TABLE 36. Attenuation coefficients for platinum (atomic number Z = 78).
______A_t_te__n_u_a_t_io__n_C__o_e_f_fi_c_i_e_n_t_µ_________
Energy _______C__r_o_s_s_S_e_c_t_i_o_n__(1__0_–2_8__m__2)____ Atomic Mass a Linear b
(MeV) Scattering Photoelectric Pair
(10–28 m2) (cm2·g–1) (cm–1)
0.015 940 43 800 — 44 700 138 2950
19 700 — 20 400 63.0 1350
0.02 670 — 20.5
6240 — 6640 9.26 439
0.03 400 2720 — 3000 5.03 198
1440 — 1630 3.08 108
0.04 280 — 1.54
836 — 999 9.10 65.9
0.05 188 381 — 498 8.64 33.0
2830 — 2950 4.91 195
0.06 163 2680 — 2800 1.72 185
1500 — 1590 0.836 105
0.07858 117 498 — 557 0.343 36.8
226 — 271 0.202 17.9
K 0.078 5 8 c 117 — 111 0.142
77.3 — 0.112 7.34
0.08 115 37.1 — 65.4 0.0827 4.32
21.1 — 46.0 0.0676 3.04
0.10 88 13.9 0.47 36.4 0.0509 2.40
1.51 26.8 0.0451 1.77
0.15 59 7.6 3.55 21.9 0.0417 1.45
4.9 5.37 16.5 0.0417 1.09
0.20 45 2.4 6.92 14.6 0.0429 0.965
1.5 8.07 13.5 0.0438 0.892
0.30 34 0.90 9.98 13.5 0.0460 0.892
0.63 11.7 13.9 0.0491 0.918
0.40 28.3 0.48 14.9 14.2 0.0555 0.937
0.39 17.3 14.9 0.0611 0.984
0.50 24.8 0.29 20.6 15.9 0.0691 1.05
0.22 18.0 1.19
0.60 22.5 0.14 19.8 1.31
0.10 22.4 1.48
0.80 19.2 0.07
1.0 17.0
1.5 13.6
2.0 11.6
3.0 9.04
4.0 7.52
5.0 6.46
6.0 5.71
8.0 4.67
10 3.98
15 2.94
20 2.36
30 1.72
a. Mass attenuation coefficient is calculated by using relative atomic mass Ar = 195.23.
b. Linear attenuation coefficient is calculated by using density ρ = 21.4 g·cm–3.
c. K = K absorption edge.
Attenuation Coefficients 647
TABLE 37. Attenuation coefficients for gold (atomic number Z = 79).
______A_t_te__n_u_a_t_io__n_C__o_e_f_fi_c_i_e_n_t_µ_________
Energy _______C__r_o_s_s_S_e_c_t_i_o_n__(1__0_–2_8__m__2)____ Atomic Mass a Linear b
(MeV) Scattering Photoelectric Pair
(10–28 m2) (cm2·g–1) (cm–1)
0.015 977 45 500 — 46 500 142 2740
20 700 — 21 400 65.4 1260
0.02 681 — 21.3
6550 — 6960 9.71 412
0.03 412 2890 — 3180 5.25 188
1510 — 1720 3.21 101
0.04 285 — 1050 1.53
880 — 1.48 62.0
0.05 210 382 — 500 8.74 29.6
368 — 485 5.07 28.6
0.06 165 2740 — 2860 1.77 169
1570 — 1600 0.877 98.0
0.08 118 520 — 580 0.351 34.2
241 — 287 0.208 16.9
0.080 91 117 — 115 0.146
80.9 — 0.115 6.78
K 0.080 91 c 117 39.4 — 68.1 0.0840 4.02
22.5 — 47.7 0.0690 2.82
0.10 92 14.7 0.48 37.5 0.0513 2.22
1.56 27.5 0.0455 1.62
0.15 60 8.03 3.65 22.6 0.0422 1.33
5.29 5.50 16.8 0.0422 0.991
0.20 46 2.56 7.10 14.9 0.0434 0.879
1.65 8.22 13.8 0.0440 0.815
0.30 34.5 0.95 10.2 13.8 0.0464 0.815
0.67 11.9 14.2 0.0495 0.838
0.40 28.7 0.50 15.2 14.4 0.0559 0.850
0.41 17.7 15.2 0.0617 0.896
0.50 25.2 0.30 21.2 16.2 0.0703 0.956
0.24 18.3 1.08
0.60 22.8 0.15 20.2 1.19
0.11 23.0 1.36
0.80 19.5 0.08
1.0 17.3
1.5 13.8
2.0 11.7
3.0 9.17
4.0 7.62
5.0 6.56
6.0 5.80
8.0 4.74
10 4.04
15 2.98
20 2.39
30 1.74
a. Mass attenuation coefficient is calculated by using atomic weight Z = 197.2.
b. Linear attenuation coefficient is calculated by using density ρ = 19.32 g·cm–3.
c. K = K absorption edge.
648 Radiographic Testing
TABLE 38. Attenuation coefficients for lead (atomic number Z = 82).
______A_t_te__n_u_a_t_io__n_C__o_e_f_fi_c_i_e_n_t_µ_________
Energy _______C__r_o_s_s_S_e_c_t_i_o_n__(1__0_–2_8__m__2)____ Atomic Mass a Linear b
(MeV) Scattering Photoelectric Pair
(10–28 m2) (cm2·g–1) (cm–1)
0.02 750 24 000 — 24 800 72.1 818
7620 — 8070 23.5 266
0.03 450 3310 — 3620 10.5 119
1740 — 1970
0.04 310 1040 — 1220 5.73 65.0
444 — 571 3.55 40.3
0.05 230 334 — 447 1.66 18.8
2510 — 2620 1.30 14.7
0.06 180 1780 — 1880 7.62 86.4
596 — 660 5.47 62.0
0.08 127 275 — 324 1.92 21.8
93.4 — 130 0.942 10.7
0.08823 113 45.7 — 75.8 0.378
26.1 — 52.4 0.220 4.29
K 0.088 23 c 113 17.3 — 41.1 0.152 2.49
9.5 — 29.8 0.120 1.72
0.10 100 6.2 — 24.2 0.0867 1.36
3.0 0.5 17.9 0.0704 0.983
0.15 64 2.0 1.7 15.9 0.0521 0.798
1.1 4.0 14.6 0.0462 0.591
0.20 49 0.80 6.02 14.7 0.0425 0.524
0.60 7.63 15.0 0.0427 0.482
0.30 36.2 0.49 8.84 15.3 0.0436 0.484
0.35 11.0 16.3 0.0445 0.494
0.40 30.1 0.28 12.8 17.3 0.0474 0.505
0.18 16.3 19.5 0.0503 0.538
0.50 26.3 0.13 18.9 21.5 0.0567 0.570
0.09 22.6 24.5 0.0625 0.643
0.60 23.8 0.0712 0.709
0.807
0.80 20.3
1.0 18.0
1.5 14.4
2.0 12.2
3.0 9.51
4.0 7.91
5.0 6.79
6.0 6.00
8.0 4.91
10 4.18
15 3.09
20 2.48
30 1.80
a. Mass attenuation coefficient is calculated by using atomic weight Z = 207.21.
b. Linear attenuation coefficient is calculated by using density ρ = 11.34 g·cm–3.
c. K = K absorption edge.
Attenuation Coefficients 649
TABLE 39. Attenuation coefficients for uranium (atomic number Z = 92).
______A_t_te__n_u_a_t_io__n_C__o_e_f_fi_c_i_e_n_t_µ_________
Energy _______C__r_o_s_s_S_e_c_t_i_o_n__(1__0_–2_8__m__2)____ Atomic Mass a Linear b
(MeV) Scattering Photoelectric Pair
(10–28 m2) (cm2·g–1) (cm–1)
0.03 590 12 000 — 12 600 31.9 597
0.04 400 5250 — 5650 14.3 267
0.05 300 2780 — 3080 146
0.06 230 1640 — 1870 7.79
0.08 163 716 — 879 4.73 88.5
0.10 123 374 — 497 2.22 41.5
0.1163 103 239 — 342 1.26 23.6
K 0.1163 c 103 1790 — 1890 0.866 16.2
0.15 905 — 983 4.78 89.4
0.20 78 417 — 476 2.49 46.6
0.30 59 146 — 188 1.20 22.4
0.40 42 73.2 — 108 0.0476
0.50 34.7 43.1 — 73.3 0.273 8.90
0.60 30.2 29.2 — 56.3 0.186 5.11
0.80 27.1 16.0 — 39.0 0.142 3.48
1.0 23.0 10.5 — 30.8 0.0987 2.66
1.5 20.3 5.1 0.8 22.1 0.0779 1.85
2.0 16.2 3.3 2.3 19.3 0.0559 1.46
3.0 13.7 1.9 5.21 17.8 0.0488 1.05
4.0 10.7 1.3 7.62 17.8 0.0450 0.913
5.0 1.0 9.73 18.4 0.0450 0.842
6.0 8.88 0.81 11.1 18.6 0.0466 0.842
8.0 7.62 0.59 13.5 19.6 0.0471 0.871
10 6.74 0.46 15.7 20.9 0.0496 0.881
15 5.51 0.30 20.0 23.8 0.0529 0.928
20 4.69 0.22 23.1 26.1 0.0602 0.989
30 3.47 0.15 27.6 29.8 0.0661 1.13
2.78 0.0754 1.24
2.02 1.41
a. Mass attenuation coefficient is calculated by using atomic weight Z = 238.07.
b. Linear attenuation coefficient is calculated by using density ρ = 18.7 g·cm–3.
c. K = K absorption edge.
650 Radiographic Testing
TABLE 40. Attenuation coefficients for plutonium (atomic number Z = 94).
______A_t_te__n_u_a_t_io__n_C__o_e_f_fi_c_i_e_n_t_µ_________
Energy _______C__r_o_s_s_S_e_c_t_i_o_n__(1__0_–2_8__m__2)____ Atomic Mass a Linear b
(MeV) Scattering Photoelectric Pair
(10–28 m2) (cm2·g–1) (cm–1)
0.03 627 13 200 — 13 800 34.8 679
5700 — 6130 15.5 302
0.04 426 3020 — 3330 164
1780 — 2020 8.39
0.05 312 778 — 949 5.09 99.3
409 — 539 2.39 46.6
0.06 243 222 — 323 1.36 26.5
1660 — 1760 0.814 15.9
0.08 171 976 — 1060 4.44 86.6
455 — 516 2.67 52.1
0.10 130 159 — 203 1.30 25.4
80.0 — 116 0.512
0.12256 101 47.0 — 78.0 0.292 9.98
31.9 — 59.8 0.197 5.69
K 0.122 56 c 101 17.5 — 41.1 0.151 3.84
11.6 — 32.4 0.104 2.94
0.15 81 5.60 0.81 27.0 0.0817 2.03
3.63 2.46 20.1 0.0681 1.59
0.20 61 2.08 5.45 18.4 0.0507 1.33
1.46 8.04 18.6 0.0464 0.989
0.30 44 1.09 10.1 19.0 0.0469 0.905
0.90 11.5 19.3 0.0479 0.915
0.40 35.7 0.65 14.0 20.3 0.0487 0.934
0.50 16.3 21.6 0.0512 0.950
0.50 31.0 0.33 20.7 24.6 0.0545 0.998
0.24 23.9 27.0 0.0620 1.06
0.60 27.9 0.17 27.8 30.0 0.0681 1.21
0.0756 1.33
0.80 23.6 1.47
1.0 20.8
1.5 20.6
2.0 14.0
3.0 10.9
4.0 9.09
5.0 7.82
6.0 6.91
8.0 5.65
10 4.80
15 3.54
20 2.84
30 2.07
a. Mass attenuation coefficient is calculated by using atomic weight Ar = 239.
b. Linear attenuation coefficient is calculated by using density ρ = 19.5 g·cm–3.
c. K = K absorption edge.
Attenuation Coefficients 651
References
1. White, G.R. “Absorptive Components
of the Mass Absorption Coefficients.”
National Bureau of Standards Report
No. 1003. Gaithersburg, MD: National
Institute of Standards and Technology
(n.d.).
2. Victoreen, J.A. “The Absorption of
Incident Quanta by Atoms As Defined
by the Mass Photoelectric Absorption
Coefficient and the Mass Scattering
Coefficient.” Journal of Applied Physics.
Vol. 19. Melville, NY: American
Institute of Physics (1948): p 855.
3. Victoreen, J.A. “The Calculation of
X-Ray Mass Absorption Coefficients.”
Journal of Applied Physics. Vol. 20.
Melville, NY: American Institute of
Physics (1949): p 1141.
4. Zemany, P.D. and H.A. Liebhafsky.
“Plating Thickness by the Attenuation
of Characteristic X-Rays.” Journal of the
Electrochemical Society. Vol. 103. New
York, NY: Electrochemical Society
(1956).
652 Radiographic Testing
23
CHAPTER
Radiographic Testing
Glossary
Ringo Beaumont, Tempe, Arizona
Richard H. Bossi, The Boeing Company, Seattle,
Washington
Lawrence R. Lawson, Bradford, Pennsylvania
William E.J. McKinney, Naples, Florida
George Wheeler, Materials and Processes Consultants,
Schenectady, New York
Introduction acceptance level: Average or standard test
level above or below which test
This glossary is based on volumes of the objects are acceptable, in contrast to
Nondestructive Testing Handbook,1-10 rejection level.4,13
published by the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing. acceptance standard: Specimen similar to
the test object containing natural or
The definitions in this glossary have artificial discontinuities that are well
been modified to satisfy peer review and defined and similar in size or extent to
editorial style. For this reason, references the maximum acceptable in the
given in this glossary should be product. See reference standard and
considered not attributions but rather standard.4,6,7
acknowledgments and suggestions for
further reading. accommodation: Of the eye, adjustment
of the lens’ focusing power by
The definitions in this Nondestructive changing the thickness and curvature
Testing Handbook volume should not be of the lens by the action of tiny
referenced for inspections performed muscles attached to the lens.8
according to standards or specifications or Accommodation facilitates the viewing
in fulfillment of contracts. Standards of objects near and far.
writing bodies take great pains to ensure
that their documents are definitive in accuracy: Degree of conformity of a
wording and technical accuracy. People particular measurement to a standard
working to written contracts or or true value.
procedures should consult definitions
referenced in those standards when activation: Process by which neutrons
appropriate. bombard stable atoms and make them
radioactive.
This glossary is provided for
instructional purposes. No other use is activity: Degree of radioactivity of a
intended. particular isotope. Activity is expressed
as the number of atoms disintegrating
Terms per unit of time. Measured in
becquerel.
A
actual throat: See throat, actual.
Å: Angstrom. acuity: See neural acuity; vision acuity.
absorbed dose: Amount of energy adaptive thresholding: Threshold value
imparted to matter by an ionizing varying with inconstant background
event per unit mass of irradiated gray level.8
material at the place of interest. agency: Organization selected by an
Absorbed dose is expressed in gray (Gy) authority to perform nondestructive
or rad.11 testing, as required by a specification
absorption: Event where photons in a or purchase order.2
beam of radiation interact with atoms algorithm: Prescribed set of well defined
of a material the photons pass through rules or processes for the solution of a
and are reduced in energy by this mathematical problem in a finite
interaction.7,12 number of steps.4,14
absorption coefficient, linear (µL): alpha particle: Positively charged helium
Fractional decrease in transmitted ion emitted by certain radioactive
intensity per unit of absorber materials. It is made up of two
thickness. Expressed in units neutrons and two protons; hence it is
of cm–1.7,12 identical with the nucleus of a helium
accelerator: (1) Device that accelerates atom.11
charged particles to high energies. alternating current: Electrical current
Examples are X-ray tubes, linear that reverses its direction of flow at
accelerators and betatrons. (2) Linear regular intervals.6
accelerator. alternating current field: Varying
acceptable quality level (AQL): magnetic field produced around a
Maximum percentage of defective conductor by an alternating current
units of the total units tested in an flowing in the conductor.6
acceptable lot. ampere (A): Unit of electric current.6
acceptance criteria: Standard against analog-to-digital converter: Circuit
which test results are to be compared whose input is information in analog
for purposes of establishing the form and whose output is the same
functional acceptability of a part or information in digital form.4,14
system being examined. angstrom (Å): Unit of distance once used
to express wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation. The SI unit
nanometer (nm) is now preferred;
1 nm = 10 Å.2,8
654 Radiographic Testing
anode: (1) In radiography, the positive B
electrode of a cathode ray tube that
generates ionizing radiation. back reflection: Signal received from the
(2) Positively charged terminal, which far boundary or back surface of a test
may corrode electrochemically during object.7,10
production of an electric current.
Compare cathode.8 back scatter: See backscatter.
background noise: Signals that originate
anomaly: Variation from normal material
or product quality.4 from the test object, the test
instrument and their surroundings
AOQ: Average outgoing quality. and that interfere with test signals of
AOQL: Average outgoing quality limit. interest. The higher the level of
AQL: See acceptable quality level. background noise, the more difficult it
arc welding: See electric arc welding. is to distinguish a discontinuity.
artifact: In nondestructive testing, an Sometimes called grass or hash.5,7,8,10
background signal: Steady or fluctuating
indication that may be interpreted output signal of a test instrument
incorrectly as a discontinuity.2 caused by the presence of acoustic,
artificial discontinuity standard: See chemical, electrical or radiation
acceptance standard. conditions to which the sensing
artificial discontinuity: Reference point, element responds.1
such as a hole, groove or notch, that is backscatter: (1) Interaction of radiation
introduced into a reference standard with matter such that the direction of
to provide accurately reproducible travel after scattering is over
sensitivity levels for nondestructive 90 degrees and often close to
test equipment.4,13 A manufactured 180 degrees to the original direction of
material anomaly. See acceptance travel. (2) In transmission radiography,
standard and reference standard.6 interaction of radiation with matter
artificial flaw standard: See acceptance behind the image plane such that
standard. scattered radiation returns to the
ASNT: American Society for image plane, often adding fog and
Nondestructive Testing. noise that interfere with production of
ASNT Recommended Practice No. an image of the specimen. (3) Of
SNT-TC-1A: Set of guidelines for scatter imaging, interaction of
employers to establish and conduct a incident radiation with a specimen
nondestructive testing personnel that scatters the radiation through
qualification and certification large angles frequently greater than
program. SNT-TC-1A was first issued in 90 degrees to the original direction of
1968 by the Society for Nondestructive travel. Such radiation is used to form
Testing (SNT, now ASNT) and has been an image or to measure a parameter of
revised every few years since.8 the specimen, usually through digital
attenuation: (1) Decrease in energy or techniques.
signal magnitude in transmission from backscatter imaging: In radiographic
one point to another. Can be testing, a family of radioscopic
expressed in decibels or as a scalar techniques that use backscatter.
ratio of the input magnitude to the barium clay: Molding clay containing
output magnitude.4,14 (2) Change in barium, used to eliminate or reduce
signal strength caused by an electronic the amount of scattered or secondary
device such as an attenuator.7 (3) In radiation reaching the film.3
radiography, the decrease in radiation baseline: Standard, average, prior
intensity caused by distance, by measurements or other criteria used in
passage through material or by both.11 quality control for comparison and
austenite: Face centered cubic phase of evaluation.
iron, which phase is stable between beam: Defined stream of radiation
906 °C (1663 °F) and 1390 °C (2535 °F) particles in which stream all particles
and which often acts as a solvent for are traveling in parallel paths.
carbon. Also called gamma iron. beam quality: Penetrating energy of a
austenite, retained: Face centered cubic radiation beam.
solid solution in iron or iron-nickel, beam spread: Divergence from a beam of
stable at room temperature. radiation in which all particles are
automated system: Acting mechanism traveling in parallel paths.
that performs required tasks at a becquerel (Bq): SI unit for measurement
determined time and in a fixed of radioactivity, equivalent to one
sequence in response to certain disintegration per second. Replaces
conditions.8 Robotic system. curie.
beta particle: Electron or positron
emitted from a nucleus during decay.11
beta ray: Radiation stream consisting of
beta particles.
