Agriculture Science and Tech

2 Fruit rot The small irregular spots surrounded by Spray tree with dithane m-45 at
greyish yellow border are observed on the time of fruit development at
the fruit rind. Arils become brownish in interval of 15 days.
colour.

Citrus

1 Citrus It is bacterial disease of citrus. The Periodically spray streptomycin
canker lesion appear first as minute water sulphate or Bordeaux
soaked roundish spot which turn brown.
Due to severe infection of leaves there
may be defoliation. The lesion on fruit
reduces market value of fruits.

2 Gummosis Fungal infection starts with forming Scrapping off the infected
water soaked large patches on stem. portion
These patches soon turn brown and Apply Bordeaux paste on the
bark may spilt, through which a gum stem up to 60 cm from bottom.
like liquid ooze exeudes.

Drying and die back of small branches

and twigs begins with infection of this

Citrus disease. In severe cases chlorosis and Good drainage is beneficial for

3 decline mottling is observed reduction in leaf checking of disease, periodical

(die – back ) size and wilting is observed. Roots spray against insect vector.

become dead, the bark of larger roots is

distorted and brittle.

Coconut

1 Bud rot Fungal infection starts with yellowing Application of Bordeaux paste.
2 Root wilt of young leaves surrounding the spindle,
the tender leaf base and soft tissues of
crown rot in to slimy mass.

Yellowing and marginal necrosis of the Application of fertilizer along
leaflets. Nuts are smaller, kernel is thin. with MgSO4
Grow hybrid varieties

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Pest of crop plants

Red cotton bug Pink boll worm in cotton Lemon butterfly larva Lemon butterfly

Paddy hopper Mealy bug Wooly Aphid Fruit sucking moth of
pomegranate

Whitefly Aphids Mango stone weevil Damage bwyeMevainl go stone

Damage by Banana psudostem grub Mango Fruit fly Sugarcane stem borer

Adult of Leaf roller in grape Damage by Leaf roller
in grape

Citrus black fly Citrus fruit sucking moth Jassid Damage by Sugarcane stemborer

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Diseasess of crop plants

Leafspot of Cotton Citrus scab Whip smut of sugarcane Citrus canker

Yellow vein mosaic of papaya Black rust of wheat Loose smut of wheat

Red rot of sugarcane Fruit rot of papaya Soybean harvesting Downy mildew of jowar

Tikka or leaf spot of Bacterial blight in Anthracnose of Cotton Wilt of cotton
groundnut soybean

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Exercise

Q. 1 A. Fill in the blanks.

1. Physiological or structural deformity Q. 3 Answer the following questions
that is harmful to plant or reduce
its economic value is called as 1. Describe the biological method for
…………………… insect pest control.

2. Pyrilla is serious pest of ………… 2. Classify plant diseases on the basis
crop. of symptoms.

3. Use of insecticide to control pest is 3. State advantage of integrated disease
………….. method of pest control. management.

4. Root rot disease infection normally 4. Write the nature of damage and
observed in …………………….. control measure for citrus pest.
growth stage of plant growth.
Q. 4 Answer in detail.

5. Infestation of …………… bollworm 1. Describe integrated disease
in cotton is difficult to identify. management

B. Make the pairs. 2. List out the control methods for pest
and diseases and explain cultural
'A' Group 'B' Group methods.

1. Soil insect a. Aphid 3. State principles of disease control.

2. Sap suckers b. Grain weevil 4. Explain sugarcane pest management
in detail.
3. Store grain pest c. White grub

4. Chewing insect d. Housefly 5. Complete the following table

e. Boll worms Name of Nature of Control
pest damage/ measure
f. Cutworm No. symptom
-
C. State true or false. 1 Citrus - -
1. Paddy gall fly is important disease of butterfly
-
paddy crop. 2 Mango
2. Citrus dieback is serious disease of hopper

sweet orange crop. Bore holes
3. Biological control method is in to bolls
3 - and after -
hazardous due to residual effect on entry block
human health. it
4. Sugarcane red rot disease can be
control by hot water treatment. Red strip
5. Plants protection focus only on 4 Red rot and rotting -
mineral management.

Q. 2 Answer in brief. observed

1. Write note on pest control 5- Hot water
2. Give examples of regular pest. - treatment
3. Write down nature of damage by of sets.

white grub to sugarcane crop. Activity :
4. Give types of pest on the basis of
Practice different methods of pest and disease
damage. control whichever possible at your locality

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12. Protection From Wild Animals

Do you know ? 12.1 Protection from wild animals
12.1.1 Wild boars
1. Can you differentiate domestic and wild
animals? Wild boars are unpredictable and have
violent nature. Most noticeable feature of
2. Which wild animals are harmful for wild boar is long curved tusks. Fully grown
agriculture crops? wild boar weighs about 50 to 90 kgs. The
razor sharp tusks itself is a primary weapon
In India, wildlife protection act 1972 is in of wild boar. When agitated, they charge with
enforcement. Now a days abundant population these tusks. Sharpness of tusks and heaviness
of wild animal is found on farms and near of his body could result in injuries to crop and
forests. Wild animals are special challenge for farmer.
farmers throughout India. Many wild animals
make heavy losses to farm and farm crops. Fig. 12.1 : Wild boar
They can damage the plant parts or crop simply
by running in the field or trampling the crops. Always remember
Farmers suffer heavy financial losses due to
wild animals. These wild animals such as 1. Wild boars are highly adaptable to
wild boars, monkeys, elephants, dears, nilgai, wide range of climate.
rabbits, moles, squirrels, parrots, peacock, etc.
damage the crops. 2. They are opportunistic, omnivorous.
They eat mostly plant material and
Maharashtra is a home to a large number invertebrate animals such as worms,
of animals including tiger, leopard, wild boars, insects, insect larvae, etc.
monkey, rabbit, crocodile, bison, gawa, nilgai
etc. 3. They have high reproductive potential.
They reach sexual maturity as early as
Use your brain power six month of age and produce average
about six piglets at each calving.
 What type of damage to crops and crop
fields done by wild animals? 4. Female boar may undergo farrowing
twice per year.
 Up to which extent damage done by wild
animals? 5. They have low natural mortality.

 Collect information about wild life
protection act.

For security of agricultural crops and crop
fields every farmer should be aware and take
into consideration the fact that animals are
living beings and need to be protected from
any potential suffering.

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Nature of damage Always remember

Wild boars consume and trample crops. 1. Most monkeys live on trees, but some
Uprooting of crops and wallowing in the field live in mountain areas.
may creates holes (pits) that can damage farm
equipments and disturb farm operation. 2. Monkey tribes always move to find food.
They do not have stable home.
Control Measure
3. Monkeys are very social animals.
1. Trapping wild boars by box traps, cage
traps, corral traps, using prebaits and baits. 4. Group of monkey is called tribe or troop.
A troop will work together to take care of
2. More than 40 transferable diseases (Zonatic young monkeys in the group.
diseases) affects on wild boar and some
extent population may suppresses. 5. They also like to play, cuddle and protect
each other.
3. Use of fences like wire fences, plastic
fences, electric fences (Zatka Machine), 6. The strongest and largest male monkey
etc. is the leader of the troop.

4. Natural repellent, electronic repellent, etc
are used to keep wild boars away from
crops.

5. Fire crackers are also effective for keeping
away to these animals.

Fig. 12.3 Damage by monkey

Control

Fig. 12.2 : Damage by boar 1. Mix 1/3 cup of floor, 2 table spoon chilli
powder and 2 table spoon mustard powder
12.1.2 Monkeys and sprinkle the mixture in the garden to
keep away monkeys. The mixture of 4
Near about 13 species of monkeys are cups of water and some vinegar can be
found in India. They are often seen living in sprinkled with pepper on vegetables will
group of 20-30 feeding on the ground or sitting deter monkeys from eating them.
on trees.
Nature of Damage 2. Small pockets of boneless dry fish pieces
are made and kept around the field. After
Monkeys are the notorious wild animals opening the pockets monkeys rub the fish
causing serious damages to agricultural crops. with both hands. After smelling they get
The monkeys consume plants as food and also irritated and rub their hands on rocks and
change their food habits with change in season. continue the operation till the blood come
Attack of monkeys could result in severe crop out from the hand. Leader of gang face the
damage. bad experience. Thus they never enter the
same field.

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3. The practice of driving them away by Always remember
beating drums and using well trained dogs
has been used since long time. 1. They have characteristic long nose or
truck, large, floppy ears, and wide thick
4. Catch one monkey and paint its whole legs.
body except eyes with red paint and leave
that monkey in the field. Due to fear other 2. Asian elephant and African elephant live
monkeys will not enter in the field. Repeat at separate continents and have many
the process when a new group enters in the unique features.
field.
3. The herd is led by a matriarch, which
5. Use fire crackers (which make large sound) is the oldest female. The matriarch will
like rassi bomb / sutali bomb. often teach young elephants in her herd.

12.1.3 Elephant 4. Male elephants are called bulls and
females are called cows. A baby elephant
Recall a memory is called as a calf.

1. Which is the largest land animal on the Fig. 12.5: Damage by elephant
earth?
Control
2. Discuss type of food of an elephant.
Two types of elephants are found on 1. Buzzing of the bees - Studies showed that
elephants are repelled by the sound of honey
earth / world i.e. African elephant and Asian bees. Therefore start bee keeping around the
elephant. Group of elephant is called a herd. field, there by generate some source of extra
Nature of damage income.

Wild elephants feed on agriculture crops, 2. Noise – it is a common practice to use loud
seeds, barks, leaves, grasses and trees. They noise to scare away instructive elephants.
use their tusks to pullout the bark from trees Noise makers include fire crackers, pipe
and dig roots out of the ground. They trample cannons, vehicle horns, and rifle shots.
crops and damage crop fields. Also elephant
cause damage to crops both in pre harvest and 3. Light – bright lights, oil lamps and fire
post harvest condition. are sometimes used along the perimeter of
a farm area to scare elephant population
Fig. 12.4 : Elephant nearby farm.

