Agriculture Science and Tech

3. Germination in sand 4. Cover petri-dish with lid and put it in
germinator / incubator maintained at
Seed are planted in uniform layer of moist appropriate constant temperature.
sand 1 to 3 cm deep and then covered with
loose sand or seed are pressed into the of 5. Take the germination count and calculate
the sand, certain amount of water is added the germination percentage.
e.g. maize, groundnut and castor.
III. Germination in sand or soil
4. Germination in soil
1. Take earthen or plastic pots filled with
Soil or an artificial compost is used instead sand or soil
of sand. This method is used to confirm the
evaluation of seedlings, in doubtful 2. Add water to obtain sufficient moisture in
cases and testing samples which produce soil/sand
seedlings, with phototoxic symptoms when
germinated on paper or sand. Soil should 3. Put the seed of variety to be tested at
be kept wet. appropriate depth with proper spacing.

4.6.3 Procedure for germination tests 4. Cover the seed with soil or sand and
give water if necessary and put them
I. Germination on towel paper in germinator at appropriate constant
temperature.
1. Take rectangular germination paper (crape
craft paper) and soak it in water, remove 4.6.4 Evaluation of seedling after
excess water. germination

2. Put it on polythene paper slightly bigger Observe the following from the
than germination paper. germinated seed and report the results.

3. Place seed of given sample on germination 1. Normal seedling
paper with the help of counting board in
four replications of 100 seeds each. Seedling which shows the capacity for
continued development into normal plants
4. Cover the seed with another moist when grown in good quality soil.
germination paper and roll along with
polythene paper and tie both ends of roll Epicotyl Terminal bud
by rubber bands.
Primary leaf
5. Keep the count of seedlings on the Cotyledons
prescribed day and report the percentage
of normal, abnormal, dead, hard and fresh
ungerminated seeds.

II. Germination in petri-dish: Sand test Hypocotyl Towel test

1. Take germination paper (blotting) and Secondary root
prepare round pieces as per inner diameter
of dishes. Primary root
Fig. 4.6 : Normal seedling
2. Place cotton wool at the bottom of dish
and cover the piece of blotting paper, add
water till paper becomes wet and remove
excess water from the dish.

3. Put either 50 or 25 seed in each dish on
moist paper at proper distance.

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Following seedlings may be treated as b. Fresh ungerminated seeds
normal seedlings.
Seeds other than hard seeds which do not
(a) Seedlings with well developed system germinate even after appropriate treatment
of root with primary root intact for breaking dormancy are classified as
hypocotyl, epicotyl, and a normal fresh ungerminated seeds.
plumule and cotyledons.
c. Dead seeds
(b) A well developed primary leaf within
or emerging through the coleoptile in Seedsattheendoftestperiodareneitherhard
monocotyledons. nor fresh and have not produced seedlings,
classified as dead seeds.

4.6.5 Physical purity test

The purity test is done with following
objectives

Fig. 4.7 Seed germinator 1. To determine the composition of sample by
dividing each sample into 4 components
2. Abnormal seedlings namely pure seeds, other crop seed, weed
Seedling which do not show the capacity and inert matter and to judge the quality
of seed sample on the basis of proportion
for continued development into normal of pure seed and other components as per
plants when grown in good quality soil prescribed norms of SCA.
under favourable conditions of water
supply, temperature and light. 2. To identify objectionable weed seed and
other crop seed found in sample and to give
Following seedlings may be treated as them botanical names.
abnormal seedlings
3. To determine eligibility of seed sample for
(a) Seedlings without cotyledons, seed certification.
constrictions, splits cracks and
lessions. 4. To get the pure seed for further seed tests
like germination.
(b) Seedlings without primary root
(c) Seedlings having stunted root and Material required for physical purity test
Seed blower, purity work board,
plumules, coleoptile without primary
leaves. forceps, magnifying lens, spatula, dishes,
(d) Seedlings with decayed essential sieves, needles and weighing balance etc.
structure and discoloration.
Fig. 4.8 Physical purity work board
3. Ungerminated seed
It consists of following seeds.
a. Hard seed : The seeds belonging to

leguminoseae and malavaceae family
which remain hard at the end of prescribed
period of test Because they have not
absorbed water due to impermeable seed
coat are called hard seed.

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Procedure (ii) Inert matter (%) =
1. The working sample of desired weight is
Total Wt. of inert matter × 100
prepared. wt. of all seed components
2. Use seed blower, if seed sample is chaffy
(iii) Other crop seed (%) =
or grass species after adjusting air flow.
3. Place the working sample on a board or Wt. of other crop seed × 100
Total wt. of all seed components
glass plate and with the help of forceps,
needles and magnifiers, separate out the (iv) Weed seed (%) =
seed sample into following components.
(i) Pure seed (ii) Other crop seed Total Wt. of weed seed × 100
(iii) Inert matter (iv) Weed seed wt. of all seed components

Remember this

Inert matter: It includes seed like matters; 4.6.6 Seed health test - (Seed pathology)
mainly pieces of broken or damage seed,
achenes and caryopsis, empty glumes, Seed health refers to the presence or
other matter mainly soil, sand, stone, chaff, absence of disease causing organisms such as
stems, leaves, pieces of bark, flowers, fungi fungi, bacteria and viruses and animal pests.
bodies, etc. Hence, seed health testing is necessary to
obtain information regarding health of seed
4. After complete separation of components of lot.
sample, retain the pure seed on purity work
board for rechecking. After re-checking Methods of seed health testing
the pure seed separate other seed and inert
matter. A. Examination without incubation

5. Weigh the each of the three components. It reveals presence or absence of
Wt. of working sample (g) pathogens examined., however does not
6. Calculate the percentage of each give any indication about the viability of
the pathogen.
component on the basis of the sum of
weights of the components and not on the 1. Direct examination - Seed are directly
basis of the original working sample. The examined with or without stereoscopic
sum total of percent of all components microscope. The ergot and sclerotin
should be 100. bodies, nematodes, galls, smut balls,
7. If percentage of seed of any other crop insects, mites damage to seed etc. as well
species or weeds together is more than 0.1 as discoloration of seed.
per cent or if the number of seed is more
than 20, separate out all seed of that species 2. Examination of imbibed seeds - Seed
from working sample as well as submitted are immersed in water or other liquid in
sample. order to liberate the spores and fruiting
bodies more visible and after imbibition,
Try this they are examined with microscope.

Calculate the percentage value of 3. Examination of organisms removed
each component on the basis of sum of after washing - Seed are immersed in
weights of all components and not on the water or other liquid or alcohol and
basis of the original sample. shaken vigorously to remove fungal
spores, nematodes, etc. The excess liquid
(i) Pure seed (%) = is removed by filtration, evaporation
Wt. of pure seed and extracted material examined by
Total wt. of all seed components × 100 microscope.

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B. Examination after incubation of seed. It is loss in weight when the seed is
dried or the quantity of water collected when
In this method, the seed is incubated it is distilled. It is expressed as a percentage of
for a specific period. the weight of the original sample.

The following media are commonly 4.6.7 Methods of moisture determination
used for incubation.
The basic methods are-
(i) Blotters (ii) Sand
(iii) Agar plate 1. Drying without heat

(i) Blotter method - In this method, seed are Samples are dried without heat or
placed of moistened blotting papers at 20 moderate heat in vaccum using phosphorus
mm apart. The blotters are rolled or placed pentoxide (P205) as desiccant.
in containers and incubated for specific
number of days. Then it is examined 2. Lyophilization
under magnification for the presence of
pathogen. (Freeze dried)- Biological materials are
frozen and water removed by sublimation
(ii) Sand method - Sand or similar media is in vaccum.
used and seed without pre-treatment are
suitably placed so as to avoid secondary 3. Reversibility method
spread of organism and incubated in
conditions favourable for symptom (a) Red drying - This method determines
development. drying time and temperature so that
loss of weight by dec­omposition is
(iii) Agar plate - Seed after treatment accounted for.
are placed on the surface of 2% malt
extract sterilized agar in petridishes and (b) Karl Fisher titration method - In this
incubated. The colonies of fungi can be method water is extracted from finely
identified on agar directly or by lense. ground seed with methyl alcohol and
then determined by titration by a special
C. Examination of growing plants reagent. This is most accurate method.
However, these methods require much
The growing of plants from seed for time, equipments and high skills of
examination for disease symptoms is most operation and hence not practically
practicable procedure for determining used.
whether bacteria, fungi or viruses are
present in the sample. Seed may be sown 4. Hot air oven method
in the field or inoculums may be used for
infection test with healthy seedlings. Method is most practical and commonly
used for moisture determination.
4.6.7 Seed moisture test
Objective: To determine moisture content of a
Moisture content of seed is one of the given sample.
important factor affecting viability and quality
Material
Do you know ? Grindingmill,hotairoven,chemicalbalance,
crucible with lid, desiccators, spoon, trays and
Seed entomology includes the study of pest seed sample.
of seed, their nature of damage and control
measures in order to maintain viability and Procedure
germination of seed.
1. Take 4 to 5 gms of duplicate working sample
for determination of moisture from submitted
sample accurately.

45

2. Crops of larger seed size (e.g. cotton, maize, 7. Remove the crucible with lid and cool in
sorghum, paddy, wheat, etc) are ground with dessicator
grinding mill in such a way that at least 50
per cent of the ground material should pass 8. Weigh the crucible with lid and contents.
through a wire sieve of 0.5 mm mesh and
not more than 10 per cent remain on a top 9. Calculate the percentage of moisture
of wire sieve. For leguminous crop seed
(e.g. pea, soybean, chickpea, etc) coarse content in seed sample by using formula-
grinding is necessary i.e. 50 percent ground
material should pass through sieve with Moisture% = M2 - M3 × 100
4 mm mesh. Where, M2 - M1

3. If moisture content of seed is more than M1 = Weight of empty crucible with lid
17 percent (Rice-13% soybean-10%) pre- M2 = Weight of crucible with seed sample
drying is obligatory. Similarly, high moist M3 = Weight of cructible with seed sample
seed of maize (above 25%) and others, and lid after drying
samples should be dried at 70°C for 2 to 5
hours depending on initial water content. M2-M1 = Weight of sample

4. Weigh the clean and dry crucible with lid M2-M3 = Loss in weight after drying
accurately.
5. Use of moisture metre
5. Put the ground seed sample prepared earlier The moisture determination is based on the
(4-5 gm) in a crucible with help of spoon
and again take the weight of crucible with principle on that the moisture content in
lid very accurately. the seed is directly proportional electrical
conductivity of seed. The various types of
6. Place the crucible rapidly in hot air oven as moisture metre are
under
(a) Universal electric moisture metre
(i) In low constant temperature oven
method, keep the container at (b) Steinlite moisture tester
temperature 103°C ± 2°C and dry for
17±1 hrs. ( e.g. onion, chillies, soybean, (c) Marconi moisture tester
radish and brinjal, etc).
(d) Digital moisture metre
(ii) In high constant temperature oven
Laboratory work -
method, keep the material at 130°C ±2°C Determine the moisture percentage of
seed sample given to you.
for 2 ± 1 hrs.

Table : 4.1 Temperature for oven dry 4.6.8 Seed vigour test
method
Seed vigour is the sum of those properties
Oven dry method Oven dry of seed which determine the potential level
recommended for method of activity i.e. rapid and uniform production
High constant of healthy seedling and stand establishment
different crops temperature under a wide range of field conditions.
(130 ± 2°C)
Rice, wheat, pearly Low constant Objects -
millet, maize, sorghum, temperature
chickpea, lathyrus, pea, (103 ± 2°C) (1) Main object of this test is to differentiate
pigeonpea range of quality levels i.e. high, medium,
Groundnut, rape seed low vigour seeds.
and mustard, soybean,
sesame, linseed, castor (2) This test evaluate seed performance under
and cotton wide range of field conditions.

46

The test for determination of seed vigour Seedling growth rate is determined by
dividing the mean increase in length from
1. Direct tests each previous measure by the number of days
the seedling had been in the germinator. Sum
(a) Brick gravel test: A porous brick gravel of each count at the end of the test period is
of 2 to 3 mm size is used. About 30 mm expressed as seedling growth rate.
layer of moist gravel is placed above the
seed. This layer impedes the emergence 4. Seedling length
of weak, partially diseased seedlings
as well as coleoptile injured seedlings. Length of 10 normal seedling grown
Vigorous seedlings are these emerged in moist towel paper kept at optimum
from layer of brick gravel. temperature is measured in cm on the day
of final count. The lot showing maximum
(b) Paper Piercing test: This test seedling length is considered as vigorous.
involves the use of sand plus a special
paper disk through which seedlings 5. Seedling dry weight
penetrate. It is used for cereal crops
in which seeds are placed on top with The weight of seedling excluding the
1.25 cm moist sand and covered with cotyledon is taken on 10th day after oven
special paper and kept for eight days. drying at 1000C for 24 hr in g. The lot
exhibiting the maximum seedling dry
2. Indirect tests weight is considered as vigorous.