Radiographic Testing Glossary 655
betatron: Circular electron accelerator burr: Raised or turned over edge occurring
that is a source of either high energy on a machined part and resulting from
electrons or X-rays. The electrons are cutting, punching or grinding.8,15
injected by periodic bursts into a
region of an alternating magnetic burst: In metal, external or internal
field.11 Sometimes the electrons are rupture caused by improper forming.8
used directly as the radiation. See also crack, forging.
billet: Solid semifinished round or square butt weld or butt joint: Weld joining two
product that has been hot worked for metal pieces in the same plane.8
forging, rolling or extrusion.2
C
bleed: Refers to molten metal oozing out
of a casting. Stripped or removed from C: Coulomb.
the mold before complete calcium tungstate: Fluorescent chemical
solidification.3
compound that emits visible blue
blind riser: Internal riser that does not violet light when irradiated by X-rays
reach to the exterior of the mold.3 or gamma rays.
calibration reflector: See reference reflector.
blister: Discontinuity in metal, on or near camera: Device that contains a sealed
the surface, resulting from the radiation source, where the source or
expansion of gas in a subsurface zone. shielding can be moved so that the
Very small blisters are called pinheads source becomes unshielded (to make a
or pepper blisters.2 radiographic exposure) or shielded (for
safe storage).
blowhole: Hole in a casting caused by gas case crushing: Mechanism producing
expanding in molten metal. fracture of the case, like subcase
fatigue but attributable to static
Bq: Becquerel. overloading rather than to fatigue
brazing: Joining of metals and alloys by alone. In many instances the
movement of the subcase causes the
fusion of nonferrous alloys that have case to crack or spall.8
melting points above 430 °C (806 °F), casing: Many strings of pipe that are used
but below melting points of materials to line the hole during and after
being joined.2 drilling of a gas or oil well.8
brehmsstrahlung: Electromagnetic casing string: Tubular structure on the
radiation produced when electrons’ outer perimeter of a gas or oil well
path and kinetic energy brings them hole. The casing string is a permanent
close to the positive fields of atomic part of the well and many are
nuclei — as when, for example, cemented into the formation.8
electrons strike a target provided for cassette, film: Lightproof container that
this purpose. The electrons slow down, is used for holding radiographic film
giving up kinetic energy as in position during the radiographic
X-radiation. exposure. The cassette may be rigid or
bridging: Premature solidification of flexible and may contain intensifying
metal across a mold section before the screens, filter screens, both or
metal below or beyond solidifies.3 neither.11
brinelling: Stripe indentations made by a cast structure: Internal physical structure
spherical object. False brinelling refers of a casting evidenced by shape,
to a type of surface wear.8 orientation of grains and segregation
brittle crack propagation: Very sudden of impurities.2,3
propagation of a crack with the cast weld assembly: Assembly formed by
absorption of no energy except that welding one casting to another.3
stored elastically in the body. casting: Object of shape obtained by
Microscopic examination may reveal solidification of a substance in a mold.
some deformation even though it is casting shrinkage: Total shrinkage
not visible to the unaided eye.2 includes the sum of three types:
brittleness: Quality of a material that may (1) liquid shrinkage (the reduction in
lead to crack formation and volume of liquid metal as it cools
propagation without appreciable through the liquidus to the solidus);
plastic deformation.2 (2) solidification shrinkage (the
burning: Extreme overheating. Makes change in volume of metal from the
metal grains excessively large and beginning to ending of solidification);
causes the more fusible constituents of and (3) solid shrinkage (the reduction
steel to melt and run into the grain in volume of metal from the solidus to
boundaries or it may leave voids room temperature).2,3
between the grains. Steel may be casting strains: Strains in a casting caused
oxidized to the extent that it is no by casting stresses that develop as the
longer useful and cannot be corrected casting cools.3
by heat treating but it can be
remelted.2
burnt-in sand: Discontinuity consisting
of a mixture of sand and metal
cohering to the surface of a casting.3
656 Radiographic Testing
casting stresses: Stresses set up in a cleavage fracture: Fracture, usually of a
casting because of geometry and polycrystalline metal, in which most
casting shrinkage.3 of the grains have failed by cleavage,
resulting in bright reflecting facets. It
cathode: (1) Negatively charged terminal is one type of crystalline fracture.
in an arrangement that produces Contrast with shear fracture.2
current by chemical reactions.
Compare anode.8 (2) In radiography, closing: In image processing, dilation
the negative electrode of an X-ray followed by erosion. A single pixel
tube, the electrode from which closing connects a broken feature
electrons are emitted. separated by one pixel. See also
opening.8
cathode ray: Stream of electrons emitted
by a heated filament and projected in closure: Process by which a person
a more or less confined beam under cognitively completes patterns or
the influence of a magnetic or electric shapes that are incompletely
field.7,12 perceived.8
cathode ray tube: Vacuum tube in which cobalt-60: Radioactive isotope of element
an electron beam of cathode rays are cobalt, having half life of 5.3 years
projected on a fluorescent screen to and photon energies of 1.17 and
produce an image or spot. 1.33 MeV.
cavitation fatigue: Form of pitting caused code: Standard enacted or enforced as a
by erosion from vibration and law.8
movement in liquid environments.8
coefficients of the filter: Values in a
cementite: Iron carbide (Fe3C), present in mask that serves as a filter in image
steels.8 formation and processing.8
centrifugal casting: Casting made in a coherent radiation: Radiation at the
mold (sand, plaster or permanent) that same energy and phase.
rotates while the metal solidifies under
the pressure developed by centrifugal coherent scatter: Form of scatter where
force.3 no energy is lost.
certification: Process of providing written cold cathode ionization gage: Pressure
testimony that an individual (or test measuring gage for low pressures, in
technique, process or equipment) is the range of 13.3 mPa to below
qualified. See also certified.8 0.13 nPa (10–4 torr to below 10–12
torr), that works by measuring a
certified: Having written testimony of discharge current associated with the
qualification. See also certification.8 ionization of gas by electrons confined
in a magnetic field. Also called a
cesium-137: Radioactive isotope of philips discharge gage or penning gage.
element cesium, having a half life of
30 years and photon energy of about cold chamber machine: Die casting
660 keV. machine where the metal chamber or
plunger are not heated.3
chaplet: Metal support used to hold a
core in place on a mold.3 cold cracks: Discontinuities appearing as
straight lines usually continuous
characteristic curve: Curve that expresses throughout their length and generally
film density as function of log relative existing singly. Cold cracks start at the
exposure. These curves are useful in surface and result from cold working
determining exposure correction or stressing of metallic materials.2
factors and to define the gamma
characteristics of the film. cold shut: (1) Casting discontinuity
caused by two streams of semimolten
chill: (1) Metal insert embedded in the metal coming together inside a mold
surface of a sand mold or core or but failing to fuse. Cold shuts are
placed in a mold cavity to increase the sometimes called misruns but the
cooling rate at that point. (2) White latter term correctly describes
iron occurring on a gray iron casting, incomplete filling of the mold.3 (2) A
such as the chill in the wedge test.3 discontinuity that appears on the
surface of metal as a result of two
chipping: (1) Removing seams and other streams of liquid meeting and failing
surface discontinuities in metals to unite. A cracklike discontinuity
manually with chisel or gouge or by caused by forging, where two surfaces
continuous machining, before further of metal fold against each other to
processing. (2) Removing excessive produce a discontinuity at the point of
metal.2,3 folding. This is usually at some angle
to the surface. It may also be a
Ci: Curie. separate piece of metal forged into the
cire perdue process: Lost wax process.3 main component. See lap. (3) A
clean: Free from interfering solid or liquid portion of the surface of a forging that
is separated in part from the main
contamination on the test surface and body of metal by oxide.2,3
within voids or discontinuities.2
Radiographic Testing Glossary 657
cold work: Permanent deformation corrosion: Deterioration of a metal by
produced by an external force in a chemical or electrochemical reaction
metal at temperature below its with its environment. Removal of
recrystallization temperature.2 material by chemical attack, such as
the rusting of automobile
collimator: Device for restricting the size, components.2
shape and direction of the irradiating
beam, thereby limiting beam spread corrosion, crevice: Type of galvanic
and its consequences. corrosion caused by a difference in
partial pressure of oxygen between the
color discrimination: Perception of occluded interior and exposed exterior
differences between two or more of a notchlike geometry. Active metal
hues.8 ions are usually present.
compensator: Electrical matching corrosion embrittlement: Severe loss of
network to compensate for electrical ductility of a metal, resulting from
impedance differences.7,12 corrosive attack, usually intergranular
and often not visually apparent.2
compensator blocks: Material added to
regions of a test object to flatten its corrosion fatigue: Fatigue cracking
radiographic image. caused by repeated load applications
on metal in a corrosive environment.2
complete testing: Testing of an entire
production lot in a prescribed manner. corrosion, fretting: Corrosion facilitated
Sometimes complete testing entails by fretting, particularly where a
the inspection of only the critical protective surface has been chafed in a
regions of a part. One hundred corrosive environment.8
percent testing requires the inspection
of the entire part by prescribed corrosion-erosion: Simultaneous
methods. Compare sampling, partial.8 occurrence of erosion and corrosion.8
compton scatter: Reduction of energy of coulomb (C): SI unit for electric charge,
incident photon by its interaction replacing faraday and ampere hour,
with an electron. Part of the photon where 1 A·h = 3600 C. X-ray or
energy is transferred to the electron, gamma ray intensity is measured in
giving it kinetic energy, and the coulomb per kilogram (C·kg–1).
remaining photon is redirected with
reduced energy. coupon: Piece of material from which a
test object is prepared, often an extra
computed tomography: Technique by piece, as on a casting or forging.3
which radiation passing through an
object is displayed as one slice or layer crack: (1) Break, fissure or rupture, usually
of that object at a time. Image data are V shaped and relatively narrow and
processed in three dimensions. deep. A discontinuity that has a
relatively large cross section in one
contrast: (1) In film radiography, the direction and a small or negligible
measure of differences in the film cross section when viewed in a
blackening or density resulting from direction perpendicular to the first.2
various radiation intensities (2) Propagating discontinuities caused
transmitted by the object and recorded by stresses such as heat treating or
as density differences in the image. grinding. Difficult to detect unaided
Thus, difference in film blackening because of fineness of line and pattern
from one area to another.11 (2) The (may have a radial or latticed
difference in visibility between an appearance).6
indication and the surrounding area.
crack, base metal: Cracks existing in base
contrast, subject: Ratio of radiation metal before a manufacturing or
intensities transmitted by selected welding operation or occurring in base
portions of object being radiographed. metal during the operation.2
control: See in control, process control and crack, cold: Cracks that occur in a casting
quality control. or weld after solidification and that
are caused by excessive stress generally
control cable: Cable connected to from nonuniform cooling.2
isotopic radiographic source and used
to move the source in and out of the crack, cooling: Cracks in bars of alloy or
exposure device. tool steels resulting from uneven
cooling after heating or hot rolling.
core: (1) Specially formed material They are usually deep and lie in a
inserted in a mold to shape the longitudinal direction, but are usually
interior of another part of a casting not straight.2
that cannot be shaped as easily by the
pattern. (2) In a ferrous alloy, the crack, crater: Multisegment crack in a
inner portion that is softer than the weld crater. Segments radiate from a
outer portion or case.3 common point, often called star
cracks.
crack, fatigue: Progressive cracks that
develop in the surface and are caused
by the repeated loading and unloading
of the object.2
658 Radiographic Testing
crack, forging: Crack developed in the definition: Description of linear
forging operation due to forging at too demarcation sensitivity, or the detail
low a temperature, resulting in sharpness of object outline in a
rupturing of the metal.2 Also called radiographic image. It is a function of
forging burst. screen type, exposure geometry,
radiation energy and characteristics of
crack, hot: Crack that develops before the film or sensor.
casting has completely cooled, as
contrasted with cold cracks, that deformation: Change of shape under
develop after solidification.2 load. See also creep.8
crack, longitudinal: Crack parallel to the delamination: Laminar discontinuity,
length of the test object.2 generally an area of unbonded
materials.7
crack, machining: Crack caused by too
heavy a cut, a dull tool or chatter. depth of field: Range of distance over
Typically called machining tears.2 which an imaging system gives
satisfactory definition when its lens is
crack, quenching: Ruptures produced in the best focus for a specific
during quenching of hot metal due to distance.8
more rapid cooling and contraction of
one portion of a test object than depth of focus: Distance a sensor may be
occurs in adjacent portions.2 moved from a lens system and still
produce a sharp image.
crack, transverse: Cracks at right angles
to the length of the test object.2 depth of fusion: Depth to which base
metal has melted during welding.2
crack, weld: Cracks in weld fusion zones
or adjacent base metal. Usually a result detail: In radiography, the degree of
of thermal expansion or contraction sharpness of outline of an image, or
stresses related to temperature changes the clear definition of an object or
during welding.2 discontinuity in the object. See also
definition.
crater: In arc or gas fusion welding, a
cavity in the weld bead surface, detector, X-ray: Sensor, X-ray.
typically occurring when the heat developer: In radiography, a chemical
source is removed and insufficient
filler metal is available to fill the solution that reduces exposed silver
cavity.2 halide crystals to metallic silver.11
dewaxing: Removing the expendable wax
crevice corrosion: See corrosion, crevice. pattern from an investment mold by
CRT: See cathode ray tube. heat or solvent.3
crush: Casting discontinuity caused by a die casting: (1) Casting made in a die.
(2) Casting process where molten
partial destruction of the mold before metal is forced under high pressure
the metal was poured.3 into the cavity of a metal mold.3
curie (Ci): Unit for measurement of the diffraction: Special case of scatter, where
quantity of radioactivity, coherently scattered photons undergo
corresponding originally to radiation interference or reinforcement,
from atomic disintegrations from 1 g resulting in patterns indicative of the
of radium; replaced by becquerel (Bq) scattering medium. See also X-ray
in SI, where 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq. diffraction.
dilation: In image processing, the
D condition of a binary image where the
pixel in the output image is a 1 if any
decay curve: Graph showing radioactive of its eight closest neighbors is a 1 in
strength as a function of time for an the input image. See also closing,
isotope. Decay curves are used in erosion and opening.8
determining exposure times in discontinuity: Intentional or
radiographic testing. unintentional interruption in the
physical structure or configuration of a
defect: Discontinuity whose size, shape, part.6,8,16 After nondestructive testing,
orientation or location make it unintentional discontinuities
detrimental to the useful service of its interpreted as detrimental in the host
host object or which exceeds the object may be called flaws or defects.6
accept/reject criteria of an applicable Compare defect, dislocation and
specification.6,10,17 Note that some indication.
discontinuities may not affect discontinuity, artificial: Reference
serviceability and are therefore not discontinuities such as holes,
defects.2 All defects are indentations, cracks, grooves or
discontinuities.2 Compare discontinuity notches that are introduced into a
and indication.8,15 reference standard to provide
accurately reproducible indications for
determining sensitivity levels.2
Radiographic Testing Glossary 659
discontinuity, inherent: Material element: Chemical substance that cannot
anomaly originating from be divided into simpler substances by
solidification of cast metal. Pipe and chemical means. Examples are
nonmetallic inclusions are the most hydrogen, lead and uranium.2
common and can lead to other types
of discontinuities in fabrication.8,15 erosion: (1) Loss of material or
degradation of surface quality through
discontinuity, primary processing: friction or abrasion by moving fluids,
Material anomaly produced from the made worse by solid particles in those
hot or cold working of an ingot into fluids or by cavitation in the moving
forgings, rod and bar.8,15 fluid. (2) In image processing,
condition of a binary image where the
discontinuity, secondary processing: pixel in the output image is a 1 if each
Material anomaly produced during of its eight neighbors is a 1 in the
machining, grinding, heat treating, input image. See also closing, dilation
plating or other finishing and opening.8
operations.8,15
erosion-corrosion: Simultaneous
discontinuity, service induced: Material occurrence of erosion and corrosion.8
anomaly caused by the intended use
of the part.8 eV: Electronvolt.
evaluation: Process of determining the
dose: See absorbed dose.
dose rate: Radiation dose delivered per a magnitude and significance of a
discontinuity after the indication has
specified unit of time and measured, been interpreted as relevant.
for instance, in sievert per minute (or Evaluation determines if the test
in rem per hour). See also absorbed object should be rejected, repaired or
dose.11 accepted. See indication and
dosimeter: Device that measures radiation interpretation.2,6,7
dose, such as a film badge or exfoliation: Corrosion that progresses
ionization chamber.11 approximately parallel to the outer
drop: Discontinuity in a casting due to a surface of the metal, causing layers of
portion of the sand dropping from the the metal to be elevated by the
cope or overhanging section of the formation of corrosion product.2
mold.3 exposure factor: In X-radiography, the
drop out: Falling away of green sand from quantity that combines source
the walls of a mold cavity when the strength (milliampere), time (usually
mold is closed.3 minute) and distance. It is the product
dross: Scum that forms on the surface of of milliamperage and time divided by
molten metals largely because of distance squared and determines the
oxidation but sometimes because of degree of film density.
the rising of impurities to the surface.3
E F
effective focal spot: Size and geometry of false brinelling: Fretting wear
focal spot after target interaction. indentations. Compare brinelling.8
Viewed from along the primary beam
central axis at the target the effective false indication: Indication that could be
focal spot would appear nearly square interpreted as originating from a
and smaller than the actual focal spot discontinuity but which actually
area covered by the electron stream. originates where no discontinuity
exists.7 Distinct from nonrelevant
effective throat: In welding, the weld indication.2 Compare defect.8
throat including the amount of weld
penetration but ignoring excess metal fatigue fracture: Progressive fracture of a
between the theoretical face and the material that begins at a discontinuity
actual face.8 and increases under repeated cycles of
stress. The phenomenon leading to
electric arc welding: Joining of metals by fracture under repeated or fluctuating
heating with electric arc. Also called stresses having a maximum value less
arc welding.8 than the tensile strength of the
material.2
electrochemical corrosion: Corrosion
that occurs when current flows feature extraction: From an enhanced
between cathodic and anodic areas on image, derivation of some feature
metallic surfaces.2 values, usually parameters for
distinguishing objects in the image.8
electronvolt (eV): Kinetic energy acquired
by an electron in passing through a
potential difference of 1 V in vacuum;
1 eV = ~1.60 J. The electronvolt is
commonly used to express the energy
of X-rays.
660 Radiographic Testing
ferromagnetic material: Material such as fixing: Procedure used in film processing
iron, nickel or cobalt whose relative that removes undeveloped silver salts
permeability is considerably greater in the emulsion from the surface of
than unity and depends on the the film, leaving only the developed
magnetizing force.4,14 Materials that black silver of the image on the film.
are most strongly affected by
magnetism are called ferromagnetic.2 flakes: Short discontinuous internal
fissures in ferrous metals attributed to
field: In video technology, one of two stresses produced by localized
video picture components that transformation and/or decreased
together make a frame. Each picture is solubility of hydrogen during cooling
divided into two parts called fields usually after hot working. On a
because a frame at the rate of thirty fractured surface, flakes appear as
frames per second in a standard video bright silvery areas; on an etched
output would otherwise produce a surface they appear as short,
flicker discernible to the eye. Each discontinuous cracks.8,15 Also called
field contains one half of the total shatter cracks and snowflakes.2
picture elements. Two fields are
required to produce one complete flaw: Rejectable anomaly or unintentional
picture or frame so the field frequency discontinuity. See also defect and
is sixty fields per second and the frame discontinuity.2
frequency is thirty frames per second.8
focal spot: Area on target that receives
field of view: Range or area that can be bombardment of electrons. See also
seen through an imaging system, lens effective focal spot.
or aperture.8
focus: Position of a viewed object and a
fillet weld: Weld at vertex or corner lens system relative to one another to
formed by two metal pieces.8 offer a distinct image of the object as
seen through the lens system. See
film badge: Package of photographic film accommodation and depth of field.8
worn as a badge by radiographic
personnel (and by workers in the focus, principal plane of: Single plane
nuclear industry) to measure exposure actually in focus in a photographic
to ionizing radiation. Absorbed dose scene.8
can be calculated by degree of film
darkening caused by irradiation.11 fog: Increase of film density caused by
sources other than from the intended
film holder: See cassette, film. primary beam exposure. Heat,
film speed: Relative exposure required to humidity, pressure and scatter
radiation can all cause fogging of the
attain a specified film density.11 film.
film undercut: See undercut, film.
filter: (1) Network that passes foil: Metal in sheet form less than
0.15 mm (6 × 10–3 in.) thick.2
electromagnetic wave energy over a
described range of frequencies and foreign materials: Inclusions that may be
attenuates energy at all other sand, slag, oxide or dross metal or any
frequencies.4,13 (2) Processing device or dissimilar material in the material
function that excludes a selected kind being examined. In radiographic film,
of signal or part of a signal.8 (3) In foreign materials may appear as
radiography, the thickness of isolated, irregular or elongated
absorbing material placed in a primary variations of film density not
radiation beam to selectively remove corresponding to variations in
longer wavelength radiation, thereby thickness of material or to cavities.3
adjusting the quality of the
radiographic image. forging burst: Also called forging crack. See
fine crack: Discontinuity in a solid crack, forging.
material with a very fine opening to
the surface, but possessing length and forging crack: Also called forging burst.
depth greater than the width of this See crack, forging.
opening. Usually the depth is many
times the width.2 foundry: Establishment or building where
finite element analysis: Numerical metal castings are produced.3
technique for the analysis of a
continuous system whereby that fracture: Break, rupture or crack large
system is decomposed into a enough to cause a full or partial
collection of finite sized elements.4 partition of a casting.2,3
fit up: To secure one or more joint
members with special external frame: Complete raster scan projected on
fixturing to prevent movement during a video screen. There are thirty frames
welding.8,15 per second in a standard video output.