4. Smoke fire – in some areas people burn
elephant dung that will smoulder and create
heavy acrid smoke.

5. Hot chilli – Capsaicin spray can repel
elephants. Simplest method consist of
planting a row of chili around cultivated
fields and gardens.

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6. Elephant geo fencing – It is a means 6. Length of pregnancy in deer varies
of detecting radio collared elephants according to size. Generally in large
that cross a virtual fence line. When an species the longer gestation period is
elephant with a collar passes through observed.
a virtual barrier, a message is sent to
the wildlife management center along with 7. Deer in tropical climate can breed all
GPS coordination. This will help them to year round.
take action against attack of elephant.
8. All species of deer have a four chamber
12.1.4 Deer stomach which allow then to chew the
cud. This process of partial chewing
Recall a memory food, regurgitating it, chewing it again
to make easier to digest.
1. What are different types of deer in
Maharashtra? 9. A male deer is called a buck but the some
larger males are called as stags. A female
2. What is the destructive role of deer in deer is called a doe or hind. A young deer
agriculture? is called a fawn.

Fig. 12.6 : Deer Nature of damage

Always remember Deer frequently prefer agricultural crops
rather than wild foods.
1. Deers are included in antelope family.
2. Antlers are fast growing living tissue in There has been surge of damage among
farms and gardens. Just two deer can produce
the world. a herd of up to 35 deer in just seven years.
3. There are over 60 different species of
In addition to flower beds and vegetable
deer worldwide. gardens, corn, peas, cotton, watermelon,
4. During the mating season, male deer will peanuts and gram crops experienced the most
damage from deer.
often use their antlers to fight and try to
attract the attention of female deer. Control
5. Deers are present on all continents except
Antarctica. Wild deer can have impact on agricultural
production and environment.
Main methods of wild deer control include.
1. Trapping
2. Ground and aerial shooting (it's ban now)
3. Fencing - (a) Wire fencing
(b) Plastic fencing
(c) Electric fencing (Zatka Machine)
4. Fire Crackers
5. Dogs

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12.1.5 Blue bull / Nilgai 3. Pet Dogs can control blue bull.
Blue bull is the largest Asian antelope and 4. Beating drums

most commonly seen as wild animal in India. 12.1.6 Wild rabbits

Always remember Wild rabbits cause severe damage to
crops.The main predator of rabbits is fox,
1. Nilgai / blue bull is indigenous deer while young rabbits also fall to bird attack as
and is currently protected under wildlife prey.
protection act 1972.

2. Nilgai is the largest Asian antelope.
3. Mature male appears ox like and also

are known as blue bull.

Fig. 12.8 : Rabbit

Nature of Damage

Fig. 12.7: Blue bull Rabbit are herbivores who feed by
eating weeds, grasses, clover, wild flower and
Nature of damage vegetable plants and other crops in warmer
season.
Nilgai is highly adaptive antelope naturally
diurnal. It goes for field crop grazing in the Always remember
evening and night. It is also found to damage
most agricultural crops. Whereas in high density The male is called a buck and the
nilgai areas, damage to wheat, gram, mung, female a doe.
mustard crop is caused not only by grazing but
also through trampling, resting in the field and 1. Rabbits are generally 40 to 45 cm in
daily movements of the animals. length and have ears that measures 8.5
cms long. They have compact body with
A major constraint on control is that the long powerful hind legs.
nilgai is an animal of considerable religious
reverence as most people in affected area 2. The smallest pygmy rabbit have only 20
are religious. cms of body length and 0.4 kg in weight
while the largest rabbits grow to 50 cms
Control and more than 2 kgs.
1. Fencing - (a) Wire fencing
(b) Plastic fencing 3. Rabbits are abundant in grassland areas
(c)Electric fencing (Zatka Machine) where the soil allows them to make
2. Fire Crackers extensive well drained burrows, where
there are hedges or patches of woodland
to give shelter and cover.

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4. Rabbits are herbivorous who feed by Control of wild rabbits
grazing on grass corps, leafy weeds,
however they also eat all vegetables. 1. Traps and snares – use of cage traps, drop
box traps or spring traps. Place them where
5. Rabbit generally are able to breed at young they will be exposed to severe weather.
age and many regularly produce upto 7 Place them near a fox earth or badger sett.
young ones, at about so 4 or 5 times in a Use self locking snares. Use only approved
year 28 to 31 days. traps.

6. New born rabbits are nacked blind and 2. Fencing – use of cotton wire nets, strained
helpless at birth. wire (similar to the kind user to manage
cattle and sheep) permanent wire mesh
7. Mothers are remarkably inattentive to their netting.
young and are almost absentee parents
commonly nursing their young only once 3. Ferreting - a domesticated polecat used for
per day and for just few minutes. catching rabbits.

8. The milk of rabbit is highly nutritious and 4. There are three types of fencing for
among the richest of all mammals. The controlling.
young grow rapidly and most are grown
up in about a month. (a) Electric netting

Rabbits damage is almost always the result of (b) Electric strained wire (similar to the kind
their appetite for plants. They eat flower and used to manage cattle and sheep)
vegetable plant during spring and summer
and the bark of fruit and ornamental trees and (c) Permanent wire mesh netting
shrubs in fall of winter.
5. Baiting is the most cost effective way to
reduce rabbit populations. e.g.1080 (sodium
floraacetate) rabbit bait is available.

Electric Fencing
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Exercise

Q. 1 A) Fill in the blanks. Q. 2 Answer in brief.

1. Wildlife protection Act is in force 1. Write note on deer.
since __________.
2. Why monkeys are lived in troops?
2. ___________ are unpredictable and
has violent nature. 3. Give difference between deer and
nilgai.
3. Feeding habbit of rabit is ________.
4. Group of monkey is called _________. 4. Write short note on elephant herd.
5. The herd is led by a __________
5. Write the nature of damage of nilgai?
which is the oldest female Q. 3 Answer the following questions.

(B) Make the pairs. 1. Which are the wild animals who
A B causes serious problem to agri. crops?
a. Razor sharp tusks 1. Monkey
b. Antlers 2. Elephant 2. Give control measures for wild boar.
c. Big ears 3. Deers
4. Boars 3. What are the characteristic of the
5. Rabbits monkey ?

(C) State true of false. 4. Explain nature of damage by elephant.
1. Male rabbit is called a buck and the
5. How will you control farm and crops
female a doe from blue bulls ?
2. Boar has a long straight tusks.
Q. 4. Answer in details.
3. Fire crackers are also effective for
keeping away the wild animals. 1. Explain wild animals control
strategies in detail.
4. Monkeys are not very social animals.
2. Give nature of damage and control of
5. Monkeys consumed blants for food elephants.
and change their food habbits with
change in season. 3. Give information about wild deer and
their control.

4. Give information about rabbits in
detail.

5. Give information about nilgai in
detail.

Activity :
Collect the information about different wild
animals causing damage to field crops.

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13. Waste Management

Recall a little Most waste in food manufacturing is

 Already you know the food and also the unavoidable, and almost 90% is already
waste that we generate recovered as animal feed, compost or bio-
energy. Presently, around 21,000 people die
 The prime object is to understand the every day due to hunger related causes and
waste and the volume generated globally one in nine people go to bed each
night hungry. Nevertheless, approximately one
13.1 Scenario third of all the food produced goes to landfill
as waste. The vast amount of food ending up
Waste management is the study of as waste is not only a humanitarian problem
knowing waste generation, collection, but also serious economic, nutritional and
transport, processing, recycling or disposal environmental pollution problem.
and monitoring waste material. Food supply
and waste management are the emerging 13.1.1 World situation
challenges for the policy makers and industries
in the processing and food supply. The global At global statistics, according to the British
population is expected to grow upto 9 billion Institute of Mechanical Engineers (IME) half
and demand for food is about 77% by 2050. of the food produced is wasted worldwide
Over the same period, food production will be at different stages. The global volume of the
under threat from climate change, competing food wastage has been reported to around 1.3
land uses, and erosion and diminishing supplies billion tons. The total volume of water used
of clean water. The food which we consume each year to produce food that is lost or wasted
has to undergo a series of food processing i.e. equivalent to the annual flow of Russian’s
operations soon after harvesting at the farm Volga river or three times the Lake Geneva.
industry level. Similarly, 1.4 billion hectares of land 28% of
the world’s agriculture area is used annually
The agro-food industry generate huge to produce food that is lost or wasted . About $
amount of waste material annually around 165 billion worth of food waste enters landfills
the globe from a variety of sources. Food is a each year.
basic need of human beings, while food waste
has been identified a major crucial challenge

faced by human community today. World environmental problems

Over 4.2 million tons of food waste is Population growth contributes to GHG
dispersed to landfill in Australia each year. (Green House Gas) emission through its
2.7 million tons of this is from households effect on deforestation as land is grabbed for
and around 1.5 million tons of this is from enhancing food production. As the world’s
commercial and industrial sector, costing population grows and becomes more affluent,
around $ 10.5 billion in waste disposal waste production rises and might double by
charges and waste product. The largest single 2025. According to the US Environmental
contributor in the commercial and industrial Protection Agency (EPA), food wastage
sector is food service activities.(e.g. - cafes, currently represents the single largest type of
restaurants, fast food outlets), which generate waste entering landfills. Wasted food leads to
661,000 tons of food waste per year, followed over utilization of water and fossil fuels and to
by manufacturing (312,000 tons) and food increase greenhouse gas emission i.e. methane
retail (179,000 tons).

