon,
treating God as an enemy. Judah edited, reinterpreted, and added to
could not expect Him to continue over generations in the light of time
to give His protection. and unfolding circumstances. Key
later events that affected the text of
Repentance and mercy Micah were the fall of Jerusalem to
By Micah’s final chapter, Judah to you? How have I burdened you?” the Babylonians in 587–586 bce, the message, but provided it with
is depicted as a dystopia: a (6:3). He reminds them how He Jews’ subsequent exile in Babylon, a setting. Judgment leading to a
society in which “the powerful brought them out of Egypt and and their return from exile 50 years change of heart and repentance
dictate what they desire” (7:3). into the Promised Land. after the fall of the capital. It is thus came to be seen as evidence of
People cannot trust their neighbors The people do not know how to impossible to fully disentangle God’s love for His people. The final
or friends, even spouses have to be respond. Should they come before Micah’s original prophecies from verses of Micah, almost certainly a
careful what they say to each other, the Lord with extravagant ritual later editing and additions. later addition, show this: “You will
and family members turn on each sacrifices: burnt offerings, calves a Generally, however, it seems again have compassion on us; you
other and become enemies. year old, thousands of rams, whole that the messages of doom are will tread our sins underfoot and
Yet judgment alternates with rivers of olive oil? They even go as Micah’s. Many, but not all, of the hurl all our iniquities into the …
mercy, or the possibility of it, far as to suggest child sacrifice messages of hope were added later. sea. You will be faithful to Jacob,
vulnerable have no redress. Crying delivers this judgment through arrived at through repentance. as a means of regaining God’s The experience of divine mercy in and show love to Abraham, as you
out in God’s name, the prophet the foreign, Assyrian oppressor. God asks His people to explain favor. Nothing could be farther the return from exile did not detract pledged on oath to our ancestors
compares his nation’s rulers to In Micah’s prophecy, God promises themselves: “What have I done from God’s mind, however. “He has from the prophet’s original stern in days long ago” (7:19–20). ■
cannibals “who eat my people’s to turn Samaria into rubble: “I will
flesh, strip off their skin, and break pour her stones into the valley and The Bethlehem Micah prophesies that the Messiah or later), the prophecy was
their bones in pieces” (3:3). lay bare her foundations” (1:6). This prophecy will be born in Bethlehem. But part of a growing expectation
reference to the brutal destruction after Jesus’s birth, wise men, or among the Jews that a new
Nation of sin of the Northern Kingdom shows magi, arrive in Jerusalem from ruler would emerge to restore
God’s feelings toward the sinful what could also happen to Judah: I am filled with power, the east asking for “the one who the nation’s greatness. In the
people of Judah are expressed in an society itself is broken, so judgment with the Spirit of the has been born king of the Jews.” Micah prophecy, he would be
alarming vision at the start of the will come from an outside source. Lord, and with justice They have seen his star and come a true shepherd under whom
Book of Micah, in which, enraged, The sins of Judah are myriad: and might, to declare to to worship him. Puzzled, Jewish Israel would live peacefully.
He comes “from his dwelling-place” they include idolatry; the rich Jacob his transgression, priests and scholars inform them Bethlehem was significant.
treading the “heights of the earth”; dispossessing the poor of land and to Israel his sin. that, according to prophecy, It was King David’s birthplace,
this causes mountains to melt and houses; cheating by merchants Micah 3:8 Israel’s expected savior will suggesting a new ruler from the
valleys to split asunder (1:3). and traders; judges who take be born in Bethlehem. same royal line, and it was small
Micah warns that the Israelites’ bribes; and thuggery. Religious The magi head to Bethlehem, and rural. For Micah and the
sins have mounted to the point leaders are as venal as the rest, where they find the baby Jesus tradition he represented, that
and his parents. While it may have was important. Like David, the
where God can no longer ignore with priests teaching “for a price” been elaborated after Micah’s new ruler would be from the
them. Divine judgment has and so-called prophets telling time (during the Babylonian exile fringes, not the center of society.
become necessary, and God fortunes for money.Other prophets





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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 171


showed you, O man, what is good,”
Micah announces. The answer
is simple: to “act justly and to love
mercy and to walk humbly with
your God” (Micah 6:8). Sincere
Your rich people are violent; internal repentance reaches God, Who is a God like you,
your inhabitants are not empty external displays. who pardons sin and
liars and their tongues forgives the transgression
speak deceitfully. Scholarly interpretation of the remnant of his
Therefore, I have begun The Book of Micah is not confined inheritance? You do not
to destroy you, to ruin to the words of the prophet alone. stay angry for ever but
you because of your sins. For the ancient Israelites, prophecy delight to show mercy.
Micah 6:12–13 was for all time. The words of a Micah 7:18
prophet would be reflected upon,
edited, reinterpreted, and added to
over generations in the light of time
and unfolding circumstances. Key
later events that affected the text of
Micah were the fall of Jerusalem to
to you? How have I burdened you?” the Babylonians in 587–586 bce, the message, but provided it with
(6:3). He reminds them how He Jews’ subsequent exile in Babylon, a setting. Judgment leading to a
brought them out of Egypt and and their return from exile 50 years change of heart and repentance
into the Promised Land. after the fall of the capital. It is thus came to be seen as evidence of
The people do not know how to impossible to fully disentangle God’s love for His people. The final
respond. Should they come before Micah’s original prophecies from verses of Micah, almost certainly a
the Lord with extravagant ritual later editing and additions. later addition, show this: “You will
sacrifices: burnt offerings, calves a Generally, however, it seems again have compassion on us; you
year old, thousands of rams, whole that the messages of doom are will tread our sins underfoot and
rivers of olive oil? They even go as Micah’s. Many, but not all, of the hurl all our iniquities into the …
far as to suggest child sacrifice messages of hope were added later. sea. You will be faithful to Jacob,
as a means of regaining God’s The experience of divine mercy in and show love to Abraham, as you
favor. Nothing could be farther the return from exile did not detract pledged on oath to our ancestors
from God’s mind, however. “He has from the prophet’s original stern in days long ago” (7:19–20). ■

The Bethlehem Micah prophesies that the Messiah or later), the prophecy was
prophecy will be born in Bethlehem. But part of a growing expectation
after Jesus’s birth, wise men, or among the Jews that a new
magi, arrive in Jerusalem from ruler would emerge to restore
the east asking for “the one who the nation’s greatness. In the
has been born king of the Jews.” Micah prophecy, he would be
They have seen his star and come a true shepherd under whom
to worship him. Puzzled, Jewish Israel would live peacefully.
priests and scholars inform them Bethlehem was significant.
that, according to prophecy, It was King David’s birthplace,
Israel’s expected savior will suggesting a new ruler from the
be born in Bethlehem. same royal line, and it was small
The magi head to Bethlehem, and rural. For Micah and the
where they find the baby Jesus tradition he represented, that
and his parents. While it may have was important. Like David, the
been elaborated after Micah’s new ruler would be from the
time (during the Babylonian exile fringes, not the center of society.







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172 WISDOM AND PROPHETS 173


THE REMNANT SURELY THE DAY


OF ISRAEL WILL IS COMING; IT WILL



TRUST IN THE BURN LIKE A FURNACE


NAME OF THE LORD MALACHI 4, THE DAY OF JUDGEMENT



ZEPHANIAH 3:17, CALL FOR REPENTANCE




The book probably formed part and the Babylonian exile because will prepare the way before me.” covenant with the faithful and
IN BRIEF of the religious reforms of Josiah, it mentions the “remnant” of Israel IN BRIEF Some believe this “messenger” is states that He will send the prophet
who outlawed the non-Yahwistic and gathering those who have been Malachi, although the phrase is Elijah—a precursor to the Messiah
PASSAGE cults that had sprung up during scattered. It describes how the Lord PASSAGE also used by Jesus to describe John in Judaism and to Jesus Christ in
Zephaniah 1–3 Malachi 1–4
Assyrian domination of Judah. It will punish Israel’s enemies and the Baptist (Luke 7:27), leading Christianity—before striking the
THEME calls Judah “you shameful nation” save the righteous, who are now THEME Christian commentators to see the land with “total destruction” (4:6). ■
God’s righteous remnant (2:1) and berates Jerusalem whose purged from sin. Chapter 3:14–20, Wrath and judgment promised messenger as Christ.
priests “profane the sanctuary beginning “Sing daughter Zion;
SETTING and do violence to the Law” (3:4). shout aloud Israel” tells how the SETTING Catalogue of rebukes
640–609 bce Jerusalem. The text, modeled on many Lord will remove sorrow and 500–600 bce Judah. The text begins by invoking the
KEY FIGURE other prophecies and structured punishment from the Israelites. ■ KEY FIGURE Genesis story of Jacob and his
in a similar way to other biblical
brother Esau (see pp. 54–55), in
Zephaniah Prophet narratives, is about destruction Malachi Prophet of Judah. which Jacob is loved by God, and
of Judah.
and restoration. The people of receives His blessing, while Esau
Judah and its neighbors Philistia, is rejected. This sets the stage for
Moab, Ammon, Cush, and Assyria the remainder of the text, in which
have angered the Lord. Their God reminds the Israelites of His
he Book of Zephaniah is prophesied destruction on the Day ‘I will sweep away the birds alachi is the last book of covenants with the ancestors and
the ninth book within the of Judgment, the “great day of the of the air and the fish of the Minor Prophets, or the asks “Where is the respect due
T short prophetic texts called Lord,” is described in words that the sea. The wicked will M Twelve Prophets, and for me?” (1:6). He rebukes the priests
the Minor Prophets, or the Twelve centuries later will be turned into have only heaps of rubble Christians, it is the last book of the for not keeping the Law and the
Prophets. The book was written the somber Latin hymn Dies israe when I cut off man Old Testament. It is hard to know people for disobedience; taking
during the reign of King Josiah (Day of Wrath) used in the mass from the face of the earth,’ when it was written, but use of wives who worship foreign gods;
(640–609 bce) by, it says, the son for the dead. declares the Lord. the word pechah (governor) in and sacrificing blind, lame, or
of Cushi and a descendant of Zephaniah 1:3 1:8 fits the period after the Persian diseased animals as offerings.
King Hezekiah. This has led Rising from the ashes conquest of Judah (539 bce) and the The book ends with a
some scholars to believe that the The restoration portion of the book building of the Second Temple. proclamation that the Day of the Christ sits above a rainbow in Crispin
van den Broeck’s The Last Judgment
author may have been from Cush begins at Zephaniah 3:9. Some Malachi means “my messenger,” Lord will come, when “every evil- (1560), recalling the rainbow that God
in Ethiopia or a descendant of King scholars believe this section was or “angel,” and Malachi says that doer will be stubble” (4:1) to be set created as a symbol of his covenant
Hezekiah, a former ruler of Judah. written after the fall of Jerusalem “God will send a messenger who on fire. However, God renews His with Noah after the Flood.