A frame may be comprised of two
fields, each displaying part of the total
frame. See also field.8
Radiographic Testing Glossary 661
fretting: Action that results in surface graininess: Film characteristic that results
damage, especially in a corrosive from improper film processing and
environment, when there is low that consists of the grouping or
amplitude motion between solid clumping together of many small
surfaces in contact under pressure. silver grains into masses visible to the
Also called fretting corrosion.2 naked eye or with slight
magnification.11
fretting corrosion: See corrosion, fretting.
grains: (1) Solid particle or crystal of
G metal. As molten metal solidifies
grains grow and lattices intersect,
galling: Type of adhesive wear more gross forming irregular grain boundaries.8
than fretting.8 (2) Individual crystals that make up
the crystalline structure of metal.2
gamma iron: Austenite.
gamma rays: High energy, short gray (Gy): SI unit for measurement of the
dose of radiation absorbed per unit
wavelength electromagnetic radiation mass at a specified location. Replaces
emitted by the nucleus of a radioactive the rad where rad denotes radiation
isotope. Energies of gamma rays are absorbed dose, not radian.
usually between 0.01 and 10 MeV. 1 Gy = 1 J·kg–1 = 100 rad.
X-rays also occur in this energy range
but are of nonnuclear origin.11 gray level: Integer number representing
gas holes: Holes created by a gas evolving the brightness or darkness of a pixel
from molten metal.2 Appear as dark or, as a composite value, of an image
spots occurring individually, in comprised of pixels.8
clusters or distributed throughout a
casting.3 gross porosity: In weld metal or in a
gas porosity: Gas pockets or voids in casting, pores, gas holes or globular
metal. Refers to porous sections in voids that are larger and in greater
metal that appear as round or number than obtained in good
elongated dark spots corresponding to practice.2,3
minute voids usually distributed
through the entire casting.3 Spherical guide tube: Cable connected to isotopic
or elongated internal cavities caused radiographic source and used to move
by evolution of dissolved gases from the source in and out of the exposure
molten metal or slag trapped during device.
cooling and solidification of castings
or fusion welds.2 Gy: Gray.
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): Inert
gas shielded arc welding using a H
tungsten electrode. Also called tungsten
inert gas (TIG) welding.8 halation: Spreading of light around a
gated pattern: Pattern designed to bright image on a fluorescent screen
include gating in the mold.3 or developed film.
general examination: Test or
examination of a person’s knowledge, hardness: (1) Of metals, temper or
typically (in the case of nondestructive stiffness or resistance to plastic
testing personnel qualification) a deformation, usually by indentation.
written test on the basic principles of a (2) Of metals, temper or resistance to
nondestructive testing method and scratching, abrasion or cutting.2
general knowledge of basic equipment
used in the method. (According to heat affected zone (HAZ): Base metal not
ASNT’s guidelines, the general melted during brazing, cutting or
examination should not address welding, but whose microstructure
knowledge of specific equipment, and physical properties were altered by
codes, standards and procedures the heat.2
pertaining to a particular application.)
Compare practical examination and heat checking: Surface cracking caused
specific examination.8 when metal rapidly heated (or cooled
geometric unsharpness: See unsharpness, and heated repeatedly) is prevented
geometric. from expanding freely by colder metal
gouge: Surface indentation caused by below the surface. Friction may
forceful abrasion or impact or flame produce the heat. Sometimes called
cutting. Also called nick. Compare tool thermal fatigue.8
mark.8
gradient: Slope of characteristic curve for holes: Any voids remaining in an object
specified film density. as a result of improper manufacturing
processing. Often called gas holes,
cavities or air locks.2
662 Radiographic Testing
hot cracks: Ragged dark lines of variable in-motion radiography: Technique in
width and numerous branches. They which either the object being
have no definite line of continuity radiographed or the source of
and may exist in groups. They may radiation is in motion during the
originate internally or at the surface.3 exposure.3,11
Cracks occurring in hot solid metals,
caused by stresses of thermal incident radiation: Primary radiation
expansion or contraction and striking an object at closest point.
originating either internally or at the
surface.2 inclusion: Foreign particles or impurities,
usually oxides, sulfides, silicates and
hot tears: Fractures formed in a metal such, that are retained in metal (welds
during solidification because of or castings) during solidification or
hindered contraction. Surface cracks that are formed by subsequent
on castings produced by contraction reaction of the solid metal.2,3
of the metal during cooling.2,3 Hot
tears often occur where areas of incomplete fusion: Fusion that is less
different thickness adjoin.8 than complete. Failure of weld metal
to fuse completely with and bond to
hundred percent testing: See one hundred the base metal or preceding bead.2
percent testing.
incomplete penetration: In welding, root
I penetration that is less than complete
or failure of a root pass and a backing
icicles: Coalescence of metal protruding pass to fuse with each other.2 Also
beyond the root of the weld. called lack of fusion.2
Sometimes called burn through.2
index of refraction: Ratio of velocity of
image: Visual representation of a test light in a vacuum to velocity of light
object or scene.8 in a material.
image enhancement: Any of a variety of indication: Nondestructive testing
image processing steps, used singly or discontinuity response that requires
in combination to improve the interpretation to determine its
detectability of objects in an image.8 relevance. Compare defect, discontinuity
and false indication.8
image orthicon: Television tube that uses
the photoemission method. Compare indication, discontinuity: Visible
vidicon tube.8 evidence of a material discontinuity.
Subsequent interpretation is required
image processing: Actions applied singly to determine the significance of an
or in combination to an image, in indication.2
particular the measurement and
alteration of image features by indication, false: (1) Indication produced
computer. Also called picture by something other than a
processing.8 discontinuity.6 (2) Indication due to
misapplied or improper testing.2
image quality indicator: Strip of material
the same composition as that of the indication, nonrelevant: Indication
material being tested, representing a caused by a condition that does not
percentage of object thickness and affect the usability of the object (a
provided with a combination of steps, change of section, for instance).2
holes or slot or alternatively made as a
series of wires. When placed in the indication, relevant: Indication from a
path of the rays, its image provides a discontinuity (as opposed to a
check on the radiographic technique nonrelevant indication) requiring
employed.3–11 evaluation by a qualified inspector,
typically with reference to an
image segmentation: Process in which acceptance standard, by virtue of the
the image is partitioned into regions, discontinuity’s size or location.8,16
each homogeneous.8
inherent discontinuities: Discontinuities
impregnation: (1) Treatment of porous that are produced in the material at
castings with a sealing medium to stop the time it is formed (for example,
pressure leaks. (2) The process of during solidification from the molten
filling the pores of a sintered compact, state).2
usually with a liquid such as a
lubricant. (3) The process of mixing intergranular corrosion: Corrosion
particles of a nonmetallic substance in occurring preferentially at grain
a matrix of metal powder, as in boundaries.2
diamond impregnated tools.3
intergranular stress corrosion cracking:
impurities: Elements or compounds Anomaly caused by intergranular
whose presence in a material is corrosion as a result of sensitized
unintentional.2,3 material, stress and corrosive
environment (typical in the heat
in control: Within prescribed limits of affected zone of stainless steel welds).
process control.8
Radiographic Testing Glossary 663
interlaced scanning: Process whereby the L
picture appearing on a video screen is
divided into two parts. Interlaced lack of fusion: Discontinuity due to lack
scanning reduces flicker by increasing of union between weld metal and
the electron beam’s downward rate of parent metal or between successive
travel so that every other line is sent. weld beads.2 Also called incomplete
When the bottom is reached, the penetration.
beam is returned to the top and the
alternate lines are sent. The odd and lamination: Discontinuity in plate, sheet
even line scans are each transmitted at or strip caused by pipe, inclusions or
1/60 s, totaling 1/30 s per frame and blowholes in the original ingot. After
retaining the standard rate of 30 rolling, laminations are usually flat
frames per second. The eye’s and parallel to the outside surface.
persistence of vision allows the odd Laminations may also result from
and even lines to appear as a single pipe, blisters, seams, inclusions or
image without flicker.8 segregation elongated and are made
directional by working. Lamination
interpretation: Determination of the discontinuities may also occur in
significance of test indications from metal powder compacts.2 May appear
the standpoint of their relevance or in the form of rectangles or plates as
irrelevance. The determination of the inclusion stringers between rolled
cause of an indication or the surfaces. Short, intermittent
evaluation of the significance of laminations may be detrimental if the
discontinuities from the standpoint of object is subjected to high bending
whether they are detrimental or stresses in service.6
inconsequential.2
lap: Surface discontinuity, usually parallel
inverse square law: From a point source to the surface, appearing as a fold or
of radiation, the intensity of energy tangential seam in a wrought product
decreases as the inverse square of and caused by folding over of a hot
distance from source.3,11 metal fin or sharp corner in a thin
plate, then rolling or forging it into
investment casting: (1) Casting metal the surface but not welding it. See also
into a mold produced by surrounding cold shut.2,6
(investing) an expendable pattern with
a refractory slurry that sets at room level, acceptance: In contrast to rejection
temperature after which the wax, level, test level above or below which,
plastic or frozen mercury pattern is depending on the test parameter, test
removed. Also called precision casting objects are acceptable.2
or lost wax process. (2) A casting made
by the process.3 level, rejection: Value established for
indication or test signal above or
ion chambers: Device for measuring below which, depending on the test
radiation due to ionization of a gas in parameter, test objects are rejectable or
a chamber. otherwise distinguished from the
remaining objects.2 See level,
ionizing radiation: Form of radiation acceptance.
that can displace orbital electrons
from atoms. Types include X-rays, light metal: Low density metal such as
gamma rays and particles such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium,
neutrons, electrons and alpha beryllium or one of their alloys.2
particles.11
limited certification: Individuals who are
IQI: Image quality indicator. certified only for specific operations
irradiance: Power of electromagnetic are usually called limited Level (I, II or
III) or are designated as having limited
radiant energy incident on the surface certification because they are not
of a given unit area. Compare qualified to perform the full range of
radiance.8 activities expected of personnel at that
level of qualification.8
J
linac: Linear accelerator.
joint: (1) Part of the mold where the cope linear accelerator: Device that accelerates
and cheek, cope and drag or cheek
and drag come together.3 (2) Part of atomic particles in a straight line
weld where two welded parts meet. through a series of magnetic fields.
line pair: Pair of adjacent, parallel lines
joint efficiency: Strength of a welded used to evaluate the resolution of a
joint expressed as a percentage of the specific imaging system. See also
strength of the unwelded base metal.2 minimum line pair.8
lost-wax process: Investment casting
joint penetration: Distance weld metal process in which a wax pattern is
and fusion extend into a joint.2 used.3
664 Radiographic Testing
lot tolerance percent defective: In metallic discontinuity: Break in the
quality control, the percent defective continuity of the metal of an object.
at which there is a 10 percent May be located on the surface (such as
probability of acceptance in a a crack) or deep in the interior of the
production run.8 object (such as a gas pocket or
inclusion).2
low pass filtering: Linear combination of
pixel values to smoothen abrupt metallography: Science dealing with the
transitions in a digital image. Also constitution and structure of metals
called smoothing.8 and alloys as revealed by the unaided
eye or by such tools as low powered
M magnifications, optical microscope,
electron microscope and X-ray
machine vision: Automated system diffraction.2
function of acquiring, processing and
analyzing images to evaluate a test metallurgy: Science and technology of
object or to provide information for metals.2
human interpretation. A typical
system consists of a light source, a micro: Prefix that divides a basic unit of
video camera, a video digitizer, a measure by one million.2
computer and an image display.8
microcrack: Crack less than about 50 µm
macroshrinkage: Casting discontinuity (0.002 in.) in largest surface
consisting of voids in the form of dimension. See also microfissure.
stringers shorter than shrinkage cracks.
This discontinuity results from microfissure: Crack of microscopic
contraction during solidification proportions. See also microcrack.
where there is not an adequate
opportunity to supply filler material to microporosity: Porosity visible only with
compensate for the shrinkage. It is the aid of a microscope.2
usually associated with abrupt changes
in section size.2,3 See shrink. microscopic stresses: Residual stresses
that vary from tension to compression
mask: (1) Square matrix of n × n with in a distance (presumably
different values that serves as a filter approximating the grain size) that is
in image processing.8 (2) In small compared to the gage length in
radiography, a cover with an aperture ordinary strain measurement. Hence,
to view a specific area; mask plate. not detectable by dissection method.
(3) In radiographic testing, a selective Microscopic stresses can sometimes be
radiation filter. measured by X-ray shift.2
match plate: Device used in a high microsegregations: (1) Segregation within
intensity illuminator to limit the light a grain, crystal or small particle. Also
to a specific area, typically less than called coring.2 (2) Extremely narrow
the size of the film radiograph. See cracks, usually long and straight, on
mask. the surfaces of highly finished
wrought metals. Often very shallow,
material noise: Random signals caused by their identity must be established to
the material structure of the test ensure that the indications are not
object.10 A component of background from detrimental cracks, deep laps or
noise.7 long inclusion stringers.6
mathematical morphology: Image microshrinkage: Casting discontinuity,
processing technique of expanding not detectable at magnifications lower
and shrinking. The basic operators in than ten diameters, consisting of
mathematical morphology are dilation interdendritic voids. This
(expanding), erosion (shrinking), discontinuity results from contraction
opening and closing.8 during solidification where there is
not an adequate opportunity to supply
measurement system: Entire system from filler material to compensate for
sensor to display inclusive.1 shrinkage. Alloys with a wide
solidification temperature range are
mechanical properties: Properties of a particularly susceptible.2,3
material that reveal its elastic and
inelastic behavior where force is minimum line pair: Closest distance that
applied, thereby indicating its a specific imaging system can resolve
suitability for mechanical applications between a pair of adjacent, parallel
(for example, modulus of elasticity, lines (line pair) used to evaluate
tensile strength, elongation, hardness system resolution.8
and fatigue limit).2
misrun: Casting not fully formed,
resulting from the metal solidifying
before the mold is filled.3
MKSA: System of units for mechanics and
electromagnetics in which the basic
units are meter, kilogram, second and
ampere. It is a constituent part of the
SI system of units.4,14
Radiographic Testing Glossary 665
model, analytical: Representation of a nondestructive examination (NDE):
process or phenomenon by a set of Another term for nondestructive testing.
solvable equations.4,14 In the utilities and nuclear industry,
examination is sometimes preferred
mottle: In radiographic testing, because testing can imply performance
nonuniform density where it should trials of pressure containment or
be uniform, resulting from scattered power generation systems.8
radiation, secondary radiation,
forward scatter and film irregularities. nondestructive inspection (NDI):
Often confused with graininess. Another term for nondestructive testing.
In some industries (utilities, aviation),
N the word inspection often implies
maintenance for a component that
NDC: Nondestructive characterization. has been in service.8
NDE: (1) Nondestructive evaluation.
nondestructive testing (NDT):
(2) Nondestructive examination.8 Determination of the physical
NDI: Nondestructive inspection.8 condition of an object without
NDT: Nondestructive testing.8 affecting that object’s ability to fulfill
near ultraviolet radiation: Ultraviolet its intended function. Nondestructive
testing techniques typically use a
radiation with wavelengths ranging probing energy form to determine
from about 320 to about 400 nm. material properties or to indicate the
Sometimes called black light.8 presence of material discontinuities
necking down: Localized reduction in (surface, internal or concealed). See
area of a specimen or structural also nondestructive evaluation,
member during welding or nondestructive examination and
overloading.8,15 nondestructive inspection.8
neural acuity: Ability of the eye and
brain together to discriminate patterns nonrelevant indication: See indication,
from background. Discrimination is nonrelevant.
influenced by knowledge of the target
pattern, by the scanning technique normalizing: Heating a ferrous alloy to a
and by the figure/ground relationship suitable temperature above the
of a discontinuity.8 transformation range and then cooling
neutron: Uncharged elementary particle in air to a temperature substantially
with mass nearly equal to that of the below the transformation range.3
proton.11
neutron fluence: Integrated exposure numerical analysis: Technique to
(product of current and time) of generate numbers as the solution to a
neutrons per unit area. mathematical model of a physical
neutron flux: Neutron current; quantity system. Used in place of a closed form
of neutrons passing through a unit analytic expression. Usually requires
area per unit time. digital computation.4
neutron radiography: Radiographic testing
using a neutron beam. O
neutron radioscopy: Radioscopy using a
neutron beam. oil country tubular goods (OCTG):
nick: Surface indentation caused by Hollow cylindrical components used
forceful abrasion or impact. Also called to convey petroleum and related
gouge. Compare tool mark.8 products.8
noise: Any undesired signals that tend to
interfere with normal detection or one hundred percent testing: Testing of
processing of a desired signal. See all parts of an entire production lot in
graininess and mottle. a prescribed manner. Sometimes,
nondestructive characterization (NDC): complete testing entails the testing of
Branch of nondestructive testing only the critical portions of the part.
concerned with the description and Compare sampling, partial.8
prediction of material properties and
behaviors of components and systems. opening: Image processing operation of
nondestructive evaluation (NDE): erosion followed by dilation. A single
Another term for nondestructive testing. opening eliminates isolated single
In research and academic pixels. See also closing.8
communities, the word evaluation is
often preferred because it connotes organoleptic: Relying on or using sense
quantitative interpretation of organs, such as the human eye.8
nondestructive test data based on
understanding of nondestructive test orientation: Angular relationship of a
process. surface, plane, discontinuity or axis to
a reference plane or surface.7,10
orthicon: See image orthicon.8
666 Radiographic Testing
P photoreceptor: Photon sensor. Examples
include film and electronic detector
parallax: Apparent difference in position elements.8
of an imaged point according to two
differently positioned sensors.8 physical properties: Nonmechanical
properties such as density, electrical
parting line: Mark left on the casting conductivity, heat conductivity and
where the die halves meet. Also, the thermal expansion.2
surface between the cover and ejector
portions of the die.3 picture element: See pixel.
picture processing: See image processing.
pass: In welding, a single bead along the pigtail: In gamma radiography, flexible
entire weld length or the process of
laying down that bead.8 cable to which an isotope bearing
capsule may be attached for
pearlite: Platelet mixture of cementite movement in and out of a shielding
and ferrite in steels or in alpha and container.
beta phases in nonferrous alloys.8 pill: In gamma radiography, capsule
containing isotopic source of
peeling: (1) Dropping away of sand from radiation.
the casting during shakeout. (2) The pinhole porosity: Porosity, in either
detaching of one layer of a coating castings or metal formed by
from another or from the basic metal, electrodeposition, resulting from
because of poor adherence.3 numerous small holes distributed
throughout the metal.3
penetrameter: See image quality indicator. pipe: (1) Central cavity formed during
penning gage: Cold cathode ionization solidification of metal, especially
ingots, by thermal contraction.
gage. (2) Discontinuity in wrought or cast
period: Absolute value of the minimum products resulting from such a cavity.
(3) Extrusion discontinuity due to the
interval after which the same oxidized surface of the billet flowing
characteristics of a periodic waveform toward the center of the rod at the
or a periodic feature return.4,14 back end. (4) Cast, wrought or welded
peripheral vision: Seeing of objects metal tube.2
displaced from the primary line of pitting: Discontinuity consisting of
sight and outside the central visual surface cavities. See also cavitation
field.8,17 fatigue and pitting fatigue.8
phase shift: Change in the phase pitting fatigue: Discontinuity consisting
relationship between two alternating of surface cavities typically due to
quantities of the same frequency.4,13 fatigue and abrasion of contacting
philips discharge gage: Cold cathode surfaces undergoing compressive
ionization gage. loading. See also cavitation fatigue and
photoconduction: Method by which a pitting.8
vidicon television camera tube pixel: One element of a digital picture.
produces an electrical image, in which Each pixel represents a finite area in
conductivity of the photosensitive the scene being imaged. See picture
surface changes in relation to intensity element.
of the light reflected from the scene plane of focus: See focus, principal
focused onto the surface. Compare plane of.
photoemission.8 pores: (1) Small voids within a metal.
photoelectric effect: Emission of free (2) Minute cavities, sometimes
electrons from a surface bombarded by intentional, in a powder metallurgy
sufficiently energetic photons. Such compact. (3) Minute perforations in an
emissions may be used in an electroplated coating.2
illuminance meter, calibrated in porosity: Discontinuity in metal resulting
lux.8,17 Interaction of photons with from the creation or coalescence of
atoms in which the full energy of the gas. Very small pores are called
photon is absorbed by an orbital pinholes.8,15
electron, removing the electron from positive sliding: Rolling and sliding of
the atom. meshing gears or rollers when
photoemission: Method by which an directions of rolling and sliding are
image orthicon television camera tube the same.8
produces an electrical image, in which pouring basin: Basin on top of a mold to
a photosensitive surface emits receive the molten metal before it
electrons when light reflected from a enters the sprue or downgate.3
viewed object is focused on that pouring: Transferring molten metal from
surface. Compare photoconduction.8 a furnace or a ladle to a mold.3
photometry: Science and practice of the
measurement of light or photon-
emitting electromagnetic radiation.8
photon: Particle of electromagnetic
radiation.