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and carbon di oxide arising from degradation of Meat accounts for just four percent of
food in landfills. the food wastage but contributes 20% of the
economic loss of the wastage. Wastage of fruits
Therefore, the environmental impact of and vegetables is 70% of the total produce, but
food waste is two fold translated into only 40% of the economic losses.
1. It is associated with the depletion of natural Also, rice crop emits methane, a potent global
warming gas, because of the decomposition
resources used for its production (e.g. soil of organic matter in submerged paddy fields.
water). Food loss and waste costs the world about $
2. It relates to the costs associated with waste 940 billion a year.
disposal.
There is a growing awareness needed Can you recall?
to minimize the amount of food waste
at the end of the food supply chain- an  The volume, effect and consequences of
issue particularly relevant in high-income waste.
countries where more than 40% of the food
losses occur at retail and consumer level.  Which industry has the potential huge
3. Globally per capita food waste by generation of waste.
consumers amounts to 95-115 kg/ year in
Europe and North America compared to However, the utilization or disposal of food
6-11 kg/year in South or South East Asia waste is difficult due to its inadequate biological
and Sub-Saharian Africa. stability, potentially pathogenic nature, high
4. Food waste reduction at the consumption water content, potential for rapid autoxidation,
level represents indeed a large target for microbial decomposition through high level of
medium and high income countries, where enzymatic activity.
evidence shows that the main source of the
problem is the domestic setting.

13.1.2 Indian condition Can you tell?
In India, according to UN Development
 What are the consequences and health
Program, 40% of the food produced is wasted hazards of waste?
at pre and post-harvest stages. According
to Government of India’s resources, about  What is the environmental impact of
Rs. 58,000 crore worth of food is wasted waste?
every year. About 25% of fresh water used to
produce the food is ultimately wasted. On the 13.2 Types of waste
other hand millions of people still don’t have
access to drinking water. About 300 million 13.2.1 Solid waste (Organic and inorganic)
of barrels of oil are used to produce the food Sources- domestic waste, factory waste,
that is ultimately wasted. As a result, a large
quantity of food is wasted and being thrown waste from oil industry, e-waste, agricultural
away around the world, on the other hand, waste, food processing waste, variety of plastic
a child dies every five seconds because of based waste, packaging material (industry
hunger. In terms of food waste, agricultural and domestic waste), etc. Out of the total solid
produce, meat, poultry and milk, India ranks waste generated, 44% is wet organic.
seventh, with the Russian Federation at the
top in the list. India’s major land is under 13.2.2 Wet waste
agriculture hence, there is highest wastage of
cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables. (a) Kitchen waste (food waste, cooked and
uncooked food, egg shells, meat and
bones, fish, fruit and vegetable inedible
portion, etc.

154

(b) Flower, fruit and vegetable waste - advancement in technology.
(c) Garden, tree, leaves, branches, straw, trash - changes in fashion, style and status.
- nearing the end of their useful life.
waste
(d) Sanitary waste (drainage waste) Food waste from different food groups
(e) Food industry waste (raw materials and  Cereals (grains), pulses, fruits and

finished goods) vegetables, meat, dairy products,
(f) Food waste ( left over, stale, spoiled food) marine, sugarcane, winery, plantation
(g) Wet garbage and industry (sewage) waste by-products, slaughter house, canning
industry, etc.
13.2.3 Dry waste  Wastes are untreated and underutilized;
therefore its disposal is widely adopted
(a) Paper, plastic (all kinds), laminates, foils through burning, dumping or land filling.
(b) Card boards, cartoons, packaging,  Juice industry produces a large amount
of waste as peels, pulp, seeds, fiber, etc.
glass bottles, metal tins and containers,  Fruit and vegetable processing industry
strappings, foils, rags, rubber, houses, waste.
pipes, sweepings, ashes, wrappings,
discarded clothes, etc. Can you recall?

13.2.4 Domestic hazard waste  Identify the reasons of food losses.
 What do you mean by lost / waste food.
(a) Compact florescent lamps, tubes, glasses,
batteries, etc. 13.3 Reasons for losses
Following are the main reasons for losses
(b) Chemicals, detergents, etc.
in different areas, thereby generating different
Non-hazard waste kinds of waste.
Glass bottles, iron containers/ wares,

plastic bottles/ wares and materials

13.2.5 E –waste
E- wastes are the electronic equipment /

products that connect with power plug, batteries
which have been become absolute due to

Table 3.1 : Major processed food and types of waste generated

Sr. no Food crop Food product Waste
Rice, wheat, Grain, flour, bread, biscuits, Straw, stem, leaves, husk, comb,
roti, cake, starch, flakes, bakery hulls, fibers, brans, germ, gluten,
1 products, etc. fodder , etc.
corn Juice, pulp, preserved products,
vegetable oil, potato products, Rotten fruits, vegetables and
2 Fruits and fruits, roots, tubers, bulbs, sugar their parts, pomace, skin, seed,
vegetables dehydrated, pickles, fermented stones, fibers, etc.
products , etc.
3 Fish and sea Canned, salted fish, smoked fish, Scales, fins, shells, bones, guts,
food processed form, dehydrated, fish oil, skeleton, etc.
frozen , etc. Blood, hairs, head, skin, horn,
4 Meat and bones, carcass, fat, feet, guts,
poultry Processed meat (beef, pork, large intestinal parts, etc.
poultry, eggs and their products)

155

5 Milk, butter, cheese, milk Whey, processed water, solids,
Dairy products powder, cream, ghee, paneer, ice waste material, effluents, etc.

cream, etc.

6 Beverages Cocoa, coffee, tea, fruits, alcohol Shells, seed coat, molasses,
(wine), molasses, grain based sewage water, etc.
alcohol, etc.

7 Oils Oil, hydrogenated fat, fatty Oil cakes, solid impurities, water
acids, etc. effluents, rancid spoiled seeds
oil, etc.

8 Sugar Sugar, jaggery, confectionary, Solid wastage, sugar industry
etc. effluents, waste, etc.

1. Agricultural production:Destructionfrom 4. Distribution and logistics (wholesale and
insects, pests, diseases, inappropriate crop retail): Damage or loss of food in transit/
cultivation practices, changing agro storage due to packaging failures, shelf life
climatic conditions, not meeting the quality of processed / fresh food commodities, poor
specifications, low yielding varieties, lack road facilities, transit storage (warehouse/
of inputs, poor crop yield due to drought cold storage) at the port or metro cities hub.
and natural calamities, etc. Packaging failures, product spoilage, fresh
produce (perishable), etc. may get damaged
2. Post-harvest handling and storage during handling, storage and distribution,
practices: Not meeting the specifications short shelf life hence low sales.
for quality and/ or poor or lack of post-
harvest handling, packaging, storage 5. Food service sector: Food wastage
facilities may lead to damage due to insect, generated in the hotels, restaurants,
pest, spoilage, germination and degradation institutional kitchens, poor management of
(lack of pack houses, packaging materials, such wet food wastages, their packaging,
pre-cooling facilities, storage and transport boxes, plastics, improper food handling,
facilities (cold chain, cold storages, poor left over or stale food items.
supply chain management, etc.)
6. At home: Trimmings, cuttings, peels,
3. Lack of primary processing and stones, seeds, and other food preparation
packaging facilities: Inadequate waste, damaged or spoiled food items,
infrastructure such as godowns, ware preparing too much food, leftover food,
houses, cold storages for perishable improper stored food and food items.
commodities, referred vans for high value The overall food loss and wastage costs
commodities like grapes, strawberry, the world about $ 940 billion a year. The
broccoli, milk and milk products, poultry, food losses are reported to be higher in
meat, fish, etc. These operations create developing countries than the developed
trimmings and other food preparation nations. However to overcome and handle
waste. Inedible portions, wet or dry the food wastage problem is a huge
material, their storage and transport or challenge and task all over the globe.
proper utilization at proper stage. Wet or
dry garbage may create severe problems of The overall food loss (waste) in USA
their proper disposal, failure may create air alone, annually people throw away 30% of the
pollution and health hazards. food produced which corresponds to 40 billion
liters of water .

156

Whereas in UK, the household waste  On globe scale, just 43% of the fruits and
estimated to be 6.7 million MT from purchased vegetables produced are consumed and the
goods. This means that approximately 32 % remaining 57% are wasted.
of all food purchased every year is not eaten.
Most of this (5.9 million MT or 88%) is  Food waste accounts for roughly US $680
currently collected by local authorities. Most billion in industrialized countries and US $
of the food waste (4.1 million MT or 61%) is 310 billion in developing countries.
avoidable and could have been eaten if had
been better managed.  Roughly one-third of the food is lost or
 The annual food losses and waste are wasted that translates into 1.30 billion
MT each year worth nearly one trillion US
estimated to be about 30% for cereals, 40- dollars and equivalent of 6-10 % of human
50% for root crops, 30% for fish and 20% generated greenhouse gas emission.

for oilseeds and meat.

13.4 Sources of waste

The following are main categories of waste generated.

WASTE

Bio-degradable Food Non-biodegradable
(Paper, wood, fruit, (Plastics, bottles,
machines, cans, styrofoam
bio-medico, etc.) containers, medico, etc.)

Food Lost Food Waste

Agricultural Processing Distribution Restaurant Domestic Muncipal
Waste(during waste on transport & catering waste waste
and retail
harvesting (packaging, (during (garbage,
operations) cleaning, preparation, sewage,
grading & effluent wet/
storage) cooking,
serving left dry)
over food)

13.5 Measures of Waste Management

 Effective supply chain management  Quick and appropriate disposal of food

practices to fresh agro produce (fruits and industry wastage, garbage, effluents,

vegetables, dairy products). sewage, etc.
 Reduction in food wastage (at processing,  Food lost or wasted should be discarded to

storage, distribution) avoid environmental pollution (each year

 Improvement in post-harvest handling it accounts for 3.3 billion tons of Carbon di
practices, transport, storage and distribution oxide emission globally)
of food through appropriate technologies  Government and Community must work
(cold chain, improved packaging, etc.) collaboratively to achieve policy of zero
waste or policy “No to food waste”.
 Value addition of the by-products generated
in the food industry

157

 The agro-industrial residue have high 3. Incineration / combustion : It is a type of
nutritional potential, therefore it can be waste disposal method in which municipal
utilized for production of a variety of solid wastes are burned at high temperatures
by-products, chemicals or any suitable of as to convert them into residue and
disposal. gaseous products. The biggest advantage of
this method is that it can reduce the volume
 Conversion of waste into valuable product of solid waste to 20 - 30 % of the original
through biodegradation/ decomposting. volume, decreases the space to take up
reduce the stress on land fills. The process
 Fermentation of the solids/ semi-solid also known as the thermal treatment.
waste. Where solid waste materials are converted
by incineration into heat, gas, steam and
 Formation of ‘Food Banks’ and its timely ash. It is adopted in Japan as the landfill
distribution to the needy/ hungry population space is no longer available.