1. First count: 6. Vigour index length

The number of normal seedlings counted A combination of standard germination
at the first count (4/5th day) represents the test with seedling length provides broad
faster germinating seeds. Higher percentage evaluation of seedling vigour, seed lot with
of normal seedling during the first count high vigour index is considered as vigorous.
indicates the seed vigour.
7. Vigour index mass

2. Speed of germination Vigour index in terms of mass is
determined by the multiplication of
Number of germinated seeds are germination percentage with seedling dry
counted every day from the first day and the weight on the day of final count.
cumulative index is made by the formula.
4.6.9 Seed viability test
n1/1 + n2/2 ……. + nx/x = N
Where, Viable seed is a seed that is capable of
n1… nx are the number of seed germinated germination under suitable conditions.

on day 1 to day x. Object

1 … x are the number of days.

3. Seedling growth rate Object of the biochemical test is to
determine quickly the viability of seeds of
Twenty seeds are placed in straight certain species which germinates slowly by
line on a paper towel moistened with regular germination process.
distilled water and kept at an angle of 75
in a germinator at optimum temperature. (1) Topographical Tetrazolium test or TZ
Only 10 competitive normal seedlings test
are selected for observation. The remaining
seedling are removed. For the next 10 days Principle
the length of each seedling is measured
daily in cm. In a biochemical test the reduction process
which takes place in living cells are made
visible by the reduction of an indicator.

47

The indicator used in the tetrazolium be dissolved in buffer solution. The buffer
test for seeds is a colourless solution of the solution is prepared as follows.
tetrazolium salt which is imbibed by the
seed. Within the seed tissues it interferes Procedure
with the reduction process of living cell and
accepts hydrogen from the dehydrogenses. Each 4 replications of 100 seeds each
By hydrogenation of the 2, 3, 5 triphenyl from the pure seed fraction of physical purity
tetrazolium chloride, a red stable and non- test. To facilitate penetration of Tetrazolium
diffusible substance, triphenyl formagane, is solution, the seed are fully immersed in distilled
produced in living cells. This makes possible water or kept in paper towel for 18 hrs. The
to distinguish the red coloured living parts of testa of the dicot is removed and the monocot
seed from a colourless dead ones. In addition to is exposed by dissecting the seed longitudinally
completely stained viable seed and completely or laterally. The seed are then completely
unstained non-viable seed, partially stained immersed in 1% tetrazolium solution for 3 hrs.
seed may occur. Varying proportions of necrotic During treatments two preparations are kept
tissues occur in different parts of these partially in darkness at 20°C. After termination of the
strained seed. Localisation and spread of tetrazolium test, the solutions are decanted and
necrosis in the embryo and on endosperm and the preparation is mixed with water prior to
the intensity of colour determine whether such evaluation. For examination the preparations
seed are classified as viable or non-viable. are spread on a plate and kept wet throughout
the determinations. The seeds are evaluated
General directions with the help of magnifying devices. Individual
seed is evaluated as viable or dead on the basis
Reagents of staining pattern in embryo.

A 1% aqueous solution (pH 6.5 - 7.0) Calculation
of tetrazolium chloride or bromide is used. If
the pH of the distilled water is not within the The results are reported as percentage
range of 6.5 - 7.0, the tetrazolium salt should of viable seed in relation to total seed tested.

Do yourself Collect information about seed testing labaratory

48

Exercise

Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. 3. Give difference between

1. The matured and ripened ovule after (i) Seed and grain
fertilization is known as -----------.
(ii) Nucleus seed and Breeder seed
2. Breeder seed is the progeny of -------
---- seed. (iii) Breeder seed and foundation seed

3. The awaking of the dormant embryo (iv) Foundation seed and certified seed
is called as -----------------.
(v) Physical purity test and
4. The test used to determine the germination test
viability of true seeds is -----------
test. (vi) Seed vigour test and seed viability
test
5. The brick gravel test is used for
determining ----------------. (vii) Hypogeal germination and
epigeal germination
B. Make the pairs
4. Give scientific reasons
A B
(i) Why cotyledon remains below the
1. Seed dormancy a. Moisture test soil surface?

2. Crucible b. TZ Test (ii) Why cotyledon remains above
the soil surface?
3. Certified seed c. KNO3
(iii) Why foundation and certified
d. Brick gravel seed multiplication seed stages are
called as quality stages?
method
5. Give examples of
e. Blue colour tag

C. State true or false (i) Endospermic seed
(ii) Non endospermic seed
1. Castor seed is dicot and non (iii) Type of epigeal germination
endospermic seed.

2. Genetic purity of breeder seed is (iv) Hypogeal type of germination

99.8 percent. (v) Germination in sand

3. Gram is an example of epigeal type Q.3 Answer the following questions
of germination.
4. TZ test is used for testing seed 1. Complete the following table
(a) Seed multiplication stages.
viability.

5. Physical purity test used for testing Sr. Name of Source of Genetic
germination of seed. No. stage seed purity

Q.2 Answer in brief (i) Breeder
1. Write short notes on seed
(i) Seed structure of castor
(ii) Foundation seed (ii) Foundation
(iii) Seed viability test seed

(iii) Certified
seed

(iv) Types of germination (iv) Truthful
2. List out seed multiplication stages. seed

49

(b) Seed type and germination Q. 4 Answre in detail.

Sr. Name of Type of Type of 1. Explain the different stages of seed
No. seed seed germination multiplication.
(i) Bean
(ii) Maize 2. Describe the different types of seed
(iii) Castor germination.
(iv) Gram
3. Define seed dormancy and explain
2. Describe the structure of dicot seed. the methods of breaking seed
dormancy with examples.
3. Draw and label structure of monocot
seed. 4. What is mean by seed health and
give details regarding examination
4. Calculate pure seed percentage when without incubation.
weight of pure seed is 180 gms and
total weight of all component is 200 5. Write the procedure of seed moisture
gms. test by hot air oven method with
formula.
5. Write the procedure of germination
test on towel paper. Activity :
Classify seed from given seed sample
by using physical purity work board and
determine their percentage.

All these are called
as seed. Identify and

lable them.

Fig. 4.9 : Different seed material
50

5. Sowing

Recall a little The Kharif crop is usually sown after
the regular onset of monsoon in the month
 You already know that soil and seed both of June to July. Very early sowing may not
go hand in hand be advantageous, as it may result in failure
of crop due to prolonged dry spell. However
 Soil provides medium for plant growth in certain situations early sowing may be
 Aseed will develop into a healthy seedling advantageous, particularly for rabi crops.
Usual sowing time of rabi crop is October to
only when it is placed in proper medium, November. In certain cases advancing sowing
at proper depth, time and spacing. in September to October may be helpful for
 The prime objective of seed treatment is taking advantage of available soil moisture.
to protect seed from soil borne disease Time of sowing for summer crop varies from
and to promote the growth of plant. January to February. For most of the crops it
is preferably first fortnight of January.
5.1 Sowing
Sowing can be defined as the process Try this

of placing seed into the well prepared soil  Prepare a schedule of sowing dates in
at proper place (depth) for growth OR The different seasons as per your opinion.
process of putting seed in the ground soil for
growing crop plant is known as sowing.  Practice the sowing by any one method.

5.1.1 Sowing time, depth and spacing  Observe the changes in growth of plants
at different dates of sowing.
Proper and healthy stand of a crop
is essential for getting its higher yield. It  Determine the proper time of sowing
depends on the time, depth and method of based on crop stand and difference in
sowing. growth performance.

C an you recall? There should be sufficient moisture in
seeding zone, so that it would help in proper
 Which are the common seasons of sowing germination of seed and emergence of crop
in Maharashtra and their approximate plants. Similarly, each crop needs definite
time of sowing ? range of temperature for proper germination
and also for further vegetative growth. The
 Which crops are prominently grown in sowing time should be such that moisture
those seasons in your locality ? stress period (due to long dry spell) may be
avoided at critical stages of crop growth. High,
Time of sowing atmospheric and soil temperature at the time of
sowing not only affects the seed germination
The exact or proper time of sowing but also favours the effect of different insects –
depends upon different factors, such as sowing pest and diseases e.g. stem borer of sugarcane,
season, atmospheric as well as soil temperature shootfly of jowar, etc. In short optimum time
and moisture content in seeding zone of soil.
The common sowing seasons in Maharashtra of sowing is therefore, a time which provides
are Kharif, rabi and summer.
suitable environment at all the stages of crop

growth.

51

The optimum time of sowing differs not Shallow sowing depth of 2 to 3 cm is
only from crop to crop but also within different needed for the crops like pearl millet and
varieties of the same crop. finger millet. For small sized seeds which are
sown shallow needs to be irrigated frequently
Depth of sowing to ensure good emergence of crop.
Sowing of seed at the appropriate depth is
In the case of deep sowing, the seed
an important factor affecting establishment of reserves should be sufficient to put forth long
good stand of crop. coleoptile for emergence. The coleoptile length
also differs from variety to variety of the same
C an you tell? crop. For example – tall traditional varieties
 Why seed depth is important? of wheat having long coleoptile length can
 Which depth is safe for sowing? be sown deep. On the other hand Mexican
 Do we need seed to be soaked in water varieties with short coleoptile length need to
be sown shallow.
before they are sown?

 How does planting depth affect Try and think about it
germination?
 Take 5 containers (pots)

The optimum depth of sowing depends  Fill them with soil.
upon soil moisture, size of seed, seed reserve  Sow the seed in each pot at different
and coleoptile length. For getting good vigour,
it is necessary that the germination of seed depth and water it.
should be good and for proper germination,  Observe the result regarding emergence
it is always important that the seed should be
placed in the moist zone of soil. Too shallow and discuss.
or too deep sowing results in large number of
gaps and less plant population. Due to shallow Soil
sowing the seed germinon is poor because of Seed
inadequate moisture in the upper layer of soil.
Too deep sowing may also affects crop stand Observe and Discuss
because in many cases seedling may not be
able to push their shoots above the ground level
from greater depth. Besides affecting plant
population, the weed problem also becomes
serious under such conditions.

The size of seed also have great influence Soil
on the depth at which seed should be sown.
The crops like groundnut, castor, etc having Seed
bigger size of seed can be sown to a greater
depth up to 6 cm. On the other hand crops like Take few earthen pots of same size and
finger millet, pearl millet, tobacco, etc. having fill them with soil. Sow the seeds in each
small sized seed have to be sown as shallow container with increased number i.e. two
as possible. The thumb rule is to sow the seed seed in first, three in second, four in third
to a depth approximately 3 to 4 times their and so on. Observe the growth parameters
diameter. For most of the crops the optimum of plant in each pot. Discuss the result.
depth of sowing ranges between 3 to 5 cm.

52

Spacing 5.2 Seed treatment
5.2.1 Definition
The full yield potential of an individual
plant is achieved when sown at optimum Seed treatment is the procedure of treating
spacing. Too dense or wide planting may the seed with different insecticides, fungicides
result in reduction of yield per unit area. If or combination of both for protecting their
sown densely, the growth of individual plant health. It also includes treatments subjecting
will be affected due to competition among seed to solar energy exposure, immersion in
plants for space, food, water, etc. Similarly, water, etc.
yield from individual plant cannot be increased
beyond certain limits. As such the spacing In short seed treatment is the treatment
between two rows and two plants within a row given to the seed to improve germination,
should be optimum. It depends upon different vigour potential and to maintain good health
factors such as growth habit of plant, soil type, of seed.
purpose for which crop is grown and also
the sowing season. The crop with branching Fig. 5.1 : Seed treatment
habit or with good tillering capacity will
require more space. Individual plant growth
may be vigorous in rainy season. Hence, in
rainy season the spacing may be wider than
in summer season. On the same line wider
spacing is required on heavy soil as compared
to light soil. The spacing also depends upon
the purpose for which crop is grown. Increase
in plant height with less diameter is preferable
for fodder crop and therefore, fodder crops are
generally sown dense than grain crop. In crops
grown on stored soil moisture under rainfed
conditions, the spacing should be such to avoid
overcrowding of plants that may deplete most
of the moisture before crop matures. In short
spacing should be so adjusted to have optimum
plant population under different conditions.