Radiographic Testing Glossary 667
practical examination: In certification of radiant energy: Energy emitting as
nondestructive testing personnel, a electromagnetic waves. Also known as
hands-on examination using test radiation.8
equipment and sample test objects.
Compare general examination and radiant flux: Radiant energy’s rate of
specific examination.8 flow, measured in watts.8
primary radiation: Radiation emitting radiant intensity: Electromagnetic energy
directly from the target of an X-ray emitted per unit time per unit solid
tube or from a radioactive source.11 angle.
principal plane of focus: See focus, radiant power: Total radiant energy
principal plane of. emitted per unit time.8
process: Repeatable sequence of actions to radiation safety officer: Individual
bring about a desired result.8 supervising program to provide
radiation protection. The
process control: Application of quality representative appointed by the
control principles to the management licensee for liaison with the applicable
of a repeated process.8 regulatory agency.11
process testing: Initial product testing to radiographer: Person that performs,
establish correct manufacturing supervises and is responsible for
procedures and then by periodic tests industrial radiographic testing
to ensure that the process continues to operations.
operate correctly.2
radiographic interpretation:
proof test: Structural integrity test. Determination of the cause and
significance of subsurface
Q discontinuities indicated on a
radiograph.
qualification: Process of demonstrating
that an individual (or test technique, radiographic screens: Thin sheets used to
process or instrument) has the intensify the effect of radiation on
required amount and the required films.11 The screens can be made of a
type of training, experience, fluorescent material or a metal such as
knowledge and abilities. See also lead. Metallic screens absorb secondary
qualified.8 and scattered radiation, which helps
to improve image quality.
qualified: Having demonstrated the
required amount and the required radiographic testing (RT): Use of
type of training, experience, penetrating radiant energy in the form
knowledge and abilities. See also of X-rays, gamma rays or neutrons for
qualification.8 nondestructive testing of objects to
provide images of the objects’
quality: Ability of a process or product to interiors. Also called radiography.
meet specifications or expectations of
its users in terms of efficiency, radiography: Radiographic testing.
appearance, longevity and radiology: (1) That branch of medicine
ergonomics.8
which uses ionizing radiation for
quality assurance: Administrative actions diagnosis and therapy. (2) Science of
that specify, enforce and verify a electromagnetic radiation, particularly
quality control program.8 ionizing radiation.
radiometer: Instrument for measuring
quality control: Physical and radiant power of specified frequencies.
administrative actions required to Different radiometers exist for
ensure compliance with the quality different frequencies.8
assurance program. May include radiometric photometer: Radiometer for
nondestructive testing in the measuring radiant power over a
manufacturing cycle.8 variety of wavelengths.8
radioscopy: Radiographic testing
R technique in which gamma rays,
X-rays or neutrons are used to produce
R: Roentgen. an image on a video or screen display
rad: Radiation absorbed dose. Unit of as opposed to a latent image on a film.
The test object or interrogating optics
absorbed dose of ionizing radiation. may move in real time to present a
One rad is equal to the absorption of moving radiographic image.
10–5 J (100 erg) of radiation energy per
gram of matter.11 Replaced by the gray
(Gy).
radiance: Radiant flux per unit solid
angle and per unit projected area of
the source. Measured in watts per
square meter steradian. Compare
irradiance.8
668 Radiographic Testing
raster: Repetitive pattern whereby a repeatability: Ability to reproduce a
directed element (a robotic arm or a detectable indication in separate
flying dot on a video screen) follows processings and tests from a constant
the path of a series of adjacent parallel source.1,2
lines, taking them successively in turn,
always in the same direction (from top reserve vision acuity: Ability of an
to bottom or from left to right), individual to maintain vision acuity
stopping at the end of one line and under poor viewing conditions. A
beginning again at the start of the visual system with 20/20 near vision
next line. Following a raster pattern acuity under degraded viewing
makes it possible for electron beams to conditions has considerable reserve
form video pictures or frames and for vision acuity compared to that of an
a sensor bearing armature to cover a individual with 20/70 near vision
predetermined part of the surface of a acuity.8
test object.8
residual elements: Elements present in an
real time: Playback of video or audio alloy in small quantities, but not
streams at frame rate replicating the added intentionally.2
event originally recorded.
resolution: Aspect of image quality
real time radiography: Radioscopy. See pertaining to a system’s ability to
also real time. reproduce objects, often measured by
resolving a pair of adjacent objects or
recommended practice: Set of guidelines parallel lines. See also minimum line
or recommendations.8 pair and resolving power.8
Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A: See resolution, discontinuity: Property of a
ASNT Recommended Practice test system that enables the separation
No. SNT-TC-1A. of indications due to discontinuities
located in close proximity to each
reference reflector: Reflector with known other in a test object.2
dimensioned surface established to
provide an accurately reproducible resolution test: Procedure wherein a line
reference level.7 or series of lines or line pairs are
detected to verify or evaluate a
reference standard: Typical test object system’s sensitivity.8
with known artificial or natural
discontinuities of various specific sizes, resolution threshold: Minimum distance
used as a basis for test comparisons, between a pair of points or parallel
equipment calibration or determining lines when they can be distinguished
the efficiency of the discontinuity as two, not one, expressed in minutes
detection process. Also called reference of arc. Vision acuity in such a case is
or test panel, reference or test block and the reciprocal of one half of the period
reference or test piece.2 See also expressed in minutes.8,17
acceptance standard.
resolving power: Ability of detection
reinforcement of weld: (1) In a butt systems to separate two points in time
joint, weld metal on the face of the or distance. Resolving power depends
weld that extends out beyond a on the angle of vision and the
surface plane common to the distance of the sensor from the test
members being welded. (2) In a fillet surface. Resolving power in vision
weld, weld metal that contributes to systems is often measured using
convexity. (3) In a flash, upset or gas parallel lines. Compare resolution.8
pressure weld, weld metal exceeding
base metal diameter or thickness.2 robotic system: Automated system
programmed to perform purposeful
rejection level: See level, rejection. movements in variable sequences.8 See
relevant indication: See indication, automated system.
relevant. roentgen (R): Unit for measurement of
rem: Roentgen equivalent man. Unit of radiation intensity; amount of
radiation that will generate one
absorbed radiation dose in biological electrostatic unit in 1 cm–3 of air at
matter. It is equal to the absorbed dose standard atmospheric conditions. The
in rads multiplied by the quality factor roentgen (R) has been replaced by an
of the radiation.11 SI compound unit, coulomb per
remote viewing: Viewing of a test object kilogram (C·kg–1).
not in the viewer’s immediate
presence. The word remote previously root crack: Crack in either the weld or
implied either closed circuit television heat affected zone at the root of a
or fiber optic systems remote enough weld.2
so that, for example, the eyepiece and
the objective lens could be in different root penetration: Depth to which weld
rooms. High resolution video and metal extends into the root of a joint.2
digital signals can now be transmitted
around the world with little loss of RT: Radiographic testing.
image quality. Compare direct viewing.8
Radiographic Testing Glossary 669
S sensor, X-ray: In radiographic testing,
device or material that changes with
salvage tests: Testing after salvage and provides evidence of contact with
operations or testing objects that can ionizing radiation. Examples include
be repaired.2 X-ray film, X-ray sensitive phosphors
and electronic devices such as linear
sampling, partial: Testing of less than detector arrays. See detector, X-ray.
one hundred percent of a production
lot. See also one hundred percent shallow discontinuity: Discontinuity
testing.8 open to the surface of a solid object
that possesses little depth in
sampling, random partial: Partial proportion to the width of this
sampling that is fully random.8 opening. Scratch or nick may be a
shallow discontinuity in this sense.2
sampling, specified partial: Partial
sampling in which a particular shielding: Material or object used to
frequency or sequence of sample reduce intensity of or exposure to
selection is prescribed. An example of penetrating radiation.
specified partial sampling is the testing
of every fifth unit.8 shrink: Internal rupture occurring in
castings due to contraction during
scattering: Random reflection and cooling, usually caused by variations
refraction of radiation caused by in solidification rates in the mold.
interaction with material it strikes or Includes shrinkage sponge, small voids
penetrates. (stringers or bunches) or a fingerprint
pattern of semifused seams. Also
scintillation: Emission of light of specific applied to surface shrinkage cracks.2,6
frequencies after the absorption of
electromagnetic radiation, such as shrink mark: Surface depression on a
X-rays or gamma rays. casting that sometimes occurs next to
a thick section that cools more slowly
scintillation detector: Radiation than adjacent sections.3
measuring device based on use of a
scintillating material. shrinkage cavities: Cavities in castings
caused by lack of sufficient molten
scrap: (1) Manufactured materials not metal as the casting cools.2,3
suitable for intended use.
(2) Discarded metallic material that shrinkage cracks: Hot tears associated
may be reclaimed through melting with shrinkage cavities.2,3
and refining.3
shrinkage porosity or sponge: Porous
seam: (1) On the surface of metal, an metal often with a network of fine
unwelded fold or lap that appears as a cracks formed during solidification of
crack, usually resulting from a molten metal. At surface, may form a
discontinuity obtained in casting or localized, lacy or honeycombed
working. (2) Mechanical or welded penetrant indication.2
joints.3 (3) Longitudinal surface
discontinuity on metal originating SI: International System of units of
from a surface crack or blowhole near measurement. An international system
the surface of the ingot, that is drawn of measurement based on seven units:
out during rolling and follows the meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s),
rolling direction. Also due to overfill kelvin (K), ampere (A), candela (cd)
while rolling. After forging, seams and mole (mol). See also MKSA.4,14
generally follow the direction of flow
lines.2 sievert (Sv): SI unit for measurement of
exposure to ionizing radiation,
seeability: Characteristic of an indication replacing rem.
that enables an observer to see it 1 Sv = 1 J·kg–1 = 100 rem.
against the adverse conditions of
background, outside light and others.2 signal: Response containing relevant
information.4,13
segregation: Nonuniform distribution of
alloying elements, impurities or signal electrode: Transparent conducting
microphases.2,3 film on the inner surface of a vidicon’s
faceplate and a thin photoconductive
selectivity: Characteristic of a test system layer deposited on the film.8
that is a measure of the extent to
which an instrument can distinguish signal processing: Acquisition, storage,
the desired signal from disturbances of analysis, alteration and output of
other frequencies or phases.4,13 digital data through a computer.8
sensitivity: Measure of a sensor’s ability signal-to-noise ratio: Ratio of signal
to detect small signals. Limited by the values (responses that contain relevant
signal-to-noise ratio.7 information) to baseline noise values
(responses that contain nonrelevant
sensitization: Condition of exposed silver information). See noise.4,7,13
halide emulsion in radiographic film
before development. slag: Nonmetallic product resulting from
the mutual dissolution of flux and
nonmetallic impurities in smelting,
refining and welding operations.3
670 Radiographic Testing
slag inclusions: Nonmetallic solid speed of light: Speed of all radiant
material entrapped in weld metal or energy, including light, is 2.997925 ×
between weld metal and base metal.2,3 108 m·s–1 in vacuum (approximately
186 000 mi·s–1). In all transparent
slag lines: Elongated cavities containing
slag or other foreign matter in fusion materials the speed is less and varies
welds.2,3
with the material’s index of refraction,
SNT-TC-1A: See ASNT Recommended which itself varies with wavelength.8,17
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
speed of vision: Reciprocal of the
source: Machine or material from which
ionizing radiation emanates. duration of the exposure time required
for something to be seen.8,17
spalling: Cracking or flaking of small
particles of metal, usually in thin spot check tests: Testing a number of
layers, from the surface of an object.2
objects from a lot to determine the
spatial resolution: Width of smallest
region from which reliable data can be lot’s quality, the sample size being
extracted.9
chosen arbitrarily, such as five or ten
specific examination: In certification of
nondestructive testing personnel, a percent. This does not provide
written examination that addresses the accurate assurance of the lot’s quality.2
specifications and products pertinent
to the application. Compare general spot examination: Local examination of
examination and practical examination.8 welds or castings.2
specification: Set of instructions or standard: (1) Physical object with known
standards to govern the results or
performance of a specific set of tasks material characteristics used as a basis
or products.8
for comparison, specification or
spectral power distribution: Radiant
power per unit wavelength as a calibration. (2) Concept established by
function of wavelength. Also known
as spectral energy distribution, spectral authority, custom or agreement to
density and spectral distribution.8
serve as a model or rule in the
spectral reflectance: Radiant flux
reflected from a material divided by measurement of quantity or the
the incident radiant flux.8
establishment of a practice or
spectral transmittance: Radiant flux procedure.7,12 (3) Document to control
passing through a medium divided by
the incident radiant flux.8 and govern practices in an industry or
spectrophotometer: Instrument used for application, applied on a national or
spectrophotometry.8
international basis and usually
spectrophotometry: Measurement of the
luminance or illuminance produced produced by consensus. See also
by electromagnetic radiation as a
function of wavelength. acceptance standard, working standard
and reference standard.4,8,13
spectroradiometer: Instrument used for
spectroradiometry.8 standard atmospheric conditions:
spectroradiometry: Measurement of Standard temperature and pressure.
electromagnetic radiant power and
spectral emittance, used particularly to Atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa
examine colors and to measure the (14.6959 lbf·in.–2). Temperature of
spectral emittance of light sources.8 20 °C (293.15 K, 68 °F or 527.67 °R).
spectroscope: Instrument used for The density of dry air at these
spectroscopy.8 conditions is 1.2041 kg·m–3
(0.07517 lbm·ft–3).1
spectroscopy: Spectrophotometry or steel: Iron alloy, usually with less than
spectroradiometry in which the two percent carbon.8
spectrum, rather than being analyzed
only by a processing unit, is presented Stefan-Boltzmann law: Relationship
in a visible form to the operator for
organoleptic examination.8 governing the wavelength
spectrum: (1) Amplitude distribution of independent rate of emission of
frequencies in a signal.7
(2) Representation of radiant energy in radiant energy per unit area. The law
adjacent bands of hues in sequence
according to the energy’s wavelengths relates the total radiation intensity to
or frequencies. A rainbow is a well
known example of a visible spectrum.8 the fourth power of absolute
spectrum response: Amplification (gain) temperature and emissivity of the
of a receiver over a range of
frequencies.7 material surface. For example,
intensity (heat flow) from a copper
block at 100 °C (212 °F) is 300 W·m–2
(95 BTU·ft–2·h–1). (Stefan-Boltzmann
constant for photon emission =
1.52041 × 1015 photon·s–1·m–2·K–2.)9
step wedge: Stepped wedge.
stepped wedge: Reference object, with
steps of various thicknesses in the
range of tested parts’ thicknesses, for
the radiographic testing of parts
having thickness variations or
complex geometries. The stepped
wedge must be made of material
radiographically similar to that of the
radiographic test object and may
include penetrametric features (such as
calibrated holes) in any or all steps.
Radiographic Testing Glossary 671
stereo imaging: Imaging technique T
involving the capture and display of
two images of the same object from test piece: Part subjected to testing.
different angles. Binocular viewing test quality level: See level, rejection.
simultaneously of the two images test surface: Exposed surface of a test
simulates a three-dimensional viewing.
object.2,7
stereo radiography: Radiographic testing thermoluminescent dosimetry: Means of
using stereo imaging.
measuring radiation dose by using a
strain: Alteration of the shape of a material that stores energy due to
material by external forces. irradiation, which energy can be
measured as light emission when the
stress: (1) In physics, the force in a material is heated.
material that resists external forces threshold: See adaptive thresholding,
such as tension and compression. resolution threshold and threshold level.
(2) Force per unit area.8 threshold level: Setting of an instrument
that causes it to register only those
stress corrosion cracking: Failure by changes in response greater or less
cracking under combined action of than a specified magnitude.4,13
corrosion and stress, either applied or thresholding: (1) Digital data processing
residual. Cracking may be either technique that reduces a gray level
intergranular or transgranular, image into a binary image.8
depending on the metal and corrosive (2) Filtering out signals below a
medium.2 selected energy or amplitude.
throat, actual: Shortest distance from the
stress raiser: Contour or property change root of a fillet weld to its face, as
that causes local concentration of opposed to theoretical throat or weld
stress.8 size.8
throat, theoretical: Distance from the
stress riser: See stress raiser. beginning of the root of the weld
stringer: In wrought materials, an perpendicular to the hypotenuse of
the largest right triangle that can be
elongated configuration of inscribed within the cross section of
microconstituents or foreign material the fillet weld. Compare weld size.8
aligned in the direction of working. throat, weld: Distance from the root of a
Commonly, the term is associated fillet weld to its face. Compare weld
with elongated oxide or sulfide size and throat, actual.8
inclusions in steel.2 toe crack: Base metal crack at the toe of a
strobe: Of or pertaining to irradiation or weld.2
lighting that flashes intermittently at a tolerance: Permissible deviation or
rate that may be adjusted, that is often variation from exact dimensions or
perceived as a flicker and that is used standards.2
to image moving objects or still tool mark: Shallow indentation or groove
objects with potential movement.8 made by the movement of
structural integrity test (SIT): Test that manufacturing tools over a surface.
demonstrates the capability of a vessel Compare gouge or nick.8
to withstand specified internal trace: Line formed by an electron beam
pressure loads. Proof test. scanning from left to right on a video
subcase fatigue: Fatigue originating below screen to generate a picture.8
the case depth. Compare case crushing. tungsten inclusions: Inclusions in welds
Also called spalling fatigue.8 resulting from solidified droplets,
subcase origin fatigue: See subcase particles or splinters of tungsten from
fatigue. welding electrodes.2
substrate: Layer of metal underlying a tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding: See gas
coating, regardless of whether the tungsten arc welding.
layer is base metal.2
subsurface discontinuity: Any U
discontinuity that does not extend
through the surface of the object in underbead crack: Subsurface crack in the
which it exists.2 See near surface base metal adjacent to the weld fusion
discontinuity. zone.2
subsurface fatigue: Fatigue cracking that
originates below the surface. Usually undercut: Undesirable depression or
associated with hard surfaced or shot groove left unfilled by weld metal,
peened parts but may occur anytime created by melting during welding and
subsurface stresses exceed surface located in base material at the toe of a
stresses.8suppression: See reject. weld.2,8
survey meter: Portable instrument that
measures rate of exposure dose or
ionizing radiation intensity.11
Sv: Sievert.
672 Radiographic Testing
undercut, film: Scattering phenomenon worm holes: Elongated or tubular cavities
in X-ray film where the edges of a due to entrapped gas. Also called
high contrast feature are blurred. pipes.2
unit die: Die block that contains several X
cavity inserts for making different
kinds of die castings.3 X-ray: Penetrating electromagnetic
radiation emitted when the inner
unsharpness, geometric: Fuzziness or orbital electrons of an atom are
lack of definition in a radiographic excited and release energy. Radiation is
image resulting from the source size, nonisotopic in origin and is generated
object-to-film distance and the source- by bombarding a metallic target with
to-object distance.11 high speed charged particles, usually
electrons.
upper confidence limit: Calculated value
constructed from sample data with the X-ray diffraction (XRD): Radiographic
intention of placing a statistical upper testing technique used for material
boundary on a true leakage rate.1 characterization, based on change in
scattering of X-radiation as a result of
V interaction with test material. See also
diffraction.
video: Pertaining to the transmission and
display of images in an electronic X-ray fluorescence (XRF): Radiographic
format that can be displayed on a testing technique used for material
screen.8 characterization, based on
wavelengths of fluorescence from
video presentation: Electronic screen material irradiated by X-rays.
presentation in which radiofrequency
signals have been rectified and usually XRD: X-ray diffraction.
filtered.7,12 XRF: X-ray fluorescence.
vidicon tube: Television tube that uses Z
the photoconduction method. Compare
image orthicon.8 zircon sand: Highly absorptive material
used as a blocking or masking medium
visible light: Radiant energy in the 400 to for drilled holes, slots and highly
700 nm wavelength range.6 irregular geometries to reduce
scattering during radiography.3
vision acuity: Ability to distinguish fine
details visually. Quantitatively, it is the
reciprocal of the minimum angular
separation in minutes of two lines of
width subtending one minute of arc
when the lines are just resolvable as
separate.8
voids: Hollow volumes, depressions or
cavities. See also discontinuity and
dislocation.8
W
weld bead: Deposit of filler metal from a
single welding pass.2
weld crack: Crack in weld metal.2
weld line: Junction of the weld metal and
the base metal or the junction of base
metal parts when filler metal is not
used.2
weld metal: That portion of a weld that
has been melted during welding.2
weld nugget: Weld metal in spot, seam or
projection welding.2
weld size: Thickness of weld metal — in a
fillet weld the distance from the root
to the toe of the largest isosceles right
triangle that can be inscribed in a
cross section of the weld.8
weld throat: See throat, weld.
working standard: Work piece or energy
source calibrated and used in place of
expensive reference standards. In the
calibrating of photometers, the
standard would be a light source.8
Radiographic Testing Glossary 673
References
1. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third 13. E 268-81, Definitions Approved for Use
edition: Vol. 1, Leak Testing. by Agencies of the Department of Defense
Columbus, OH: American Society for as Part of Federal Test Method Standard
Nondestructive Testing (1998). No. 151b and for Listing in the DoD
Index of Specifications and Standards.
2. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third Philadelphia, PA: American Society for
edition: Vol. 2, Liquid Penetrant Testing. Testing and Materials (1981).
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (1999). 14. IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical
and Electronic Terms. New York, NY:
3. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
second edition: Vol. 3, Radiography and Engineers, distributed by
Radiation Testing. Columbus, OH: Wiley-Interscience, a division of John
American Society for Nondestructive Wiley and Sons (1984).
Testing (1985).
15. EPRI Learning Modules. Charlotte, NC:
4. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Electric Power Research Institute
second edition: Vol. 4, Electromagnetic (various years).
Testing. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing 16. 1992 Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
(1986). Section 3, Metals Test Methods and
Analytical Procedures: Vol. 03.03,
5. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Nondestructive Testing. Philadelphia,
second edition: Vol. 5, Acoustic PA: ASTM International (1992).
Emission Testing. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive 17. IES Lighting Handbook: Reference
Testing (1987). Volume. New York, NY: Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America
6. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, (1984).
second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic Particle
Testing. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(1989).
7. Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
second edition: Vol. 7, Ultrasonic
Testing. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(1991).
8. Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
second edition: Vol. 8, Visual and
Optical Testing. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (1993).
9. Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
second edition: Vol. 9, Special
Nondestructive Testing Methods.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (1995).
10. Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
second edition: Vol. 10, Nondestructive
Testing Overview. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (1996).
11. NDT Terminology. Wilmington, DE: E.I.
du Pont de Nemours & Company,
Photo Products Department (n.d.).
12. Nondestructive Testing Methods.
TO33B-1-1 (NAVAIR 01-1A-16)
TM43-0103. Washington, DC:
Department of Defense, United States
Air Force (June 1984): p 1.25.
674 Radiographic Testing
Index
Users of the CD-ROM version of this book are urged to read its instructions aircraft
and take advantage of its search function, a powerful indexing tool that can, backscatter imaging of aluminum skin, 390
with a single command, provide access to all occurrences of a given word backscatter imaging of corrosion, 396-397
throughout the entire book. The following printed index is necessarily more brazed honeycomb structures, 547, 547-548, 549
selective. corrosion detection using reversed beam scanning, 416-418, 417
dynamic neutron radioscopy of engines, 446
Page references in italic type indicate illustrations. Page references followed fatigue cracking of fuselage, 3
by table indicate material in tables. flight test inspection, 545-547, 547
helicopter composite rotor/propeller blades, 548-549
Readers are encouraged to consult this volume’s glossary: glossary entries panel neutron radiography, 439
are not entered in the index. radioscopic imaging, 254
residual stress measurement, 429
A wing crack detection using reversed beam scanning, 415-416, 416
See also jet engine turbine blades
A 4907. See Korean Standards Association
A 4921. See Korean Standards Association air image, 293
ablative thrust chamber radiography, 552-555 airport security screening, 588, 588-590, 589
absorbed dose, 119 ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) dose, 120, 133
absorbers, 49, 131 alarming rate meters, 98-99
absorption alarm signals, 127
alloy castings, 459. See also castings
alpha particles, 45 alloy identification, 590
beta particles, 45
and film radiography, 152-153 by energy dispersive spectrometry, 431
neutrons, 45-47 alpha case, 558
and photoelectric effect, 48-49 alpha particles
X-rays, 57-58
absorption analysis, 427 absorption by matter, 45
absorption edge densitometry, 573 discovery, 38
absorption edges, 49, 611 emission, 43
selected elements, 612-651table Altarpiece of the Mystic Lamb (Van Eyck), radiographic evaluation, 600
accelerator neutron sources, 53, 442-443 aluminum
safety aspects, 134 adhesive bonded composite structures, 557
See also linear accelerators attenuation coefficients, 383, 619table
acceptance criteria, 14 aviation component radiography, 544
castings, 465-466 backscatter imaging of aircraft skin, 390
nuclear fuel rods, 530 backscatter tomography of sheets, rivets and pellets, 392-393, 393
power and process piping, 516 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
welds, 489-490 cold shuts in castings, 463
See also reference standards contrast sensitivity phantom, 333
acid stop bath, 234 digital radiography of tube welds, 297
acoustic emission testing, 10, 10-11 dimensional measurement phantoms, 338
acoustic methods, 11 exfoliate corrosion, 396
Acropolis, gamma radiography, 595 false radiographic indications in welds, 507-509, 508
acrylic, hounsfield value, 314table gas cavities in welds, 496
actinium series, 52 honeycomb panel neutron radiography, 439
activation foils, 104-105 hounsfield value, 314table
activator, in film development, 234 image analysis of casting, 358
adhesive bonded composite structures, 557, 559, 559-560 inclusions in castings, 463
adhesives, X-ray absorption, 552, 553 incomplete penetration in welds, 496
aerospace applications, 543-544 inspection with thulium-170, 78
advanced material techniques, 559-565 lack of fusion in welds, 497
aviation component radiography, 544-549 lead foil screens for, 159
inspection with thulium-170, 78 maximum filter thickness, 157
simulation tools, 564 microfocus radioscopy of aircraft honeycomb, 408
space flight component radiography, 550-558 porosity in castings, 461, 462
Aerospace Material Specification (AMS). See SAE International radiation gaging, 576
afterglow, 293 radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
agreement states, 114, 117-118 radiological detection and identification, 590
air scattered radiation, 153
hounsfield value, 314table shrinkage in castings, 462
mass attenuation coefficient, 611 step wedge image analysis, 364-365
air bells, 205 tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table
aluminum bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table asphalt radiography, 591
ambient dose equivalent, 32, 119 ASTM International (formerly American Society for Testing and Materials).
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ASTM C 638, 16table
ANSI/API Recommended Practice 1104, 516 ASTM E 94, 16table, 488, 589
ANSI/ASME B31.1, 17table ASTM E 142, 485, 589
ANSI/ASME B31.3, 17table ASTM E 155, 16table
ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 15, 17table ASTM E 170, 16table
ANSI N43.9-1991, 17table ASTM E 186, 16table
ANSI PH2.8-1975, 17table ASTM E 192, 16table
ANSI film standards bibliography, 251 ASTM E 242, 16table
ANSI Type I exposure devices, 79, 80, 80-83 ASTM E 272, 16table
ANSI Type II exposure devices, 83, 83-84, 84 ASTM E 280, 16table
American Petroleum Institute (API) ASTM E 310, 16table, 468
API 510, 17table ASTM E 390, 16table, 464
API 570, 17table ASTM E 431, 16table
API 650, 17table, 489, 528 ASTM E 446, 16table
API 653, 529 ASTM E 505, 16table
API 1104, 17table, 489, 516, 516 ASTM E 592, 16table
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) ASTM E 666, 16table
ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP), 15 ASTM E 689, 16table
ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 15, 17table, 18 ASTM E 746, 16table
history of, 26-27 ASTM E 747, 16table, 174, 175, 516, 518
Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel (IRRSP) ASTM E 748, 16table
ASTM E 802, 16table
program, 117-118 ASTM E 803, 16table, 441
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). See ASTM International ASTM E 975, 16table
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. See ASME Boiler and Pressure ASTM E 999, 16table
ASTM E 1000, 16table
Vessel Code ASTM E 1025, 16table, 173, 175, 485, 516, 516, 517, 518
American Welding Society (AWS) ASTM E 1030, 16table
ASTM E 1032, 16table, 589
AWS D1.1, 17table, 479, 481, 489 ASTM E 1114, 16table
AWS D14.3/D14.3M, 489 ASTM E 1161, 16table
amorphous selenium detectors ASTM E 1165, 16table
for digital radiography, 284, 287, 290-291, 298, 298 ASTM E 1254, 16table, 178
discontinuity centers, 293 ASTM E 1255, 16table
for microfocus radiography, 404 ASTM E 1320, 16table
properties, 286table ASTM E 1390, 16table
amorphous silicon detectors ASTM E 1411, 16table
calibration, 356 ASTM E 1441, 16table
for digital radiography, 284, 287, 290, 294, 296, 296-298, 297 ASTM E 1453, 16table
for microfocus radiography, 404, 407 ASTM E 1475, 16table
properties, 286table ASTM E 1496, 16table
for radioscopy, 279 ASTM E 1570, 16table
AMS (Aerospace Material Specification). See SAE International ASTM E 1647, 16table
annihilation, 45 ASTM E 1648, 16table
and pair production, 50 ASTM E 1672, 16table
anode grounded circuit, 65 ASTM E 1734, 16table
anodes, 57 ASTM E 1735, 16table
X-ray tubes, 61, 61-62, 63, 63 ASTM E 1742, 16table, 486, 489
ANSI. See American National Standards Institute ASTM E 1814, 16table
antimony, attenuation coefficients, 640table ASTM E 1815, 16table, 228
antiparticles, 39 ASTM E 1894, 16table
API. See American Petroleum Institute ASTM E 1931, 16table
Apollo booster engine, 556 ASTM E 1936, 16table
archaeology applications, 596 ASTM E 1955, 16table
archival storage of film, 178, 243 ASTM E 2002, 16table
arc strikes ASTM E 2033, 16table
castings, 464 ASTM E 2104, 486, 489
welds, 481, 499, 499 ASTM E 2116, 16table
arc welding ASTM F 629, 16table
flash radiography, 412-413 ASTM F 947, 16table
radioscopy, 502, 502-506, 503, 504 ASTM F 1035, 16table
area detectors, image digitization, 350 Committee E-7 on Nondestructive Testing, 27
area monitoring, 123, 125, 127 image quality indicators (penetrameters). See image quality indicators
area viewers, 191 international standards, 15, 16table
argon, attenuation coefficients, 621table ISO versus ASTM film classifications, 228table
artifacts. See radiographic artifacts standards for metal castings, 460
artillery shells, 21 test standards, 15, 16table
backscatter imaging, 380, 395 atomic attenuation coefficient
scanning microdensitometry of fuses, 197 defined, 50, 610
art radiography, 598-601 selected elements, 612-651table
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 17table atomic mass unit, 31
butt joints, 483 atomic number, 39
castings acceptance criteria, 466 atomic structure, 38-41, 57
and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 174 atomic weight (relative atomic mass), 610-611
lap joints, 484 attenuation, 44-45, 48-51
lead foil screens, 487 gaging, 570-571
nuclear pressure vessels, 527 and image analysis, 347
power and process piping, 517, 518 See also absorption; scattering
pressure vessels, 526
tanks, 529
weld acceptance criteria, 489
ASNT. See American Society for Nondestructive Testing
676 Radiographic Testing
attenuation coefficients bone
defined, 50-51, 610-611 hounsfield value, 314table
gamma attenuation with and without scatter, 51 radiography, 596
neutrons, 440table, 447table
selected elements, 612-651table boron
attenuation coefficients, 557
audit, of radiation safety procedures, 115-117 capture cross section, 47table
automatic defect recognition, 406-407
boron fiber composites
image analysis, 371-374 attenuation in adhesive bonded, 557
automotive applications backscatter imaging, 390
assembly line radioscopy, 278 boron trifluoride neutron detector tubes, 104, 122, 123
digital radiography, 300 bouwers-schmidt lenses, 271
radioscopic security inspection of truck, 589, 590 Boy with Still Life (Baum), radiographic evaluation, 600, 601, 601
spark plug microfocus radioscopy, 407 branching, 43
tire radiation gaging, 577 brass
wheel radioscopy, 279
aviation component radiography, 544-549. See also aircraft inspection with cobalt-60, 75
AWS. See American Welding Society radiographic equivalence factors, 152, 153table
brass filters, 156
B brazed honeycomb structures, 547, 547-548, 549
brazing, automatic defect recognition, 406
background scatter, 348 bremsstrahlung, 44, 56-57
backscattered radiation, 154, 154 bridge radiography, 591, 592, 596
backscatter imaging, 28 bridge wire igniter, 447
bridge wire squid, 438
applications, 395-399 broad beam shielding, 133
multiaperture collimator, 388 bronze
principles, 379-387 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
for radiation gaging, 392, 573 tensile property relation to radiographic indications, 465table
reconstruction and image processing techniques, 392-394 brumlein line generators, 411
sensitivity, 393-394 building materials, density of selected commercial, 133table
techniques, 388-391 building radiography, 593
backscatter tomography, 392 historic buildings, 594-596
badge plants, 133 burnthrough, interpretation in welds, 211, 211
badges butt joints, 475, 475-476
body, 103 exposure setup, 483-484
film, 108, 121-122 in-process radioscopy of arc-welded, 502, 506
bad pixels, 357
baggage scanners, 588-590 C
ball grid arrays
image analysis, 356-357, 357, 361, 362 cable radiography, 537
solder joints, 579 cadmium
barium, attenuation coefficients, 643table
barium clay diaphragms, 155 attenuation coefficients, 638table
barium fluorobromide, europium activated, 287, 294 capture cross section, 47table
barrels, digital radiography of contents, 300 neutron absorption by, 47
barriers, 127 X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table
baseball bat radiography, 587 cadmium tungstate, properties, 260table
battery flashlight computed tomography, 327 calcium, attenuation coefficients, 622table
battery powered densitometer, 194 calcium fluoride, europium-activated
beam focusing, X-ray tubes, 60-61 properties, 260table
beam hardening for radiation gaging, 575
and computed tomography, 336 calcium tungstate
and image analysis, 349, 360, 365, 392-393 properties, 257table
becquerel (Bq), 31, 42, 119 relative light yield, 257table
Belle (ship), radiography of artifacts, 596-597 spectral emission, 258
beryllium calibration
attenuation coefficients, 613table densitometers, 194-195
grid diaphragms for radiography of, 157 low level transforms, 356-359
neutron attenuation coefficients, 447table radiation detection instruments, 126
beta disintegration, 46 californium-252, 104
beta particles for neutron radiography, 443-445, 444
absorption by matter, 45 spontaneous fission, 44
discovery, 38 californium-252 exposure devices, 134
emission, 43-44 Caligula statue radiography, 598, 599, 599
maximum range versus energy, 131 Canadian General Standards Board
See also electrons CAN/CGSB-48.3-92, 17table
betatron generator, 69 CAN/CGSB-48.5-95, 17table
betatrons, 68, 68-69 CAN/CGSB-48.9712-95, 17table
for nuclear vessel radiography, 526 CAN/CGSB-48-GP-2M, 17table
bismuth germanate, 100table, 260table capacitor microfocus radiography, 407
bitmapped graphics, 276table Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, radiographic testing of gallery, 595, 595
blob analysis, 362, 372 Capitol building, radiographic testing of walls, 595
blowholes capping, 319
interpretation in castings, 214, 214 carbon
interpretation in welds, 501 attenuation coefficients, 614table
body badges, 103 hounsfield value, 314table
body scan tomography. See laminography carbon-to-carbon composites, computed tomography, 335
bohr atom, 38, 39-41, 40 cargo transport, digital radiography application, 300
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. See ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
boilers, 514 Index 677
effect of discontinuities, 3
boiling water reactor radiography, 526, 526-527
castings, 453-454 cobalt-60, 52, 74table, 74-75
aerospace components, 556, 558 attenuation with fuel rods, 533
computed tomography of turbine blades, 326 bibliography, 86-87
flash radiography, 412, 412-413 disintegration, 75
image analysis of aluminum, 358 exposure devices, 82, 82-83
interpretation of discontinuities, 213-217 gamma ray source, 128table
interpretation report, 201 gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131
radiographic indications, 461-464 gamma spectra, 75
radiographic techniques for, 455-460 half value thickness, 51table
radiographic testing and process scheduling, 465-466, 467-468 for nuclear vessel radiography, 526
radiographic testing problems, 467-468 source for castings, 455table
repair welds, 464, 465 temporary field site versus permanent facility, 116
codes, 187-188, 489. See also ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code; reference
cast iron, 459 standards
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, 595 coherent scattering. See elastic scattering
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table cold cracks, interpretation in welds, 212
cold neutrons, attenuation by selected elements, 447
cathode grounded circuit, 65 cold shuts, 463, 463
cathode rays, 21 interpretation in castings, 216-217
cathodes, 57 collimation
in computed tomography, 305
X-ray tubes, 60 and image analysis, 351
cavity shrinkage, 461-462 in megavolt radiography, 158
cellulose radiography, 586 neutrons, 440
CEN 584, 17table in radioscopy, 262, 271
center grounded circuit, 65 color conditioning, 240
centimeter-gram-second (CGS) units, 29 color lookup tkaiblolgesr,am35(4C, *3k5g4-1-3;5r6ep, l3a5c5es, 359
certification. See personnel qualification and certification coloumb per roentgen), 31-32, 119
cesium, attenuation coefficients, 642table compact disk (CD) data storage, 275
cesium-137, 53, 74table, 75-76 comparator, with etched glass reticle, 192
comparator block, 521, 521-522
attenuation by fuel rods, 533 composites
bibliography, 86 adhesive bonded, 557
disintegration, 76 aviation component radiography, 547, 547-548
gamma ray source, 128table backscatter imaging, 390, 397-398
gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131 computed tomography, 335
gamma spectra, 75 inspection with thulium-170, 78
half value thickness, 51table See also honeycomb structures
source for castings, 455table compound units, 32, 120
cesium iodide scintillators, 266 compton scattering, 49, 347
in digital radiography, 289, 297 attenuation coefficient, 610
discontinuity centers, 293 defined, 49, 380-382, 382
properties, 257table, 260table for radiation gaging, 571-572
spectral emission, 258 for radiological material detection, 590
channel electron multipliers, 266-267 computed tomography, 28, 303-305
characteristic curve, 167, 167-169, 222, 224, 223-227, 242-243 aerospace components, 561-562, 562
gamma, 232, 233, 243 applications, 323-327
intensifying salt screen exposed, 243 back projection filtering, 314
of films exposed with lead foil screens, 169 body scan method, 304
typical industrial film, 224, 225 capabilities, 323table
characteristic X-rays, 44, 57 with collimated fan beam and linear detector array, 305
charge coupled devices, 269 contrast, 316-317, 332-334
for digital radiography, 294, 298, 298-300 contrast discrimination curves, 334
for film digitization systems, 180-181 data acquisition and reconstruction, 312
intensified, 271, 279 effective aperture, 308
properties, 286table fuel rods, 533-536
for radioscopy, 269-271 imaging process, 346, 347, 349
sensitivity compared to vidicons, 270 and material density, 334-335
chemical industry applications. See utility, petroleum and chemical industry mechanical handling, 320
principles of, 310-315
applications probability distribution for feature detection, 332
chemical spot testing, 11 for radiation gaging, 573
chemical streaks, 204, 204 reference standards, 328-338
chill inserts, 463 resolution, 316-317
chloride contamination detection, in roads, 591-592 shape inspectability versus conventional radiography, 325table
chlorine, capture cross section, 47table source-object-detector configurations and effective beam widths, 316
chromium, attenuation coefficients, 625table system design, 318-322, 321, 321table
chromium-51, gamma ray source, 128table system generations, 319
cigarette radiation gaging, 573, 577, 586 system size versus cost, 322
cinefluorography, rocket engines, 554, 554-555 system size versus sensitivity to detail, 322
civil structure radiography, 591, 592-593 tradeoffs in detectors, 351
clustered porosity See also laminography; phantoms
concavity, in welds, 211, 212, 212
interpretation in welds, 498 concrete
welds, 478 backscatter imaging, 398-399
coarse scattered porosity, in steel welds, 498 gamma ray transmission through, 131
coatings and infrastructure radiography, 591, 591-592
backscatter imaging, 381
thickness gaging, 571, 573, 576
cobalt
attenuation coefficients, 628table
capture cross section, 47table
shielding equivalents, 132table
X-ray transmission under broad beam conditions, 133
concrete shooting booth, 130
cone beam computed tomography, 320
678 Radiographic Testing
Conference for Radiation Control Program Directors, 118 delamination
confined space, 19 ablative thrust chambers, 555