See also: The Fall 30–35 ■ The Flood 40–41 ■ Sodom and Gomorrah 48–49 ■ The Fall of Jerusalem 128–31 ■ See also: The Flood 40–41 ■ Covenants 44–47 ■ Esau and Jacob 54–55 ■ The Ten Commandments 78–83 ■
The Final Judgment 316–21 The Coming of Salvation 189 ■ The Final Judgment 316–21







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WISDOM AND PROPHETS 173


SURELY THE DAY


IS COMING; IT WILL



BURN LIKE A FURNACE



MALACHI 4, THE DAY OF JUDGEMENT








will prepare the way before me.” covenant with the faithful and
IN BRIEF Some believe this “messenger” is states that He will send the prophet
Malachi, although the phrase is Elijah—a precursor to the Messiah
PASSAGE also used by Jesus to describe John in Judaism and to Jesus Christ in
Malachi 1–4
the Baptist (Luke 7:27), leading Christianity—before striking the
THEME Christian commentators to see the land with “total destruction” (4:6). ■
Wrath and judgment promised messenger as Christ.
SETTING Catalogue of rebukes
500–600 bce Judah. The text begins by invoking the
KEY FIGURE Genesis story of Jacob and his
brother Esau (see pp. 54–55), in
Malachi Prophet of Judah.
which Jacob is loved by God, and
receives His blessing, while Esau
is rejected. This sets the stage for
the remainder of the text, in which
God reminds the Israelites of His
alachi is the last book of covenants with the ancestors and
the Minor Prophets, or the asks “Where is the respect due
M Twelve Prophets, and for me?” (1:6). He rebukes the priests
Christians, it is the last book of the for not keeping the Law and the
Old Testament. It is hard to know people for disobedience; taking
when it was written, but use of wives who worship foreign gods;
the word pechah (governor) in and sacrificing blind, lame, or
1:8 fits the period after the Persian diseased animals as offerings.
conquest of Judah (539 bce) and the The book ends with a
building of the Second Temple. proclamation that the Day of the Christ sits above a rainbow in Crispin
van den Broeck’s The Last Judgment
Malachi means “my messenger,” Lord will come, when “every evil- (1560), recalling the rainbow that God
or “angel,” and Malachi says that doer will be stubble” (4:1) to be set created as a symbol of his covenant
“God will send a messenger who on fire. However, God renews His with Noah after the Flood.

See also: The Flood 40–41 ■ Covenants 44–47 ■ Esau and Jacob 54–55 ■ The Ten Commandments 78–83 ■
The Coming of Salvation 189 ■ The Final Judgment 316–21







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THE GOSPELSTHE GOSPELS














































































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THE GOSPELS














































































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176 INTRODUCTION THE GOSPELS 177




The angel Gabriel The magi visit
visits Mary and the infant Jesus Jesus delivers the Peter, James, and Judas betrays
tells her that her with gifts of gold, Satan tempts Jesus Sermon on the In the midst of a John witness the Jesus with a kiss Jesus rises
child is the frankincense, in the desert after Mount, and with great storm, Jesus transfiguration in the Garden of from the dead
Son of God. and myrrh. 40 days of fasting. it, the Lord’s Prayer. walks on water. of Jesus. Gethsemane. after three days.





LUKE MATTHEW MATTHEW MATTHEW MATTHEW MATTHEW MATTHEW MARK
1:26–38 2:1–12 4:1–11 5:1–7:29 14:22–33 17:1–13 26:47–49 16:1–10


LUKE MATTHEW MARK JOHN LUKE LUKE MARK MATTHEW
2:1–7 3:13–17 1:16–20 11:38–43 9:10–17 22:7–38 15:21–47 28:16–20







Jesus is born Jesus is baptized Jesus calls the first Jesus raises Jesus feeds a Jesus gathers His Jesus is Jesus sends His
in a stable in by John the of His disciples to Lazarus from crowd of 5,000 12 disciples crucified, dies disciples to spread
Bethlehem. Baptist, beginning follow Him and the dead. with five loaves of together for the alongside two the Christian
His ministry. teach with Him. bread and two fish. Last Supper. criminals, and message to
is buried. all nations.


hristians first used the occupation of Israel and prophecies conversations with His disciples. to try Jesus for blasphemy, and many of the same events in much different audiences or theological
Greek word euangelion of a divinely anointed leader, a Through sermons and parables, then pressure the Roman governor the same order, often using similar themes present in Jesus’s life and
C (“gospel” or “good news”) Messiah. Although the details Jesus repeatedly called for His Pilate to crucify Him. or even identical language. Such teaching. While Matthew stresses
to refer to the message of salvation of this expectation varied widely, followers to repent and submit The Gospels all indicate that similarities have led many scholars Jesus’s fulfillment of Old Testament
from sin and judgment through popular belief looked for a military- to the coming Kingdom of God. Jesus expected His betrayal and to the view that one Gospel, and prophecy, Mark depicts Him as
faith in Jesus Christ. By the middle political leader such as Moses Disputes between Jesus and crucifixion. This confused His possibly other documents, was the “Suffering Servant.” Luke’s
of the 2nd century CE, however, or David, who would liberate Jerusalem’s religious leaders disciples, who could not grasp the primary source for the others. account primarily appeals to
it was also used to refer to the Israel from Roman control and punctuate the Gospels. In private how Jesus’s execution could be the Debate about which Gospel was Gentile audiences, while John,
four canonical books of the New reestablish the Davidic monarchy. and public settings, these leaders culmination of God’s plan for the written first, the exact nature of whose account is markedly different
Testament written in the second Jesus’s claim to be the Messiah show a growing concern over one they regarded as the Messiah. their relationship to one another, from the Synoptic Gospels, often
half of the 1st century CE. While combined many of these ideas, but His fellowship with “sinners” The climax of the Gospels is and related issues, are known as elaborates on Christ’s divinity.
none of the four Gospels names its rejected the establishment of an (Jews who did not obey God’s Jesus’s resurrection. Luke and the “Synoptic problem.” Scholars have also debated
author directly, two are traditionally earthly kingdom as His immediate commandments) and His seeming John report the incredulity of the Differences between the the literary genre of the four books.
attributed to the Apostles Matthew goal. Instead, it seems Jesus saw blasphemy by claiming a status disciples, and how Jesus overcame Gospels have also been intensely The traditional view of the Gospels
and John, and two are associated sin and alienation from God as the equal to God and the authority their doubts and prepared them analyzed. Ancient scholars tended as biographies lost favor among
with the Apostles Peter (Mark) primary enemy to be defeated. to forgive sins. Jesus, in turn, for their own mission to preach to see these as harmonious rather 20th-century scholars, who pointed
and Paul (Luke). All four Gospels relate the rebuked the religious leaders by the “good news” to all nations. than contradictory, collectively out that as a genre, biographies
The central figure in the Gospels miracles that Jesus performed— cleansing the Temple, warning painting a richer picture of Jesus’s tend to explore the personality,
is Jesus, an itinerant preacher feeding the hungry, healing the against their teaching and the Similarities and differences life and teaching than any single psychology, and forming influences
born in Bethlehem and raised in sick, casting out demons, calming example they set, and declaring The first three Gospels—Matthew, account. Some modern scholars see of their subject. In the Bible, these
Nazareth, a small town in Galilee. storms, and even raising the dead. God’s judgment on them. This Mark, and Luke—are called the the differences as conflicting and aspects are secondary to the
His life and ministry are set against They also report His teaching, conflict, along with alarm at His Synoptic Gospels (literally, “looking evidence of myth-making. Others depiction of Jesus as divine and
the background of the Roman public preaching, and His private popularity, led the religious leaders together”) because they relate see them as an attempt to address the espousal of His teachings. ■





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THE GOSPELS 177





Peter, James, and Judas betrays
In the midst of a John witness the Jesus with a kiss Jesus rises
great storm, Jesus transfiguration in the Garden of from the dead
walks on water. of Jesus. Gethsemane. after three days.





MATTHEW MATTHEW MATTHEW MARK
14:22–33 17:1–13 26:47–49 16:1–10


LUKE LUKE MARK MATTHEW
9:10–17 22:7–38 15:21–47 28:16–20







Jesus feeds a Jesus gathers His Jesus is Jesus sends His
crowd of 5,000 12 disciples crucified, dies disciples to spread
with five loaves of together for the alongside two the Christian
bread and two fish. Last Supper. criminals, and message to
is buried. all nations.


to try Jesus for blasphemy, and many of the same events in much different audiences or theological
then pressure the Roman governor the same order, often using similar themes present in Jesus’s life and
Pilate to crucify Him. or even identical language. Such teaching. While Matthew stresses
The Gospels all indicate that similarities have led many scholars Jesus’s fulfillment of Old Testament
Jesus expected His betrayal and to the view that one Gospel, and prophecy, Mark depicts Him as
crucifixion. This confused His possibly other documents, was the “Suffering Servant.” Luke’s
disciples, who could not grasp the primary source for the others. account primarily appeals to
how Jesus’s execution could be the Debate about which Gospel was Gentile audiences, while John,
culmination of God’s plan for the written first, the exact nature of whose account is markedly different
one they regarded as the Messiah. their relationship to one another, from the Synoptic Gospels, often
The climax of the Gospels is and related issues, are known as elaborates on Christ’s divinity.
Jesus’s resurrection. Luke and the “Synoptic problem.” Scholars have also debated
John report the incredulity of the Differences between the the literary genre of the four books.
disciples, and how Jesus overcame Gospels have also been intensely The traditional view of the Gospels
their doubts and prepared them analyzed. Ancient scholars tended as biographies lost favor among
for their own mission to preach to see these as harmonious rather 20th-century scholars, who pointed
the “good news” to all nations. than contradictory, collectively out that as a genre, biographies
painting a richer picture of Jesus’s tend to explore the personality,
Similarities and differences life and teaching than any single psychology, and forming influences
The first three Gospels—Matthew, account. Some modern scholars see of their subject. In the Bible, these
Mark, and Luke—are called the the differences as conflicting and aspects are secondary to the
Synoptic Gospels (literally, “looking evidence of myth-making. Others depiction of Jesus as divine and
together”) because they relate see them as an attempt to address the espousal of His teachings. ■