Do this Fig. 5.2 : Seed treatment

How theoretically plant population is 5.2.2 Objectives of seed treatment
calculated by using figure of spacing for a
particular area. Use following formula The various objectives of seed treatment are
as follows
Area m2
Plant population = Spacing m2 (1) Protection of seed from seed rot and
seedling blight
Try this
Rotting of seed, seedling blight and
Calculate the plant population of 1 other seed and soil borne diseases can
hectare Jowar crop when spacing is 30 cm × be prevented by giving appropriate seed
25 cm. treatment prior to sowing. Coating seed
with certain chemical is done for this
purpose.

53

(2) Prevention of the spread of disease dung or by delinting with concentrated
The infection from systemic diseases sulphuric acid.

during different growth stages of crop (9) Induction of earliness and variations:
and also during storage is prevented by The maturity period of crop can be
appropriate seed treatment. Treatment is
also helpful in preventing non systemic minimized by giving vernalization
diseases. treatment to the seed. Similarly
variations in original morphological and
(3) Protection of seed from insects in soil general structure of seed can be achieved
and in storage by giving radiation treatment to the seed.

The seed treatment with various (10) Protection of beneficial insects
insecticides alongwith fungicides is The insects like honey bee are beneficial
effective against storage pest and certain
insects in soil. to plants for pollination, fertilization, etc.
The chemicals used for plant protection
(4) Improvement in seed germination kill such insects. This can be avoided by
Germination of seed is improved by using properly treated seed for sowing.

controlling seed surface flora, by breaking
dormancy, removing inhibitors and
treating seed with germination promoters.

(5) Reduction in cost of production Fig. 5.3 : Slurry seed treater
The cost of plant protection can be
Fig. 5.4 : Seed treating drum
reduced by using treated seed for (11) Hardening of seed
cultivation. Drought and cold tolerance can be

This helps in minimizing the cost of crop achieved by treating seed with chemicals
production to a greater extrent. like calcium chloride (CaCl2), Potassium
chloride (KCl), monopotassium
(6) Production of good quality seed phosphate (KH2PO4).
Good quality seed can be produced (12) Seed fortification
This treatment is given for achieving
when crop stand is uniform, vigorous and high vigour to overcome soil reactions.
healthy. This can be achieved by using
properly treated seed for sowing.

(7) Increase in nitrogen fixation:
Seed of leguminous crop is treated

with rhizobium culture (nodule bacteria)
for increase in nitrogen fixation through
increased nodulation on the root. The
seed of cereals or monocotyledons such
as jowar, wheat, bajri, paddy, cotton,
vegetables, etc. is treated with azotobacter.
For sugarcane sets acetobacter and
azospirillum species are useful for the
same reason i.e. 'N' fixation.

(8) Convenience in sowing
The seed of cotton crop is intermingled

into each other due to fuzz. This fuzz
difficulty can be avoided by treating the
seed with paste of soil and fresh cow

54

(b) Seed Disinfestation: Seed

Do you know ? disinfestation refers to the destruction

Following equipments are used for of surface borne organisms that have
seed treatment
 Seed treating drum (Home made contaminated seed surface but not
drum / mixers)
 Slurry seed treater infected the seed surface. Chemicals
 Mist – o – matic treaters
 Grain auger are applied through soaks, dusts or
 Shovel
dips.

(c) Seed Protection: This is done to
protect the seed and young seedlings
from the organisms present in the soil.

5.2.3 Types of Seed treatment Remember this

Different types of seed treatments are Following precautions should be taken
as follows – while treating the seed
(1) Treatments for improving seed (i) Treated seed should never be used as

germination and vigour food for human or cattle.
(ii) Foravoidinguseoftreatedseedasafood,
(a) Soaking of seed in water – Cotton seed
is soaked in water for 4 to 6 hours in the seed bag should be clearly labelled as
case of deshi and 10 to 12 hours in case 'poisonous and dangerous, if consumed.'
of American varieties (iii) The proportion of seed and chemical
should be as per recommendation.
(b) Use of chemicals –Treatment of (iv) Seed with high moisture content is
common salt NaCl or KH2PO4 (1%) susceptible to injury, when treated with
for 12 hours is given to jowar seed for concentrated products.
improving germination and vigour. (v) Treat only actual quantity of seed
required for sowing.
(c) Treatments such as pre chilling, pre (vi) Wear safety kit while treating seed and
drying seed and rubbing seed against avoid contact of chemicals with skin
hard surface, low and high temperature and respiratory tract.
treatments are done for breaking seed
dormancy.

(2) Seed treatment with fungicides and Make a list and discuss the use of
insecticides following fungicides.

Advantages of such treatments are as Seed treating products
follows
Fungicides
 It protect seed from seed rot.
 It controls the attack of soil insects. Mercurials Non -
 Protect seed from store grain pest mercurials
 It prevents the spread of plant diseases.

The three main types of fungicidal and
insecticidal treatments are as follows

(a) Seed Disinfection: It means Organo Inorganic Organo Inorganic
eradication of fungal spores that have Mercurials Mercurials Non Non
established within the seed coat or in e.g. volatile e.g. HgCL.
deep seated tissues. The chemicals compound Mercurials Mercurials
used must penetrate in to the seed to Bupirimate H2O e.g. e.g.CCuuOSO4,
kill the fungus.
Thirum,
captan

55

(3) Special seed treatments: Fig. 5.5 : Broadcasting
(a) Seed hardening: - This treatment This method is cheapest, simplest

given is for achieving drought and cold and fastest. However, it has some
tolerance. Chemicals like CaCl2, KCl, disadvantages. The seed rate required by
and KH2PO4 are used for this treatment. this method is relatively high. The crop
(b) Seed fortification: - This is done to stand is not uniform, as the distribution of
achieve high vigour to overcome soil seed by this method is uneven. Some places
reactions. The chemicals useful for remains gappy and on the other hand some
this treatment are manganese sulphate, places become crowded. In the case of fine
copper sulphate, etc. seeded crops, the seed is usually mixed
(C) Seed pelleting: This treatment consists with sand, ash, etc. Inter culturing is also
of coating the seed with nutrients. This not possible be implements. The crops
is generally used for forest tree seed. sown by this method are jowar, bajra,
(d) Moist sand conditioning: This seed wheat, paddy, red gram, sannhemp, etc.
treatment is given for minimizing loss of (2) Drilling: Drilling means sowing of seed
seed viability. to certain depth in lines by seed drills. The
Soybean seed is mixed with moist sand @ seed drills may be two coultered (dufan),
5 to 10% moisture content. This is three tyned (Tifan) or four tyned (Chaufan).
done for cocoa seed also. As the seed is placed in lines at uniform
depth, the crop stand is more uniform.
Steps in seed hardening Inter cultivation operations can be done
by bullock drawn implements because
Soaking in water or chemicals of definite space between two rows of
with growth regulators crop. This method needs less seed rate as
compared to broadcasting. The examples
Shade drying of crop grown by this methods are bajra,
jowar, wheat, green gram, pigeon pea, etc.
Sun drying
Fig. 5.6 : drilling by tractor drawn
Hardened seed implement

5.3 Methods of sowing
Crop can be sown by different methods as
described below:
(1) Broadcasting: The seed is spread or

scattered by hand on the soil surface and
later on mixed in to the soil by working
with wooden plough or harrow. This
method is usually followed for irrigated
crop. Majority of cereals and fodder crops
are sown by this method.

56

Fig. 5.7 : Drilling by bullock drawn implement The seed material is placed in soil and
(3) Dibbling: In dibbling method of sowing covered with soil by manual labour. The
most common crops sown by this method
seed is placed at specific depth and are sugarcane, turmeric, potato, ginger,
spacing by a dibbler, planter or mostly etc.
by hand. This method requires more time
and more labour for sowing. However (5) Sowing in plough furrows: This method
this method has certain advantages. of sowing is commonly followed in dry
The seed rate required is less and crop land farming. This method is useful to take
stand is more uniform. the advantage of moisture in lower layer
The interculturing is also possible of soil. The seed is placed at the bottom
in both directions by implements. The of the plough furrow and is covered, when
vigorously growing crops which need succeeding furrow is turned over. This
wider spacing are usually sown by this method is used for crops like gram, pea,
method. This method is useful for cotton, wheat, maize, red gram, etc. This is slow
sunflower, ground nut, etc. and laborious method.

Fig. 5.8 : Dibbling (6) Transplanting: Transplanting method
(4) Planting: When crop is sown by using consists of raising seedling in the nursery
and then replanting them in main field.
vegetative plant parts such as tuber, This method is usually followed for crops
rhizomes, cuttings, sets, etc, the sowing is having small seed like paddy, chilli,
referred as planting. tomato, tobacco and most of the vegetables
as well as flower crops. The seed is sown in
the nursery beds with all extra care needed
for tender seedlings. While the seedlings
are in the nursery, the farmer get sufficient
time to prepare his land thoroughly. When
the crop attains specific height or grown
to a specific stage, they are pulled out
from nursery bed and planted in the main
field. The nursery bed should be irrigated
properly prior to uprooting of seedlings
from nursery. This is necessary for their
easy removal. Similarly, main field should
be irrigated lightly after transplanting, so
that the seedlings get established faster.

Fig. 5.9 : Planting of Sugarcane Fig. 5.10 : Transplanting of paddy seedlings
57

Exercise

Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. 4. Moist sand conditioning is given for
minimizing loss of seed viability.
1. The process of putting seed in the
ground soil for growing crop plant is 5. Good quality seed is produced, when
called as -------. crop stand is uniform, vigorous and
healthy.
2. Kharif crop is usually sown in the
month of ----------. Q. 2 Answer in brief.

3. The thumb rule is to sow the seed to a 1. Give the examples of crops sown by
depth approximately ---------- times planting method.
their diameter.
2. What is meant by seed treatment?
4. For increased nitrogen fixation,
leguminous crops are treated with --- 3. Why it is necessary that seed should
------- culture. be placed at optimum depth?

5. The maturity period of crop can 4. Give the disadvantages of
be minimized by giving ---------- broadcasting.
treatment to the seed.
5. Write the advantages of dibbling.
B. Make the pairs

‘A’ group ‘B’ group Q. 3 Answer the following questions

1. Broadcasting a. Sowing by seed 1. Explain broadcasting with examples
drills of crops

2. Dibbling b. Sowing by hand 2. Complete following chart.

using planter Sr. Name of the
No. Crop
3. Drilling c. Scattering seed Method sowing

on soil surface 1 ----------------- Broadcasting

d. Raising plant in 2 ----------------- Dibbling

the nursery 3 ----------------- Planting

e. Sowing by using

vegetative plant 4 ----------------- Transplanting

part 5 Sowing in plough
furrows
C. State true or false -----------------

1. Water soaking treatment to cotton 6 ----------------- Drilling
seed is given for improving seed
germination. 3. Calculate the plant population for 1
hectare jowar crop when spacing is
2. Seed disinfestations means 30 cm × 15 cm
eradication of fungal spores that
have established within seed coat. 4. Describe the depth of sowing.

4. Seed disinfection means destruction 5. Explain with examples the different
of surface borne organisms. treatments given for improving seed
germination and vigour.

58

Q. 4 Answer in detail a. In which forms the seed treatment
material is available?
1. Define seed treatment and give its
objectives. b. What is the rate of application of
dust fungicides?
2. Read the following information and
answer the questions. c. How slurry type of fungicides are
applied?
Seed treatment materials are
available in the form of dusts, wettable d. Give the purpose of using dye in seed
powders and liquids. Dust fungicides are treatment.
applied at the rate of 2 to 2.5 gm per kilograms
of seed. They are mixed by mechanical e. List out any two causes of poor seed
mixer. Slurry fungicides applied in a water treatment.
suspension, which is mixed with seed in a
slurry seed treater. Use of liquid solution is 3. Explain the different methods of
known as the quick wet method. A solution sowing and give examples.
of a volatile fungicide is applied to the seed
and is thoroughly mixed with them. Most seed 4. State the advantages of seed
treatments contain dyes which serves two treatment with fungicides and
purposes. First as a warning that seeds have insecticides and explain their
been treated and second as a visible means types.
of evaluating the completeness of treatment
coverage. Some important causes of poor seed 5. Describe the different factors useful
treatments are use of wrong or inappropriate in deciding proper time of sowing.
fungicide, use of inadequate dosages and
carelessness in the treatment procedure. Activity :
Practice the different methods of sowing
in the field.

Do yourself Write the precaution taken from you regarding the activity of sowing.