consultants, 13 surface mounted components, 582
consumer goods radiography, 584-587 welds, 478, 480
contrast detail dose curves, 328
contrast discrimination curves, 329 delayed cracks, interpretation in welds, 212
contrast sensitivity, 346, 348 delay streaks, 205
dendritic shrinkage, 461, 462
computed tomography, 317, 332-334 dense inclusions, 208, 215, 215
control strips, 242 densitometers, 165, 194-198
convexity (excessive penetration), in welds, 210-211 density
convolution function, in computed tomography, 313-314
Coolidge Award, 27 backscatter based estimation, 385, 398
copper castings, versus radiographic sources, 460table
and computed tomography, 334-335
attenuation coefficients, 630table limitations of radiographic testing, 12
dimensional analysis of pipe, 367-370, 367-370 optical, of film, 141, 164-165, 190-198
inspection with cobalt-60, 75 selected building materials, 133table
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table See also radiation gaging
radiological detection and identification, 590 density phantoms, 335, 336
segregation in castings, 217 dental work, microfocus radioscopy, 408
copper diaphragms, 155 Department of Transportation (United States)
copper filters, 156 concrete radiography research, 591
core shift, 463 pipeline radiography research, 517
interpretation in castings, 217, 217 radioactive material transportation regulations, 118
corner joints, 476, 477 depleted uranium shields, 132
exposure setup, 484, 484-485 for ANSI Type I exposure devices, 81
radiographic procedure, 495 for ANSI Type II exposure devices, 83
corrosion depth profiling, 390-391, 392
backscatter imaging of aircraft, 396-397 computed tomography, 311
backscatter imaging of pipelines, 397 detectors. See radiation detectors
in power and process piping, 519-523 deuterium, 42
reversed geometry scanning beam radiography of aircraft, 416-418, 417 Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN) standards, 17table
cosmic radiography, 595-596 for castings radiography, 458
cosmic rays, 39, 52 DIN 6814, 17table
cost benefit analysis, 13 DIN 6832-2, 17table
crack detection, 2, 5table, 6table DIN 25430, 17table
aircraft wings, using reversed beam scanning, 415-416, 416 DIN 54109, EN 462 P1 (DIN) and ASTM E 747, 174, 175, 183
aviation components, 544 DIN 54115, 17table
backscatter imaging, 387 DIN EN 444, 17table
first uses of radiography, 26 DIN EN 12681, 17table
interpretation in castings, 216, 216 DIN EN 14096, 17table
interpretation in welds, 212 image quality indicators (penetrameters), 174, 175, 458
nuclear fuel rods, 530, 534 for radioscopy, 277
steel welds, 491-495, 492 See also image quality indicators, wire type
visibility and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 175-176 Deutsche Institut für Normung. See Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN) standards
See also castings; discontinuities; welds developer, 163, 241-242
cracks faults from, 233table
types in castings, 463 MQ and PQ, 232
types in welds, 480 and spotting artifacts, 204, 205
crater cracks, 480 development. See film development
interpretation in welds, 212 diaphragms, for reduction of scattering, 155
crimp marks, 177, 202, 202 grid type, 157-158
crookes tube, 21, 23 diffused p-n junction detector, 106-107, 107
cross sections, 46-47, 50 digital audio tape (DAT) data storage, 275
selected elements, 47table, 612-651table digital fluoroscopy, aerospace structures, 562
See also individual elements digital images, 349-351
crown (static mark), 240, 240 colorizing, 354
cruise missile computed tomography, 326, 327 practical considerations, 351-352
crystals transform techniques, 356-366, 357table
latent image site, 221 visual enhancement, 353-356
residual stresses, 428-429 See also computed tomography
X-ray diffraction, 427-428, 428 digital laminography. See laminography
cupping, 319 digital radiographic imaging, 283-284
curie (Ci), 31, 42, 119 detectors for, 284-288, 296-300, 351
current mode detectors, 574, 575 image contrast and signal statistics, 289-295
cyclotrons, 53, 443 imaging process, 346, 347, 349
substitute for flash radiography, 410
D digital transmission densitometer, 194
digital video disk (DVD) data storage, 275, 276
dam radiography, 593, 596 dimensional measurements
darkroom technique, 237 image analysis, 366-370
debris formation and relocation, in nuclear fuel rods, 533-535 phantoms for, 336-338, 337
decay constant, 42 DIN standards. See Deutsche Industrie Norm
deexcitation, 100 directional dose equivalent, 32, 119
defects. See discontinuities direct reading dosimeters, 94
defect standard, 441 dirt, radiographic artifacts caused by, 203, 205
definition, 170, 171 discontinuities
heat treatment effects, 465
types in castings, 461-464
types in welds, 478-481
Index 679
discontinuity detection, 2, 26, 5table, 6table epithermal neutron radiography, 447
depth detection using stereo radiography, 419-426 epithermal neutrons, 104table
and imaging method selection, 14 equivalent dose, 32
interpretation for castings, 213-217 equivalent sensitivity of image quality indicator (penetrameter), 174-175
interpretation for welds, 207-212 erosion, of power and process piping, 519-523
limiting factors in detection, 12 European wire image quality indicators (penetrameters), 174, 175
in pipelines, 517 europium, capture cross section, 47table
and radiographic sensitivity, 458-459 examinations, for certification, 18
reliability, 19-20 excessive penetration (convexity), in welds, 210-211, 211
visibility and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 175-176 excitation, 45
See also automatic defect recognition; castings; crack detection; welds exfoliate corrosion, 396
explosives
disintegration, 42
disintegration rate, 119 aerospace, 557
disposal, radioactive materials, 118 backscatter imaging, 381
distillation column radiography, 523 flash radiography, 410
dose. See radiation dose neutron radiography, 438, 447
dosimeters, 121-122, 123 exposure, 119, 243
for castings, 459
direct reading, 94 in film radiography, 139-151, 221-222, 231
energy dependence of response, 94 exposure charts, 165-167
performance specifications, 95table exposure control, 127-129
DOT. See Department of Transportation (United States) exposure devices
double beam microdensitometry, 196 with crankout and tube guide, 81
dross, 461 guide tube collimators for, 82
interpretation in castings, 214-215 isotope radiation sources, 77, 80, 80-84
drugs. See pharmaceuticals safety considerations, 116-117
drying, of film, 230, 244 with source exchanger, 83
dual energy techniques, 28 exposure factor, 149-150, 166
dynamic neutron radioscopy, 446
dynodes, 101 F
dysprosium, capture cross section, 47table
fabric radiation gaging, 577
E false indications, 202
eddy current testing, 8, 8-9 aluminum alloy welds, 507-509, 508
edge joints, 477, 477 See also radiographic artifacts
faraday (unit of charge), 38
exposure setup, 485 fast neutron radiography, 447
edge spread function fast neutrons, 46, 104table
shielding, 134
computed tomography, 329, 331, 332 fatigue corrosion, 396
and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 277 feature space, 356
effective apertures, 308 females, radiation exposure, 120
elastic scattering fermi distribution, 43
defined, 380 fiber glass
neutrons, 46 attenuation in adhesive bonded composites, 557
electromagnetic radiation, 48-51 radiation gaging, 577
electromagnetic spectrum, 48 fiber optic scintillators, 290, 291, 298, 299
electron beam welding, flash radiography, 412-413 fiber optic tapers, 299
electron capture, 44 field emission, 410
electronic components FIFO (first-in, first out) system, of film storage, 240
image analysis, 359, 360 filamentary shrinkage, 461, 462
laminography, 306 fillet welds, 476
radioscopy, 578-583, 584 on corner joints, 484
surface mounted, 582 exposure setup, 485
tantalum capacitor microfocus radiography, 407 film badges, 121-122, 122
electronic dosimeters, 122 film, radiographic
electronic quenching, in geiger-müller counters, 97 artifacts, 202
electronic radiation sources, 55-58 base, 231
generator construction, 59-66 contrast, 170, 171
for high voltage radiography, 63, 63-66, 66 emulsion, 231
for megavolt radiography, 67-70 graininess, 171-172, 227
standards, 14 handling, 177
electronic radioscopy, 28 film development
electron linear accelerators, 69, 69-70, 70 artifacts associated with, 204-205
electrons chemistry, 230-236, 231-234
atomic structure, 38 darkroom technique, 237
capture, 44 equipment and practice, 238-240
and latent image formation, 108 latent image, 108-109, 219-229, 230
production from incident photon, 50 processing technique, 241-246
radiation detection instruments, 123 silver recovery, 247-249
radiation protection measurement, 121-122 film digitization systems
See also beta particles charge coupled device, 180-181
electronvolt, 31 laser, 181
electrostatic generators, 67, 67-68, 68
elemental analysis, by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 429-431
elementary particles, 38-41
EN 12679, 17table
encapsulated isotope sources, 79, 79-80
enclosed installations, 127-128
energy conservation, 56
energy dispersive spectrometry, 427, 429, 429
instrumentation for, 431
energy levels, 40-41
680 Radiographic Testing
film radiography gamma ray attenuation gaging, 570, 570-571
absorption and scattering, 152-158 gamma radiography
automatic processing, 233-234, 236, 245-246
characteristic curve, 167, 167-169, 169, 222, 224-226 audit procedures, 116-117
equivalent exposure ratios, 168table backscatter imaging, 398
exposure, 139-151, 221-222, 222, 231 bibliography, 85-88
exposure charts, 165, 165-167, 166 of buildings and structures, 594, 595, 597
film choice for castings, 458-459 exposure charts, 167
film choice for welds, 482-483 infrastructure applications, 591
film classification, 228table jet engine inspection, 552, 553
film digitization, 180-182 and pulsed fast neutron analysis, 590
film handling and storage, 177-179, 240, 488 See also isotope radiation sources
image quality and detail visibility, 170-176 gamma rays, 38
industrial X-ray films, 163-169 attenuation, 48-51
screens for, 154-155, 159-162 attenuation with and without scatter, 51
sensitivity, 151 dissipation in matter, 152
source strength, distance and time relations, 147-149 dosage, 455-456
transmittance, opacity and density relationships, 162table as electromagnetic radiation, 48
X-ray spectral sensitivity curve, 228 emission, 44, 142
exposure control installations, 127-128
film scratches exposure factor, 150
after processing, 206 and ionization, 91
before processing, 202 radiation damage from, 293-294
radiation detection instruments, 123, 124, 125
film shipping, 177 radiation protection measurement, 121-122
film speed, 226, 243-244 radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
transmission through concrete, 131
relative values, 226table transmission through lead, 131
shifts in curve position with salt screens, 243 gamma ray sources
filmless radiography. See radioscopy bibliography, 86-88
filters, 155-157 for castings, 455-456
effect on X-ray intensity, 156 output, 128table, 129
final edge joints, 477 shielding equivalents, 132table
fine scattered porosity, in steel welds, 498 skyshine from, 131
finger marks, 177, 204 for welds, 482
fingerprints, 204 gas discharge tubes, 410
fire-on-position data acquisition, 320 gas filled detectors, for radiation gaging, 574
fission fragments, 53 gas ionization detectors, 91-99
fission track counting systems, 122 gaskets, neutron radiography, 438
fixation, 230, 235 gas void porosity
fixer, 234-235, 244 castings, 454, 461, 462
flashlight computed tomography, 327 interpretation in castings, 214, 214, 468
flash radiography, 28, 409-413 interpretation in welds, 496
flash X-ray diffraction, 413 welds, 478
flash X-ray tubes, 410-411, 411 geiger-müller counters, 97, 125
flaws. See discontinuities described, 96-99
Flemish art, radiographic evaluation, 600 energy response curves, 98
flickered imaged technique, 423-424, 424 quenching in, 97
flight test aircraft inspection, 545-547 for radiation gaging, 574
fluid flow radiography, 524, 524-525 resolving time, 96
fluorescence scattering, 381, 384 Gemini space vehicle, 552, 553
fluorescent screens, 161-162, 162, 164 geometric enlargement, 146, 147
artifacts associated with dirt, 203, 205 geometric unsharpness, 60, 145-146, 146
and graininess, 227 welds, 477
for radioscopic imaging, 254, 256-259, 279 germanium, attenuation coefficients, 632table
fluoroscopy, 254-255 germanium detectors
fluoroscope, 23, 24 gamma ray efficiency, 107
See also radioscopy for radiation gaging, 575-576
flying spot scanning, 389, 389-390 sodium iodide (thalium-activated) compared, 101
focus cup, X-ray tubes, 60 surface barrier, 106
fog, 203, 225 ghost defects, 507, 508
and darkroom technique, 237, 238 glass, high density, 290
and development, 233 properties, 260table
food radiography, 585, 585 glass dosimeters, 122
digital, 300 glass X-ray tube, 59
fossil radiography, 596 gold
fourier transforms attenuation coefficients, 648table
in backscatter imaging, 388, 392 capture cross section, 47table
in computed tomography, 310, 314, 329, 332 gold-198
and image analysis, 348 gamma ray source, 128table
and modulation transfer function, 292 gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131
frame averaging, in imaging systems, 352 golf ball radiography, 587
freeman chain code algorithms, 356, 356, 363 go/no-go gage, 175. See also image quality indicators
fuel injector image analysis, 355 government licensing, 114, 118
fuel rods/elements. See nuclear fuel government regulations, 117-118, 514
future usefulness, and nondestructive testing, 2 graetz circuit, 64, 64
gadolinium, capture cross section, 47table graphite composites
gadolinium oxysulfide, 266, 290 attenuation in adhesive bonded, 557
relative light yield, 257table epoxy woven stiffener computed tomography, 326
spectral emission, 258 gray (Gy; replaces rad), 32, 119
gaging. See radiation gaging gray wedge, 195-196
gain decrease, 293-294 greinacker circuit, 64, 64-65
gamma (of characteristic curve), 232, 243
gamma versus temperature curve, 233 Index 681
grid diaphragms, 157-158 image transform techniques, 356-366
groove welds, 475, 475-476, 477 inadequate penetration. See incomplete penetration
inclusions
radiographic procedure, 495
castings, 463, 463, 468
H interpretation in castings, 214-215
interpretation in welds, 207-208, 219
H and D (Hurter and Driffield) curve. See characteristic curve welds, 478-479
half life, 42-43 incomplete fusion
half value layer (thickness), 131, 132table, 264table castings, 464
welds, 479-480
common materials, 51table incomplete penetration
defined, 51 castings, 464
hard disk data storage, 275 interpretation in welds, 208-209, 209, 496, 497, 501
hardener, in film development, 234 welds, 479
Hatteras Lighthouse, radiographic testing of gallery, 595, 595 indium, capture cross section, 47table
helicopter composite rotor/propeller blades, 548-549 industrial radiography. See specific applications, materials and techniques
herring bone porosity, 478 inelastic scattering, 46
Higashi Honganji Temple, cosmic radiography, 596, 596 infrared testing, 11, 11
high intensity illuminators, 190-192, 191 infrastructure radiography, 591-593
high low defect, 211, 212, 212 inherent geometry, 338
high voltage radiography, 67 in-house programs, 13
pulsed sources for flash radiography, 411 in-motion radiography, 28
radiation sources for, 63, 63-66, 66 aerospace components, 559, 559-560, 560
See also megavolt radiography aviation components, 545, 545-549
highway radiography, 591 in-process nondestructive inspection, 502
histogram equalization, 417 integrated circuits. See printed circuits
historic building radiography, 594-596 integrating instruments, 93, 123
historic ship radiography, 596-597 intensified charge coupled device cameras, 271, 279
hole image quality indicators (penetrameters), 172-174 intensified silicon intensifier targets, 272
hollow bead porosity, 207, 208 interactive image enhancement, 353-354, 359
holmium, capture cross section, 47table Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), radioactive
holography, 11
honeycomb structures material transportation requirements, 118
aerospace components, 557, 559, 559-560 interlacing, 275
aviation components, 544, 547, 547-548, 549 intermediate neutrons, 104table
backscatter imaging, 390 International Air Transport Association, radioactive material transportation
microfocus radioscopy, 408
neutron radiography of aluminum, 439 requirements, 118
hot cells, 79, 84, 442, 443 International Atomic Energy Agency, radioactive material transportation
hot cracks, 480
interpretation in welds, 212 requirements, 118
hot line X-ray fixture, 537 International Committee for Weights and Measures, 31
hot stick, 537-538, 538 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 18-19
hot tears, 216, 216, 463, 468, 480
hounsfield values, 314table ISO 2504, 17table
Hunley (Civil War submarine), radiography of artifacts, 597, 597 ISO 3999, 17table
Hurter and Driffield (H and D) curve. See characteristic curve ISO 7004, 17table
hydride detection, 557 ISO 9712, 17table, 19
hydrogen, attenuation coefficients, 557, 612table ISO 9915, 17table
hydrogen cracking, 480 ISO 11699, 17table, 228
hyperons, 39 ISO versus ASTM film classifications, 228table
hypo retention, 234, 235-236 Technical Committee 135, 19
interpretation. See radiographic interpretation
I inverse square law, for radiation attenuation, 23, 44-45
and radiographic exposure, 146-147, 147
icicles, 211 investment castings, 558
illuminators, 190-192, 191 iodine, attenuation coefficients, 641table
image analysis, 345-346 ionization, 91, 91
by alpha particles, 45
automated testing techniques, 371-374 by electromagnetic radiation, 49
digital images and processing schemes, 346-352 ionization chambers, 91, 121, 125
techniques and radiographic tests, 353-370 current amplifier for, 93
image intensifier tubes, 254, 265, 265-266, 271-273 described, 91-93
for aviation component radiography, 548 energy and directional response, 92
spectral matching, 267-268 externally located on survey instruments, 93
image isocons, 272-273, 273, 274table, 279 for radiation gaging, 574
image processing ionizing radiation, 56, 90
backscatter imaging, 392-394 effect on scintillators, 100
qualitative assessment of electronics, 582-583 effect on semiconductors, 106
image quality indicators and penetrameters, 486-487 ion pair, 91
ASTM E 747, 516, 518 iridium, capture cross section, 47table
for castings, 458 iridium-192, 41table, 74, 76-77
film radiography, 172-176 bibliography, 87
and image analysis, 353 decay curves, 456
for microfocus radioscopy, 408 disintegration, 76
for neutron radiography, 441 exposure devices, 80, 81
for computed tomography, 328-338, 329table, 330, 333, 335, 337 gamma ray exposure chart, 166
plaque type, 172, 174, 458, 485, 486 gamma ray source, 128table, 455table
for power and process piping, 516, 517, 518, 518, 519 gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131
for radioscopy, 277 gamma spectra, 75, 77
sensitivity and discontinuity visibility, 175, 486table half value thickness, 51table
for weld radiography, 485-487, 486 for pipeline radiography, 515
wire type, 173-175, 174, 277, 458, 458table, 486, 486, production, 52
682 Radiographic Testing
iron lead
attenuation coefficients, 383, 627table attenuation coefficients, 383, 649table
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table filters, 156, 158
hounsfield value, 314table gamma ray transmission through, 131
inspection with cobalt-60, 75 masks and diaphragms, 155
X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table for overprinting to identify radiographs, 488
See also stainless steel; steel radiographic equivalence factors, 152, 153table
radiographic quality, 155
ISO. See International Organization for Standardization shielding equivalents, 132table
isocon cameras, 272-273, 273, 274table, 279 X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table
isotope radiation sources, 73-74
lead foil screens, 154-155, 159-161
encapsulation, 79-80 artifacts associated with dirt, 203
exposure devices, 77, 80, 80-84 characteristic curves of films exposed with, 167, 169
leak testing of sealed, 126 and film graininess, 172, 227
selection of isotopes, 74-78 kilovoltage effect on intensification properties, 160
semiannual audits, 116-117 for radioscopy, 259-260
source handling equipment, 79-84 uniformity of electrons emitted, 161
source tube for pipe radiography, 528 for weld radiography, 487
standards, 14
temporary field site versus permanent facilities, 116 lead resolution tester, 405
leak testing, 10
J
of isotope sealed sources, 126
Japanese Standards Association (JSA) lenard tube, 23
JSA K 7091, 17table Lester Honor Lecture, 27
JSA K 7521, 17table Liberty Bell, radiographic testing prior to moving, 597, 598
JSA Z 4560 licensing, 114, 118
light bulb radiography, 587
jet engines lighthouse radiography, 595, 595
flash radiography, 413 light leaks, 203, 203-204
inspection, 552, 552, 553 light pole radiography, 593, 593
lightroom, 237
jet engine turbine blades limited angle tomography, 320
computed tomography, 305, 323, 326, 561-562, 562 linacs, 69
flash radiography, 413 linatrons, 53
microfocus radiography, 406, 560-561, 561 linear accelerators
neutron radiography, 438, 556-557