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178 THE GOSPELS 179

See also: The Birth of Jesus 180–85 ■ The Magi 186 ■ Herod’s Infanticide 187 ■ Mary
The Divinity of Jesus 190–93
AND BEHOLD, YOU Angels announce Mary’s conception An obscure young woman
living in Nazareth and
WILL CONCEIVE IN Luke’s Gospel Matthew’s Gospel betrothed to Joseph, Mary
rises to everlasting adoration
by the Annunciation of the
YOUR WOMB AND focuses on Mary. focuses on Joseph. angel Gabriel. Mary humbly
accepts her extraordinary
situation without challenge
BEAR A SON Mary, a virgin, is pledged Mary is pledged to Joseph and immediately prepares
herself to deliver the son of the
Lord. She gives birth to Jesus
LUKE 1:31, THE ANNUNCIATION to marry Joseph. but becomes pregnant. in a stable in Bethlehem.
Mary encourages Jesus
to perform His first miracle
at Cana. After Jesus leaves
home to begin His ministry,
he Gospel of Luke is the Elsewhere in the Gospels—in Gabriel tells Mary she has Joseph, “son of David,” Mary rarely appears in the
IN BRIEF only place in the Bible in Matthew 1:20—Joseph is informed found favor with God. decides to leave her quietly. Bible, but she is present at the
T which the announcement by another angel that his wife-to-be foot of the cross during the
PASSAGE to Mary of Jesus’s birth is recorded. is expecting a child of the Lord. crucifixion and continues to
Luke 1:31 meet with the disciples after
In an event now known as the The angel tells Joseph, who has this and the resurrection.
THEME Annunciation, the angel Gabriel been considering breaking his Gabriel says she will conceive An angel explains that Mary Mary’s devotion to God is
The Annunciation visits a young woman named engagement to Mary because a child by the Holy Spirit. conceived by the Holy Spirit. attested to by her psalm of
Mary in Nazareth and declares she has become pregnant, that thanksgiving (canticle) in
SETTING that she will soon bear a son. She the pregnancy has been divinely Luke 1:46–55. This “Song
c.7 bce Nazareth, a town is surprised to hear that she is orchestrated and that he should of Mary” is also called the
of Galilee. going to give birth, as she is a marry her without delay and name Magnificat, and is incorporated
virgin, not yet married to her their child Jesus, which means Mary accepts Gabriel’s word Joseph marries Mary but the into the liturgical services of
KEY FIGURES betrothed, Joseph. In reassurance, “the Lord saves.” The significance and promises to serve God. the Catholic Church. It is one
Mary A young Galilean the angel Gabriel tells her: “The of this name is confirmed by the union is not consummated. of the most ancient of all
Jewish woman. Luke’s Holy Spirit will come on you, and angel, who states that “he will Christian hymns.
Gospel traces her lineage the power of the Most High will save his people from their sins.”
from King David. overshadow you. So the holy one

Joseph Betrothed to Mary to be born will be called the Son Davidic inheritance Jesus is born in Bethlehem.
and, according to Matthew’s of God” (Luke 1:35). One of the most important aspects
Gospel, a descendant of of Jesus’s birth is His ancestry—
King David. the lineage of both His parents. a Davidic Messiah, or king, who chosen people—and translates
Although Joseph and Mary are would deliver them from their as Christos in Greek, hence the
The angel Gabriel God’s of humble means, they are of enemies—at that time, the Romans. English name “Jesus Christ.”
heavenly messenger and the noble birth, as descendants As Isaiah had prophesied: “He
bearer of the Annunciation. of the Israelite King David. This will reign on David’s throne and Son of Man
connection is of great significance over his kingdom, establishing While the Bible is full of miraculous
in Judaic culture and religion, and upholding it with justice and signs, it is noteworthy that the
because many Jews at the time righteousness” (Isaiah 9:7). means of Jesus coming to earth
expected not only a Messiah but A common name given to is genuinely human: through
Jesus refers back to this idea of Mary’s pregnancy and childbirth. The Virgin of Guadalupe, in
Him as the prophesied savior. Although Jesus proves Himself to a clay wall hanging in Metepec,
Gabriel appears to Mary in the Mexico. The name dates back to
central panel of this oil on oak triptych. Messiah means “anointed one” be the Son of God, His conception 1851, when a peasant saw a vision
This depiction of the Annunciation was in Hebrew—that is, Jesus has in Mary by the Holy Spirit makes of Mary near Villa de Guadalupe.
painted by Carlo Crivelli c.1440. been blessed by God to lead His Him both human and divine. ■





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THE GOSPELS 179

See also: The Birth of Jesus 180–85 ■ The Magi 186 ■ Herod’s Infanticide 187 ■ Mary
The Divinity of Jesus 190–93
An obscure young woman
Angels announce Mary’s conception living in Nazareth and
betrothed to Joseph, Mary
rises to everlasting adoration
Luke’s Gospel Matthew’s Gospel by the Annunciation of the
focuses on Mary. focuses on Joseph. angel Gabriel. Mary humbly
accepts her extraordinary
situation without challenge
and immediately prepares
herself to deliver the son of the
Mary, a virgin, is pledged Mary is pledged to Joseph Lord. She gives birth to Jesus
to marry Joseph. but becomes pregnant. in a stable in Bethlehem.
Mary encourages Jesus
to perform His first miracle
at Cana. After Jesus leaves
home to begin His ministry,
Gabriel tells Mary she has Joseph, “son of David,” Mary rarely appears in the
found favor with God. decides to leave her quietly. Bible, but she is present at the
foot of the cross during the
crucifixion and continues to
meet with the disciples after
this and the resurrection.
Gabriel says she will conceive An angel explains that Mary Mary’s devotion to God is
a child by the Holy Spirit. conceived by the Holy Spirit. attested to by her psalm of
thanksgiving (canticle) in
Luke 1:46–55. This “Song
of Mary” is also called the
Magnificat, and is incorporated
Mary accepts Gabriel’s word Joseph marries Mary but the into the liturgical services of
and promises to serve God. union is not consummated. the Catholic Church. It is one
of the most ancient of all
Christian hymns.


Jesus is born in Bethlehem.



a Davidic Messiah, or king, who chosen people—and translates
would deliver them from their as Christos in Greek, hence the
enemies—at that time, the Romans. English name “Jesus Christ.”
As Isaiah had prophesied: “He
will reign on David’s throne and Son of Man
over his kingdom, establishing While the Bible is full of miraculous
and upholding it with justice and signs, it is noteworthy that the
righteousness” (Isaiah 9:7). means of Jesus coming to earth
A common name given to is genuinely human: through
Jesus refers back to this idea of Mary’s pregnancy and childbirth. The Virgin of Guadalupe, in
Him as the prophesied savior. Although Jesus proves Himself to a clay wall hanging in Metepec,
Messiah means “anointed one” be the Son of God, His conception Mexico. The name dates back to
1851, when a peasant saw a vision
in Hebrew—that is, Jesus has in Mary by the Holy Spirit makes of Mary near Villa de Guadalupe.
been blessed by God to lead His Him both human and divine. ■





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A SAVIOR















HAS BEEN BORN








TO YOU; HE IS THE



MESSIAH


















THE BIRTH OF JESUS, LUKE 2:11
























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182 THE BIRTH OF JESUS THE GOSPELS 183

See also: The Prophet Samuel 110–15 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Prophet Micah 168–71 ■ The Annunciation
IN BRIEF 178–79 ■ The Magi 186 ■ Herod’s Infanticide 187 ■ The Coming of Salvation 189 ■ The Divinity of Jesus 190–93
PASSAGE

Luke 2:1–40 Mary and
With no
THEME Mary, a Joseph travel to room at the Mary gives
Christ’s humble origins virgin, becomes Bethlehem birth to
pregnant by the to register for inn, the couple Jesus, the
SETTING Holy Spirit. a census. find a stable. Messiah.
c. 6–4 bce A cave or barn on
the outskirts of Bethlehem.

KEY FIGURES
Mary A young woman from Jesus’s birth The An angel tells
Nazareth, Galilee. demonstrates His humanity, shepherds shepherds news
and that His message is for all, express their of a Savior
Joseph Husband of Mary, a regardless of wealth adoration. born that day.
carpenter, possibly descended or status.
from the royal House of David.

Jesus Mary’s newborn baby,
who is the Messiah and King David, who was also born in as the one that was ordered by own realms. Although still contested,
Son of God. Bethlehem, and with the prophet Quirinius, the Roman governor scholars generally place the birth
Micah’s foretelling that a savior, of Syria, in 6–7 ce. This census of Jesus between 6–4 bce.
Three shepherds Herdsmen or Messiah, of David’s line would provoked a revolt among the Jews.
watching their sheep through be born there. Ascribing Jesus’s However, this does not fit with later The news spreads
the night near Bethlehem. birthplace to Bethlehem is not references in the Gospels. Both Rejoicing at the birth of Jesus
Simeon An old and devout narratives in the Hebrew Bible— The Nativity scene in Joan Mates’s purely symbolic, however, as Luke and Matthew make clear that extends beyond Mary and Joseph.
man in Jerusalem. notably, the story of the birth and Altarpiece of St. James (c.1400) from traditions in the early Church also Jesus was born during the reign Just as the birth is preceded in
infancy of the prophet Samuel. Vallespinosa, Spain, depicts a troubled say that Jesus was born there. of King Herod the Great of Judea, Luke’s account by the annunciation
Anna An 84-year-old widow Matthew’s account stresses the Joseph struggling to come to terms Luke’s dating of the birth is who died in 4 bce. Luke may have of the angel Gabriel, who appears
in Jerusalem. fulfillment of Old Testament with the divine birth. more uncertain. He identifies the confused the census that took place to Mary in her home village of
prophecies and begins with a census that obliges Mary and under Quirinius with an earlier one Nazareth, so it is followed by an
genealogy tracing Jesus’s ancestry town’s outskirts. In these unlikely Joseph to travel to Bethlehem carried out by Herod within his another annunciation. An angel ❯❯
to Abraham through King David. surroundings, Mary gives birth to
a son. Like all mothers of the time, Joseph, husband Joseph is mentioned only in the Joseph does not feature in the
The birth of Jesus she wraps her newborn baby with of Mary Gospels of Matthew and Luke, ministry of Jesus, perhaps
When the Roman emperor orders swaddling cloths. She then places where he is said to be descended because he had died by then.
a census requiring the heads of her child in the only crib available: from King David. This is not He must have died by the time
all households to register in their a feeding trough for animals. The impossible: although a humble of the crucifixion, as John 19:26
he story of the birth of ancestral communities, Joseph modest birth story of God’s son carpenter, he might come from states that Mary went to live
Jesus, widely known as needs to return to the town of serves to indicate how Jesus was a minor, impoverished branch with the “disciple whom He
T the Nativity, is presented Bethlehem. He travels there with born as an ordinary member of of the former royal house. loved.” From the 2nd century ce,
as a simple tale in the Gospel of his heavily pregnant wife Mary, mankind—a status that would Matthew’s Gospel—in which tradition portrayed Joseph as a
Luke. Probably writing in the early finally arriving at an inn. enable Him to establish His close an annunciation happens to widower when he married Mary,
80s ce, the author draws on earlier Mary and Joseph arrive too relationship with the people of God. Joseph rather than Mary—shows with children from a previous
written accounts of Jesus’s life late in the evening to find suitable Like the author of Matthew’s a very human figure caught in a marriage. This preserved the
alongside oral traditions handed accommodations—the Greek phrase Gospel, the writer of Luke also struggle between his sense of doctrine of Mary’s perpetual
justice and his compassion for
virginity while also helping to
down in various 1st-century in Luke 2:7 translates as “there was places the birth in Bethlehem, Mary. According to Law, Mary, explain the brothers and sisters
Christian communities. It is no room at the inn”—and they must about 6 miles (10km) south of if guilty of adultery, should be of Jesus mentioned in Mark 6:3
believed that the author was also find makeshift shelter elsewhere: a Jerusalem. This has symbolic stoned to death. Unlike Mary, and Matthew 13:55–56.
highlighting parallels with birth stable, or possibly a cave, on the significance, as it links Jesus with





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THE GOSPELS 183

See also: The Prophet Samuel 110–15 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Prophet Micah 168–71 ■ The Annunciation
178–79 ■ The Magi 186 ■ Herod’s Infanticide 187 ■ The Coming of Salvation 189 ■ The Divinity of Jesus 190–93




Mary, a Mary and With no Mary gives
virgin, becomes Joseph travel to room at the birth to
pregnant by the Bethlehem inn, the couple Jesus, the
Holy Spirit. to register for find a stable. Messiah.
a census.