59

6. Plant Nutrition

Reca ll a li ttle 6.1.2 Criteria of essentiality

1. Any living thing requires food (nutrition) For an element to be regarded as an
for their growth, development and essential nutrient the following three criteria
maintenance. have been suggested by the scientist Arnon
(1954).
2. The food of plant is composed of 1. The plant may be unable to grow
certain chemical elements which are
referred to as essential nutrients. normally or complete its life cycle in
the absence of the element.
3. These elements are absorbed by
plant roots principally as inorganic 2. The element is specific and can not be
ions derived mostly from mineral replaced by any other element.
constituents of the soil.
3. The element plays a direct role in the
4. Depending upon the availability of the process of metabolism.
nutrients in soil, the nutrients content in
a plant could be deficient, insufficient, The following elements are recognized
sufficient, excess or toxic. as essential (major) for plant growth. They
are Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H),
6.1 Essential elements Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K),
Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur
6.1.1 Definition (S), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn),
The elements needed by the plant for Copper (Cu), Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo)
and Chlorine (Cl).
their growth, development and completion
of life cycle, without which plant will not Now a days Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co),
be able to survive are called as essential Silicon (Si) and some other elements are
elements. also being added to this list as supporting
ones (minor).
Know the Scientist
6.1.3 Sources of elements
Dr. Daniel Israel Arnon
14 Nov 1910 to The deficiency symptoms of an element
20 Dec 1994 can be corrected by the application of that
element. (see table 6.1)

C an y ou tel l?
American plant physiologist whose
research led to greater insights into the 1. Can we consume variety of food items
operation of photosynthesis in plants. He in our daily life i.e. vegetables, fruits,
was awarded national medal of science in rice, milk, salt, etc. in equal quantity?
1973. He suggested criteria of essentiality
in 'plant nutrition', (1954). 2. What is the food of plants?

3. Whether the plants require all nutrients
in equal quantity?

60

Table 6.1 : Sources of elements

Natural Nutrient Usable available form by plant Specific source
Source
Air Carbon (C), Oxygen (O) NO3- (Nitrate - anion) CO2, O2
Water Oxygen (O) NH4+ (Ammonium - cation) H2O and O2
Hydrogen (H) H2O
Soil Nitrogen (N) H2PO-4 (Monophosphate - anion) Fertilizers, manures
HPO4-2 (Diphosphate - anion) and also atmospheric
Phosphorus (P) K+ (K-cation) N-Fixation
Ca+2 (Ca-Cation) Apatite
Potassium (K) Rock Phosphate
Calcium (Ca) Mg+2 (Mg-cation)
SO4-2 (Sulphate - anion) Feldspar, Mica, Illite
Magnesium (Mg) SO3-2 (Sulphite - anion)
Sulphur (S) Zn+2 (Zn-cation) Calcite, Dolomite,
Gypsum
Zinc (Zn) Cu+2 (Cu-cation) Dolomite, Sandstone
Fe+2 (Ferous cation) Iron pyrite, Gypsum
Copper (Cu) Fe+3 (Ferric cation)
Iron (Fe) Mn+2 (Mn-cation)) Sphalerite
H3BO3- (Metaborate - anion) Smithsonite
Manganese (Mn) H2BO3- (Borate - anion) Chalcocite, Cuprite
Boron (B) HMoO4- (Molybdate - anion) Haematite, Pyrite,
Olivine
Molybdenum (Mo) Cl- (Cl-anion)
Magnetite, Pyrolusite
Chlorine (Cl) Borax, Tourmaline

Molybdenite,
Ferrimolybdate
Muriate of Potash,
Sodium Chloride

6.2 Classification of essential elements (b) Primary nutrients -

On the basis of quantity required by Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
plants, the elements are classified as follows. are termed as primary nutrients as they
are required in large amount by the
1. Major or macronutients plants. Their wide spread deficiencies
Major or macronutrients, are required by can be corrected by the application of
plants in large quantity. These include C, chemical fertilizers. Hence they are some
H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S. These are times designated as 'fertilizer elements'.
further subdivided as follows.
(c) Secondary nutrients -
(a) Basic nutrients - C, O, H
Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen constitute Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur are
termed as secondary nutrients because
about 95% weight of plant. Field crops they are required in moderate amount
obtain most of their carbon and oxygen by the plants. Secondary nutrients are as
directly from the air. Hydrogen is derived significant as primary nutrients in plants
either directly or indirectly from the soil but they are needed in moderate quantity.
water.

61

Deficiency of secondary nutrients can be deficiency produces specific symptoms on
corrected through application of Calcium the plant. The deficiency symptoms are
nitrate, Magnesium sulphate, Sulphur, etc. characteristic to the specific nutrient.
and fertilizers containing primary nutrients
e.g. single super phosphate contains both Remember this
Ca and S, likewise ammonium sulphate,
a nitrogenous fertilizer also supply S. 1. Nutrient content is considered deficient
when it is so low that it severely limits
2. Minor or micronutrients the growth and produces deficiency
symptoms on plants.
(Trace elements)
2. Nutrient content when associated with
The nutrients that are required only growth reduction and not by
relatively in smaller quantities are termed appearance of deficiency symptoms
as ‘micronutrients’. These include Iron (Fe), are termed as insufficient.
Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu),
Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo) and Chlorine 3. Range of nutrient content in plant
(Cl). The micronutrients are subdivided into associated with optimum crop yields
micronutrients cations and anions depending is called as sufficient.
upon the form in which plants absorb them.
4. When the concentration of a nutrient
(a) Micronutrient cations - Fe, Mn, Zn and element rises too high to cause
Cu significant growth reductions, it is
termed as toxic.
(b) Micronutrient anions - B, Mo and Cl
Do you know ?
The sources used to supply micro
nutrients are called micronutrient fertilizers. 1. How healthy plant is different from
They are supplied through inorganic salts sick plant?
e.g. Ferrous Sulphate, Zinc Sulphate, Borax,
etc. 2. Morphological difference between
normal plant and abnormal plant
6.3 Functions and deficiency symptoms in respect of appearance, height,
growth, modification, etc.
The essential elements play an important
but different role/functions in plants. The The general functions of the specific
better known important functions of the elements carried out in the plant body as
essential elements are : well as the specific symptoms exhibited on
plant when that element is deficient in the
1. They act as structural constituents and soil are given in short in the following table.
support the frame work of the plant
body.

2. They are components of cell constituents
and metabolically active compounds of
the cell.

3. They help in maintenance of cellular
organisation.

4. They help in energy transformation and
enzyme action.

When the quantity of nutrients is low/
deficient in the growing medium, such
nutrients limit the growth of plants. This

62

Table 6.2 : Functions and deficiency symptoms of nutrients.

Element Functions Deficiency Symptoms

Macronutrients

Carbon (i) Carbon forms backbone of most of --
(C) the plant biomolecules including
ptotein, starch and cellulose.

(ii) Carbon forms the skeleton of the
plant

Hydrogen (i) It is necessary for building sugars in --
(H) plant.

(ii) It maintains turgor rigidity

(iii) It helps for electron transport chain
in photosynthesis and for respiration.

Oxygen (i) It is component of many organic and --
(O) inorganic molecules within the plant.

(ii) It is required for aerobic cellular
respiration and breakdown of
glucose to produce ATP

Nitrogen (i) It is a constituent of chlorophyll It’s deficiency causes
(N) (i) Stunted growth
(ii) Nitrogen imparts dark green colour (ii) Restricted foliage
to plant. (iii) Pale yellow or light green

(iii) It increases vegetative growth colour to leaves
(iv) Low yields of crops
(iv) It is required for formation of amino (v) Shedding of leaves and fruits
acids, proteins and nucleic acid.

(v) It increases acceleration, utilization
of the constituents.

Phosphorus (i) It is constituent of nucleic acid, (i) Restricts growth of plant
(P) co-enzymes, phospho proteins and shoots and roots
phospholipids
(ii) Imparts bluish green or dark
(ii) It increases root nodule formation on green colour to older leaves
roots of pulses
(iii) It suppresses growth of lateral
(iii) Increases tillers and ratio of grain to buds
straw in crops
(iv) Delays maturity of crops
(iv) It induces early maturity (v) Potato tubers show rusty
(v) It makes plant tolerant to drought,
brown lesions in the flesh
cold, pests and diseases
(vi) It increases root growth

63

Potassium (i) It increases leaf efficiency in (i) Deficiency causes stunted and
(K) manufacturing sugar and starch bushy plant growth.

Calcium (ii) It controls the stomatal movement (ii) Leaf margins turn brown
(Ca) (iii) It plays catalytic role in activating
(iii) It causes shortening of
Magnesium number of enzymes internodes and drying of shoot
(Mg) (iv) It is required for maintenance of
(iv) Deficiency causes blackening
Sulphur cellular organisation of potato tubers and damage
(S) (v) It increases resistance to diseases, in storage

Iron heat and moisture stress
(Fe) (vi) It improves quality of fruits (colour,

flavour and size, etc.)

(i) It is a constituent of cell wall (i) It affects the meristematic
portions of root and terminal
(ii) It is required for mitotic activities buds of plant die.

(iii) It activates enzymes phospholipase (ii) Root growth is stunted
and ATPase, etc.

(iv) It plays primary role as soil (iii) Marginal chlorosis occurs in
amendment younger leaves

(v) It helps to translocate the sugar in the (iv) Premature falling of flowers
plants and fruits in leguminous crops

(vi) It neutralises organic acid which may

become poisonous to plants

(i) It is a part of chlorophyll molecules (i) It increases chlorosis between

(ii) It is required by enzymes involved in the veins of older leaves and
carbohydrate metabolism they may turn brown

(iii) It is essential for activity of enzymes (ii) It may causes necrosis in

(iv) It is usually needed by plants for severe deficiency.

synthesis of oils and fats

(v) Increases crop resistance to drought (i) It causes chlorosis
and diseases
(ii) It develops antho-cyanine
(i) It is a constituent of amino acid and pigmentation (which is first in
vitamins involved in synthesis of younger leaves)
chlorophyll
(iii) Fruit becomes abnormal-
(ii) It is required for the activities of shaped, thick skinned and less
enzymes juicy

(iii) Pungent odour of onion and garlic is (i) It causes interveinal chlorosis
due to sulphur compounds' which first appears in
younger leaves
(iv) It stimulates seed formation
(i) It takes part in chlorophyll synthesis (ii) Leaves become dry and papery
later turn brown and necrotic
(ii) It has a catalytic role in activities of
many enzymes (iii) Chlorosis and mottle leaf in
sugarcane
(iii) It is active in biological oxidation

64

(i) It is the activator of enzymes in (i) It causes interveinal chlorosis

respiration and metabolism of young leaves

Manganese (ii) It also activates many other enzymes (ii) The necrotic spots appear on
(Mn)
(iii) It helps in synthesis of chlorophyll as leaves
Zinc
(Zn) it is a part of chlororophyll (iii) Causes marsh spots on peas

Copper and blight on sugarcane leaves
(Cu)
(i) It is required in auxin and protein (i) It causes interveinal chlorosis
Boron
(B) synthesis (ii) Chlorosis is followed by

(ii) It takes part in synthesis of necrosis in older leaves

chlorophyll (iii) It results in short internodes,

(iii) It is essential for RNA synthesis and Khaira disease in rice, ‘White

seed production bud’ in maize.

(iv) Plants show rosette apperance

(i) It is required in carbohydrate and (i) The young leaves become

protein metabolism necrotic at tip point

(ii) It is activator of enzyme (ii) Dead tissue appears on tips of

(iii) It is essential for synthesis of vit.-A in leaves

plants (iii) Multiple bud formation in the

(iv) It is involved in the respiration of leaf axil

plants (iv) Gum formation and dieback in

citrus

(i) It is involved in transportation of (i) Its deficiency causes death of

carbohydrate in plants shoot tips

(ii) It helps in flower and pollen grain (ii) Causes stunted leaves

formation (iii) Also causes cracking of fruits

(iii) Essential for translocation of sugar in (iv) Associated with sterility and

plants malformation of reproductive

organs

(i) It is essential in symbiotic 'N' fixation (i) It causes chlorotic interveinal

and nitrate assimilation mottling of the basal leaves

Molybdenum (ii) It is the constituent of nitrate which is followed by necrosis.
(Mo) reductase enzyme (ii) Its deficiency causes ‘Whip

tail’ in cauliflower.

(iii) It reduces activities of nitrogen

fixing organisms.

(i) It is involved in primary (i) It gives wilted appearance to

Chlorine photosynthetic reaction. foliage

(Cl) (ii) It is also involved in cyclic photo (ii) It causes stuffy roots with

phosphorylation lateral branching

6.3.2 Integrated Nutrient Management green manures, biofertiliers and other
(INM) decomposable material for crop production.
The basic concept of INM is the adjustment
It is the combined application of of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level
chemical fertilizers along with organic for sustaining the desired crop productivity.
resource materials like organic manure,

65

Integrated nutrient management (INM) to be quite promising for increasing organic
is the consideration of all the factors matter in the soil.
responsible for increasing available nutrients
in the soil. To achieve the objectives of INM the
strategies are-
Those factors are as follows.
i. Use fertilizer recommendations based
(1) Physical condition of soil – The on soil analysis. Use optimum and
availability of nutrient depends on the balanced fertilizers for the cropping
physical condition of soil such as good system as a whole.
structure, aeration, etc.
ii. Integrated use of all sources of
(2) Soil moisture - Plants absorb nutrients nutrients as per soil and crop need.
from the soil in the form of solution
and which require sufficient moisture iii. Use of crop rotations involving legumes
in the soil.
iv. Remove deficiencies of nutrients as
(3) Soil pH – The nutrients remain and when first detected and ameliorate
generally available in the soil at problem soils with appropriate
neutral pH (6.0-7.0). amendments.