 Bio gas (fuel gas) production 4. Recovery and recycling : Recovery is the
process of taking useful from the discarded
 Composting through earthworms/ microbes items for a specific next use. The discarded
into manure. items are then processed to extract or
recover materials and resources or convert
13.5.1 Methods of waste management them to energy in the form of useful heat
electricity or fuel (co-generating plant of
The waste material generated at sugar cane factory).
different sources is dispassed off by various
methods; however some of the important Recycling is the process of converting
methods are given below- waste products into new products.
Recycling is the third component of reduce,
1. Landfills : Throwing daily waste/ garbage reuse and recycle waste hierarchy. The
in the landfills is the most popularly used idea behind recycling is to reduce energy
method of waste disposal used today. The usage, reduce volume at land fills, reduce
waste is buried in the land; It is most easy air and water pollution, reduce green
and economical method. Landfills are house gas emission and preserve natural
commonly found in developing countries, resources for future use.
Landfills give rise to air and water pollution
which severally affect the environment 5. Composting : Composting is the process
and can prove fetal to the lives of humans of reducing vegetable and animal refuse
and animals. or farm waste. Composting is a easy and
natural bio-degradation process that takes
2. Dumping : The city garbage and waste organic wastes i.e. parts of plants, garden,
in many countries is practiced to collect kitchen waste and turns into nutrient rich
through garbage collecting vehicles and manure for plants, composting, normally
dumped in open baren space, lying there used for organic farming, occurs by
for many days. Some times it is covered allowing organic materials to sit in place
or caped firmly by sheet, so as to avoid for months until microbes decompose it.
the air pollution. It will promote anaerobic Composting is one of the best methods
fermentation by bacteria and there by the of waste disposal as it can turn organic
decomposition and disposal is carried out. products into sage compost. On the other
After a year or so the decomposed mass side, it is slow process and takes lot of
is used as manure in the field crops. It space.
requires huge area and long time process,
may lead to heavy environmental pollution
during rainy season.

158

6. Vermi composting : It is ideal for Can you tell?
biodegradable waste from kitchens, hotels,
municipal, waste, etc. A barrel or pit is How the waste is disposed off efficiently.
provided in which the macerated moist
waste mass is dumped and mixed with gas for lightening and cooking purposes.
earthworm culture, moistened, covered, The slurry coming out of the plant is dried
sprinkled with water intermittently, kept and used as farm manure. Big size plants
closed for about 30 days; The compost is are seen in many municipal areas and at
taken out in dry form, sieved and then used rural areas at domestic level.
as manure.
13.6 By - products of waste
The same mixture is used as earthworm
culture which can be used for next lot. By-products resulting from processing
Sometimes, microbes also added in the of papaya, pineapple and mango represent
pit or drum to hasten the decomposition approx. 10 – 16% of fruit weight. In case of
process. citrus fruits , amount residues accounts for
about 50% of the original fruit weight. Seeds
7. Farm Yard Manure (FYM) : It is the constitute considerable proportion of grape
method of composing farm waste. FYM ranging from 38 -52 % on dry mater bases.
is the decomposed mixture of dung and
urine of farm animals along with litter  Pineapple pomace has good nutritive
and left over material from roughages or value, rich in dietary fibers, contains
fodder fed to the cattle. A rectangular pit calcium, phosphorus and iron. About 25%
is dugged and filled with the above trash of fresh fruit is lost as pomace. Pomace
material plastered with cow dung earth contains about 1.8% ash, 21.5mg / 100gm
slurry. The manure becomes ready for ascorbic acid and 0.41 % crude fiber .
use in about 4-5 months after plastering.
FYM is the most commonly used organic  Pomegranate peels contain 249.4mg/gm.
manure in India. of phenolic compounds as compare to only
24.4 mg/gm of phenolic compounds found
8. Sewage and sludge : The solid portion in the pulp of pomegranate.
in the sewage is called sludge and liquid
portion is sewage water.  Banana peels constituting about 40% of
total weight of fresh banana as a major
9. Mechanical composting : The process of waste. It is rich source of starch (3%), crude
stabilization is expedited by mechanical protein (6-9 %) total dietary fiber (43.2-
devices of turning the compost which is 49.7%) and crude fat (3.8-11.0%). Banana
stabilization in about 1 to 2 weeks. To peels is a good source of micronutrients (K,
enrich night soil, cow dung, etc. are added P, Ca, Mg) PUFA (linolenic acid and alpha
to the refuge. Usually done in compost pit, linolenic acid) and essential amino acids
require excess moisture, process carried (leucin, valine, phenylalanine, threonine).
out by micro-organisms within 30 days. Moreover significant amount of lignin
(6-12%) pectin (10-11%), cellulose
10. Biogas : The farm waste, food industry (7.6-9.6 %).
waste municipal wet waste is disposed of
by decompositing the wet waste along with  During tomato processing, about 3-7% of
cow dung in a close chamber known as bio- the raw material is lost as waste. Tomato
gas plant. During the process the cellulose pomace generally consists of the crushed
material is decomposed by the bacteria are dried skin and seeds of the fruit.
from cow dung slurry and anaerobically Appropriately, the seeds account for 10%
into the methane gas, which is used as fuel of fruit and 60% of the total waste.

159

The seeds are reported to be good Apple pomace, a waste from the apple
source of protein (35%) and fat (25%). processing industry is also used as a substrate
Tomato seed oil is found to be rich in for pectinase production by aspergillus spp. in
unsaturated fatty acids such as linolenic solid state fermentation.
acid that has largely attracted the interest
of researchers. As compared to seeds and Pectin production
pulp, the tomato peel contains higher
levels of total flavonoids, total phenolic Pectin a heteropolysaccharide having
compounds, lycopene and ascorbic acid properties like capacity to make gels, emulsify
exhibiting higher antioxidant activity. and stabilize. The major waste during
processing is peel (citrus) which is widely used
 Carrot pomace, generated during for the producing pectin powder; other sources
processing, contains 14.75% soluble fiber, of pectin are mango peels, residue of sunflower
30% insoluble fiber, 6.50 proteins, 5.12% and guava. Many researchers have given the
ash, 5456 µg total carotenes and 607 µg detail information about utilizing waste of
β-carotene. fruit and vegetables. Apple peel, pomace for
pectin, guava peels for preparation of guava
 Chemically, the agricultural wastes cheese, water melon rind for pickle making,
contain 31-60% cellulose, 11-38% jackfruit for pectin, pineapple for vinegar
pentosane and 12-28% lignin. This product production, limes for citric acid, seeds for oil,
has been reported to be used in the alcohol orange, lime peel can be used for extraction
production. Fruits are very rich in sugar of essential oil, Citrus oil/ orange oil. Banana
content which can be a very good source of pseudostem, leaves for preparation of paper
alcohol production. pulp and banana fiber (for clothes), green
papaya for latex and tutti fruiti preparation,
 Grape and wine making industry generate other waste and garbage can be used in feed or
a number of waste and by products. These decomposition of compost manuring.
material include wine pruning, grape stalks,
grape pomace, grape seed, yeasts, tartrate, 1. Salad dressing- orange peels and orange
carbon dioxide and waste matter, every waste pulp.
by- product will become fertilizers, animal
feed or fuel. The grape seed extracts have 2. Yoghurt- added with grape pomace extract
gained ground as nutritional supplement in for enrichment of bioactive compound.
view of its antioxidant activity.
3. Grape seed oil rich in polyphenols,
Enzyme production antioxidants and vitamins used in cooking
Grape pomace, main polluting waste from oil.

the wine industry, is a good natural medium 4. Mango stone kernel oil/ fat to be used as
for solid state fermentation that is used for cocoa butter equivalent.
production of hydrolytic enzymes such as
cellulases, xylanses, and pectinases using 5. Pulpy waste in ethanol production by
Aspergillus awamori. Proteolytic enzymes fermentation.
such as bromelain is recovered from pineapple
pomace and papain from papaya latex. 6. Tomato pomace can be used in extruded
Moreover, orange peel and orange finished products.
pulp, sugarbeet pulping and peas waste
are good substrates for polygalacturonase 7. Others for recovery of fiber, vitamins,
production. β-carotene.

8. Natural colouring agents- beetroot (red),
leaves (green), paprika (chilli powder),

160

turmeric (yellow), carrot (orange red), 5. Being wet/ perishable likely to undergo
kesar (pink-yellow), radish (anthocyanin). fermentation quickly; need to provide
additional attention.
9. Brewery and wine industry waste- the
brewery industry waste are the spent 6. Emission of toxic as well as green house
grain, the trub, and the residual yeast. gases (CO2, CO, methane), microbes,
Brewer spent grain (BSG) is the main by- when wasted food is kept open as such or
product of brewing industry representing buried in landfills.
approximately 85% of the total.
7. Air, water, atmosphere get severely
13.7 Consequences of waste polluted due to improper disposal.

1. Wastage of valuable bulk. 8. Loss of energy, manpower, water, land,
etc. for growing of the food being lost.
2. Loss of bulk nutrients.
9. Heavy financial loss to the community/
3. Loss of functional nutraceuticals government on disposal.
nutrients (natural ingredients/ nutrients).
10. Loss of soil fertility (that soil remain as
4. Severe problem of their disposal, waste land).
transport, movement.
11. Food industry causes health hazards and
air pollution to human beings.

Garbage Collection Machine
161

Exercise

Q.1 A. Fill in the blanks. Q. 2 Answer in brief.