Jesus’s birth
demonstrates His humanity, The An angel tells
shepherds
and that His message is for all, express their shepherds news
of a Savior
regardless of wealth adoration. born that day.
or status.



King David, who was also born in as the one that was ordered by own realms. Although still contested,
Bethlehem, and with the prophet Quirinius, the Roman governor scholars generally place the birth
Micah’s foretelling that a savior, of Syria, in 6–7 ce. This census of Jesus between 6–4 bce.
or Messiah, of David’s line would provoked a revolt among the Jews.
be born there. Ascribing Jesus’s However, this does not fit with later The news spreads
birthplace to Bethlehem is not references in the Gospels. Both Rejoicing at the birth of Jesus
purely symbolic, however, as Luke and Matthew make clear that extends beyond Mary and Joseph.
traditions in the early Church also Jesus was born during the reign Just as the birth is preceded in
say that Jesus was born there. of King Herod the Great of Judea, Luke’s account by the annunciation
Luke’s dating of the birth is who died in 4 bce. Luke may have of the angel Gabriel, who appears
more uncertain. He identifies the confused the census that took place to Mary in her home village of
census that obliges Mary and under Quirinius with an earlier one Nazareth, so it is followed by an
Joseph to travel to Bethlehem carried out by Herod within his another annunciation. An angel ❯❯

Joseph, husband Joseph is mentioned only in the Joseph does not feature in the
of Mary Gospels of Matthew and Luke, ministry of Jesus, perhaps
where he is said to be descended because he had died by then.
from King David. This is not He must have died by the time
impossible: although a humble of the crucifixion, as John 19:26
carpenter, he might come from states that Mary went to live
a minor, impoverished branch with the “disciple whom He
of the former royal house. loved.” From the 2nd century ce,
Matthew’s Gospel—in which tradition portrayed Joseph as a
an annunciation happens to widower when he married Mary,
Joseph rather than Mary—shows with children from a previous
a very human figure caught in a marriage. This preserved the
struggle between his sense of doctrine of Mary’s perpetual
justice and his compassion for virginity while also helping to
Mary. According to Law, Mary, explain the brothers and sisters
if guilty of adultery, should be of Jesus mentioned in Mark 6:3
stoned to death. Unlike Mary, and Matthew 13:55–56.







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184 THE BIRTH OF JESUS THE GOSPELS 185


appears to shepherds in the fields had to deal regularly with animal Celebrating Christmas
nearby, as they watch over their carcasses, making them ritually
sheep during the night. The angel unclean in Jewish eyes. The Bible gives no indication
announces the birth of a “Savior,” Like other marginalized as to the year of Jesus’s birth,
and many leaders of the early
a word with double significance. figures in Luke, the shepherds, Church disapproved of marking
In Jewish minds, it would recall although initially afraid, are open A Savior has been the event, preferring to honor
Moses, who saved the Israelites and trusting, and their response born to you; He is the martyrs on the anniversary of
by leading them out of slavery in to the angel is immediate. They Messiah, the Lord. This their martyrdom. In spite of
Egypt. On another level, it would hurry off to find the baby, and then will be a sign to you: this, efforts were made to
also evoke the Roman Emperor share all that they have heard You will find a baby assign a date to the Nativity,
Augustus, a self-proclaimed and experienced with Mary and wrapped in cloths and using the seasons as a guide.
“savior” who had brought much- Joseph. Mary is described as lying in a manger. The spring equinox in
needed peace to the empire. This “treasuring up” the things they Luke 2:11–12 March was associated with
child, the angel is saying, born tell her and “pondering” them in creation, the emergence of
in such lowly circumstances and her heart (Luke 2:19). new life. This seemed right for
announced to such humble people, the date of Jesus’s conception.
will come to be a savior to all A humble sacrifice Nine months later came the
of humankind. On the eighth day after the birth, winter solstice—December 25,
In the eyes of many at the time, the baby is circumcised, as is in the Julian calendar of the
shepherds would be regarded customary, and named Jesus, whereby all firstborn males were are old, righteous, and devout, The traditional place of Christ’s time. In Rome this was also
the feast of the invincible sun,
as unworthy of receiving a divine meaning “the Lord saves.” Later, redeemed—effectively, bought back belonging to a recognizable group birth, Bethlehem’s Church of the Sol Invictus, the turning point
revelation. Although King David He is taken to the Temple in from God—through the payment of known in the Bible as the “faithful Nativity, is an important pilgrimage at which light starts to drive
started life as a shepherd, and Jerusalem, in an episode which money to the religious authorities. remnant,” described by Zephaniah, site for Christians. A silver star marks back darkness. Jesus had long
the supposed birthplace.
kings in the ancient Near East recalls the earlier story in the This did not necessarily involve Malachi, and other prophets. They been identified as the “Sun of
generally liked to describe Hebrew Bible of the young Samuel’s going to Jerusalem. The second care passionately about the righteousness”; the symbolism
themselves as shepherds of their presentation by his mother Hannah required a mother to go to the redemption of Jerusalem and Israel. the Latin Bible, Nunc Dimittis. was compelling and the date
people, in everyday life shepherds at the “house of the Lord” in Shiloh Temple for her ritual purification Simeon arrives first, divine Years earlier, God had revealed to gradually gained acceptance.
were despised and shunned. (1 Samuel 1:24). Here, Luke seems just over a month after childbirth. inspiration leading him to the Simeon that he would not die until There is evidence that, by
Spending so much time in the to have conflated two different There, the mother would make a couple from provincial Galilee. He he had seen the promised Messiah. 336 ce, the feast of the Nativity—
fields with animals, they were dirty rituals. The first concerns the sacrificial offering. For those unable takes the child Jesus in his arms Now the old man declares that Christmas—was already being
and foul-smelling, and they also redemption of the firstborn, to afford anything more elaborate, and utters the song, or canticle, promise has been fulfilled. He can celebrated liturgically in Rome
this consisted of “a pair of doves known by its first two words in die peacefully, for in the child he on December 25. Within a
or two young pigeons” (Luke 2:24). holds in his arms he sees God’s century, the holy festival had
become widespread.
This is the approach Mary takes, salvation. This, he proclaims, is
again emphasizing the family’s for the whole world, not just Israel,
humble background. saying the child will be “a light for adult Jesus embarks upon His
revelation to the Gentiles” (Luke public ministry, to let go of her
Blessing the child 2:32). This universalism is another son for the greater good.
While they are in the Temple, Mary This child is destined characteristic of the Gospel of Luke, Anna, an 84-year-old widow,
and Joseph encounter two people, to cause the falling and which was written chiefly for a joins the group, also recognizing
a man named Simeon and a woman rising of many in Israel, Christian audience from a Gentile, that the child is the one promised
called Anna. Luke often pairs men and to be a sign that will rather than a Jewish, background. by God. She gives loud thanks for
and women in this way, perhaps be spoken against, so that Simeon then adds two warnings: what she is seeing. Having fulfilled
to indicate that they are equal and the thoughts of many people’s responses to Jesus will be all that is required of them and
complementary before God. Both hearts will be revealed. mixed. Not all shall welcome Him; their baby by “the Law of the Lord”,
Luke 2:34–35 many will reject Him. In an aside and marveling at what they have
to Mary, he tells her that a sword seen and heard, Mary and Joseph
Giovanni Girolamo Savoldo’s will one day pierce her soul. This set off home to Nazareth. The child
Adoration of the Shepherds (c.1530s)
depicts the shepherds and the Virgin may be a foretelling of Mary’s later Jesus grows and becomes strong,
Mary bathed in the luminous and sufferings at the crucifixion, or it “filled with wisdom, and the grace
symbolic light of the Christ child. may refer to her need, when the of God was upon Him” (Luke 2:40). ■





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THE GOSPELS 185

Celebrating Christmas

The Bible gives no indication
as to the year of Jesus’s birth,
and many leaders of the early
Church disapproved of marking
the event, preferring to honor
martyrs on the anniversary of
their martyrdom. In spite of
this, efforts were made to
assign a date to the Nativity,
using the seasons as a guide.
The spring equinox in
March was associated with
creation, the emergence of
new life. This seemed right for
the date of Jesus’s conception.
Nine months later came the
winter solstice—December 25,
in the Julian calendar of the
time. In Rome this was also
are old, righteous, and devout, The traditional place of Christ’s the feast of the invincible sun,
belonging to a recognizable group birth, Bethlehem’s Church of the Sol Invictus, the turning point
known in the Bible as the “faithful Nativity, is an important pilgrimage at which light starts to drive
remnant,” described by Zephaniah, site for Christians. A silver star marks back darkness. Jesus had long
the supposed birthplace.
Malachi, and other prophets. They been identified as the “Sun of
care passionately about the righteousness”; the symbolism
redemption of Jerusalem and Israel. the Latin Bible, Nunc Dimittis. was compelling and the date
Simeon arrives first, divine Years earlier, God had revealed to gradually gained acceptance.
inspiration leading him to the Simeon that he would not die until There is evidence that, by
couple from provincial Galilee. He he had seen the promised Messiah. 336 ce, the feast of the Nativity—
takes the child Jesus in his arms Now the old man declares that Christmas—was already being
and utters the song, or canticle, promise has been fulfilled. He can celebrated liturgically in Rome
known by its first two words in die peacefully, for in the child he on December 25. Within a
holds in his arms he sees God’s century, the holy festival had
become widespread.
salvation. This, he proclaims, is
for the whole world, not just Israel,
saying the child will be “a light for adult Jesus embarks upon His
revelation to the Gentiles” (Luke public ministry, to let go of her
2:32). This universalism is another son for the greater good.
This child is destined characteristic of the Gospel of Luke, Anna, an 84-year-old widow,
to cause the falling and which was written chiefly for a joins the group, also recognizing
rising of many in Israel, Christian audience from a Gentile, that the child is the one promised
and to be a sign that will rather than a Jewish, background. by God. She gives loud thanks for
be spoken against, so that Simeon then adds two warnings: what she is seeing. Having fulfilled
the thoughts of many people’s responses to Jesus will be all that is required of them and
hearts will be revealed. mixed. Not all shall welcome Him; their baby by “the Law of the Lord”,
Luke 2:34–35 many will reject Him. In an aside and marveling at what they have
to Mary, he tells her that a sword seen and heard, Mary and Joseph
will one day pierce her soul. This set off home to Nazareth. The child
may be a foretelling of Mary’s later Jesus grows and becomes strong,
sufferings at the crucifixion, or it “filled with wisdom, and the grace
may refer to her need, when the of God was upon Him” (Luke 2:40). ■