(4) Manures and nutrient management– v. Encourage farmers to use bio-
Manure provides organic nutrients inoculants, bio-fertilizers, organic
and moisture in the soil. It improves manures and promote farmer to
physical, chemical and biological evaluate soils for quality, fertility and
properties of soil. overall productivity.

(5) Fertilizer and nutrient management- B Ca
The fertilizers are acidic or basic S Fe
in nature. Application of fertilizer
constantly makes the soil acidic or Mn
alkaline according to nature of fertilizer
used. Fertilizer should be applied on
the basis of the soil analysis.

(6) Bio - fertilizer and nutrient management Cu

- Bio-fertilizer are the culture of Mo
K
microorganism capable of fixing or Zn N

solubilizing the nutrients.

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

is actually the technical and managerial
component which is one of the policy of Mg

ICAR. Organic materials are the potential

source of major nutrients besides containing
fair amounts of micro nutrients. The indirect P

effects include augmentation of beneficial

microbial population, their activities and

improvement of soil health. Incorporation

of crop residues as well as other organic Fig. 6.1 : Deficiency
material like press mud cake, biogas slurry, symptoms of nutrients
green manuring, vermicompost, etc. seems

66

C an you tell? of these manures, however, depends on the
amount of humus they add to the soil.)
1. Different materials which supply
nutrients to plants 2. Fertilizers

2. Naturally available source and artificial These are the inorganic substances
compounds supplying nutrients added to soil to supply certain elements
essential for crop growth. They contain large
6.4 Manures and fertilizers amount of nutrients per unit weight and in
a definite composition e.g. urea, single super
6.4.1 Meaning phosphate, muriate of potash, etc.

1. Manures 3. Bio-fertilizers
These are the organic substances of
These are the substances which contain
plant or animal origin and capable of living micro organisms which, when applied
supplying plant nutrients in small quantity to seed, plant surfaces or soil colonize the
per unit weight as well as provide food for rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and
soil micro organism. Examples are FYM, promotes growth by increasing the supply
compost, green manure, vermicompost, or availability of primary nutrients to the
organic waste, crop residues, etc. (The value host plant. e.g. Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
Blue green atage (BGA) etc.

6.4.2 Classification of Manures and Fertilizers

Classification of Fertilizers

Organic manures Chemical fertilizers Bio-fertilizers
(Natural) (Synthetic)

Organic Manures

Bulky Concentrated

well decomposed under decomposed Plant origin Animal origin
eg. F.Y.M., e.g. green manures, oil cakes
(dhaincha, glyricidia,
Compost, Sewage
and Sludge other legumes)

Non edible edible
e.g. neem e.g. ground nut,
jatropha,
sunflower,
karanj mustard

e.g. blood meal, bone meal, fish meat, manure meal
67

Chemical Fertilizers

Straight Complex Fertilizer Mixtures Soil Micro nutrient
Fertilizers Fertilizers e.g. mixtures of Amendments fertilizers e.g.
e.g. nitro different grades e.g. gypsum, borax, copper
phosphate (e.g. 10 : 26 : 26) sulphate, zinc
lime
sulphate

Nitrogenous Phosphatic Potassic
fertilizers Fertilizers e.g. Fertilizers e.g.
e.g. urea, Single super muriate of
ammonium phosphate, double potash, sulphate
sulphate super phosphate of potash

Bio-fertilizers

Nitrogen fixing Phosphate Decomposers
Bio-fertilizers mobilising Bio- e.g.
fertilizers (PMBF)
(NBF) Trichoderma

NBF for NBF for cereals Phosphate Phosphate
legumes e.g. Azospirillum solubilizer absorber e.g.
spp; Azotobacter bacteria (PSB). glomus, vascular
e.g. spp; Azolla BGA e.g. bacillus
Rhizobium (Blue Green Alage), pseudomonas, articular
Acetobacter spp. aspergillus mycorrhiza
spp.
(VAM)

Fig. : 6.2 : Classification of manures and fertilizers

6.4.3 Brief study of Manures and 2. Compost : This is the bulky organic
Fertilizers manure obtained from the decomposition
of organic wastes with the help of the
Bulky Organic Manures action of microorganisms. e.g. rural
These manures contain plant nutrients compost (made from farm waste and
house refuses), urban compost (made
in small quantities and organic matter in from town wastes).
large quantities.
3. Vermicompost : The compost prepared
1. Farm Yard Manure (FYM) : It is by using earthworms is called
decomposed mixture of the solid and vermicompost.
liquid excreta of farm animals along
with litter (e.g. materials used for (i) Selection of earthworms - Eisenia
bedding purpose of cattle) and left over fetida being a most active
material from fodder fed to the cattle, e.g. species hence, commonly used
cattle manures, sheep penning, poultry for vermicompost production.
manure, etc.

68

Earthworms which are the native sewage by screening, sedimentation,
of the local soil can be used. chemical precipitation or bacterial
digestion is called sludge.
(ii) Size of pit : 3.0 m long, 1.5 m
wide and 0.6 m deep pit may be 5. Green manuring : It is the practice of
prepared. The distance between two incorporation of green succulent plant
pits is 0.6 m. material into soil for improving physical
structure as well as the fertility of soil.
(iii) Preparation of vermibed - At the It consists of raising quick growing crops
bottom of the pit 15 cm layer of upto flowering stage and incorporate
raw organic material from farm, them into the soil by ploughing. There
household refuse, etc. should be are two types of green manuring.
placed.
(i) Green manuring in situ - Green
(iv) Organic layering - Compost pit manure crops are grown in situ either as
is then layered about 15 cm with a pure crop or as an intercrop with the
partially decomposed cow dung and main crop and then buried in the same
soil in 3:1 proportion. Moisture level field at flowering stage e.g. sannhemp,
is maintained (without flooding) by dhaincha, cowpea, cluster bean, etc.
spraying of water.
(ii) Green leaf manuring - This refers
(v) Wet organic layer - Cow dung slurry to turning into the soil the green leaves
(or biogas slurry) is to be prepared and tender green twigs collected from
and spread over it to a thickness shrubs and trees grown on bunds,
of 10 cm and cover the pit with waste land and near by forest area e.g.
15 cm organic material (dry Glyricidia.
and green leaves). After 3-4 days
inoculation of earthworm is done. Concentrated organic manures

(vi) Inoculation of earthworm - 1. Plant origin : These are organic in nature
About 1000-1500 earthworms are and contain relatively higher percentage
introduced as an optimum density of plant nutrients as compared to bulky
into a compost pit. organic manure. These are generally
undecomposed material.
(vii) Harvesting - At maturation,
moisture content is brought down. (i) Oil cakes : Richest source of plant
This ensures drying of compost and nutrients of all organic manures.
migration of worms towards base These are of two type.
of the vermibed. Mature compost is
removed, sieved, dried and packed. (a) Edible oil cakes - These types of
oil cakes are generally used for
4. Sewage and sludge : (i) Sewage - feeding the cattle as concentrates,
This is the liquid collected from the but low grade ones can be used
closed drains usually contains urine and as manure for crops e.g. groundnut
washings in addition to night soil and cake, mustard cake, sesame seed
other solid ingredients. Sewage has two cake, linseed cake, etc.
components.
(b) Non edible oil cakes - These types
(a) Solid portion - sludge of oil cakes are not suitable for
(b) Liquid portion - sewage feeding cattle and mainly used for
(ii) Sludge - The settle sewage solid manuring e.g. neem cake, karanj
cake, mahua cake, castor cake, etc.
combined with varying amounts of water
and dissolved materials removed from

69

(ii) Animal origin - (a) Waste products (E) Micronutrient fertilizers : Micronutrient
of slaughter house : (a) Blood fertilizers are those which contain micro
meal Dried blood is a very quick nutrients. They are the salts like Zinc
acting manure and is effective for Sulphate, Ferrous sulphate, manganese
all type of crops and soil. sulphate, etc.

(b) Bone meal : It is the oldest Bio-fertilizers
phosphatic fertilizer as bones (1) Nitrogen fixing bio-fertilizers (NBF)
contain calcium phosphate. It is Atmosphere contains 78 percent nitrogen
more effective with PSB.
and 0.03 percent Carbon dioxide. Plants
(c) Fish meal : This is available either are capable to assimilate carbon dioxide
as dried fish or as fish meal or through photosynthesis even when carbon
powder where in fish oil is extracted. dioxide content in air is less, but most
The residue contains nutrients hence of the plants cannot fix atmospheric
can be used as manure. nitrogen though it is abundant.

Chemical fertilizers NFB bacterias play a very significant
role in improving soil fertility by fixing
(A) Straight fertilizers : Chemical fertilizers atmospheric nitrogen both in association
which contain only one primary or macro with plant roots and also without it. e.g.
nutrient are called as straight fertilizers Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillium.
e.g. urea, single super phosphate, MOP,
etc. (2) Phosphate mobilising bio-fertilizers
(PMBF)
(B) Compound or complex fertilizers:
Fertilizers which contain more than These micro-organisms are mainly
one primary or major nutrient elements bacteria and fungus. They possess the
and produced by the process of ability to bring insoluble soil phosphates
chemical reactions. These fertilizers are into a soluble forms by secreting
usually produced in granular form e.g. several organic acids, under favourable
diammonium phosphate (DAP), Suphala conditions and also by the biological
(15:15:15, 20:20:00), Monoamonium reactions.
phosphate, 10:26:26, 12:32:16, etc.
(3) Decomposers
(C) Mixed fertilizers or fertilizer mixtures: Decomposing bio-fertilizers when
These are prepared by physical mixing
of two or more fertilizers. Such added with organic matter increases
mixtures can be prepared by mixing the rate of decomposition of the
two or more straight fertilizers. Usually organic matter hence, they are used for
fertilizer mixtures are prepared to meet preperation of compost, FYM and in
specific needs of crop e.g. NPK 10:5:5, situ decomposition of organic residues
20:20:00, 20:10:10, etc. in field.

6.4.4 Methods of fertilizer application

(D) Soil amendments : Any material which Fertilizers are costlier inputs in
is used to correct the soil acidity/ agriculture. They need to be applied at
alkalinity or any problematic property proper time and also by correct method
of soil is called as soil amendment to get maximum benefits from this input.
e.g. Gypsum, lime, iron pyrite etc. lime Otherwise, the objective of fertilizer
stone is used to correct acidic soil and application may not be fulfilled. Fertilizers
gypsum to correct alkaline soil. are generally applied in the following two
forms.

70

1. Application of fertilizers in solid form

Broadcasting Placement Pellete Application
e.g. (i) Basal application (i) Plough sole
(ii) Top dressing (ii) Deep
(iii) Local placement
(iv) Band placement

Hill Row Ring

Types of fertilizer application in solid form

(a) Broadcasting : Even and uniform (ii) The weed growth is stimulated all over
spreading of manure or fertilizer by the field.
hand over the entire surface of field
while cultivation or after the sowing in (iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they
standing crop is termed as broadcasting. come in contact with large mass of
Depending upon time of fertilizer soil.
application there are two types of
broadcasting. (b) Drilling : Granular fertilizers are
applied through seed-cum-fertilizer drill
(i) Broadcasting at planting or sowing at sowing time. The phosphatic and
e.g. concentrated organic manures, potassic fertilizers are applied to cereal
potasic fertilizer, citric soluble crops and cotton. But this method is not
phosphatic fertilizers, etc. suitable for pulse crops.

(ii) Top dressing : Braodcasting (c) Placement or spot application : It is
fertilizers in standing crop is known the method of placing fertilizer in the
as top dressing. Care must be taken soil before or after sowing the crops.
that do not apply when leaves The roots of young plants can get
are wet e.g. Urea, ammonium nutrients as per their requirement from
nitrate. the fertilizer applied by this method.

(i) Ring/Circle method : Fertilizer
application can be done by making
circle or ring around the plant trunk
with sickle/khurpi and covering it
with soil by hand.

(ii) Band method : Fertilizer is placed
in bands or hills near the plant (3-5
cm away) and cover with soil.