1. Disposal of food waste is difficult due to 1. Give various sources of food waste
its ---------. generated.

2. Wasted food is generated because of 2. Give example of food waste generated.
over utilization of ----------.
3. Discuss any two methods of waste
3. Major reason for food losses is ------. management

4. The example of solid waste is --------. 4. Give a brief account of pectins.

5. Cheapest method of waste management 5. What do you mean by waste
is ----------. management ?

B. Make the pairs. Q. 3 Answer the following questions.

‘A’ group ‘B’ group 1. Explain composting method of waste
management.
1. Dry waste a. CD
2. Write in brief about wet waste.
2. Wet waste b. Food powders
3. Complete the following chart.

3. E- waste c. Plant Trash Food Food product

4. Agri-waste d. Fruit peels and Rice
Fruits
5. Muncipal waste pomace Fish

e. Machines

f. Water

g. Garbage Q. 4 Answer in detail

C. State true or false. 1. Explain in detail production of various
enzymes from food waste.
1. Wet garbage is useful for environmental
pollution. 2. Give the various consequencec of waste
generation.
2. E- waste disposal is easy for landfill.
3. Complete the following chart
3. Fruit pomace are used for production of
chemicals. Food Waste
Meat and poultry
4. Burning of waste is the most benificial Dairy products
method. Beverages
Oils
5. Domestic waste is disposed by land
filling method.

162

14. Horticultural Practices

C an you recall? (2) Spice crops - Study of crops grown for
their spicy taste and flavour. (used in food
1. Any garden plant that you have seen preparations)
before.
(3) Medicinal and aromatic Plants - Study
2. Why the fruits are eaten by human being of plants having medicinal property.
since ancient time?
(4) Post harvest technology - Deals with post
14.1 Definition and branches of horticulture harvest handling, grading, packaging,
storage, processing, value addition,
14.1.1 Definition : marketing, etc. of horticultural crops.
The word Horticulture is derived from
(5) Plant propagation - Deals with
the Latin words hortus and colere meaning propagation of horticultural crops and
garden and to cultivate, respectively. their nursery.

Horticulture is a part of plant agriculture Landscape gardening is an art of
which is concerned with cultivation of garden beautifying a piece of land with garden
crops. design, methods and plant material

Garden crops traditionally include Rem ember this
fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, spices,
plantation crops, flowering plants, medicinal India is the second largest producer
plants and aromatic plants. of fruits after Brazil.
India ranks second in vegetable
Horticulture can be defined as production after China.
the branch of agriculture concerned with
intensively cultured plants directly used by 14.2 Importance of horticulture
people for food, medicinal purpose or aesthetic
gratification. (1) Economic - Horticultural crops especially
fruits, vegetables and plantation crops
14.1.2 Branches of horticulture are more and prolific yielders. Spices,
medicinal, aromatic and floricultural crops
Horticulture is a wide field which are high value crops. These crops fetch more
includes numerous crops (groups) having great price in the market. These crops yield more
diversity. per unit area and are grown with different
objectives on different fields. Horticultural
Following are the branches of Horticulture crops are useful for improving economic,
health and nutritional status of the farmer.
(1) Pomology - Study of fruits (Pomam
means fruit and logy means science) (2) Employment - These crops are labour
intensive. Horticultural crops are delicate
(2) Olericulture - Study of vegetables and tender in nature hence they require
(Oleries means pot herb) utmost care at each stage of production
which increases requirement of man days.
(3) Floriculture - Study of flowers,
ornamental plants and landscaping.

In addition the following are the classes of
horticulture -

(1) Plantation crops - Study of crops grown
on large area for commercial uses.

163

Area Man Man days for fruit (4) Religious and sacred value - Horticultural
days for production per year plants have religious value to their leaves,
1 cereals flowers, fruits, roots, plants, etc. and are
hectare per year 860 for fruits used in many religious functions.
1000 to 2520 for grape
143 and banana (5) Food and nutrition - As a source of
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fibre,
Always remember vitamins and minerals, some horticultural
crops have high food value. These act
Sr. Nutritional Rich source as alternative for the conventional food.
no. item Further processed product of these crops
show high nutritional value. Consumption
1 Vitamin A Mango, Papaya, of adequate amount of fruits and
Carrot, Drumstick vegetables helps in maintaining health,
leaves vigour and resistance of human body.

Cashew nut, 14.3 Scope for horticulture :

2 Vitamin B Walnut, Colocasia Areas in horticulture having scope for future
prospects-
leaves
1. Hi tech Horticulture : Technology for
Amla, Lime, intensive production system, including
ethnic and exotic crops.
3 Vitamin C Guava, Corriander
2. Micro irrigation : For saving water and
leaves giving enough water there by bringing
Banana, Date, more area under cultivation.

4 Carbohydrates Sweet Potato, 3. Use of plastic : For cultivation practices
(Poly house, mulching) and post harvest
5 Protein Potato, handling.
Almond, Pea,
4. Protected cultivation : For production
Cowpea, Beans of high value crops under controlled
conditions.
6 Fat Walnut, Avocado

7 Fibre Amaranth, leafy
vegetables,

8 Calcium Litchi, Curry 5. Precision farming : Emphasis on
9 Phosphorus leaves, Fenugreek, maximum precision in production,
10 Iron Cucumber minimizing wastage of inputs and
resources.
Cashew nut,
Walnut 6. High density planting : High yield from
same piece of land.
Karonda, Date,
spinach 7. Integrated nutrient management : Use
of organic and inorganic sources enabling
(3) Industrial - Horticultural plants supply better availability of nutrients in the soil.
raw material to the industry directly or
indirectly. A vast industrial development 8. Integrated pest management : Use
is observed in area growing horticultural of different methods in of pest control
crops. Manufacturing of processed fruit combination so as to minimize use of
products, edibles, cosmetics, medicines hazardous chemicals.
has shown improvement in recent years in
India.

164

9. Mechanization : Reduce agriculture Spices Area in 000 2005 3535
labour,fastfieldoperations,easilyhandling Total ha 1900 7077
huge area. 0.95 2.002
Production 12770 24925
10. Organic farming : Increasing demand for in 000 MT 96562 295164
safe and natural food providing natural 7.56 11.84
inputs. Productivity
in MT/ ha
11. Contract farming : Economic
liberalization process leads to efficient Area in 000
changes in marketing strategies of ha
agriculture produce.
Production
12. Export - Import trade : Showing in 000 MT
continuous growth in export of
horticultural produce and import of certain Productivity
commodities better assured market for in MT/ ha
agri-horti produces.
Information from NHB data, (2018)

14.4 Planning and layout of orchard :

Table : 14.1 Comparison of Area, Production 14.4.1 Selection of site: Selection of site is of
and Productivity of horticultural crops paramount importance in horticultural crops.
Mistake committed at the initial stage is
Crops Particulars 1991- 2016- difficult to rectify at the latter stage.
Fruits 92 17 Factors to be considered while selecting
Area in 000 2874 6480 suitable site for growing horticultural crops
ha are,
Production 28632 92846 1. The site should be in a favorable fruit
in 000 MT
9.96 14.33 region.
Productivity 2. The site should be free from stagnation of
in MT/ ha
water during rainy season.
Vegetables Area in 000 5593 10290 3. The climate should be suitable for the fruit
ha 58532 175008
Flowers 10.47 17.01 crop chosen.
and Production 106 943 4. Sufficient supply of good quality irrigation
Aromatic in 000 MT 535 3277
5.05 3.48 water throughout the year.
Plantation Productivity 2298 3677 5. Suitability of soil, its fertility, the nature of
crops in MT/ ha 7498 16897
3.26 4.59 sub soil and depth.
Area in 000 6. Along with irrigation facilities proper
ha
drainage arrangement should be made.
Production 7. Supply of electricity.
in 000 MT 8. Nearness to the city or market so that other

Productivity special problems can be solved. Otherwise
in MT/ ha site should be connected with good road.

Area in 000 9. Nearness to the horticultural industry
ha already established so that grower can get
technical guidance and co-operation
Production
in 000 MT 10. Availability of skilled labour at cheaper
rate.
Productivity
in MT/ ha 11. Nearness to the processing industries and
cold storage facilities.

165

After selecting a site, taking into Rem ember this
consideration, the above criteria, land is
levelled, brought to fine tilth. Different plots Orcharding refers to growing of fruit
are made as per the layout, sufficient space plants in an orderly manner and maintain
given for roads and path, irrigation channels them for successive economic returns.
are prepared, provision of adequate drainage
and wind breaks are made around the orchard. Garden refers to fruit farm where
sophisticated agro techniques are employed
Keep in mind for commercial cultivation e.g. Grape garden.

a. Careful plan of orchard is necessary 14.4.3 Development of new orchard
for utmost economic and efficient
management Fencing
Fencing is essential to prevent destruction
b. Attractiveness
c. Economic use of labour of the trees from stray cattle and also to protect
d. Location of roads, drainage, irrigation the orchard from stress passing. It is necessary
to provide some kind of fencing on all sides of
channels, path, hedges, and wind breaks. the garden and this should be done preferably
before planting the fruit trees. Fencing helps
14.4.2 Layout of orchard to mark the borders of the orchard. Fences
may be live or can be made using thorny and
While preparing plan of a big orchard, dead bushes, but these are not satisfactory and
following points are highly essential. require frequent repair and replacement (e.g.
chilar, sagargota) Barbed wire fencing is very
1. Optimum spacing to grow optimum good but its initial cost is rather high.
number of trees per unit area.
Types of fencing
2. Farm buildings should be at entrance of There are two types of fencing used for
the orchard or centre or at high level for protection of orchard.
thorough supervision. 1. Live fencing 2. Non-living fencing

3. Do not plant large trees with small trees. 1. Live fencing - The cheap and best protection
is planting of live fence. Some of the plants
4. Planting fruit trees according to their soil are very useful as live fence.
requirements.
1. Prosopis juliflora (vilayati Babhul) and
5. Irrigated trees should be near the source of Caesalpinia sepiaria (Chillar):- These
water. can be established in May - June. The
seed should be sown in a trench 30 cm
6. Evergreen trees should be at front and wide and 22.8 cm deep all around the
deciduous crops should be behind. orchard boundary.