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186 THE GOSPELS 187


THEY … PRESENTED HE GAVE ORDERS TO


HIM WITH GIFTS OF KILL ALL THE BOYS



GOLD, FRANKINCENSE, IN BETHLEHEM


AND MYRRH MATTHEW 2:16, HEROD’S INFANTICIDE



MATTHEW 2:11, THE MAGI




lthough divination was he first two chapters in The author builds on these
IN BRIEF forbidden in the Jewish IN BRIEF the Gospel of Matthew connections between Jesus and
A scriptures, it was common T recount the early years the Exodus story by proclaiming
PASSAGE in other Greco-Roman and ancient PASSAGE of Jesus’s life. In each scene, the that Jesus’s stay in Egypt fulfills
Matthew 2:1–12 Matthew 2:13–18
Near Eastern societies. Magi author calls on the words of the a text in Hosea in which God calls
THEME were respected professionals, who THEME prophets, including Jeremiah and His son out of Egypt: “When Israel
Glorification of the studied the constellations and then Persecution Hosea, to demonstrate how Jesus was a child, I loved him, and out of
Messiah interpreted the movements of the is the anticipated Messiah. Egypt I called my son” (Hosea 11:1).
stars as divine portents. SETTING The original passage referred to
SETTING 6–4 bce During the reign of Exodus reinterpreted God rescuing the people of Israel
6–4 bce During the reign of A new king King Herod. Judea and Egypt. Worried about a prediction that from slavery in Egypt. The author
King Herod. The Judean cities The journey of the magi is recorded his royal replacement, the Christ, of Matthew’s Gospel reinterprets
of Bethlehem and Jerusalem. only in Matthew’s Gospel. In his KEY FIGURES has been born in Bethlehem, Herod the divine claim, making Jesus the
account, the magi travel from the Herod King of Judea, orders the killing of all babies Son of God. ■
KEY FIGURES east to Judea searching for the The Adoration of the Magi by appointed by the Romans, under the age of 2 in the city. In a
Herod King of Judea, newly born “king of the Jews.” Quentin Matsys shows the magi with who also called him “King moment of divine intervention, an
notorious for the ruthless On hearing of the magis’ quest, a huge retinue. None of the Gospels of the Jews.” angel appears to Joseph and urges
elimination of his enemies. King Herod is alarmed by the suggest this was the case. Joseph The adoptive father him to flee with Mary and Jesus.
Magi Astrologers from the potential threat to his rule. When of Jesus and husband of Mary. Following the angelic command,
east who come to worship the his chief priests tell him that the and myrrh. Finally, on account Joseph resettles his family in Escape to Egypt. Stay
newborn Jesus in Bethlehem. Christ is to be born in Bethlehem, of a dream warning them against The angel A divine Egypt. They do not return to Judea
he tells the magi to go to that city returning to Jerusalem, they messenger who warns until after the death of King Herod there until I tell you, for
Mary The mother of Jesus and return with the exact location journey back home to the east. Joseph of King Herod’s plot several years later. Herod is going to search
and wife of Joseph. of the baby, on the pretense that The story of the magi shows to kill the infant Jesus. The king’s actions mirror those for the child to kill him.
he wishes to pay his respects. that Jesus is not only fulfilling of Pharaoh in the Exodus story, who Matthew 2:13
Joseph The adoptive father The magi follow a unique star Jewish prophecies but also also ordered mass infanticide. Like
of Jesus and husband of Mary. to Bethlehem and find Jesus with Gentile predictions. As such, Moses, Jesus flees from the land of
Jesus The son of Mary and His mother, Mary. Overjoyed, the Jesus is depicted as a divinely His birth after a king threatens His
the adopted son of Joseph, magi kneel down before the child chosen ruler whom all peoples life, but later returns to become an
who is the Messiah and and offer gifts of gold, frankincense, and nations should glorify. ■ influential religious teacher.
Son of God.
See also: The Birth of Jesus 180–85 ■ Herod’s Infanticide 187 ■ See also: Moses and the Burning Bush 66–69 ■ The Ten Plagues 70–71 ■
The Council of Jerusalem 292–93 The Exodus 74–77 ■ The Prophet Micah 168–71 ■ The Birth of Jesus 180–85







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THE GOSPELS 187


HE GAVE ORDERS TO


KILL ALL THE BOYS



IN BETHLEHEM



MATTHEW 2:16, HEROD’S INFANTICIDE








he first two chapters in The author builds on these
IN BRIEF the Gospel of Matthew connections between Jesus and
T recount the early years the Exodus story by proclaiming
PASSAGE of Jesus’s life. In each scene, the that Jesus’s stay in Egypt fulfills
Matthew 2:13–18
author calls on the words of the a text in Hosea in which God calls
THEME prophets, including Jeremiah and His son out of Egypt: “When Israel
Persecution Hosea, to demonstrate how Jesus was a child, I loved him, and out of
is the anticipated Messiah. Egypt I called my son” (Hosea 11:1).
SETTING The original passage referred to
6–4 bce During the reign of Exodus reinterpreted God rescuing the people of Israel
King Herod. Judea and Egypt. Worried about a prediction that from slavery in Egypt. The author
his royal replacement, the Christ, of Matthew’s Gospel reinterprets
KEY FIGURES has been born in Bethlehem, Herod the divine claim, making Jesus the
Herod King of Judea, orders the killing of all babies
appointed by the Romans, under the age of 2 in the city. In a Son of God. ■
who also called him “King moment of divine intervention, an
of the Jews.” angel appears to Joseph and urges

Joseph The adoptive father him to flee with Mary and Jesus.
of Jesus and husband of Mary. Following the angelic command,
Joseph resettles his family in
The angel A divine Egypt. They do not return to Judea Escape to Egypt. Stay
messenger who warns until after the death of King Herod there until I tell you, for
Joseph of King Herod’s plot several years later. Herod is going to search
to kill the infant Jesus. The king’s actions mirror those for the child to kill him.
of Pharaoh in the Exodus story, who Matthew 2:13
also ordered mass infanticide. Like
Moses, Jesus flees from the land of
His birth after a king threatens His
life, but later returns to become an
influential religious teacher.

See also: Moses and the Burning Bush 66–69 ■ The Ten Plagues 70–71 ■
The Exodus 74–77 ■ The Prophet Micah 168–71 ■ The Birth of Jesus 180–85







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188 THE GOSPELS 189


DIDN’T YOU KNOW PREPARE THE WAY


I HAD TO BE IN MY FOR THE LORD



FATHER’S HOUSE? LUKE 3:4, THE COMING OF SALVATION



LUKE 2:49, A CHILD IN THE TEMPLE








very year, Jesus and His three-day absence from His family ohn the Baptist was a Jewish
IN BRIEF parents travel to Jerusalem anticipates His three days in the IN BRIEF prophet who heralded Jesus
E for the feast of Passover. grave after His death, and the J in the Gospel of Luke. In Luke
PASSAGE One year, when Jesus is 12 years combination of the Passover setting PASSAGE 3, John goes out into the country
Luke 2:41–51 Luke 3:1–18
old, He stays in Jerusalem after and Jesus’s claim to be the Son and calls the people to repent and
THEME His parents have set out for home. of God allude to the Exodus, in THEME be forgiven. He baptizes those The ax is … at the root
Jesus reveals His Thinking their son is among their which Israel is also called God’s The prophecy fulfilled who accept his message in the of the trees, and every tree
divine lineage fellow travelers, Mary and Joseph son (Exodus 4:22). Such devices, River Jordan. that does not produce good
do not realize He is missing until and the fact that this is the only SETTING The author of Luke presents fruit will be cut down.
SETTING a whole day has passed, at which depiction of Jesus’s adolescence c. 26 ce The country around John’s actions as the fulfillment of Luke 3:9
c. 6–7 ce Jerusalem. point they return to Jerusalem to in the Gospels, lead some scholars the River Jordan. a prophecy in the Book of Isaiah.
look for Him. After three days of to view the episode as theological John quotes Isaiah 40:3, in which
KEY FIGURES searching, they find Him debating fiction rather than historical fact, KEY FIGURES a voice in the wilderness exhorts
Jesus The 12-year-old son with the rabbis in the Temple. the main purpose of which is to John the Baptist Son of listeners to prepare the way for
of Mary and adopted son of Everyone who listens to Jesus is highlight Jesus’s divinity. ■ Elizabeth and Zechariah. the Lord. They are to make the
Joseph, who is also the amazed by Him, but Mary rebukes A prophet who baptizes Jesus path straight, level, and smooth,
Messiah and Son of God. her son. In an instant, Jesus turns and is later beheaded by and then all will see the coming of he is not worthy to untie the sandal

Mary and Joseph Devout from His debate with the rabbis to King Herod. God’s salvation. Although Isaiah’s of the one who is to come. He says
Jews from Nazareth, identified address His mother: “Why were you Isaiah An ancient Israelite prophecy spoke first about God’s that while he baptizes with water,
as the earthly mother and searching for me? Didn’t you know prophet, to whom the Book rescue of the Israelites from exile in the one more powerful than him
adoptive father of Jesus. I had to be in my Father’s house?” of Isaiah is ascribed. Babylon, the Gospel of Luke reports will baptize with the Holy Spirit
(Luke 2:49). Jesus’s reply confuses that John the Baptist interpreted it and fire. John concludes his
The rabbis The teachers of His parents, who do not understand Jesus The Messiah and Son to have a further fulfillment in his message with an image of Christ
the scriptures, who gathered that He is revealing His knowledge of God in the period before own ministry. as a winnower, separating the
in the Jerusalem Temple to of His divine lineage. He begins His ministry. wheat from chaff and burning the
debate points of Mosaic Law. The author’s use of dramatic In William Holman Hunt’s highly Baptism by fire chaff with unquenchable fire (3:17),
irony was probably intended to symbolic The Finding of the Savior in In the next scene, the followers of symbolizing the Final Judgment.
amuse early Christian readers of the Temple (1860), a blind rabbi (bottom John begin to wonder if he is the John hopes that all will hear the
Luke. Other literary devices include left) clutches the Torah as though he Christ. John affirms his role as news of the coming Christ, repent,
foreshadowing and allusion: Jesus’s and his religion are under threat. messianic precursor, declaring that and be saved. ■

See also: The Exodus 74–77 ■ The Annunciation 178–79 ■ See also: The Suffering Servant 190–93 ■ The Divinity of Jesus 190–93 ■
The Birth of Jesus 180–85 ■ The Magi 186 ■ The Coming of Salvation 189 The Baptism of Jesus 194–97 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71