Fig 6.2 Broadcasting fertilizer (iii) Row placement : The fertilizers are
placed on one or both sides of the
Disadvantages of broadcasting row by hand e.g. potato, sugarcane,
etc.
(i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by
plant roots as they move laterally over (d) Pellet application : It refers to the
long distances. placement of nitrogenous fertilizers in

71

the form of pellets 2.5 to 5 cm deep (b) Root inoculation method - Bio-
between the rows of the paddy crop. fertilizers mixed in water and roots of
The fertilizers mixed with the soil in clean seedling are dipped in solution for
the ratio of 1:10 and small pellets of 120 minutes before transplanting. Use
convenient size are made to deposit. 200 gm biofertilizer for 5-6 lit. water.

2. Application of fertilizers in liquid form (c) Soil application - Bio-fertilizer mixed
with compost and soil mixture and then
Starter Foliar Direct Aerial spread in field. Use 5 kg biofertilizer
solution application in soil application for one hectare field and mix it with
25 kg compost and 50 kg soil before
Types of fertilizer application in liquid form spreading.

(a) Starter solution : Starter solution is Precautions adopted in using bio-
prepared by mixing N, P and K fertilizers fertilizers
in the ratio of 1:2:1 or 1:1:2. This is
applied to the vegetables seedlings at (i) No other fertilizer or insecticides/
the time of transplanting and it helps fungicides should be mixed with seed
rapid establishment and quick early that are treated with bio-fertilizer.
growth of seedlings.
(ii) The seed treatment, if required should
(b) Foliar application : This is method of be done at least 24 hours before
spraying leaves of growing plant with mixing the seeds with bio-fertilizers.
suitable fertilizer solution having low
concentration. It is effective for micro (iii) Organic manures should not be kept
nutrient fertilizers. in dump place and in bright sun.

(c) Direct application to the soil : Liquid (v) The bio-fertilizers should be used
fertilizers are directly applied to the soil before expiry date.
with special injection equipment e.g.
unhydrous ammonia, liquid manure such Benefits of bio-fertilizers
as urine, sewage water and cowshed
washings are let into field. There are various benefits in using
bio-fertilizers as follows -
(d) Application through irrigation water
(Fertigation) : It refers to the application (i) It increases the yield of the crop by
of water soluble fertilizers through supplying nitrogen in soil.
irrigation water generally nitrogenous
fertilizers are applied through irrigation. (ii) It improves the soil condition and
health through micro-organisms.
(e) Aerial application : In areas where
ground application is not practicable, the (iii) The environment cannot be polluted in
fertilizer solutions are applied by aircraft any way due to the use of biofertilizers.
particularly in hilly areas, in forest land,
in grass land or in sugarcane field. (iv) Bio -fertilizers are considered
ecofriendly. Bio-fertilizers save the
3. Application of bio-fertilizers crops primarily from seed, soil and
water borne diseases.
(a) Seed inoculation method - Bio-fertilizer
is mixed in wheat flour with suitable (v) It helps in turning the fixed phosphorus
amount of water and then seeds are to soluble form and increases yield of
dipped. Treated seeds are kept in shed crops upto 10-30 percent.
for 30 minutes and used for sowing. For
20 kg seed use 200 gm bio-fertilizer (vi) It increases the rate of decomposition
and 250 gm wheat flour. in composting process.

72

Exercise

Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. C. Find the odd out.

1. The essentiality criteria of element 1. Rhizobium / suphala / Azolla /
in plant is established by BGA / Trichoderma

2. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium 2. Nitrogen / calcium / magnesium /
boron / phosphorus
are the plant nutrients.
3. Urea / gypsum / borax / neem
3. Deficiency of plant cake / suphala

nutrients causes cracking of fruits. 4. Iron / calcium / boron / zinc /
chloride
4. Any material which is used to
5. Compost / FYM / BGA / Green
correct the soil acidity or alkalinity manure / neem cake

is known as . D. State true or false.

5. BGA is fertilizer. 1. Straight fertilizer contains only one
primary nutrient.
B. Make the pairs.
2. Biofertilizers are applied by seed
‘A’ Group ‘B’ Group inoculation method.

1. Suphala a. organic manure 3. Vermicompost is prepared by using
earthworms.
2. Azolla b. soil amendment
4. Khaira disease in paddy is caused
3. Neem cake c. chemical fertilizer due to deficiency of zinc.

d. fungicide 5. Compost is the concentrated organic
manure.
g. biofertilizer

Q.2 Answer in brief.

1. Give difference between manure
and fertilizer.

2. Write note on biofertilizers.

3. Complete the following chart.
Bulky

Organic manure

4. Complete the following chart. Plant origin Blood meal
S
Primary P
Ca
Macro Nutrients

5. Complete the following chart.

Sources of nutrients -------- Water --------

Carbon -------- Primary --------
73

Q.3 Answer the following questions.
1. Explain INM.
2. Explain vermicomposting with diagram.
3. Complete table.

Chemical fertilizers

Straight --- --- --- Micronutrient
e.g. Gypsum Fertilizers
Nitro NPK
Phosphate 10 : 26 : 26 ---

4. Explain classification of essential is spread in a thin layer and sprinkled with
nutrients with examples. a mixture of fresh cow dung. Compost
manure is reinforced with super phosphate
5. Complete the table. @ 25 kg per ton of manure. When the pit
is filled to a height of 1.5 to 2.0 feet (45-
Methods of fertilizer application 60 cm) above ground level the surface is
plastered with one inch layer of a mixture of
Solid form Bio mud and cow dung. The compost becomes
fertilizers ready in about three to four months without
Braodcasting Starter any further attention.
solution Root
inoculation 1. Define compost.
-- -- --
2. What is the size of compost pit?
Drilling --
-- Fertigation 3. Explain composting method.

Q.4 Answer in detail. 4. Which chemical fertilizer is mixed
in pit?
1. Read the given paragraph and
answer the following question. 5. What is aerobic decomposition?

Compost is an organic manure prepared 2. Complete the given table.
from plant residues and animal waste by
decomposition. The process of making Nutrient Usable form Mineral
compost is known as composting. It is largely by plant source
a biological process in which aerobic (which
requires air or oxygen) and anaerobic 1. Boron -- --
(which function in absence of air or free
oxygen) microorganisms decompose organic 2. -- Ferrous - ion Haematite
matter and lower the Carbon Nitrogen
ratio. In the aerobic process, the mixed 3. Chlorine -- Sodium
farm residues are collected in the pits chloride
of convenient size, say 15’ × 5’ × 3’ 4. -- NO3 --
(450 × 150 × 90 cm). Each days collection 5. -- Ca++
--

6. -- H2PO4 Apatite
Feldspar
7. Potassium --

74

3. Complete the following table.

Functions of Functions of calcium Functions of Functions of boron
nitrogen phosphorus

1.

2.

3.

4. Write in detail classification of Activity :
essential elements with explanation. Apply fertilizers to the crop in the field by
different methods.
5. Explain the different methods of
fertilizer application.

Courtesy : Rastriya Chemicals and Fertilizers, Mumbai
75

7. Irrigation Management

Can you recall? 3 % Tank
other s1o1ur%ces
(1) What are the basic needs of plant for 24 %
their survival? Canal

(2) What is the difference between water 16 %
and irrigation? other wells

(3) About Soil, water and plant relationship. 46 %
Tube Wells
For successful crop production water
must be supplied to plant as required by Different sources of irrigation
them through irrigation. Plant receives water
required for their growth from soil moisture. Remember this
The soil moisture can be replenished whenever
it gets depleted. Irrigation helps to maintain Largest Dams in Maharashtra
soil water balance during stress period. 1. Koyana, Satara
2. Jayakwadi, Aurangabad
Do you know ? 3. Ujjani, Solapur
4. Isapur, Nanded
 What is the main source of irrigation 5. Totladoh, Nagpur
in India?
(2) Yield of crop is increased and it maintains
 What efforts are made to distribute soil temperature.
water uniformly ?
(3) It maintains soil water balance completely
7.1 Definition of irrigation and plant water balance partly.

The artificial application of water for (4) Irrigation is necessary for raising winter
supplying moisture essential to plant growth is and summer season crops.
known as irrigation.

It is the artificial provision of water to (5) It improves the ground water storage.
supplement rainfall for crop production.
Irrigation provides favourable environment (6) Water supplies two essential elements,
for higher crop growth and yield. Effective hydrogen and oxygen to the crops.
irrigation is the controlled and uniform
application of water to crop land in the required (7) It is necessary for the absorption of mineral
amount at the required time, with minimum nutrients by the plants from the soil.
cost to produce optimum yields without
wastage of water and any adverse effect. (8) It brings biological equilibrium and
enrichment of soil.
7.2 Advantages and adverse effects of
irrigation (9) Irrigation ensures choice of efficient
7.2.1 Advantages of irrigation valuable crop and increases efficiency of
inputs.
(1) Irrigation provides insurance against short
duration drought during crop season. 7.2.2 Adverse effects of irrigation

• The indiscriminate use of water leads to the
problem of waterlogging and salt imbalance
making the agricultural land unproductive.

76

• The root growth is restricted in irrigated Do you know ?
soil and therefore nutrients that leach
downward are not extracted by the crops. Why irrigation is indispensable in India?
• Uncertain monsoon rain.
• Irrigated soil become more compact on • Spatial variation in rainfall.
drying and thus tillage requirements are • Low winter rain.
high. • Low retaining capacity of soil.
• Cultivation of high yielding variety.
• Erosion of soil and loss of plant nutrients • Multiple cropping
and wastage of water in sloppy land.
These systems are as follows :
• In deep clay soils a huge quantity of water
is lost in filling up cracks before it reaches 7.3.1 Surface irrigation system :
at saturation level. In this system water is applied and

• Preparation of boundary bunds, plot bunds, distributed over the soil surface by gravity.
channels for irrigation and drainage reduce It is often referred as flood irrigation in
effective sowing area. which applied water moves over the land
surface freely and also infiltrate into the
• The requirements of costly inputs such as soil.
fertilizer and tillage are considerable in The various methods of surface irrigation
irrigated agriculture. systems are

• Irrigation water is often acidic or alkaline Flooding : It includes (a) Wild flooding
and contains injurious salts, impurities and (b) Controlled flooding
weed seeds that affect crop production.
(a) Wild flooding : In this method water
• Incidence of insects, pest, pathogens, from channel is allowed to flood in
parasite and weed are high in irrigated the entire field in an uncontrolled way.
areas. This practice is followed where water is
abundant and inexpensive. It is followed
7.3 Systems of irrigation on smooth lands like wet land of rice and
close growing crops like leafy vegetables
Different systems are used to apply and fodder crops.
irrigation water to the crop depending upon
Advantages Disadvantages
(a) Topography (present condition of land)
(b) Soil type 1. It is less 1. The main drawback
(c) Crop water resources expensive and of this method is loss
(d) Climatic condition does not require of huge quantity of
(e) Cost any skill water.

Irrigation system 2. Except land 2. It is the most
inefficient method
Surface Subsurface Sprinkler Drip levelling and in which high lying
patches remain dry
Flooding boundary bund and low lying once are
submerged in water
Wild Flooding Controlled Flooding preparation, no

Border Check Ring and Ridge and other field layout
Strip Basin Basin Furrow
is necessary

3. Supervision of 3. All types of field
water application management practice
may not be are very poor i. e.
required nutrient management

77

(b) Controlled flooding In this method field is divided into
small plots surrounded by bunds at all
(i) Border strip method the four sides. The size of check basin
ranges from 4 × 3 m to 6 × 5 m. The shape
In this method the field is divided into may be rectangular or square depending
long, narrow strips with small parallel upon topography and soil texture. It is
ridges on the sides. Length of the strip suitable for crops like groundnut, wheat,
ranges from 30 to 150 meters long and finger millets, etc. In this method water
6 to 8 meters wide, which depend upon can be applied uniformly but more
field condition and crop type. The borders labour is required to prepare layout. Land
are laid out along the general slope. is wasted under channels and bunds.
Intercultivation by implement is difficult.
Flow direction of field channel

Permanent bund
Temporary bund
Temporary bund

Permanent bund

Basin-A Basin-B Basin-C

Fig 7.1 (a) : Border strip method

Fig 7.1 (b) : Border strip method Fig 7.2 : Check Basin method
(iii) Ring and Basin method
This method is suitable for close This method is suitable for orchard
growing crops like wheat, legume, fodder
crops etc. in medium to heavy textured and other high value crops. The basin
soil. Intercultivation is possible. Labour may be square, rectangular or circular in
requirement is less for field layout, large shape.
irrigation streams can be efficiently Basin method - A small bund of 15 to
used, It is not suitable in coarse texture 22 cm high is formed around the stump
soil. Repairing and supervision during of the tree at a distance of about 30 to 60
irrigation is needed. cm depending upon water quantity to be
supplied. In this method water is applied
(ii) Check basin method in controlled way, to the restricted area
It is the most common method among around the stem.

surface methods of irrigation. Fig 7.3 : Basin method

78

Ring method - These are circular beds. 7.3.2 Subsurface irrigation system
Heap of soil around plant trunk is made to In this system water is applied into
avoid direct contact of water to the plant
trunk. This helps in avoiding water borne a series of field ditches or through under
diseases. ground perforated pipes deep down to
impervious layer. The depth of ditches
Main water channel Field channel varies from 30 cm to 1m and 15 to 30 cm
apart. Water through ditches or perforated
Fig 7.3 : Ring method pipes gradually saturates the root zone
through capillary movement. This system
(iv) Furrow method is practiced in sandy soil for coconut
Furrows are small parallel channels garden in Kerala and for vegetables in
Kashmir. In artificial sub irrigation water
made to carry water in small streams passes through underground perforated
between the rows of crops grown on ridges pipe in the root zone. This system avoids
or furrow sides. This method is suitable water loss through evaporation and reduce
for crops like sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, weed problem. It may causes heavy
sorghum, maize, vegetables, etc. The size loss of water through deep percolation.
and shape of the furrow depends upon Maintenance is required and it causes
spacing adopted for the crop, soil type and interference in cultivation.
slope. The length ranges from 30 m to 300 m.
In this method uniform application Fig 7.5: Subsurface Irrigation system
of water is possible. Cost of furrow 7.3.3 Sprinkler irrigation system
preparation is more. Furrow can be open This is a method of applying
using ridger or by manual operation.
irrigation water under controlled manner
as like natural rainfall. It is also called
as overhead irrigation. It acts as spray.