7. Trees having big canopy should be on 2. Carissa carandas (Karonda): This
the back side and trees with less canopy makes an effective dense hedge. In
should be in front. addition it bears fruits if not pruned too
closely.
8. Fruits attacked by birds and animals
should be close to the watchman shed. Other plants used for live fence are Lantena
camera (Ghaneri), cacti, Coenel, Dedonia,
9. Pollinator should be provided to self mendhi, casurina (Khadsarni, sher), Adulsa,
incompatible fruit trees e.g. ber, mango, Shendri, sagargota, etc.
etc.

10. Those crops require equal spacing should
be grouped in one blocks.

166

2. Non living fencing Fig. 14.2 : Rectangular system
(a) Barbed wire (b) Compound wall
(c) Grill. (d) Electrical fencing 3. Hexagonal system - In this method the
(e) Solar wire fencing saplings are planted at each vertex of
equilateral triangle. In this way six trees form
In solar wire minute current is developed hexagon with the seventh tree in the centre.
from solar cells or battery rays. Due to this It is also called as septuple. This plan can be
current minimum shock will be created when usually employed where land is expensive
stray cattle and human touch it. and very fertile with good available water
supply. The trees are equally spaced
14.4.4 Planting System from each other but difficult to layout.
Intercultivation is difficult in this system.
The layout of an orchard is a very In this layout 15% more plants are
important operation. Laying out the orchard accommodated than the square system.
begins with the marking of a base line which
is usually taken parallel to fix structure. First
line should be at half the spacing to be given
between the trees. At both ends of the base
line right angles are created by following the
simple carpenters meter system. After the
formation of these three lines. It is easy to fix
the boundary of the orchard.
Different methods of planting an orchard:

1. Square system - The field is devided
into squares as per spacing. In this case a
sapling is planted on each vertex of a square
whatever may be the planting distance.
This plan is commonly followed. It is easy
to layout. Convenient for inter cropping and
cultivation is possible in two directions e.g.
mango (10 × 10 m), banana (1.25 × 1.25 m).
Each plant gets equal area for growth and
drip.

Fig. 14.3 : Hexagonal system

Fig. 14.1 : Square system 4. Triangular System - In this system the
saplings are planted as in the square
2. Rectangular System - In this system, system but the plants in the 2nd, 4th, 6th
the field is devided into rectangles as and such other alternate rows are planted
per spacing. Saplings are planted at mid way between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and other
each vertex of the rectangle. E.g. Grape alternate rows. This system has no special
(3 × 2 m) Increased spacing in rows is useful advantages over the square system except
for mechanical cultivation between rows. providing more open space for the trees
and for inter crops. It is difficult for labour
and cultivation. This system is useful for
plantation on hill slopes.

167

Table : 14.2 No. of trees in various planting
systems

Planting No of trees / ha in system

distance Square Hexagonal Quincunx

3 × 3 mt 1085 1250 2170
480 555 960
5 × 5 mt 225 255 450
7 × 7 mt 65 75 130
12 × 12 mt

Fig. 14.4 : Triangular system Formula for calculating number of plants
5. Quincunxsystem-Itisdifferingfromsquare No. of Plants =

system by planting an additional sapling Total area in Sq. M.
in the centre of each square of permanent
trees. The central tree is usually the filler Plant to plant dist ance in m × Row to row distance in m
tree which is kept only for a shorter period.
Calculation of number of plants in
Fig. 14.5 : Quincunx system hexagonal system (From fig. 14.3)

6. Contour system - It is only followed on hills Plant to plant distance = 10m
with high slopes. Contour line is an
imaginary line drawn connecting points Row to row distance to be calculated
on same level on sloppy land. In this case
the trees are planted along a uniform slope ABC is an equilateral triangle
and usually at right angle to the slope with
the idea of reducing loss of soil due to soil BC = AB = AC = 10m
erosion. It is followed just as in case of
square system. The marking should be done Draw a perpendicular line AD to BC which
from the lowest level to the top. divides it in to two halves.

It means BD = DC = 5 m

Now in triangle ABC

AC2 = AD2 + DC2

i.e. AD2 = AC2 - DC2

= 102 – 52

= 100 – 25

= 75

AD =

= 8.66

Thus row to row distance is 8.66

No. of Plants =

Total area in Sq. M.

Plant to plant distance in M. × Row to row distance in M.

=

= 115 approximately
168
Fig. 14.6 : Contour system

Wind breaks : Table 14.2 : Planting distance for the fruit
trees.
Definition :
The wind break means close planting Sr. Fruit trees Spacing (meter)
No.
of tall growing trees all around the orchard 10 × 10
preferably at south west direction of 1. Mango 7.5 × 7.5
plantations. 6×6
2. Apple
Importance
3. Orange

Fruit orchards usually cause heavy 4. Banana 2.4 × 2.4
losses when exposed to strong wind. Heavy
wind increases the losses of moisture both 5. Guava 6.8 × 6.9
by increasing transpiration and surface
evaporation. The high winds also cause the 6. Pomegranate 3.6 × 2.6
damage to fruit trees by breaking of branches,
destruction of blooms, dropping of immature 7. Pineapple 0.45 - 0.60 × 0.45 - 0.60
fruits and erosion of surface soil. The fruit yield
is also reduced on the exposed orchards firstly 8. Awala 8×8
due to drying of stigmatic fluid and secondly
due to reduced activities of pollinating insects. 9. Chikoo 8×8
The growth and yield in protected orchard is
definitely better than the exposed orchard. 10. Papaya 2.25 × 2.25
Hence, establishment of a tall growing wind
break is necessary to protect the orchard. 11. Coconut 7.5 × 9

Selection of wind breaks 12. Ber 6×6

While selection of wind breaks more 13. Strawberry 0.6 × 0.3
importance should be given to the height
than the thickness. Wind break will give full 14. Jamun 10 × 10
protection to distance of 4-5 times the height of
trees. The wind breaks should be erect and tall, 15 Tamarind 10 × 10
quick growing, hardy and drought resistant,
occupy less space as far as possible. They Planting material
should be mechanically strong and dense to
resist maximum wind velocity. Proper selection of planting material is
very important for successful fruit growing.
Planting distance The planting material should be genuine,
true to type variety, healthy, free from pest
Proper spacing of fruit trees is one of the and diseases, insects and virus. It is always
most important considerations in successful advisable to procure the planting material
fruit cultivation. Spacing depends upon the from reliable source like government nurseries,
fertility of the soil and nature of growing of agricultural university nurseries.
the trees. Improper spacing of trees may result
in the poor quality of fruits and incidence of While purchasing planting material following
pest and diseases. Too much close spacing will consideration should be taken -
result in poor growth of fruit trees and inferior
quality of fruits because of lack of sunlight. (1) The planting material should be true to type
Very wide spacing will result in waste of and variety. The planting material should
valuable land. have been prepared from healthy mother
plant with high productivity record.

(2) The graft and / or bud joint with stock
should be strong and well developed.

(3) The plant should be budded or grafted on
recommended rootstock.

Preparation of pits and planting

Preparation of land

Since the fruit trees remained in the field
for a very long duration, the land and plots

169

should undergo repeated ploughing, harrowing on yield and quality of Fruits. Proper training
and levelling. Before digging pits green and pruning of the plants sustain heavy crop
manuring crops should be grown and buried load and produces good quality harvest. Plants
in the soil to enrich the orchard soil and to develop strong framework and they are free
improve the physical condition of soil. from drooping branches, narrow crotch angle,
water sprout, root and crown suckers.
Digging pits
14.5.1 Training : It refers to removal of part
Having decided to give optimum spacing of plant to develop a proper shape of plant
the plot is laid out with measuring tape, stakes, capable of bearing heavy crop load. It is
etc. The pits are taken in advance before related to shape and size of a plant.
planting. The size of pit is decided according
to fruit tree and soil type. In poor soils larger Objectives of training
pits are taken for larger trees, smaller pits are
dug for dwarf trees and in fertile soils smaller (1) To develop strong framework.
pits are generally taken. The size of pit varies
from 0.5 cubic meter to one cubic meter. While (2) To control and regulate shape.
digging pit upper soil is kept aside. The pits are
dug out in advance and are exposed to sun for (3) To maintain better crotch angle.
a week or so. The pits are filled with top soil,
farmyard manure or compost, bone meal. Add Water sprouts
insecticide powder in soil to prevent attack by
pest. Rubbing
branches
Planting
Weak,
Having procured genuine and healthy narrow
planting material, it should be planted during crotch
monsoon where rainfall is not heavy. In region
like Konkan, where rainfall is very heavy, Branch Closely spaced
planting should be undertaken after rains are stub branches
over. The planting should be done on cloudy
day preferably in the afternoon. Sucker
growth
The plants should be carefully removed
from polythene bag or earthen pot without Fig. 14.7 : Training
disturbing root system and put in a small
hole in the pit and covered with soil. Before (4) To develop balance between vegetative
planting damaged roots should be cut and then and reproductive branches.
plant the seedling. The planting board is used
for planting at the right position. After planting (5) To facilitate interception of sunlight.
press the soil gently. Water the plant as soon as
possible if necessary. (6) To remove water sprouts.

14.5 Training and pruning Principles of training

Training and pruning are important orchard (1) Started from very beginning of plant
operations growth.

These processes form in indispensable (2) Most are trained in single stem system.
operation having direct bearing on growth and Pomegranate, fig and custard apple are
vigor of plants. These processes also have effect

170

trained by multi-stem training system as
they are prone to insect attack.

(3) In some plants terminal bud is removed to
facilitate emergence of side shoots.

(4) Branches with narrower crotch angle are
discarded.

(5) Remove water sprouts and drooping
branches.

According to the height of the tree, the training
is grouped in two ways.