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THE GOSPELS 189


PREPARE THE WAY


FOR THE LORD



LUKE 3:4, THE COMING OF SALVATION













ohn the Baptist was a Jewish
IN BRIEF prophet who heralded Jesus
J in the Gospel of Luke. In Luke
PASSAGE 3, John goes out into the country
Luke 3:1–18
and calls the people to repent and
THEME be forgiven. He baptizes those The ax is … at the root
The prophecy fulfilled who accept his message in the of the trees, and every tree
River Jordan. that does not produce good
SETTING The author of Luke presents fruit will be cut down.
c. 26 ce The country around John’s actions as the fulfillment of Luke 3:9
the River Jordan. a prophecy in the Book of Isaiah.
John quotes Isaiah 40:3, in which
KEY FIGURES a voice in the wilderness exhorts
John the Baptist Son of listeners to prepare the way for
Elizabeth and Zechariah. the Lord. They are to make the
A prophet who baptizes Jesus path straight, level, and smooth,
and is later beheaded by and then all will see the coming of he is not worthy to untie the sandal
King Herod. God’s salvation. Although Isaiah’s of the one who is to come. He says
Isaiah An ancient Israelite prophecy spoke first about God’s that while he baptizes with water,
prophet, to whom the Book rescue of the Israelites from exile in the one more powerful than him
of Isaiah is ascribed. Babylon, the Gospel of Luke reports will baptize with the Holy Spirit
that John the Baptist interpreted it and fire. John concludes his
Jesus The Messiah and Son to have a further fulfillment in his message with an image of Christ
of God in the period before own ministry. as a winnower, separating the
He begins His ministry. wheat from chaff and burning the
Baptism by fire chaff with unquenchable fire (3:17),
In the next scene, the followers of symbolizing the Final Judgment.
John begin to wonder if he is the John hopes that all will hear the
Christ. John affirms his role as news of the coming Christ, repent,
messianic precursor, declaring that and be saved. ■

See also: The Suffering Servant 190–93 ■ The Divinity of Jesus 190–93 ■
The Baptism of Jesus 194–97 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71







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THE GOSPELS
190 IN BRIEF See also: The Exodus 74–77 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Crucifixion Awaiting the Messiah
191
THE WORD PASSAGE 258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■ The Coming of Salvation 301 The prophet Isaiah had

John 1:1–18
predicted that the Messiah
Fra Angelico’s fresco Christ the
would be born to a virgin and
Judge Amongst the Angels, from the
BECAME FLESH THEME Chapel of San Brizio, Orvieto, Italy, be called “Immanuel” (Isaiah
The Incarnation
7:14), meaning “God with us.”
shows Christ presiding in judgment
In the New Testament, the
on a heavenly throne.
SETTING
author of the Gospel of John
c. 24–27 ce Roman Palestine
AND MADE KEY FIGURES Word became flesh, and dwelt reports how John the Baptist,
proclaiming Jesus’s higher
among us …” and God exhibited
rank, says, “He was before
John Author of the fourth
me” (John 1:15). The
His glory as His “one and only” Son.
Gospel in the New Testament.
HIS DWELLING The Word John’s title Jesus was also the creator did not implication is that Jesus, who
John the Apostle’s claim that
was younger than John the
Baptist, existed eternally.
arise with his Gospel nor was the
for Jesus, emphasizing
The other Gospels report
realization that Jesus was, and
His divine nature.
that even during Jesus’s
AMONG US All things came into being through claimed to be, something more lifetime, people see and hear
than a Galilean carpenter or a
things about Him that are
preacher a late invention. Jesus’s
Him.” The foundation of all things,
extraordinary. When Herod
according to John, was the Word,
behavior itself implies divinity.
are visiting the infant Jesus,
JOHN 1:14, THE DIVINITY OF JESUS who was in some sense God, and The first three Gospels portray Him hears that magi from the east
yet somehow distinct from God.
acting in ways that parallel God’s
he sees the child as a threat
In John 1:14–18, the Apostle interventions in the Old Testament, and asks his chief priests
or Christians, Jesus of returns to the connection he made such as feeding the 5,000 with “where the Messiah was to
Nazareth is the central between the divine Word and loaves and fish (God feeds the be born” (Matthew 2:4).
F figure in the Bible. Although creation. John declares that “the Israelites in the wilderness) and ❯❯
prophets, priests, and kings have
come before Him, none taught as
He did, nor provoked such loyalty
and hostility. Jesus’s life, teaching, The Messiah would be an
death, and resurrection are the heir to King David’s throne.
substance of Christian teaching. 2 Samuel 7:12–13
Word of God
The Gospel of John is the last of The Messiah would A messenger
the four Gospels to be written. be betrayed. would prepare the
One of the main concerns in the Psalm 41:9 way for the Messiah.
Isaiah 40:3–5
Apostle John’s New Testament Jesus fulfills
writings, which include the epistles these prophecies
of 1–3 John, is to encourage those and thus proves
who believe in Jesus that He is the He is the Messiah.
Son of God. It begins like Genesis 1
with the creation of the world. The Messiah would
Just as Genesis 1 assumes the The Messiah would die speak in parables.
existence of God, “In the beginning for our sins by crucifixion. Psalm 78:2–4
Isaiah 53:5–12
God …” and goes on to assert that
this God is the creator, “and God
said, ‘Let there be light,’” John The Messiah would
opens with, “In the beginning was be resurrected.
the Word, and the Word was with Matthew 28:2–7
God, and the Word was God …
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THE GOSPELS 191

See also: The Exodus 74–77 ■ The Suffering Servant 154–55 ■ The Crucifixion Awaiting the Messiah
258–65 ■ The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■ The Coming of Salvation 301
The prophet Isaiah had
predicted that the Messiah
Fra Angelico’s fresco Christ the would be born to a virgin and
Judge Amongst the Angels, from the
Chapel of San Brizio, Orvieto, Italy, be called “Immanuel” (Isaiah
shows Christ presiding in judgment 7:14), meaning “God with us.”
on a heavenly throne. In the New Testament, the
author of the Gospel of John
reports how John the Baptist,
Word became flesh, and dwelt proclaiming Jesus’s higher
among us …” and God exhibited rank, says, “He was before
His glory as His “one and only” Son. me” (John 1:15). The
John the Apostle’s claim that implication is that Jesus, who
Jesus was also the creator did not was younger than John the
arise with his Gospel nor was the Baptist, existed eternally.
realization that Jesus was, and The other Gospels report
claimed to be, something more that even during Jesus’s
All things came into being through than a Galilean carpenter or a lifetime, people see and hear
Him.” The foundation of all things, preacher a late invention. Jesus’s things about Him that are
extraordinary. When Herod
according to John, was the Word, behavior itself implies divinity. hears that magi from the east
who was in some sense God, and The first three Gospels portray Him are visiting the infant Jesus,
yet somehow distinct from God. acting in ways that parallel God’s he sees the child as a threat
In John 1:14–18, the Apostle interventions in the Old Testament, and asks his chief priests
returns to the connection he made such as feeding the 5,000 with “where the Messiah was to
between the divine Word and loaves and fish (God feeds the be born” (Matthew 2:4).
creation. John declares that “the Israelites in the wilderness) and ❯❯



The Messiah would be an
heir to King David’s throne.
2 Samuel 7:12–13



The Messiah would A messenger
would prepare the
be betrayed. way for the Messiah.
Psalm 41:9 Isaiah 40:3–5
Jesus fulfills
these prophecies
and thus proves
He is the Messiah.


The Messiah would die The Messiah would
for our sins by crucifixion. speak in parables.
Isaiah 53:5–12 Psalm 78:2–4

The Messiah would
be resurrected.
Matthew 28:2–7







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192 THE DIVINITY OF JESUS THE GOSPELS 193


stilling storms (as God does in
Jonah when the prophet runs
away to sea).
Matthew, Mark, and Luke’s
Gospels also report incidents in
which several religious leaders Christ was not … a being
understand Jesus to be claiming half human and half not,
divine status. Most famously, the like a centaur, but both
night before His crucifixion, Jesus things at once and both
faces a trial before a large group of things thoroughly, very
religious leaders. They demand to man and very God.
know if He is the Christ, the Son G.K. Chesterton
of God. Jesus affirms that He is,
saying they will see Him “sitting
at the right hand of the Mighty
One, and coming on the clouds
St. Simeon of heaven” (Matthew 26:64).
The Apostle Paul, preaching
Eight days after His birth, across the Roman Empire after rabbis’ criticism by equating God’s
Mary and Joseph present
Jesus for circumcision at the Jesus’s death, writes that Jesus is work with His own, calling God His
Temple in Jerusalem. Luke’s divine. He refers to Jesus as God Father, and making Himself equal
Gospel tells how an elderly twice in his letters and calls Jesus with God. In another dispute, Jesus
priest, Simeon, who was “Lord,” a Hebrew term for God. Paul states that “before Abraham was,
longing for the coming of anticipates John’s teaching that all I AM,” thus making a claim to
Israel’s Messiah, is in the things are created through Jesus preexist Abraham (John 8:58).
Temple courts that day (Luke (1 Corinthians 8:6) and insists that The rabbis understand these
2:25–35). God had promised Jesus possesses every attribute of words, but deny their truth, and
Simeon that he would not die divinity (Colossians 1:19, 2:9), such pick up stones to kill Jesus for The supreme act in support of insisted that Jesus could really be The Christ the Redeemer statue
until he had seen the Messiah. as omnipotence, eternality, and blasphemy. Later, when pressed Jesus’s claim to be divine is His God because He was the Father in on the Corcovado mountain in Rio
Led by the Holy Spirit, Simeon omnipresence. to declare if He is the Messiah, resurrection. After His execution disguise. Later teachers affirmed de Janeiro was built in the 1920s,
takes the infant Jesus in his Jesus says, “I and the Father by the Romans for being a rebel, the humanity and deity of Jesus, reputedly in response to a rising
arms and blesses Him. In John’s evidence are One” (John 10:30), echoing Jesus’s resurrection would have but struggled to find a consistent tide of godlessness in the city.
Simeon’s Song, he praises The Gospel of John provides the Deuteronomy 6:4—“Hear O Israel, stood as God’s vindication of explanation for how He could be
God for keeping His promise,
both to him and to Israel. most explicit case for Jesus’s the Lord our God, the Lord is Jesus’s words and deeds. When both. In the 5th century some The doctrine of the incarnation
He identifies Jesus as the divinity. After healing a man on One”—but replacing the second Thomas finally sees the resurrected teachers affirmed that Jesus had a arose as a recognition of the
salvation for both Israel and the Sabbath day, Jesus answers the “Lord” with “I and the Father.” Jesus, he addresses Him as “My human body and soul, but that the validity of Jesus’s claim to be God;
for the world. Lord and my God” (John 20:28). divine Word took the place of His an assertion vindicated by His
Simeon’s expectation human spirit. Others taught that resurrection. Yet it also protected
echoed the universal scope Fully man, fully God The incarnation the human and divine had merged Christianity from the possibility of
expressed by Isaiah, who talks Humanity Deity Jesus of Nazareth is a man who in Jesus, and that He was neither a fatal internal contradiction. Jesus
of the Israelites being a “light eats and sleeps, yet He also claims purely divine nor human. accepted worship as God from His
for the Gentiles” (Isaiah 49:6). to be God. Affirming these two In 451 ce, Church leaders at followers and commanded them
Salvation would come first The Chalcedonian ideas together is the doctrine of the the Council of Chalcedon in Turkey to trust in Him for their salvation.
to the Jews, but would not Creed asserts that incarnation: the Word becoming affirmed that Jesus possessed two If Jesus were not God, then His
be for them alone. God’s Jesus Christ has Spatial, Omnipresent, flesh. Some early teachers tried to natures, one divine and the other followers were guilty of idolatry,
plan was to save people from two natures— temporal eternal, infinite resolve this paradox by saying human, in His one person. Each an offense for which there was no
all nations. The praise in human and divine. existence, subject existence, with Christ was fundamentally human, of these natures was complete, atoning sacrifice under the Law of
Simeon’s Song anticipates Each is complete to birth, life, power over
an important theme in Luke’s and distinct, and death life and death but had been “adopted” as God’s not lacking any attribute proper Moses. But worship of and trust in
Gospel and in Acts—the yet “not parted Son. Others, affirming the genuine to being either divine or human. Jesus would not be idolatry if Jesus
salvation of the wider world. or divided” into deity of Jesus, taught that He only The Chalcedonian Creed became were God, and salvation in His
two persons. “seemed” to be human. Yet others the affirmation of the incarnation. name would not be blasphemy. ■