Fig 7.4 : Furrow method Fig 7.5: Sprinkler Irrigation system

 How do you reduce water loss by
evaporation?

 Do you know modern methods of
irrigation?

79

The important components of a Fig 7.6 : Rain gun
sprinkler irrigation system are the pump,
pressure gauge, control valves, main 7.3.4 Drip irrigation system
pipeline, lateral line, T-coupling, bend, end
plug, riser pipe and sprinkler head. The Drip irrigation is a method of
height of riser pipe depends on the height controlled irrigation in which water is
of the crop. Sprinkler heads of rotation slowly delivered drop by drop to the root
type are fixed on the riser pipe. Sprinkler system of multiple plants. The water is
heads generally have two nozzles, one to applied to the soil from the emitters. The
apply water at long distance and other for emitters which are attached to laterals
short distance. distribute water for irrigation. The number
of emitters on laterals depends on plant
Advantages spacing of the crop, soil characteristics,
root development and discharge of
(1) It is used for almost all crops and for all emitter. The main components of drip
types of soil. system are–pump set, pressure gauge,
control valve, pressure regulator, primary
(2) Water can be applied at a controlled filter, secondary filter, main line, lateral
rate with uniform distribution and high line, multi outlet distributor, end plug and
efficiency. emitters. This method is most suitable for
arid and semi-arid region with limited
(3) Land levelling is not essential. availability of water. It is best suited
for wide spaced fruit crops, vegetables,
(4) Run off and soil erosion is less. sugarcane, cotton, etc.

(5) Soluble fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides Advantages
and fungicides can be applied through this
method. (1) Saves water upto 70% and labour also.

(6) Saving of water about 30 - 40 per cent. (2) Water losses due to percolation, runoff
and evaporation are quite minimum.
(7) Accurate and easy measurement of
distributed water. (3) Weed population is less due to limited
surface wetting.
Disadvantages
(4) No land levelling is necessary and can be
(1) Sprinkler irrigation does not work well followed in hilly terrain areas.
under high wind velocity.
(5) Fertilizes can be applied along with water.
(2) High initial equipment cost.
(6) Plant growth is better and higher yield
(3) It is not suitable where water contains can be obtained.
large amount of salt, sand and debris.
(7) Less incidence of disease.
Remember this

Rain gun – It is high pressure, high volume,
large diameter sprinkler irrigation. It covers
more area for irrigation .There are semi –
permanent and permanent rain guns. These
sprinklers have radius of discharge throw
from 24 m to 36 m. This can be used for
various agronomic crops, vegetables, flowers,
etc. It is available in portable and fixed form.

80

Disadvantages (4) Damage to lateral system by rodents,
(1) High initial cost. clogging of emitters and accumulation of
(2) It requires specific skill. salt near plant are the limitations.
(3) Need regular maintenance and high repair

cost

Lateral

Pump Filtes Main line

Vaccum Pressure
breaker gauge

Fertilizer tank Fertilizer Emitters
injector
pump

Fig 7.7 : Drip Irrigation system

7.4 Criteria for scheduling of irrigation

How much?

Which crop ? Irrigation When?
Scheduling How many times?

Which method?

Irrigation Scheduling Criteria

Soil Water Regime Climatological Approach Plant Indices Physiological
Stages
Feel and Appearance Cumulative Pan Evaporation
Critical Stages

Depletion of Available Soil Moisture

Soil Moisture Tension

Visual Plant Growth Canopy Indicator Critical
Symptoms Population Rate Temp. Ratio Plant Growth Stage

81

There areseveralapproachesofscheduling Sorghum seedling, flag leaf, 3
irrigation based on soil, crops, climate and flowering 4
plant – water relationship. 2
Groundnut Germination,
(1) Soil water regime (depletion) - In pegging,
this method soil moisture content is flowering, pod
estimated to know the deficit in available development
soil moisture at which it is proposed
to irrigate at particular level. It can be Redgram Flowering, pod
measured either by direct gravimetric formation
method or indirect measurement such as
tensiometer and resistance block method. Basic unit of water measurement (motion)

(2) Climatological approach - Evapo (1) Cusec- cubic feet per second,
transpiration (ET) mainly depends upon 1 cubic feet =7.4805 gallons
climate. The amount of water lost by
evapo-transpiration is estimated from (2) Acre inch- Quantity of water that will
climatological data and when ET reaches cover one acre of surface and one inch
at particular level, irrigation is given. deep soil

(3) Plant indices - Any plant character, related (3) Duty- Denotes the number of acres covered
directly or indirectly to plant water deficit by 1 cusec of water flowing continuously
which responds readily to integrated throughout the growing season of crop.
influence of soil water, plant evaporative
demand of the atmosphere, may serve as (4) Delta- It is total depth of water required
criteria for timing of irrigation. Visual sign for a crop during entire period of the crop.
of plant wilting can be used to schedule
irrigation to crops. Farmer frequently use Do you know ?
dropping, curling and rolling of leaves as
visual signs.  Which irrigation method is mostly used
in India?
(4) Physiological stages - The critical
growth stages of some important field 7.5 Drainage
crops at which irrigations are given after
considering the rainfall. Can y ou reca ll?

Critical stages of different crops: Why water is stored in the field?
How will you remove stagnated water in the
Crop Critical stages No. of field?
Rice irrigation
Early tillering, 7.5.1 Meaning of drainage
Wheat panicle initiation, 3
flowering Excess soil moisture or water logging
5 occurs due to heavy and continuous rains
Crown root or due to faulty irrigation practices. Water
initiation, tillering, logging causes several changes in the soil and
flowering, grain plant resulting in reduced growth and in some
development, cases, death of the plants.
dough stage
Drainage is the removal of excess
gravitational water from the soil by artificial
means to enhance crop production.

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Fig 7.8 : Drainage channel (7) Desirable chemical reactions take place
and nutrients become available to the
Drainage is the provision of suitable plant easily.
method for removal of excess irrigation or
rainfall water from the field to facilitate (8) There is proper root development and
favourable moisture condition for the growth absorption of nutrients is increased.
of plants.
(9) Seed germinate faster and a better stand
The removal of excess water (free or of the crop is obtained.
gravitational/standing or stagnant water) from
the surface of soil or below the surface of the (10) Interculturing operations can be done at
soil so as to create favorable soil conditions proper time.
for plant growth is known as drainage. Surface
drainage means removal of excess water from (11) There is healthy growth of plants and plant
the surface of soil. resists the attack of pest and diseases.

Subsurface or internal drainage means (12) Roots can draw moisture from greater
removal of excess water from-within the soil depth and withstand against drought
surface (mainly from saturated soil pores). condition.

7.5.2 Importance of drainage 7.5.3 Which are the causes of improper
drainage?
For healthy growth of most of the crops
and for getting higher yield soil should not only If the soil is not well drained then there
be fertile but it should be well drained also. is water logging or stagnation of water takes
place which affects, growth and yield of crop.
The various advantages of good drainage are The causes of such bad or improper drainage
as follows. are as follows.
(1) If soil is fine textured such as clay with
(1) The field will not get waterlogged and the
crop can get sufficient water and air. poor permeability the water cannot move
downward fast enough and accumulates
(2) The soil comes in proper tilth earlier after on the surface in a thin layer obstructing
rainfall and it is possible to carry out aeration.
agricultural operations properly and in (2) The water table may be high and additional
time. gravitational water accumulates and
chokes the airspaces and saturates the
(3) Good drainage helps to improve physical surface and sub- soil.
structure of soil.
Fig 7.9 : Water logging
(4) Proper drainage prevents salt (3) There may be hard pan which affects
accumulation and degradation of irrigated
lands. seepage of water to lower strata.
(4) There may be salts affecting water
(5) There should be good balance among
moisture, air and temperature at root zone. absorption by roots.

(6) Microbial activity is induced and
resulted in accelerated organic matter
decomposition.

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(5) Due to low lying area excess rain water These furrows are known as dead furrows
cannot be carried away as surface runoff and land between these furrows is known
rapidly into the drain. as beds. Small ridges or bunds are made at
the center of the bed with gradual slope to
(6) Faulty use of irrigation water leads to drain water into the dead furrows.
creation of water logged condition and
raising of ground water table. Tell us
What is difference between surface and
(7) Humid regions with continuous and heavy subsurface drainage?
rainfall raises water table and saturates
the pore spaces. (4) Parallel field ditches
It is similar to bedding system but the
(8) The area under saline and alkali soils
with poor permeability. parallel ditches of greater capacity are
formed instead of dead furrows. This
7.5.4 What are the remedies for drainage system is suitable for flat lands with
improvement? number of small impressions.
Surface drainage 7.3.5 Sub surface drainage or underground
drainage:
Surface drainage is the simplest and the A subsurface drainage will remove excess
common method in India. In this method large water as it percolates into themselves, just like
outlet channels or field ditches are formed on open drain. It avoids wastage of land and do
the surface to remove the excess water due to not interfere with farm operation.
heavy rainfall or over irrigation. Irrigation Sub surfaced systems are
channels also serve as drainage channels. These (1) Tile drain: It consists of digging a narrow
drains cause hindrance to field preparation trench, placing short section of tiles at
and intercultivation. They are subjected to bottom and covering the tiles with earth.
silting and weeds growths which are to be
removed regularly. Open drains are damaged Fig 7.10 : Subsurface drainage
by rodent and farm animals. Different methods
of surface drainage are adopted depending on Fig 7.11 : Tile drainage
topography of the land, soil characteristics
and crops grown.
(1) Random field ditches
Field ditches of shallow depth are formed

randomly over the field. The depressions are
connected by means of shallow channels
or ditches and these are led into an outlet.
(2) Land smoothing
In this method, the elevated area is cutoff
and the excess soil is spread over low
areas so that the surface will be even
with uniform slope. Excess surface runoff
is collected and conveyed into the field
ditches provided at the lower end of the
field.
(3) Bedding
Small furrows are formed at known
interval parallel to the slope for draining
out water.

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(2) Rubble drains: It is made by cutting
narrow ‘V’ shaped drains or rectangular
section, as for box drains, filling them up
with rough stone (large and small) and
covering the whole up with soil level with
surface field soil. Depth may be 90 cm.

(3) Perforated pipe drains: In this a Fig 7.13 : Typical watershed
perforated pipe is designed to allow water
to enter or exit through small holes along Watershed management is an adaptive,
the pipe. comprehensive, integrated multi-resource
management planning process that seeks to
balance healthy, ecological, economic, and
social conditions within watershed.

Pipe Watershed management serves to integrate
planning for land and water. It takes into
Fig 7.12 : Perforated pipe drainage account both ground and surface water flow
7.6 Watershed Management recognizing and planning for the interaction
of water, plants, animals and human land
C a n you recall? use found, within the physical boundaries of
watershed.