for flash radiography, 411-412
joints, 475-477 for megavolt radiography, 69-70
Joseph Conrad, radiographic testing of hull, 596 for nuclear vessel radiography, 70, 526, 526-528
JSA. See Japanese Standards Association for radioscopy, 264
linear attenuation coefficient
K defined, 50, 610
selected elements, 612-651table
K 7091. See Japanese Standards Association linear detector arrays
K 7521. See Japanese Standards Association for computed tomography, 305
K absorption edge, 49, 611 for digital radiography, 286table, 288, 290, 294, 300
image digitization, 349
fluorescent screens, 259 for nuclear fuel tomography, 536
selected elements, 612-651table linear diode arrays
K capture, 44 for airport bagging screening, 589
kinefluorography, 554, 554-555 for consumer goods radiography, 584
kissing, 205 linear porosity
knowledge-of-position systems, 320 interpretation in welds, 207, 498
Korean Standards Association (KSA) welds, 478
KSA A 4907, 17table line focusing, X-ray tubes, 60, 60
KSA A 4921, 17table line pair gages, 329
KSA M 3910, 17table line pair resolution phantom, 330, 330
KSA. See Korean Standards Association line spread function
computed tomography, 328, 329-332, 331
L and image analysis, 368
liquid level gages, 524-525
L absorption edge, 49 liquid penetrant testing, 8, 8, 27
lack of fusion, 496, 497, 503 castings, 465
liquid propellant rocket motors, 555-556
aluminum alloy welds, 507, 509 lithium, capture cross section, 47table
interpretation in welds, 209, 210 lithium drifted detectors, 107, 107
lag, 293 lithium-6 fluoride dosimeters, 122
lamellar tearing, 478, 480 properties, 102-103
laminography, 28, 305 lithium iodide scintillators, 100table
corrosion detection in aircraft with reversed geometry scanning, 417-418 for neutron detection, 104
described, 304, 306-309 locks, 127
effective aperture, 308 longitudinal cracks, in welds, 212, 213, 213
generalized mathematical solution, 307 lookup tables, 354, 354-356, 355, 359
scanned beam system, 306 low level transforms, 356
for tank radiography, 529 luminescent dosimetry, 102-103, 122
See also digital radiographic imaging
lanthanum bromide, relative light yield, 257table
lanthanum hypobromite, spectral emission, 258
lap joints, 476-477, 477
exposure setup, 484
laser film digitization systems, 181
lateral migration radiography, 395-396
Index 683
M multiscale, multiresolution transforms, 356, 363-364, 364
mummy radiography, 594
M 3910. See Korean Standards Association munitions. See explosives; ordnance
magnesium
N
attenuation coefficients, 618table
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table narrow beam shielding, 133
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table National Building Code of Canada, 489
shrinkage in castings, 462 National Institute of Standards and Technology, 125
magnetic particle testing, 8, 27 natural radioactivity, 52
castings, 465 navy bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
magnifiers, 192, 193 NCRP 61, 17table
manganese, attenuation coefficients, 626table neutrinos, 39
manganese bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table neutron absorbers, 47
manganese-nickel-aluminum bronze, tensile property relation to radiographic neutron activation, 52
neutron capture, 46, 52
indications, 465table neutron detectors, 104-105
marble statue radiography, 598, 599 neutron gaging, 448, 573
marx-surge generators, 411 neutron induced autoradiography, 448
masks and diaphragms, 155 neutron interferometry, 448
neutron radiography
and interpretation, 192
mass attenuation coefficient aerospace components, 556-557
applications, 437-439
defined, 50, 610-611 dynamic radioscopy, 446
selected elements, 612-651table epithermal, 447
matrix effects, in spectrometry, 430 fast, 447
measure, units of, 29-32 for fluid flow measurements, 524
medical radiography for high and low density materials, 12
computed tomography, 305 imaging, 264, 440-441
first use of radiography, 21, 24 radiation safety, 134-135
interpretation reproducibility, 186 special techniques, 446-448
market size, 28 static radiography with thermal neutrons, 440-445
megavolt radiography subthermal, 446
electronic radiation sources, 67-70 training and experience recommended, 18table
film storage, 178 neutrons
microfocus radioscopy, 406 atomic structure, 39
scattering in, 158 capture, 46, 52
See also high voltage radiography classification, 104table
Mehl Honor Lecture, 26, 27 interactions, 45-47
mercury, capture cross section, 47table radiation detection instruments, 126
mesons, 39 radiation protection measurement, 122
metal ceramic X-ray tube, 59 neutron sensitive screens, 259
metal detector wands, 587 neutron sources, 53, 441-443
microchannel plates, 266-267, 267 radiographic isotope creation, 74-78
in intensified charge coupled devices, 271 safety aspects, 134
microfilm, 178-179 neutron tomography, 447-448, 530, 534-536, 535
microfocus radiography, 28, 404, 404-408 aerospace components, 562-563
aerospace components, 560-561, 561 newvicon, 272, 273
of electronics, 578-583 characteristics, 274table
microfocus X-ray tubes, 62 nickel
microshrinkage. See shrinkage attenuation coefficients, 629table
microshrinks. See shrinkage digital radiography of bucket blades, 300
MIL-STD. See military specifications radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
military specifications nickel silver, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
MIL-B-21250A, 465table niobium, attenuation coefficients, 635table
MIL-S-15083, 465table nitrogen, attenuation coefficients, 615table
MIL-STD-453, 486, 489 nondestructive testing
mine detection, backscatter imaging for, 395-396 applications, 4
mine rock anchor bolts, scanning microdensitometry, 198 defined, 2
mismatch, interpretation in welds, 211, 212 methods classification, 4-6
misruns, 463 methods overview, 7-12
interpretation in castings, 217, 217 objectives, 5table, 6table
mobile neutron radiography system, 444 purposes, 2-4
mobile radiation sources, 14 specifying tests, 186-187
moderators, 46 test objects, 5-6
modular radiation enclosure, 130 value of, 7
modulation transfer function Nondestructive Testing Handbook series, 27
computed tomography, 328, 329-332, 331, 332table nonmetallics, 207
and imaging, 277, 277-279, 290, 292, 292-293, 348-349 nonrelevant indications, 202
and laser film digitization systems, 181 no umbra device, 441
moiré imaging, 11 NRC. See Nuclear Regulatory Commission
moisture measurement, 572, 573 nuclear cross sections. See cross sections
molybdenum, attenuation coefficients, 636table nuclear fission, 46
monitors, 354 nuclear fuel, 530-536
for radioscopy, 275 cesium-137 recovery from, 76
morphological transforms, 356, 360-363 digital radiography, 300
motion blur, in radioscopy, 262 flash radiography, 413
motorcycle neutron radiography, 440 neutron radiography, 441
mottling, 454, 463-464 scanning microdensitometry, 197
and film radiography, 158 thickness measuring system for microspheres, 530, 531
quantum, 227, 262, 289 nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 311
screen mottle, 162, 171-172
moving detector depth scanning, 388-389, 389
MQ developers, 232
684 Radiographic Testing
nuclear neutron absorption, 46 personnel monitoring instruments
nuclear power plants dose rate versus effective energy, 98
geiger-müller counters, 98-99
inservice inspection with linear accelerator, 70, 526-528 ionization chambers, 93-94
piping radiography, 517, 518
pressure vessel radiography, 526 personnel qualification and certification, 13, 15, 18-19, 186
nuclear radiographic service centers, 442 ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 17table
nuclear reactor neutron sources, 441-442 ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 17table, 18table
radiographic isotope creation, 74-78 ISO 9712, 17table
safety aspects, 134 for radiation safety, 19, 117-118
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 114 See also training
permissible doses, 120
reporting of leaking isotope sources, 126 petroleum industry applications. See utility, petroleum and chemical industry
safety personnel certification, 117-118 applications
waste disposal licensing, 118
nuclear transmutation, 46 phantoms, 310, 335-338
nuclear waste categories and measurement technique, 329table
computed tomography, 536 for contrast sensitivity, 333
disposal licensing, 118 for dimensional measurement, 336-338, 337
nucleonic gaging, 570, 576-577 and image analysis, 351
line pair resolution, 330
O for material density, 335, 336
for medical computed tomography, 328
object scatter, 348 nuclear waste drum, 536
observed contrast, in radioscopy, 261-262
Occupational Safety and Health Standards, 17table, 19 pharmaceuticals
onion radiography, 585 backscatter imaging, 381
open installation, 128 radiation gaging, 577
optical coupling radiographic testing, 586-587
digital radiography, 299 phosphors, 256, 257table
radioscopy, 269, 271 for digital radiography, 284, 286, 290-291, 291
optical density, 141, 164-165, 190-198 in neutron detection, 104
optically stimulated luminescence dosimetry, 103 for personnel dosimetry, 122
optical testing methods, 11 spectral emission, 267
optotype, 189 typical glow curve, 102
ordnance
aerospace, 557 photocathodes, 101, 574
backscatter imaging, 388, 395-396 response spectrum in image intensifiers, 267
microfocus radioscopy, 406
O-rings photocurrent signal, 270
neutron radiography, 438, 557 photoelectric effect, 347
neutron tomography of aerospace, 562, 563
overlap, interpretation in welds, 210 attenuation coefficient, 610
oxidation, repair welds in castings, 464 defined, 48-49
oxtail, 63 photographic density, 141, 164-165
oxygen, attenuation coefficients, 616table density versus exposure, 226
The Oyster Eater (Ensor), radiographic evaluation, 600 and exposure, 226
paper radiographs, 195
P quality control, 242-243
photoluminescent glass dosimeters, 122
packaging radiography, 587 photomultiplier tubes, 100-101, 101
packaging tape, attenuation gaging, 572 with laser film digitization systems, 181
paintings, radiographic testing, 598-601 in thermoluminescent dosimeters, 103
pair production, 347 photon attenuation coefficients. See attenuation coefficients
photons, 48-50, 56-57
attenuation coefficient, 610 characteristics, 48table
defined, 49, 50 pair production from incident, 50
paper photoelectric interaction of incident with orbital electron, 49
moisture content gaging, 572 Pietà statue radiography, 598, 599, 599
radiation gaging, 576-577 pigtail, 79, 79, 80, 81, 83
paper radiographs pillowing, 396-397
density, 195 pi marks, 205, 205
viewing, 192-193 pinhole cameras, for backscatter imaging, 388
parallax, and stereo radiography, 419-423, 420 pipeline radiography, 515-517
partial volume effect, 317 backscatter imaging of corrosion, 397
particle physics radioscopic imaging, 254
electromagnetic radiation, 48-51 residual stress measurement, 429
elementary particles, 38-41 pipe radiography
radioactive material production, 52-63 automated defect recognition in welds, 372, 372-374, 373
radioactive material properties, 42-47 dimensional analysis of copper, 367-370, 367-371
passenger jet flight test radiography, 545-546, 547 nuclear power plants, 527-528, 528
pellet implosion studies, flash radiography application, 413 power and process piping, 517-525
penetrameters. See image quality indicators piping (weld porosity type), 478
penetrating radiation, 22, 23, 48 interpretation, 478
penstock radiography, 592, 592 pixel pitch, 292
perception, 189-190 plaque penetrameters. See image quality indicators
periodic table, 40, 41 plastics, radiation gaging, 577
permissible doses, 120 plastic scintillators, 100
persistence curves, 257-258 for neutron detection, 104
personal dose equivalent, 32 plated through-hole (PTH) solder joints, 579
personnel dosimetry, 121-122 platinum, attenuation coefficients, 647table
clip-on devices, 122 plumbicon, 272, 273
personnel monitoring, 127 plutonium, attenuation coefficients, 651table
pocket ionization chambers, 93-94, 94
pocket knife, digital laminography, 308, 309
point clouds, 363, 369
point spread function, 348-349
computed tomography, 328, 329
Index 685
polonium, 38 radiation safety, 19
porosity, 2 doses, 119-120
exposure control, 127-129
castings, 454, 461, 464 exposure levels, 119-120
interpretation in castings, 213-214, 214 management, 114-118
interpretation in welds, 207, 207-208, 495, 496, 498, 499 neutron radiography, 134-135
repair welds in castings, 464 protection measurements, 121-126
welds, 478 shielding, 130-133
Portrait of Gaspard Gevartius (Rubens), radiographic evaluation, 600 standards and practices, 17table
positron emission tomography (PET), 311 See also dosimeters; personnel certification; radiation dose
positrons, 39
production from incident photon, 50 radiation safety officer, 114-117
potassium-40, 52 and changes to protective enclosures, 130
power line radiography, 537-538
power piping radiography, 517-525 radiation sources, 14, 55-88
PQ developers, 232 for flash radiography, 411
predetermined liquid level gage, 525 for metal castings, 455-456, 467
pressure marks, 203, 203, 205, 205 output, 129
pressure vessel radiography, 526-528, 527 for radioscopy, 263-264
pressurized water reactor radiography, 526-527 for welds, 482
primary X-ray photons, 347 See also electronic radiation sources; isotope radiation sources
printed circuits
laminography, 306 radiation surveys, 123, 125, 127
microfocus radiography, 405 and shielding wall thickness, 123, 125, 127
radioscopy, 578-583 survey meter, 121
process piping radiography, 517-525
projection microfocus radioscopy, 264, 404-408 radiation, units of measure for, 29-32, 42, 119-120
proportional counters, 94-95 radiation weighting factors, 119table
for neutron detection, 104 radioactive decay, 43, 43-44
for radiation gaging, 574 radioactive materials
proportional region, 574
protective enclosures, 130-131 production, 52-63
protective installation, 127 properties, 42-47
protons, 38-39 transportation and disposal, 118
pulsed fast neutron analysis, 590 radioactive neutron sources, safety aspects, 134
pulsed high voltage sources, for flash radiography, 411 radio frequency quadrupole accelerators, 443
Pyramid of Khafre, cosmic radiography, 596 radiographer certification, 15, 18-19, 117-118
pyrotechnic devices radiographic artifacts
aerospace, 557 aluminum alloy welds, 507-509, 508
neutron radiography, 438, 446, 447 computed tomography, 336
in digital radiography, 295
Q radioscopic, 206
types of, 202-206
qualification. See personnel qualification and certification viewing accessories for interpreting, 192
quality control, 188 radiographic contrast
defined, 170, 243
of film processing, 242-244 and film development, 223-225, 226-227
quality factor, 119-120 and film exposure, 150-151
quantum mottle, 227, 262, 289 and kilovoltage, 151
quantum noise, 360 radiographic equivalence factors, 152-153, 153table
quantum theory, 48 radiographic interpretation, 14, 185-188
quartz fiber pocket dosimeter, 94 castings, 213-217, 468
densitometers for, 194-198
R reporting, 198-201
reproducibility, 186
rad (radiation absorbed dose), 32, 119 viewing equipment, 190-193
radiation absorption. See absorption vision acuity and perception, 189-193
radiation attenuation. See attenuation welds, 207-212
radiation conversion material, 287 See also radiographic artifacts
radiation damage, 293-294 radiographic parallax, 420
radiographic sensitivity
thresholds, 265table defined, 170
radiation detectors, 122-123 and discontinuity detection, 458-459
and film exposure, 151
calibration, 126 radiographic shadows, 143, 143-144, 144
choice, 123-125, 350table radiographic shooting sketches, 199
See also radiation gaging; radiation measurement; radiation safety; and castings, 457
radiographic testing
specific detectors advances in, 28
radiation dose advantages and disadvantages, 12, 454
audit procedures, 115-117
definitions, 32, 119-120 essential steps of, 186
dosage rate, 32, 74-75, 120, 128-129, 455-456 history, 21-28
dose equivalent, 32, 119 imaging and viewing, 14, 189-193
See also personnel certification; radiation safety management, 12-20
radiation gaging, 28, 570-573 personnel qualification and certification, 15, 18-19, 18table
application case histories, 576-577 reliability, 19-20
backscatter imaging application, 392, 573 representative setup, 7
detector types, 573-576. See also radiation detectors; test procedures, 13-15, 16-17table
See also radiation detectors; radiation measurement; radiation safety radiographs
radiation measurement, 89-90, 122-126. See also radiation detectors; radiation identification, 177
setup for making with X-rays, 140
gaging; radiation safety subtleties, 364-366
radioscopic artifacts, 206
radioscopic imaging system, 255
radioscopic weld penetration control, 505, 505-506
686 Radiographic Testing
radioscopy, 14, 253-255 S
arc welding, in-process, 502, 502-506, 503, 504
cameras for, 269-274 SAE International (formerly Society of Automotive Engineers) standards, 489
consumer goods, 584-587 SAE AMS-STD-2175, 466, 470
of electronics, 578-583, 584 SAE AMS 2635C, 17table
image quality, 261-264 SAE ARP 1611A, 17table
image systems, 265-268 SAE AS 7114/4, 17table
light conversion, 254, 256, 256-260 SAE AS 1613A, 17table
optical coupling, 269, 271
of pipeline weld quality, 517 safety
projection microfocus, 404-408 film development, 244-245
recording equipment, 275-276 increased public demand for, and nondestructive testing, 4
sources for, 263-264 See also radiation safety
systems, 277-279
viewing and recording, 275-276 safety factor, 3
See also digital radiographic imaging; fluoroscopy salting, 353, 374
samarium, capture cross section, 47table
radium, 38 sand castings, 459
bibliography, 88 sand inclusions, 461
gamma ray source, 128table
gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131 interpretation in castings, 214
radium-226, 52, 74 Saturn rocket motor radiography, 550
scanned beam laminography system, 306
radon, publications on 88 scanning microdensitometry, 195-198
railroad car security inspection, 590
Randall’s Mill (Higgens), radiographic evaluation, 600-601, 601 example graphs, 197
rate instruments, 123 scattering
rayleigh scattering. See elastic scattering
reader’s sheet, 199 and film radiography, 153-158, 154
real time radiography. See radioscopy and image analysis, 347-349
rebar, gamma radiography of steel, 591 material, scattering as function of, 382-384
recertification, 18 and megavolt radiography, 158
reciprocity law, 148, 149 and radioscopic imaging, 262
reduction, 154-158, 155
failure of, 228-229, 229 and resolved diameter, 386
recombination region, 574 single and multiple, 382, 384-387, 385
reconstruction types of, 45-47, 49, 380-382
See also backscatter imaging; compton scattering; elastic scattering
in backscatter imaging, 392-394 scatter-to-primary ratios, 348
in computed tomography, 312, 312-314 scintillation, 100, 100, 574
reference standards, 187-188 scintillation detectors, 125
for automated defect recognition, 374 described, 100-101
for casting radiography, 460, 468 image digitization, 349-351
for computed tomography, 328-338 for neutron detection, 104
for radiographic testing, 14-15, 16-17table for radiation gaging, 574-575
for weld radiography, 489-490 scintillator plates, 260
See also image quality indicators; phantoms; specific standards scintillators, 100table
regulations, 12, 514 and beam hardening, 349
relative atomic mass (atomic weight), 610-611 degradation, 366
relative biological effect, 119 properties, 260table
relative film speed, 244 scramming, 127
relativistic neutrons, 104table scrap film, 248
reliability, of radiographic testing results, 19-20 scratches, 202, 206
rem (roentgen equivalent man), 32, 119 screen effect, X-ray tubes, 60-61, 61
replenishers, 233, 242 screen gamma, 259
residual hypo, 234 screen marks, 203
residual stress, X-ray diffraction measurement, 428-429 screen mottle, 162
resistor spark plugs, microfocus radioscopy, 407 SDRAM (synchronous dynamic random access memory) chips, 355
resonance fluorescence scattering, 381 seals
resonance peaks, 47 neutron radiography, 557
resonant transformer X-ray machines (resotrons), 67, 67 radiography of tamper evident, 584
restricted areas, 120 security applications, 28
reticulation, 244 digital radiography, 300
reversed geometry scanning beam technique, 288, 414, 414-418 radioscopic detection of contraband (circa 1910), 23
aerospace components, 563-564 X-ray screening for airport security, 588, 588-590, 589
aircraft wing crack detection, 415-416, 416 seeds, radiographic testing, 585-586
for digital radiography, 286table, 294 segregation, interpretation in castings, 217
reverse engineering, by computed tomography, 324 selenium
rhenium, capture cross section, 47table attenuation coefficients, 633table
rhodium, capture cross section, 47table selenium-75, properties, 78
robotics selenium-75, publications on, 87-88
assembly line radioscopy of automotive parts, 278, 279 self-quenching gas, in geiger-müller counters, 97
use in radioscopic imaging, 254, 255, 264 semiconductor detectors
rocket engines and motors described, 106-107
computed tomography, 323 for radiation gaging, 575
liquid propellant, 555-556 See also amorphous selenium detectors; amorphous silicon detectors;
small ablative thrust chambers, 552-555
solid propellant, 550-552 germanium detectors; silicon detectors
rod anode, X-ray tubes, 63, 63 sensitometric curve, 167