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THE GOSPELS 193








































The supreme act in support of insisted that Jesus could really be The Christ the Redeemer statue
Jesus’s claim to be divine is His God because He was the Father in on the Corcovado mountain in Rio
resurrection. After His execution disguise. Later teachers affirmed de Janeiro was built in the 1920s,
by the Romans for being a rebel, the humanity and deity of Jesus, reputedly in response to a rising
tide of godlessness in the city.
Jesus’s resurrection would have but struggled to find a consistent
stood as God’s vindication of explanation for how He could be
Jesus’s words and deeds. When both. In the 5th century some The doctrine of the incarnation
Thomas finally sees the resurrected teachers affirmed that Jesus had a arose as a recognition of the
Jesus, he addresses Him as “My human body and soul, but that the validity of Jesus’s claim to be God;
Lord and my God” (John 20:28). divine Word took the place of His an assertion vindicated by His
human spirit. Others taught that resurrection. Yet it also protected
The incarnation the human and divine had merged Christianity from the possibility of
Jesus of Nazareth is a man who in Jesus, and that He was neither a fatal internal contradiction. Jesus
eats and sleeps, yet He also claims purely divine nor human. accepted worship as God from His
to be God. Affirming these two In 451 ce, Church leaders at followers and commanded them
ideas together is the doctrine of the the Council of Chalcedon in Turkey to trust in Him for their salvation.
incarnation: the Word becoming affirmed that Jesus possessed two If Jesus were not God, then His
flesh. Some early teachers tried to natures, one divine and the other followers were guilty of idolatry,
resolve this paradox by saying human, in His one person. Each an offense for which there was no
Christ was fundamentally human, of these natures was complete, atoning sacrifice under the Law of
but had been “adopted” as God’s not lacking any attribute proper Moses. But worship of and trust in
Son. Others, affirming the genuine to being either divine or human. Jesus would not be idolatry if Jesus
deity of Jesus, taught that He only The Chalcedonian Creed became were God, and salvation in His
“seemed” to be human. Yet others the affirmation of the incarnation. name would not be blasphemy. ■





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194 IN BRIEF See also: The Temptations of Christ 198–99 ■ The Transfiguration 234–35 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■ 195
THE GOSPELS

THIS IS MY SON, PASSAGE The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■ The Great Commission 274–77

Matthew 3:13–17
Baptisms in the New Testament
WHOM I LOVE; THEME Baptism by John (Matthew 3:6)
The beginning of
Christ’s ministry
Baptism of Jesus
(Mathew 3:13–17)
SETTING
WITH HIM I AM c. 26–27 ce Judean countryside, Baptism by the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthians 12:12–13; Galatians 3:27)
alongside the River Jordan.
KEY FIGURES
Baptism with fire
(Luke 3:16)
WELL PLEASED Jesus The Messiah and Son Baptizing believers (Acts 2:41; 8:36) This detail from The Baptism of
of God, who travels from
Galilee to the River Jordan
MATTHEW 3:17, THE BAPTISM OF JESUS to be baptized by John and Baptism of the Israelites (1 Corinthians 10:1–2) Christ, by A.H. Philippe Sauvan-
commence His ministry.
Magnet, c.1500, shows John pouring
water over Jesus’s head. Matthew’s
John the Baptist A Baptism for the dead (1 Corinthians 15:29) account suggests He was submerged.
dedicated holy man and
preacher who baptizes Jesus,
then steps aside to make According to Luke (3:23), Jesus knows that Jesus is the Messiah. of John’s baptism is a “baptism of
repentance for the forgiveness
John exclaims: “I need to be
is about 30 years old at the time
way for His ministry.
of the baptism. He travels to the baptized by You, and do You come of sins” (Mark 1:4). However, as the
River Jordan from Galilee to meet to me?” (Matthew 3:14). Reassured New Testament confirms, Jesus
with John. The latter has gained a by Jesus that there is no mistake, was completely without sin—Paul
reputation for the act—exhorting John then lowers Jesus into the writes in 2 Corinthians 5:21 that
local people to confess and repent waters and baptizes Him. “God made Him who had no sin to
of their sins, and then washing be sin for us.” Jesus therefore has
them clean in the water of the river. Purpose of the act nothing to repent for, yet still asks
When the two men first meet, Biblical scholars have long debated for baptism. The general consensus
John is surprised by Jesus’s the precise significance of this is that, in this case, the act of
request to be baptized, because he event, since the stated purpose cleansing is merely symbolic. ❯❯

John the Baptist Like Jesus, John the Baptist is austere and hermitic life in the
ear the beginning of born in miraculous circumstances. desert. He preaches a message
the Gospel according In Luke (1:5–23), an angel of the advocating both confession and
N to Matthew, at the start Lord visits Zechariah, an aged repentance, and offers baptism
of the New Testament, Jesus priest, and his barren wife in the River Jordan to all who
undergoes a baptism (ritual Elizabeth. He announces that they heed him. John speaks, above
washing by immersion in water) at will have a son and that he will all, of a “greater one” who will
the hands of a man named John the become a great man of God. Such come after him—the Messiah
Baptist. Such is the significance of is Zechariah’s disbelief at this prophesied in the scriptures.
this event—because it marks the revelation—owing to their age— John’s preaching ultimately
beginning of Jesus’s ministry—that that God strikes him dumb. leads to his downfall, when
it is mentioned in all four Gospels Zechariah recovers his speech he warns King Herod against
of the New Testament. In addition when Elizabeth gives birth to marrying his brother’s wife. The
king marries her anyway, but
their son, John. Luke confirms
to Matthew 3, referenced here, that the birth occurs just months she never forgives John, and
Mark 1 and Luke 3 both give full prior to that of Jesus (1:36). John John is eventually beheaded on
details of the baptism, while in becomes a preacher, living an the whim of her daughter, Salome.
John 1, it is discussed in passing.





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THE GOSPELS 195

See also: The Temptations of Christ 198–99 ■ The Transfiguration 234–35 ■ The Crucifixion 258–65 ■
The Empty Tomb 268–71 ■ The Great Commission 274–77


Baptisms in the New Testament

Baptism by John (Matthew 3:6)

Baptism of Jesus (Mathew 3:13–17)

Baptism by the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthians 12:12–13; Galatians 3:27)

Baptism with fire (Luke 3:16)

Baptizing believers (Acts 2:41; 8:36)
This detail from The Baptism of
Baptism of the Israelites (1 Corinthians 10:1–2) Christ, by A.H. Philippe Sauvan-
Magnet, c.1500, shows John pouring
Baptism for the dead (1 Corinthians 15:29) water over Jesus’s head. Matthew’s
account suggests He was submerged.


According to Luke (3:23), Jesus knows that Jesus is the Messiah. of John’s baptism is a “baptism of
is about 30 years old at the time John exclaims: “I need to be repentance for the forgiveness
of the baptism. He travels to the baptized by You, and do You come of sins” (Mark 1:4). However, as the
River Jordan from Galilee to meet to me?” (Matthew 3:14). Reassured New Testament confirms, Jesus
with John. The latter has gained a by Jesus that there is no mistake, was completely without sin—Paul
reputation for the act—exhorting John then lowers Jesus into the writes in 2 Corinthians 5:21 that
local people to confess and repent waters and baptizes Him. “God made Him who had no sin to
of their sins, and then washing be sin for us.” Jesus therefore has
them clean in the water of the river. Purpose of the act nothing to repent for, yet still asks
When the two men first meet, Biblical scholars have long debated for baptism. The general consensus
John is surprised by Jesus’s the precise significance of this is that, in this case, the act of
request to be baptized, because he event, since the stated purpose cleansing is merely symbolic. ❯❯

John the Baptist Like Jesus, John the Baptist is austere and hermitic life in the
born in miraculous circumstances. desert. He preaches a message
In Luke (1:5–23), an angel of the advocating both confession and
Lord visits Zechariah, an aged repentance, and offers baptism
priest, and his barren wife in the River Jordan to all who
Elizabeth. He announces that they heed him. John speaks, above
will have a son and that he will all, of a “greater one” who will
become a great man of God. Such come after him—the Messiah
is Zechariah’s disbelief at this prophesied in the scriptures.
revelation—owing to their age— John’s preaching ultimately
that God strikes him dumb. leads to his downfall, when
Zechariah recovers his speech he warns King Herod against
when Elizabeth gives birth to marrying his brother’s wife. The
their son, John. Luke confirms king marries her anyway, but
that the birth occurs just months she never forgives John, and
prior to that of Jesus (1:36). John John is eventually beheaded on
becomes a preacher, living an the whim of her daughter, Salome.