(1) High head

In this type the main branches are Fig. 14.8 : Central Leader
encouraged about one meter or higher up
from the ground level. In this case cultural Advantage
operations with animal or mechanically drawn
implements can be carried out very easily. 1. Development of strong crotches due to
In the tropical climate the practice is not interlacing of fiber at the junction of the
followed generally as the sunscald and wind limb and the trunk.
may damage the trees. The fruit bearing area
on the plants also develops late and it bears 2. Strong frame work.
fruits slowly.
Disadvantages
(2) Low head
1. Shading of the interior part of the tree.
In this case the main branches forming
the foundation frame work of the tree are 2. Weakening of central leader due to shading
managed on the trunk at a low height. Low reduces life of the tree.
headed trees come in bearing earlier and this
type of practice is now more popular. In this 2. Open Centre
method the plants can resist stormy winds more
effectively and the other cultural practices can In this system the main stem is allowed to
be done very easily. grow only up to a certain height by heading it
within a year of planting. All the subsequent
vegetative growth is promoted by lateral
branches. This results in low head. Bulk crop
is borne closer to the ground.

Systems of Training
1. Central Leader
2. Open Centre
3. Modified Leader

1. Central Leader

In this system the main trunk grows Fig. 14.9 : Open Centre
undisturbed. As the growth of the branches is
vigorous and rapid on the main trunk, the tree
develops a close centre and grows to greater
height. The side branches remain more or less
stunted and as the result they would be low in
vigour and productivity.

171

Advantages 4. Strong framework.
1. Better light penetration for the fruiting in 5. Easy cultural operations.

inner branches. 14.5.2 Pruning
2. Development of a low headed tree.
3. Trees are more fruitful and greatly facilitate Cleaning the canopy

the operations like pruning, thinning, Dead Included bark
spraying and harvesting. branch Dead branch
Disadvantages Water sprouts
1. Tree becomes weak because of crowded
crotches. Broken
2. Heavy bearing causes breaking of the tree. branch
3. In high light intensity area trees suffers
from severe sunscald and sunburn injuries. Sucker
3. Modified leader system
It is the combination of the central leader Fig. 14.11 : Pruning
and open centre. First the central leader is
allowed to grow and then is cut back not Pruning is an important horticultural
allowing it to become dominant. Selected practice and its skill is very essential to the
laterals are allowed to grow and remaining grower since the mistake in pruning may result
laterals are removed to obtain proper more harm than good rewards.
orientation.
Prunning is removal of a part of a plant
Fig. 14.10 : Modified Leader like root, leaf, flower branch, vine or fruit to
Advantages obtain good and qualitative yield. It is related
Most desirable in many trees because. to better harvesting with good quality fruits.
1. Low and well spaced laterals
2. Well distributed fruiting area. Definition
3. Better light penetration.
According to Gardener, pruning may
be defined as “An art and science of cutting
away a portion of plant to improve quality of
the produce, or to heal, repair the injury”. The
parts more commonly removed are branches
or leaves or both.

The extent and intensity of pruning of any
tree varies from year to year depending on the
growth of the tree, its bearing and season.

Objectives

(1) To control flowering and fruiting

(2) To augment production in plants which
bears on new shoots

(3) To obtain regular bearing

(4) To remove diseased, damaged, insect
infested and water shoots

172

(5) To thin out flowers and fruits Fig. 14.12 B: Heading back

(6) To ensure access of sunlight to bearing Use y our b rain
shoots Find out purpose behind Frame
pruning, Maintenance pruning, Renewal
(7) To invigorate the plants pruning.
(8) To have a balance between vegetative
3. Disbudding - The young buds are nipped
and reproductive growth with giving them no chance to sprout.
The bud may be either vegetative or
Principles of pruning reproductive. This is practiced regularly in
flowering plants to make the terminal bud
(1) Remove all water sprouts to give a bigger flower.

(2) If the shoot is to be removed completely it 4. Pinching and topping - This refers to the
should be removed from the base removal of the top of the shoot along with
a view to stimulate the lateral growth.
(3) Avoid bark injury
Time and extent of pruning
(4) Pruning should be completed well advance
of flowering season The time of the pruning in different
plant mainly depends upon their dormant and
(5) In deciduous plants pruning should be flowering seasons. The best time for pruning in
done in advance of winter to avoid low case of the deciduous trees is at the end of the
temperature injury. dormant season i.e. about a month before the
commencement of flowering.
(6) Apply Bordeaux paste immediately
The extent of pruning to be adopted for
(7) Crowded, diseased, damaged and insect a particular crop depends on its growing and
infested shoots should be removed. fruiting habit, as it directly affect the nutritive
condition within the tree and consequently
Methods of Pruning affects the fruit formation. It also increases
the size, shape and quality of fruit. Pruning is
1. Thinning out - This refers to the removal to be carried out in the month of May. Excess
of the branches entirely from the base pruning reduces quality of fruits.
leaving no stubs.

2. Headingback-Thisreferstocuttingofmain
stem or a few of the branches leaving a basal
portion. This method is often followed for
hedges, ornamental shrubs, first dormant
and October pruning in grapes.

Fig. 14.12 A : Thinning out 14.6 Special horticultural operations
14.6.1 High Density Planting (HDP)

Maximization of production should be the
ultimate objective in the fruit cultivation. This

173

can be achieved by many ways. Increasing 14.6.2 Bahar Treatment

number of plants per unit area by adjusting Bahar treatment is nothing but withholding
the planting distance and method of planting water for 4-6 weeks prior to flowering with
is one of the ways. a view to give rest to the tree. The principle

Definition involved is, by giving rest to the tree or

Planting of fruit trees, closer than checking its growth, more carbohydrates are

their normal spacing and making the plant accumulated in the plant body which led to a

population dense per unit area is known as profuse differentiation of buds and flowers.

high density planting. This practice is followed in trees like
Increased plant population may affect the mosambi, santra, guava, pomegranate, etc. in
growth and production due to over-crowding, Maharashtra and in south India. Most of the
shade effect and intermingling of branches of orchards of these crops are planted on medium
trees. to deep black cotton soils which have very

This can be avoided by good water retention capacity. The climatic

(1) Controlling the size of the plant. conditions in our state are such that there is

(2) By adjusting the planting distance and no much more distinction between winter

method. and summer season temperatures. As a result

Size of plant is controlled by regular of which plant remains in the active growth

pruning or by using dwarfing root stocks. E.g. throughout the year and refuses to produce

Vhallai - columban in mango, trifoliate orange flower abundantly, affecting the quality and

in citrus. total yield of crop. Therefore bahar treatment

In some plants, to avoid over shading is necessary in these crops.

the planting density is so arranged that it Method
should not affect the root and shoot balance
and should permit better light penetration. In Bahar treatment consists of withholding
banana, normal planting distance is 1.75 m × the irrigation water prior to flowering. In heavy
1.75 m. In high density planting, it is planted soils 55-60 days water stress is given where -
at a distance of 1.25 m × 1.25 m. as in light soils it is of 40 to 45 days. Light
ploughing or digging in the orchard is done
In high density planting, there is before treatment. During water stress period
competition for nutrients and water amongst plant stops growth, leaves turn pale green or
the plants and hence yield of individual plant slightly yellow. Over stress is dangerous.
is reduced, yield per unit area is also hampered

but it can be corrected by adopting proper agro When the stipulated period of water

horticultural practices. stress is over, basins are prepared, plants are
manured at recommended doses of manures
Advantages and irrigation is provided step by step. The
(a) More plants per unit area hence yield first irrigation must be light one.

increases.

(b) Better utilization of land. There are three types of bahar treatment
(c) Production of marketable produce. 1. Mrig bahar 2. Hast bahar 3. Ambe bahar

Effect on Growth and Yield 1. Mrig bahar

(a) Due to less spacing the growth is erect. (i) Withholding of water is done in April-
May and flowering occurs in June-July.
(b) Over crowding of branches causes fruit
drop and infection of pest and diseases. (ii) Useful in our region because water
withholding is done in summer season
(c) The yield is more as compare to normal which is beneficial.
spacing because plant population is
increased.

174

(iii) Fruit develops after rainy season thus
fruit fly attack is avoided.

(iv) Dry and bright sunshine during ripening
period enhances colour and the quality of
the fruit.

(v) In case of santra in North India mrig
bahar is not followed and hence fruits
from Maharashtra fetches good price.

2. Hast bahar

(i) Withholdings of water is done in August Fig. 14.13: Bending
and flowering occurs in Sept - October. terminal buds synthesize auxins which controls
cell elongation and plant growth. The auxin
(ii) Not practiced in Maharashtra thus produced moves downwards and inhibits
the growth of lateral buds on the shoot. Auxin
3. Ambe bahar gets accumulated on the lower side of branch
(side which is away from the sun) and cause
(i) Withholding of water is done in cell elongation on that side to turn to new shoot
November-December. flowering is in growth towards the sun.
January - February.
To break this apical dominance and to
(ii) Fruit development is during summer. Not bring all the buds at the same level in order
possible in Maharashtra as farmers face to increase the fruit bearing area. The erect
water scarcity in summer. growing branches are bent down wards. i.e.
horizontal. More auxins get accumulated on
(iii) Fruits are fairly attacked by the fruit the lower side causing cell elongation. The
files, sucking moth during rainy season in lateral buds are brought at the same level
Maharashtra which sprout and give more fruiting area
which ultimately increases the yield.
(iv) In our region, fruit ripen in rainy season
which affect the colour and quality of the Varieties like Lucknow-49 (Sardar)
fruit. because of their horizontal growing character
do not require bending.
The choice of bahar depends upon
14.6.4 Ringing
1. Availability of water.
2. Quality of fruits. Ringing is followed in mango to induce
3. Attack of insects pest and diseases. fruitfulness. It is nothing but removal of bark
4. Availability of market and market prices. on the branches, in circular fashion of the width
of 1/4 inch to 1/2.inch. The object behind this
14.6.3 Bending operation is to interrupt the downward flow
of carbohydrate and to accumulate it at above
Bending is generally followed in erect the portion of operation to induce fruitfulness.
growing varieties of guava to increase yield.
In such varieties branches and shoot grow Many times, tree produces only vegetative
erect and the buds situated on the top of the growth and all the carbohydrates are utilized for
branch sprout which bear flower and fruits. vegetative growth without any accumulation.
The buds on the lower side of the branches In alternate bearing trees, during
remain dormant and fail to sprout. So the fruit on year all the carbohydrate is utilized for
bearing area becomes less and naturally it
decreases the yield.