7.6.2 Which are the types of watershed?

(1) What is flooding and reason for flooding? Watershed area is classified in to different
(2) What kind of damages take place in categories based on size, drainage, and shape
and land use pattern
flooding?
(3) Why Maharashtra always suffers from (1) On the basis of area.

drought condition? Sr. Types of Area covered
(4) What kind of measure will you suggest No. watershed

to overcome the drought condition? 1. Mini watershed 1 to 100 ha
2. Micro watershed 100 to 1000 ha
7.6.1 Definition of watershed and 3. Mili watershed 1000 to 10000 ha
watershed management 4. Sub watershed 10000 to 50000 ha
5. Macro More than 50000
Watershed is the area of land that drains of watershed ha
shed water into specific receiving water body
such as lake or river. It is the drainage area on (2) Classification on the basis of shape
the earth surface from which runoff resulting
from precipitation flows or passed through a Sr No. Shape
single point to a large stream, a river, a lake A Square
or an ocean. B Triangular
C Rectangular
It is the area of land that drains water, D Oval
sediment and dissolved material through a E Fern leaf shaped
common outlet to a some point along the F Palm shaped
stream. In another word watershed is natural G Polygon shaped
hydrological unit. H Circular Sector Shaped

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7.6.3 Objectives of watershed management (c) Permanent method: This method
helps to stop soil erosion and
(1) To control damaging run off and slow down speed at water flow by
degradation and thereby conservation of constructing check dam, percolation
soil and water. pond, etc.

(2) To promote sustainable farming and (II) Water harvesting
stabilize crop yield by adopting suitable It is nothing but accumulation and
cropping and crop management system.
storage of rainwater for reuse on site,
(3) To check soil erosion and increase water rather than allowing it to run off. Water is
infiltration rate. collected in farm pond , percolation tank,
Nala bund and deep tank for domestic
(4) To cover non- aerable area effectively and agricultural use.
through afforestation and pasture land
Try this
(5) To restore ecological balance
Experiment - How much rain water
(6) To enhance the income of the individuals quantity will be collected from 10 mm
by adopting alternate enterprises rainfall that received on your roof ?

(7) To minimize the risk of flood, drought and  Which cropping system is useful on
land slide. sloppy land?

(8) Supply and securing of clean and sufficient (III) Crop management
drinking water.
This component is related with
7.6.4 Components of watershed mangement increasing crop production and to give
sustainability by using different cropping
(1) There are four important components of patterns. It involves monocropping, inter
watershed management. cropping, strip cropping, mixed cropping,
crop rotation, cultivation practiced
(I) Soil and water conservation against slope, etc.

(II) Water Harvesting (IV) Alternate land use system
(III) Crop management
Land not useful for growing agronomic
(IV) Alternate land use system crop can be brought under cultivation
by using advance techniques e.g. agro
(I) Soil and water conservation forestry, pasture land, fiber crop, furniture
The main object of soil and water wood, agri - horticultural land use, etc.
This can improve economical status of
conservation is to check soil erosion and farmer.
to increase availability of ground water.
This can be achieved by three ways, 7.6.5 What are the steps in watershed
(a) Temporary (b) Moderate method management?
(c) Permanent
Watershed management involves
(a) Temporary method: In this method determination of alternative land treatment
simple measures like cultivation measures for which information about
practices across the slope. It requires problems of land, soil, water and vegetation in
time to time renovation of measures. the watershed is essential.

(b) Moderate method: It includes (1) Recognition phase
levelling of land having breadth of 4
to 5 m , growing grass on bunds to It involves following steps
slowdown the speed of water flow
(for every 4-5 year).

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(a) Recognition of the problem  Simply water harvesting is defined as
(b) Analysis of the cause of the problem collection of runoff for its productive use.

and its effect What is the importance of water harvesting
(c) Development of alternative solution of
(1) Rainwater harvesting : It is one of the most
problem effective method of water management
(2) Restoration phase and water conservation.
It includes two main steps
(a) Selection of best solution to identified It is the term used to indicate the collection
and storage of rainwater used for human,
problem. animals and plant needs. It involves
(b) Application of the solution to the collection and storage of rainwater on
surface or in subsurface before it is lost as
problem of the land. surface runoff.

Can you tell? (2) Ground water harvesting : Artificial
recharge to groundwater is a process
(1) What do you do when low rainfall is by which the groundwater reservoir is
received in your area?

(2) Do you store water received from
rainfall?

(3) What kinds of containers are used to
store rain water?

(3) Protection phase

This phase takes care of the general Fig 7.14 : Water harvesting
health of the watershed and ensures normal
functioning. augmented at a rate exceeding that under
natural conditions of replenishment.
(4) Improvement phase Ground water is recharged and eventually
flows to the surface naturally.
This phase deals with overall improvement
in the watershed and all land is covered. (3) Roof water harvesting: It is the technique
through which rainwater is captured from
7.6.6 Water harvesting the roof catchment and stored in reservoir.
It can be stored in sub-surface ground
Concept : It is based on the concept of depriving water by adopting artificial recharge
part of the land of its share of precipitation, techniques. It helps in self sufficiency of
giving it to another part to increase the amount water supply and reduces cost of pumping,
of water available to the gutter part and bring provides high quality water. i.e. soft and
this amount closer to crop water requirement low in minerals, less expensive.
so that an economical agricultural production
can be achieved. Such concentration of
precipitation in a smaller area is called water
harvesting (WH).

Definition

 The process of collecting natural
precipitation from prepared watershed for
beneficial use.

 Collecting and concentrating various Fig 7.15 : Roof water harvesting
forms of runoff from precipitation for
various purposes.

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Exercise

Q1. A. Fill in the blanks 3. Write difference between surface and
sub surface irrigation methods.
1. Ring method of irrigation is suitable
for ------------- crops. 4. Complete the chart.

2. Tensiometer instrument is used to Surface Check
measure soil -------------. Method besin

3. Water harvesting is a component of Irrigation Soil Plant
------------. indices
scheduling water
4. Sprinkler irrigation method saves Bedding
---------- % water. criteria regime

5. Emitters are the main components of Surface Random
----------- irrigation system. drainage field
ditches

B. Make the pairs Q. 3 Answer the following questions.
A B
1. Describe drip irrigation method.
1. Riser pipe a. Drainage
2. Explain the adverse effects of
2. Perforated pipe b. Rain gun irrigation.

3. Tensiometer c. Sprinkler irrigation 3. Give the advantages of irrigation.

d. Surface drainage 4. Suggest remedies for poor drainage.

e. Soil moisture 5. Read the following paragraph and
answer the questions given below.
C. State true or false
Farm pond is a dug out structure with
1. Water supplies only oxygen to the definite shape and size having proper inlet
plant. and outlet structures for collecting the surface
runoff flowing from the farm area. It is one
2. Drip irrigation method saves more of the most important rain water harvesting
than 50 % water. structures constructed at lowest portion of the
farm area. The stored water must be used for
3. Furrow method of irrigation is suitable irrigation only.
for crops like jowar, wheat and paddy.
There are three types of excavated farm
4. Removal of excess water from the ponds – Square, Rectangular and Circular.
field is known as irrigation. Circular ponds have high water storage
capacity. The problem associated with farm
5. Micro watershed covers the area from pond in red soils is high seepage losses. This
1 to 100 hectares. can be reduced by lining walls. Some of the
traditional methods for seepage control are
Q. 2 Answer in brief the use of bentonite, soil dispersants and
soil- cement mixture. Bentonite has excellent
1. Write note on a ridge and furrow sealing properties if kept continuously wet,
method.

2. Give components of watershed.

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but crack develops when dried. Soil cement Q. 4 Answer in detail.
mixture can be used. A soil – cement lining of
100 mm thickness reduces seepage losses up (1) Write in detail about sprinkler method
to 100 per cent. The other alternative sealant. with its advantages and disadvantages.
Alfisols is a mixture of red soil and black soil
in the ratio of 1:2. (2) Write in detail about objectives of
watershed management.
(a) What is farm pond?
(3) Write importance of water harvesting.
(b) What are the types of farm pond?
(4) Write importance of drainage.
(c) ------- type farm pond have high water
storage capacity. (5) Describe controlled flooding method.

(d) How seepage water losses are Activity :
controlled in farm pond? 1. Practice different surface irrigation

(e) What is the thickness of soil – cement methods in the field.
lining in farm pond? 2. Collect information about WALMI

and write the work details in table
given below.

Photograph and information Information (work details)

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8. Cropping System

Do y ou know ? L et us d o it
Farming system represents an
Management practices are developed appropriate combination of farm enterprises
for individual crops and recommendations viz. cropping system, livestock, poultry,
are made accordingly. The residual effects of fisheries, forestry and the means available
individual crops are not considered in crop to the farmer to raise them for increasing
based recommendations. In this approach, profitability. They interact adequately
resources are not utilized efficiently. System with environment without dislocating the
approach is applied to agriculture for efficient ecological and socio- economic balance on
utilization of all resources, maintaining one hand and attempt to meet the national
stability in production and obtaining higher goals on the other.
net returns. Enlist the different crops cultivated in the
near by fields.
A system consists of several List the ways adopted by farmers to manage
components which depend on each other. the needs of their soil, crop, animal, poultry,
A system is defined as a set of elements etc.
or components that are inter related and
interacting among themselves. Farming 8.1 Meaning
system consists of several enterprises with
appropriate combination like cropping system, Cropping system may be defined as the
dairying, piggery, poultry, fishery, bee keeping order in which the crops are cultivated on a
etc. These enterprises are interrelated. The end piece of land over fixed period. The cropping
products and wastes of one enterprise are used system is the crop production activity of the
as inputs in others. The wastes of dairy farm farm or holding. It comprises all cropping
like dung, urine, refuse, etc. are used for the patterns adopted on the farm or holding and
preparation of farmyard manure which is an their interactions with farm resources, other
input in cropping systems. The straw obtained household enterprises and the physical,
from the crops is used as fodder for cattle. biological, technological and socio-economic
Cattle are used for different field operations factors or environment.
for growing crops. Thus different enterprises
of farming systems are highly interrelated. Remember this

Cropping system should at least satisfy
the food requirements of the farmer for his
family and fodder for his cattle.

Think and answer Remember this

 Why is it necessary to select cropping Cropping system is a land use unit
system in agriculture business? comprising soils, crop, weed, pathogen and
insect subsystems that transform solar energy,
water, nutrients, labour and other inputs into
food, feed, fuel and fibre.

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Cropping system is an important Internet my friend
component of a farming system. It represents
cropping patterns used on a farm and their Collect the pictures and information
interaction with farm resources. on various cropping system.

Can you recall? 8.2 Study of different cropping systems
Depending on the resources and
The way in which the cropping system technology available, different types of
in a particular field or farm or operational cropping systems are adopted on farms.
holding or locality is practiced in an agricultural
crop year (July-June) is said to be the cropping 1. Monoculture
pattern at that site. Cropping pattern means 2. Multiple cropping
the proportion of area under various crops at 3. Intercopping
the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement 4. Mixed cropping
of crops on a given land area. The system of 5. Strip cropping
utilizing the land resources by the cropping 6. Sequence cropping
pattern is said to be the system cropping. 7. Relay cropping
8. Multistoried cropping
Do you think 9. Catch cropping

Efficient cropping system for a • Why some fields have single crops while
particular farm depends on farm resources, other have mixture of crops.
farm enterprises and farm technology. The
farm resources include land, labour, water, 8.2.1 Monoculture
capital and infrastructure. When land is
limited, intensive cropping is adopted Monoculture or mono cropping refers
so as to fully utilize available water and to growing of only one crop on the same piece
labour. When sufficient and cheap labour is of land year after year.
available, vegetable crops are also included.
Crops like sugarcane, banana, etc. should It may be due to climatological
be included in the cropping system when and socioeconomic conditions or due to
capital is not a constraint. specialization of a farmer. Under rainfed
conditions, crops like paddy, groundnut or
Do you observe cotton or sorghum are grown year after year
due to limitations of rainfall. Monoculture
In low rainfall regions monocropping of bajra is practiced in certain district of
is followed and when rainfall is more than Rajasthan because the rainfall is uncertain
750 mm, intercropping is practiced. Farm and no irrigation water is available.
enterprises like dairying, poultry, etc. also
influence the type of cropping system. If In southern states and Konkan region
the enterprise is dairying then fodder crops of Maharashtra, rice is widely cultivated under
should be included in cropping system. the monoculture system because
Change in cropping system takes place
with the development of technology. The 1. Rice forms the main commodity of their
cropping system should provide enough food daily diet.
for the family, fodder for cattle and generate
sufficient cash income, for domestic and 2. Most of the area is low lying and high
cultivation expenses. rainfall with some amount of waterlogging,
which makes the land unfit for other crops.

3. The land holdings are smaller and scattered
which do not allow to grow more crops.

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