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196 THE BAPTISM OF JESUS THE GOSPELS 197


Some scholars debate whether or
not John knew before he baptized Methods of baptism
Him that Jesus was the Messiah. Do Not
According to Luke’s account, as Denomination Sprinkling Pouring Immersion Baptize
Jesus comes up out of the river,
the heavens above Him open Adventist
and “the Holy Spirit descended
on Him in bodily form like a dove” Anglican
(Luke 3:22). A voice from heaven
simultaneously booms out: “This Baptist
is my Son, whom I love; with Him
I am well pleased” (Matthew 3:17). Roman Catholic
John’s Gospel suggests John did
not know who was in front of him Eastern Orthodox
until he saw the dove: “And I myself Episcopalian Baptism
did not know Him, but the one who
sent me to baptize with water told Methodist The Christian rite of baptism—
me, ‘The man on whom you see the which consists of sprinkling or
Spirit come down and remain is Presbyterian pouring water on a person’s
the one who will baptize with the forehead or immersing them
Holy Spirit’” (John 1:33). John Quaker in water—symbolizes spiritual
and physical purification.
claims to have decided to baptize The rite of baptism confers
Jesus simply because then the man United Church an individual’s admission to
“might be revealed to Israel” (1:31). of Christ the Christian Church. Before
The affirmations of God and His Ascension, Jesus bids his
John the Baptist, made in front of in a series of tests that resonate The dove of the Holy Spirit in disciples to “make disciples
the witnessing crowd, both confirm with universal human desires and this 14th-century fresco by Giusto to Christ. In John 3:30, John states: times, to symbolize Jesus’s death of all nations, baptizing them”
that Jesus is the Son of God and concerns. Jesus maintains His de’ Menabuoi, in the Baptistery in “He [Jesus] must become greater; and resurrection; others favour (Matthew 28:19).
the Messiah. He is symbolically resolve—His baptism has been Padua, is a symbol of renewal, like the I must become less.” sprinkling or pouring to represent In many denominations,
dove sent out by Noah after the Flood.
cleansed in order to commence successful—and He returns to the Holy Spirit descending from baptism is performed on very
His ministry and is now ready to society to begin preaching to the Holy waters above. Some Christians believe young children, accompanied
encounter the forces of darkness. people and working miracles. historical records, that John the Most scholars agree that the that baptism is a sacrament that by name giving. The doctrine
Immediately after the baptism, Baptist lived at the same time as baptism took place near the Jordan is necessary for salvation; other of original sin, propounded
by St. Paul and developed by
Jesus goes into the desert, where Historical ramifications Jesus. The 1st-century historian River, in the countryside of Roman groups, such as Lutheran the early Church, made the
He fasts for 40 days. Here, He is The baptism of Jesus is one of five Flavius Josephus attested to the Judea. Some accounts suggest that Protestants, associate baptism baptism of infants, who might
tempted by Satan (Matthew 4), key events in the Gospel narrative existence of John the Baptist at the the immersion was conducted in with spiritual regeneration. ■ die suddenly or unexpectedly,
of the life of the Messiah. The other same time as Jesus in his work one of the many desert springs of vital importance. The early
four are: the Transfiguration; the Antiquities of the Jews. He stated or waterholes in the area, rather church frowned upon the
Crucifixion; the Resurrection; and that John’s ministry began around than in the river itself. Specific practice of “baptism of the
Jesus’s Ascension into heaven. 28–29 ce, shortly before that of the references in the book of John dead,” in which a living person
Nearly all denominations of Messiah, and most modern point to the town of Bethany on was baptized on behalf of
Christianity celebrate the event, theologians accept this view. the eastern bank of the Jordan the deceased.
He will baptize you and the baptism of Jesus shaped Once he has baptized Jesus, River, near Jericho (1:28), or to Heaven was opened and Today, some Christian
with the Holy Spirit the Christian rite of baptism that John the Baptist’s popularity as the settlement of Aenon near he saw the Spirit of God denominations, including
and fire. is practiced worldwide to this day. a preacher begins to wane. This Salim “because there was plenty descending like a dove. Baptists, do not baptize
Matthew 3:11 The majority of theologians is largely due to people beginning of water, and people were coming Matthew 3:16 children, on the grounds
assign a high degree of certainty to follow Jesus instead of him. and being baptized.” (3:23). that the basis for baptism is
a credible profession of faith.
to the actuality of Jesus’s baptism, John’s response to this change Given the meaning of the word Other groups, including
using it as a starting point from in his circumstances is typical of baptize—“to dip”—many Christian Quakers, view baptism as
which to assert Jesus’s historicity. his renowned humility, as well as denominations insist upon baptism an unnecessary ritual.
It is also highly likely, based on affirming his role as a precursor by total immersion, often three





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THE GOSPELS 197


Methods of baptism

Do Not
Denomination Sprinkling Pouring Immersion
Baptize
Adventist

Anglican
Baptist

Roman Catholic

Eastern Orthodox
Baptism
Episcopalian
Methodist The Christian rite of baptism—
which consists of sprinkling or
pouring water on a person’s
Presbyterian
forehead or immersing them
in water—symbolizes spiritual
Quaker
and physical purification.
The rite of baptism confers
United Church an individual’s admission to
of Christ
the Christian Church. Before
His Ascension, Jesus bids his
disciples to “make disciples
to Christ. In John 3:30, John states: times, to symbolize Jesus’s death of all nations, baptizing them”
“He [Jesus] must become greater; and resurrection; others favour (Matthew 28:19).
I must become less.” sprinkling or pouring to represent In many denominations,
the Holy Spirit descending from baptism is performed on very
Holy waters above. Some Christians believe young children, accompanied
Most scholars agree that the that baptism is a sacrament that by name giving. The doctrine
baptism took place near the Jordan is necessary for salvation; other of original sin, propounded
by St. Paul and developed by
River, in the countryside of Roman groups, such as Lutheran the early Church, made the
Judea. Some accounts suggest that Protestants, associate baptism baptism of infants, who might
the immersion was conducted in with spiritual regeneration. ■ die suddenly or unexpectedly,
one of the many desert springs of vital importance. The early
or waterholes in the area, rather church frowned upon the
than in the river itself. Specific practice of “baptism of the
references in the book of John dead,” in which a living person
point to the town of Bethany on was baptized on behalf of
the eastern bank of the Jordan the deceased.
River, near Jericho (1:28), or to Heaven was opened and Today, some Christian
the settlement of Aenon near he saw the Spirit of God denominations, including
Salim “because there was plenty descending like a dove. Baptists, do not baptize
of water, and people were coming Matthew 3:16 children, on the grounds
and being baptized.” (3:23). that the basis for baptism is
a credible profession of faith.
Given the meaning of the word Other groups, including
baptize—“to dip”—many Christian Quakers, view baptism as
denominations insist upon baptism an unnecessary ritual.
by total immersion, often three





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198 THE GOSPELS 199

See also: The Fall 30–35 ■ The Flood 40–41 ■ The Exodus 74–77 ■ The Suffering of Job 146–47 ■
JESUS SAID TO Satan, Jesus passes each test. His
The Lord’s Prayer 212–13 ■ Demons and the Herd of Pigs 224–25

HIM, “AWAY FROM divinity is confirmed in Mark and Satan confronts Jesus in the desert and tries to tempt Him.

Matthew’s description of angels
attending Jesus when Satan leaves.
ME, SATAN!” Fulfilling the prophecy Satan tells Jesus Satan goads Satan bribes


to turn stone
Jesus into
Jesus with the
MATTHEW 4:10, THE TEMPTATIONS OF CHRIST In all three Gospels, the temptation into bread to proving He whole world if He
of Christ occurs after He has been
baptized by John, creating a sate His hunger. is divine. will worship him.
sequence of birth, baptism, and
then temptation that culminates in
His ministry. As in many passages
from the New Testament, the
Gospel authors also allude to the Jesus refuses Jesus tells Satan Jesus says only
of his challenges with the words He worships him. Again, Jesus fulfillment of Isaiah’s Messianic because “man not to put the God can be
IN BRIEF “If you are the son of God” (Psalm refuses, saying that only God should prophecy through Jesus. Other does not live by Lord your God worshipped.
91:11, 12), and Jesus to assert His be worshipped. In Matthew, Jesus echoes of the Old Testament bread alone.” to the test.
PASSAGE divinity: “Do not put the Lord your then cries: “Away from me, Satan!” include the Fall, when Adam and
Matthew 4:1–11; Mark God to the test” (Deuteronomy 6:16). Even though Jesus never tells Eve are tempted to eat from the
1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13
The encounter is described in Satan that He is the Son of God, Tree of the Knowledge of Good
THEME Matthew, Mark, and Luke, although it is implied that He is not only and Evil by the serpent (whom Sustenance comes The divine is Jesus is loyal
Resisting temptation Mark mentions it in only two verses God’s Son, but also the embodiment Christians later identify as Satan), from the spirit. immutable. to God.
(Mark 1:12–13). Applying the of God on earth. The Gospels and the significance of the number
SETTING scholarly assumption that Mark suggest that while humans would 40. Like Noah’s flood, which
c. 26–27 ce The Judean is the oldest Gospel, it is likely that succumb to the temptation of destroys the world’s sins, Jesus’s
Desert, near the Dead Sea. Matthew and Luke expanded on fast lasts 40 days and 40 nights,
the stories using a source known and there are echoes of the Jesus resists material, spiritual, and political
KEY FIGURES as Q—named for the German Israelites’ 40-year wandering in the temptation, as He will through His ministry.
Jesus The Messiah and Son Quelle, meaning source. wilderness, when God sates their
of God at the start of His hunger with manna from heaven. ■
ministry, recently baptized Satan speaks
by John the Baptist. In all three Gospels, Jesus is sent Satan in the New Testament
Satan The accuser and or led to the desert by the “Spirit.”
tempter, whom early There, after 40 days and 40 nights Throughout the Bible, from the for 18 years. In Revelation 20:2,
Christians later identify as of fasting, Jesus is suddenly writing of Job to the Gospels, Satan, “who leads the whole
the serpent in the Garden of confronted by Satan, who poses the figure of the satan (Hebrew world astray,” is hurled to the
Eden and the great dragon three questions to Him. for “adversary”) is portrayed earth and bound for 1,000 years.
The belief in Satan as an
as an antagonistic being who,
He first asks Jesus to sate His
of Revelation.
hunger by turning stone to bread. despite an existence predicated independent, evil figure who
In reply, Jesus tells him that man on God's will, is intent on contrasts with God’s goodness
shall not live on bread alone. Then destroying His followers is known as “dualism.” The
he temptations of Jesus Satan asks Jesus to demonstrate and discrediting Him. concept became popular among
in the wilderness are a the extent of His power by throwing The “devil” appears most medieval Christian sects such as
T theological battle between Himself from a mountain so that often in the New Testament. In the Paulicians and the Cathars.
Luke 22:3, Satan enters Judas
Its origins may lie in the spread
Jesus and Satan. Both figures quote angels can save Him. Jesus refuses, Christ in the Wilderness (1872), Iscariot, and in Luke 13:10–15, of Greek culture after Alexander
by Russian artist Ivan Kramskoi,
the Old Testament—Satan to taunt telling him not to put the Lord your emphasizes the human in the divine, Jesus cures a crippled woman the Great’s conquest of the
Jesus into proving that He is the God to the test. Finally, Satan tells depicting a figure pondering the heavy whom Satan “has kept bound” Phoenician Empire in 331 bce.
promised Messiah, beginning each Jesus he will give Him the world if responsibilities that await Him.




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