roentgen (R), 31-32, 119, 120 sensitometric density, 141, 164-165
roentgen rays, 22 sensitometry, 230, 242-243
root cracks, interpretation in welds, 212, 214, 214 service companies, 12-13, 439
rotating anode X-ray tubes, 61, 432 shearography, 11
rutherford scattering, for radiation gaging, 573 shielding, 130-133
neutron radiography, 134-135
shields, 127
Index 687
shifts, 463 specific ionization, 91
interpretation in castings, 217 spectrometer mode detectors, 574, 575-576
spectroscopy, 11
ship radiography, 596-597 speed of light, 31
shooting sketches, 199, 457 sponge shrinkage, 216, 461, 462, 462
shrinkage spontaneous fission, 44
spontaneous fission neutron sources, safety aspects, 134
castings, 461-462 sports equipment radiography, 587
interpretation in castings, 215-216, 468 spotting, 204, 204-205
microshrinkage, 215, 461, 462, 462 spot viewers, 191
shrinks. See shrinkage stainless steel
shrinkwrap codes, 356, 356, 363
sievert (Sv; replaces rem), 32, 119, 120 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
sight developing, 245 density gaging, 572
signal-to-noise ratio fuel rod radiography, 531
computed tomography, 333-334 mottling, 463
for digital radiography, 294 nuclear vessel radiography, 527
and image analysis, 346 pipe weld discontinuities, 499-501
silicon, attenuation coefficients, 620table tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
silicon bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table See also steel
silicon detectors standards. See reference standards
gamma ray efficiency, 107 starter solution, 233
for radiation gaging, 575-576 state licensing, 114
surface barrier, 106 state regulations, 117-118, 514
See also amorphous silicon detectors static marks, 161, 203, 239, 240, 240
silicon intensifier targets, 272, 273 statistics
characteristics, 274table digital radiographic imaging, 289, 289-295
silver radioscopy, 268
attenuation coefficients, 637table Statue of Liberty, gamma radiography, 594
capture cross section, 47table steam generator radiography, 528
recovery in film development, 247-249 steel
sludge, 249 aviation component radiography, 544
silver bromide, 163, 221, 221, 227, 231 backscatter imaging, 387, 395
developed grain, 223 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
silver flake, 249 crack detectability in welds, 491-495
silver halide film, 231 energy dispersive spectrometry of sheet, 431
industrial X-ray films, 163 exposure of part containing two thicknesses, 171
latent image formation, 108-109, 220, 220-222 fluorescent screens for, 161-162
See also film development fuel injector image analysis, 355
silver sulfide, 220, 234, 244 gamma radiography of rebar in concrete, 591
simulation, aerospace applications, 564 incomplete penetration in welds, 497
single-pixel noise, 360 in-motion radiography of aviation components, 545
SI units, 29-32 inspection with cobalt-60, 75
skyshine, 130, 130-131 inspection with iridium-192, 76-77
slag inclusions inspection with thulium-170, 78
castings, 464 lack of fusion in welds, 497
interpretation in castings, 214, 215 lead foil screens for, 159
interpretation in welds, 207-208, 208, 499 line resolution phantom, 330
welds, 478-479 maximum filter thickness, 157
slit collimated linear detector arrays, 350 nuclear fuel rods in steel can, 534-535
slit imaging, for backscatter imaging, 388-389 optical density obtained through 13 to 16 mm, 225table
slow neutrons, 46, 104table pipe weld radiography, 517
smudge (static mark), 240, 240 porosity in castings, 462
SNARK, 311 porosity in welds, 498
Society of Automotive Engineers. See SAE International radiation gaging, 576, 577
sodium, attenuation coefficients, 617table radiographic equivalence factors, 152, 153table
sodium iodide scintillators, 100table radiological detection and identification, 590
for digital radiography, 288 scattered radiation, 153
germanium detectors compared, 101 slag inclusions in welds, 499
properties, 260table tensile property relation to radiographic indications, 465table
for radiation gaging, 575, 576 tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
soil, and infrastructure radiography, 591 X-ray exposure chart, 165
solder joints X-ray potential and general thickness limit, 482
automated process test systems, 578-580, 579 See also stainless steel
automatic defect recognition, 406 steel diaphragms, 155
solid propellant rocket motors, 550-552, 551 step wedge, 364-365, 365, 366
solid state detectors. See semiconductor detectors stereo radiography, 419-426, 421
sonde length, 398 display designs, 425
source. See radiation sources flaw geometries permitting calculation of average flaw displacement, 423
source shutdown mechanisms, 127 flickered imaged technique, 423-424, 424
space charge, 57 storage phosphors, 287-288, 294
space flight component radiography, 550-558 properties, 286table
spallation, 46 strain gaging, 11
spark plugs, microfocus radioscopy, 407 streak artifacts, 348
spark testing, 11 stress corrosion, 396
spatially invariant transforms, 356, 359, 359-360 stress riser, 209, 210, 478, 479, 480
spatial resolution, 346, 348-349 strip film viewers, 191
digital radiography, 292-293 subject contrast, 170-171
specific activity, 455 in radioscopy, 261
specifications, 14-15, 187-188 subthermal neutron radiography, 446
castings, 457 superalloys, 460
welds, 489-490 surface barrier detectors, 106-107, 107
See also reference standards
688 Radiographic Testing
T castings, 464
interpretation in welds, 208, 209, 209
tamper evident seal radiography, 584 nuclear fuel rods, 530-531
tangential radiography, 519-523, 520, 522 welds, 480
tungsten screens, 259
ablative thrust chambers, 552, 553 turbine blades. See jet engine turbine blades
tank radiography, 528-529 two-gain coefficient technique, 367
tantalum
U
attenuation coefficients, 645table
capacitor microfocus radiography, 407 ultrasonic testing, 9, 9-10
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table unattended installation, 128
inspection with cobalt-60, 75 unconsumed insert, 500, 500-501
tantalum-182, gamma ray source, 128table underbead cracks, 478, 480
tantalum screens, 259
tape automated boned (TAB) solder joints, 580 interpretation in welds, 212
tapping, 11 undercut
television cameras, 254, 255, 269
common adjustments for, 274table castings, 464
output versus light input, 273 interpretation in welds, 210
television monitors, 275, 354 piping welds, 520
tenth value layer, 131, 132table welds, 481, 507
textile radiation gaging, 577 undercut (scattered radiation effect), 153-154
thermal neutrons, 46, 104table underfill, interpretation in welds, 209, 210
attenuation by selected elements, 440table, 447 unfused chaplets, 463
shielding, 134-135 interpretation in castings, 216-217, 217
static radiography with, 440-445 unfused inserts, 463
thermal testing, 11 interpretation in castings, 216
thermionic emission, 57 unified atomic mass unit, 31
thermoluminescence, 102 units of measure, 29-32, 42, 119-120
thermoluminescent dosimeters, 122 unsharp mask transforms, 360
described, 102-103 unsharpness
thermoluminescent dosimetry, 102 effect on discontinuity detection, 258
thermometers, in film development, 241 geometric, 145-146
thin film transistors, 287 and object-film-source orientation, 145
thiosulfate, 234 radioscopy, 258-259
thorium series, 52 welds, 477
threat recognition software, in airport security, 589-590 uranium, 38
thresholding transforms, 356, 358, 359 absorption and scattering curves, 49
for automated defect recognition, 372 attenuation coefficients, 650table
thulium-170, 77-78 inspection with cobalt-60, 75
attenuation coefficients, 644table radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
bibliography, 88 uranium-235, 52
disintegration, 77 uranium-238, 52
source for castings, 455table resonance peaks, 47
tin, attenuation coefficients, 639table spontaneous fission, 44
tin bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table uranium series, 52
titanium utility, petroleum and chemical industry applications, 513-514
aerospace castings, 558 nuclear fuel radiography, 530-536
attenuation coefficients, 623table pipeline radiography, 515-517
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table power and process piping radiography, 517-525
compton scattering intensity, 383, 384 power line radiography, 537-538
in image intensifier tubes, 266 pressure vessel radiography, 526-528
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table tank radiography, 528-529
tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
T joints, 476 V
exposure setup, 484, 485
radiographic procedure, 495 vacuum discharges, 410
toe cracks, interpretation in welds, 212 valves
tomato radiography, 585
tomograms, 305 neutron radiography, 438
tomography. See computed tomography; laminography; neutron tomography neutron radiography of aerospace, 563
tomosynthesis, 304, 306-309. See also laminography vanadium
toothpaste radiography, 586 attenuation coefficients, 624table
trace analysis, by wavelength dispersive spectrometry, 430 compton scattering intensity, 383, 384
track etch neutron detectors, 105 van de graaff generators, 53, 67, 67-68, 442-443, 443
training, 18-19 veiling glare, 356
security theat recognition, 589 vessel radiography, 526-528
See also personnel qualification and certification vibrating reed electrometers, 93, 93
transmission images vibration analysis, 11
components, 346-349 video cameras, 254, 255
digitizing, 349-351 video capture card, 276
subtleties, 364-366 video cassette recorder (VCR) data storage, 275
transmission X-ray system, 578 vidicons, 272, 272, 273
transportation, radioactive materials, 118 for aviation component radiography, 548
transverse cracks, interpretation in welds, 212, 213, 213 characteristics, 274table
tree (static mark), 240, 240 sensitivity compared to charge coupled devices, 270
trend removal, 371, 372 viewing conditions, 190-192
tritium, 42 viewing room, 237
tube gamma, 273 View of Delft (Vermeer), radiographic evaluation, 600
tubes welds, 372, 372-374, 373 vignetting, 271
tungsten, attenuation coefficients, 646table villard circuit, 64, 64
tungsten inclusions The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints (Rubens), radiographic evaluation,
600
Index 689
vision acuity, 189-190 X-rays
vision acuity tests, 189 absorption, 57-58
visual parallax, 420 attenuation, 48-51, 440table
visual testing, 7, 7-8 discovery, 22-23
volume computed tomography, 320, 327 dissipation in matter, 152
V/STOL propeller blade radiography, 548 effect of metal filters on intensity, 156, 156table, 157
as electromagnetic radiation, 48
W and electron capture, 44
emission, 141-142
wagon tracks, 479 exposure control installations, 127-128
walnut seed radiography, 586 exposure factor, 150
washing, film, 230, 244 forward intensity from optimum target, 129
water and ionization, 91
radiation damage from, 293-294
in film development, 232, 235-236, 241 radiation detection instruments, 12, 124, 125
hounsfield value, 314table radiation protection measurement, 121-122
and spotting artifacts, 204, 205, 205 radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table Roentgen demonstrates, 23
wavelength dispersive spectrometry, 427, 429, 429 spectral sensitivity, 227-228
detection lower limits, 430 wavelength versus intensity, 141, 142
instrumentation for, 431
weld drop-through, 499-500, 500 X-ray sensitive cameras, 273
welds, 473-474 X-ray sources
arc weld in-process radioscopy, 502, 502-506, 503, 504
automated defect recognition, 372, 372-374, 373 advances in, 28
crack detectability in steel, 491-495 for castings, 456, 457table
design, 475-477 output, 129table
digital laminography, 308, 309 shielding equivalents, 132table
digital radiography of aluminum tubes, 297 for welds, 482
discontinuities in, 478-481 See also electronic radiation sources; isotope radiation sources
discontinuity depth detection using stereo radiography, 419 X-ray spectrum, 56
discontinuity radiography, 491-501 X-ray tomography. See computed tomography
exposure setup for various types, 483-485 X-ray tubes
false indications in aluminum alloys, 507-509, 508 construction, 59, 59-63
flash radiography, 412-413 electron beam distribution, 62
image analysis, 362 flash, 410-411, 411
in-motion radiography of aviation tanks, 545, 546, 546table high voltage, 63-66
inspection of bridge, 592 invention, 24-25, 25
interpretation of discontinuities, 207-212 projected focal spot, 187, 188
interpretation report, 200 rotating anode, 61, 432
light poles, 593 X-ray distribution , 62
liquid propellant rockets, 556
material and thickness, 477 Z
image quality indicators (penetrameters), 485-487
penetration control by in-process radioscopy, 505, 505-506 Z 4560. See Japanese Standards Association
in pipelines, 515-517 zinc
in pipes, 499-502
radiographic techniques, 482-488 attenuation coefficients, 631table
repair welds in castings, 464, 465 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
residual stress measurement, 429 radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
Saturn rocket motor, 550, 551 zinc cadmium sulfide, 265
scanning microdensitometry, 197 properties, 257table
weld spatter, 464 relative light yield, 257table
whole body irradiation, 120 spectral emission, 258
wire mesh, 277 zinc sulfide, silver-activated, 100table
wire image quality indicators (penetrameters), 172-174 zirconium
for castings radiography, 458 attenuation coefficients, 634table
sensitivity, 486table radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
for weld radiography, 485, 486 zooming (in microfocus radiography), 405-406
See also image quality indicators (penetrameters) aerospace structures, 560
working distance, 129
working time, 129
wormhole porosity
interpretation in castings, 214
interpretation in welds, 207
X
X-ray crawler device, 515
X-ray diffraction, 25, 28, 384
and crystal structure, 427-428, 428
flash, 413
mottling caused by, 158
for residual stress measurement, 428-429
X-ray exposure charts, 165, 165-167, 166
X-ray fluorescence gaging, 571
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 427
elemental analysis by, 429-431
X-ray lithography, 28
X-ray photon, 57
X-ray powder diffractometry, 429
X-ray radiography. See radiographic testing
690 Radiographic Testing
Figure Sources
Chapter 1. Introduction to Radiographic Testing Chapter 16. Neutron Radiographic Testing
Figure 11 — Warner-Lambert Company, Morris Plains, NJ. Figure 4 — Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark.
Figure 5 — Aerotest Operations, San Ramon, CA.
Chapter 3. Electronic Radiation Sources Figure 6 — General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY.
Figure 9 — Kaman Sciences, Utica, NY.
Figure 22 — Varian Associates, Palo Alo, CA. Figure 11 — IRT Corporation, San Diego, CA.
Figure 12 — Rolls Royce Limited.
Chapter 4. Isotopes for Gamma Radiography
Chapter 17. Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings
Figures 7c, 9a, 11, 13b, 14, 16 — Source Production and Equipment
Company, Saint Rose, LA. Figure 2 — American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA.
Figures 10, 12, 13a — AEA Technology PLC, Arlington Heights, IL.
Chapter 18. Welding Applications of Radiographic
Chapter 5. Radiation Measurement Testing
Figure 4 — Victoreen, Solon, OH. Figures 29, 30b, 32 — Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
Chapter 6. Radiation Safety Chapter 19. Applications of Radiographic Testing in
Utility, Petroleum and Chemical Industries
Figures 1, 3, 5 — Thermo Eberline, Santa Fe, NM.
Figure 2 — Landauer, Incorporated, Glenwood, IL. Figures 2-3 — After the American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
Figures 4a, 4e — Industrial Nuclear Company, San Leandro, CA. Figures 4-7 — After the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
Figures 4b, 4c, 4d — NDS Products, Pasadena, TX.
Figure 6b — InnospeXion APS, Hvalsoe, Denmark. York, NY.
Figure 16 — After Tru-Tec Services, La Porte, TX.
Chapter 7. Principles of Film Radiography
Chapter 20. Aerospace Applications of Radiographic
Figures 1-24 — Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY. Testing
Chapter 8. Radiographic Interpretation Figures 1-4, 6-8, 14-18, 20 — Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA.
Figure 5 — Martin Marietta, Denver, CO.
Figure 3 — National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD. Figures 9-10, 13, 20-23, 25, 27-28, 39-40 — Rocketdyne, Canoga Park, CA.
Figure 6 — Edmund Scientific, Tonawanda, NY. Figures 11-12 — Boeing Company, Philadelphia, PA.
Figure 7 — Macbeth Division of Kollmorgen Company, Newburgh, NY. Figure 19 — Eastern Airlines, Miami, FL.
Figure 8 — X-Rite, Incorporated, Grandville, MI. Figure 24 — Picker International, Cleveland, OH.
Figure 14-23 — Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, NY. Figure 26 — Northrop Grumman, Los Angeles, CA.
Figure 24, 25, 28, 32, 36, 37 — Southwest Research Institute, San Figure 29-31 — Boeing Company, Saint Louis, MO.
Figure 32 — FeinFocus USA, Stamford, CT.
Antonio, TX. Figure 33, 36 — General Electric, Cincinnati, OH.
Figure 26, 27, 29-31, 33-35 — Electric Power Research Institute, Figures 34-35 — United States Air Force; Aerojet Strategic Propulsion,
Charlotte, NC. Sacramento, CA.
Figure 37 — White Sands Testing Station, NM.
Chapter 10. Radioscopy Figure 38 — University of California Davis, McClellan Nuclear Radiation
Figures 1, 16 — Agfa Pantak Seifert GmbH, Ahrensburg, Germany. Center, CA.
Figure 14 — From R. Halmshaw. Reprinted with permission. Figure 39 — National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC.
Figure 15 — Yxlon International, Hamburg, Germany.
Chapter 21. Other Applications of Radiographic
Chapter 11. Digital Radiographic Imaging Testing
Figures 2 — Eastman Kodak, Rochestern NY. Figures 9a, 11b, 13 — Rad-Icon, Santa Clara, CA.
Figure 14, 15 — V.J. Technologies, Bohemia, NY. Figures 9b — V.J. Technologies, Bohemia, NY.
Figure 19 — Intermountain Testing Company (Carl E. Fox), Englewood, CO.
Chapter 12. Computed Tomography Figures 20 — Virginia Department of Transportation, Richmond, VA.
Figure 23a — Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress,
Figure 5 — C.V. Mosby Company, Saint Louis, MO.
Figures 6, 7 — R. Schulte. Washington, DC.
Chapter 14. Backscatter Imaging
Figure 10 — American Science and Engineering, Billerica, MA.
Radiographic Testing 691
Movie Sources
Chapter 4 Chapter 20
Movie. Isotopic source — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Movie. Automated inspection of rocket motor — Agfa, Mortsel, Belgium
Washington, DC
Chapter 21
Movie. Collimators — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
Washington, DC Movie. Inspection of printed circuit boards — Agilent Technologies,
Loveland, CO
Chapter 6
Movie. Radiographic inspection of light bulb — Rad-Icon Imaging
Movie. Radiation injury — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Corporation, Santa Clara, CA
Washington, DC
Movie. Cargo scanning — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Survey meters — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Movie. Image acquisition and evaluation — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Washington, DC Movie. Images at 3 MV and 6 MV — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Contraband in water tank — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Check equipment — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
Washington, DC
Movie. Personnel monitoring devices — United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, Washington, DC
Movie. Warning tape and signs — United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, Washington, DC
Chapter 7
Movie. Conventional radiography gives shadow image — The Boeing
Company, Seattle, WA
Chapter 10
Movie. Automated wheel inspection — Agfa, Mortsel, Belgium
Chapter 12
Movie. Second generation (rotate and translate) — The Boeing Company,
Seattle, WA
Movie. Third generation (rotate only) — The Boeing Company, Seattle, WA
Movie. Electronic device on turntable — Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Images of electronic device — Lockheed Missiles and Space Company,
Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Tomographic data image of electronic device — Lockheed Missiles and
Space Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Image slices of electronic device, top to bottom — Lockheed Missiles
and Space Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Slices show delaminations in composite fastener hole — The Boeing
Company, Seattle, WA
Movie. Transverse image of delaminations in fastener hole — The Boeing
Company, Seattle, WA
Chapter 13
Movie. Exfoliation corrosion, thin to thick — Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. General corrosion, thin to thick — Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Cracks around fasteners — Lockheed Missiles and Space Company,
Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Cracks around fasteners, in layers from top — Lockheed Missiles and
Space Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Chapter 14
Movie. Backscatter scan of undamaged area — Lawrence R. Lawson,
Bradford, PA
Movie. Moving source and sensor into place — Lawrence R. Lawson,
Bradford, PA
Movie. Pillowing and corrosion — Lawrence R. Lawson, Bradford, PA
Radiographic Testing
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