The reason behind this particular
phenomenon is the apical dominance. The

175

development of fruit and hence very little 4. To obtain early fruit maturity and enhance
quantity is available for differentiation of buds the quality of bunch. Girdling is done one
resulting in off year next season. For sprouting week after the fruit set and on Cane, Main
of flower buds, accumulation of carbohydrates bark, Primary or Secondary arms.
is essential. To achieve this, ringing is done in
mango.

This operation is done in the month of
August i.e. 4 months, before the expected date
of flowering. It is done on main limbs of at
least 6 inch in diameter by removing a circular
bark ring of 1/4 inch to 1/2.inch thickness. The

Fig. 14.14: Ringing Fig. 14.15: Gridling
cut given to the stem or branch of the tree
should not be too deep, and it should not injure Cane girdling is normally followed
the cambium otherwise the upward nutrient because in case of trunk girdling, if the
supply will be checked. Bordeaux paste should operation is not performed systematically,
be applied on the ringed part to check the fungal there lays a danger of dying of the vine.
attack. It is not followed as a regular orchard
practice. Normally, healing of the wound take In cane girdling, a ring of bark of the
place in about a month after the purpose of the width 2.5 mm is removed carefully from the
operation is over. basal portion of cane. With a sharp knife,
clear cut is given. Proper sanitation is followed
14.6.5 Girdling before and after the operation to avoid disease
incidence. The operated portion should unite in
Girdling is a special horticultural 3-4 weeks.
operation followed in grapes. Removing of
a circular piece of bark from the cane, main 14.6.6 Notching
branch or primary or secondary arms for
maximizing the yield of good quality is done. Notching operation is followed in fig and
involves giving a slanting cut little above or
Objectives below the buds and removing the slice of the
bark of particular depth and width depending
1. Better development of berries. upon the size of the branch. The main object
behind notching is interruption of downward
2. To increases the size of berries and the TSS flow of carbohydrate and induce flowering
(Total soluble solids) of berries. when done below the bud and also induce
laterals on vigorous shoots when done above
3. To interrupt downward flow of the bud.
carbohydrates.

176

It includes partial removal of slip of bark irrigation water or by spraying of 2000
of 2-6 mm breadth and 15-20 mm in length. ppm of cycocel.
Bud selected for notching should be large,
plumpy, healthy and which is produced on Duration and degrees of hardening
perfect mature wood.
It is very necessary that plants should
Generally 3-4 buds in the middle portion be hardened according to their kind so that
of shoot are best for operation. there is an assurance of high percentage of
survival and slow growth under the condition
When it is done above the bud, to be expected at the time of transplanting.
carbohydrates will accumulate above bud Hardening should be gradual to prevent or
and there will be more nitrogen in bud which check the growth.Warm season crops like
will give vigorous vegetative shoots on which tomato, brinjal and chillies do not favour
flowers and fruits will be borne. In Maharashtra severe hardening. Under Indian conditions,
notching above the buds is generally followed allowing the soil to become dry, 5-6 days are
in August -September. enough for desired hardening.

When it is done below bud, there is more Effect of hardening
accumulation of carbohydrates than nitrogen,
resulting in more fruit buds on the tree. It The following effects may be observed by
is done in the month January - February. the hardening
Bordeaux mixture paste needs to be applied on
the wound to avoid attack of pest and diseases. (1) Hardening improves the quality and
modifies the nature of colloids in the plant
14.6.7 Hardening cell enabling them to resist the loss of
water.
Hardening of the plants in the nursery.
The term hardening is defined as any (2) Hardening increases the presence of dry
matter and regards in the plants water and
treatment that makes the tissues firm to transpiration per unit area of leaf.
withstand unfavourable environment like low
temperature, high temperature and hot dry (3) Decreases the rate of growth in the plants
wind.
(4) Hardened plants can withstand better
Hardening is physiological process. Plants against unfavourable weather conditions
accumulate more carbohydrates reserves and like hot day winds or low temperature.
produce additional cuticle on the leaves.
(5) Hardening of the plants increases the
In this process seedlings are given some waxy covering on the leaves.
treatments at least 7-10 days before removing
from the beds and transplanting. (6) Development of pinkish colour on leaf
petioles and blades.
These treatments include

(1) Exposure to the full sunlight,

(2) Removal of all the shedding nets.

(3) Stopping irrigation slowly.

Techniques of hardening

The hardening is done by the following
ways.

(1) By withholding the watering to the plant by
4-5 days before transplanting. Lowering
the temperature also retards the growth
and adds to the hardening processes.

(2) By application of 4000 ppm NaCl with

177

Exercise

Q 1 A. Fill in the blanks. C. State true or false.

1. Horticulture is a branch of agriculture 1. Wind breaks protect fruit orchard from
that deals with cultivation of -------- hot and dry winds.
plants.
2. One of the objectives of pruning is to
2. The branch of horticulture that include control flowering and fruiting.
study of vegetables is known as --------.
3. Flowering occurs in June – July in case
3. The central plant in quincunx system is of ambe bahar.
called as --------- tree.
4. In cane girdling a ring of bark of the
4. Training aims in development of strong width 2.5 cm is removed.
--------- of fruit tree.
5. In high density planting banana plants
5. Better light penetration is possible are planted at 3m × 3 m spacing.
in --------- method of training of fruit
crops. Q 2 Answer in brief.
1. Write short notes on
B. Make the pairs.
(i) Bahar treatment
A B
(1) Pomology (a) Hill slopes (ii) High density planting in Mango

(2) Olericulture (b) Study of flowers (iii) Open centre method of training

(3) High density (c) Study of (iv) Ringing
planting vegetables
(v) Bending
(4) Rectangular (d) Study of fruit
system crops 2. Give difference between

(5) Contour (e) Declining land to (i) Ringing and girdling
system plant ratio
(ii) Training and pruning
(f) Wind breaks
(iii) Central leader and open centre
(g) Mechanical
cultivation (iv) High head and low head system of
training
Q 1 B Find the odd out.
3. Give reasons
1. Square, Rectangular, Triangular,
Hexagonal, Fencing (i) It is necessary to plan carefully while
developing new orchard.
2. High head, low head, Girdling, Open
centre, Central Leader (ii) Open centre method is better method
of training fruit crops.
3. Girdling, Bending, Ringing, Bahar
treatment, Bearing (iii) In case of cane girdling, width of
removed bark should be 2.5mm only.
4. Road side site, Fertile soil, Cheap
labour, High density planting, (iv) High head system of training is not
Availability of market FYM. practiced in tropical region.

(v) Bahar treatment is necessary for
santra in Maharashtra .

5. Insecticide, Compost, Bone meal, Leaf 4. Give examples of
mould
(i) Methods of crop maximization

(ii) Types of bahar.

178

(iii) Methods of training. 5 . Read the given following paragraph
and answer the questions.
5. Answer in brief.
Fencing is essential to prevent destruction
(i) What are the advantages of of the trees from stray cattle and also to protect
planting wind breaks? the orchard from stress passing. It is necessary
to provide some kind of fencing on all sides of
(ii) What are the objectives of training? the garden and this should be done preferably
before planting the fruit trees. Fencing helps to
(iii) What are the types and benefits of mark the borders of the orchard. Fences may
fencing? be made using thorny and dead bushes but
these are not satisfactory and require frequent
(iv) Which points are required to be repair and replacement. Barbed wire fencing
kept in mind while planning a new is very good but its initial cost is rather high.
fruit orchard?
Types of Fencing:-There are two types of
Q 3 Answer the following questions. fencing used for protection of orchard.

1. Complete the table. 1. Live fencing 2. Non-living fencing

Method Crop Width Benefits
Girdling

Ringing (1) Live fencing - The best protection is
2. Explain with the help of examples. however, a construction of live fence.
Some of the plants are very useful as live
(i) Planting of wind breaks fence.

(ii) Live fencing 1. Prosopis juliflora (vilayati babul) and
Caesalpinia sepiaria (Chillari):- These
3. Calculations. can be established in May June the seed
should be sown in a trench 30 cm wide and
(i) Calculate number of fruit plants 22.8 cm deep all around the orchard
required for planting one hectare boundary.
area in hexagonal system at 6 × 6
m distance. 2. Carissa carandas (Karonda):- This makes
an effective dense hedge. In addition it
(ii) Calculate number of fruit plants bears fruits if not pruned too closely.
required for planting three hectare
area in quincunx system at 2.5 × Other live plant use as fence:-
2.5 m distance.
Lantena camera (ghaneri), cacti, Coenel,
Q 4 . Answer in detail. dedonia, mendhi, casurina (khadsarni, sher),
adulsa, shendri etc.
1. Write the importance of horticulture.
Questions
2. Explain the scope of horticulture.
a. Which are the two types of fencing?
3. Write in detail about selection of site
for an orchard. b. Why fencing is necessary for fruit
orchard?
4. Complete the table.

Sr. Method Main Followed Time c. Mention some plant species used for
no. Objective in Crops live fencing.

1 Training d. Can you suggest any alternative system
of fencing?
2 Pruning
e. What is the signifince of live fencing?
3 Bahar
treatment Activity : Practice different special horticultural
operations
4 Bending

179

15. Special Crops

L et’s rec all Remind

 What is meant by Horticulture?  Have you seen sugarcane plantation
 Which crops are covered under the and sugar factory?
 Have you visited jaggery production
Horticulture? unit?
 Importance and scope for horticultural
15.1.1 Plantation Crops
crops in India. Plantation crops are those which are
 Recent developments in Horticulture
cultivated on extensive scale.
industry. Plantation is a large scale unit usually of
 Nutritional importance of fruits and
a single crop.
vegetables.
 Which horticultural crops have export

potential?

Plantation is a large scale estate meant

Rem ember this for farming that specializes in cash crop.

Certain horticultural crops have special These crops are grown in huge plantations
economic importance and these crops and need to undergo certain processing .Such
are grown by farmers with commercial processing units are established in plantation
approach. Such crops are useful for changing areas, there by having great impact on socio
farmers economic condition .The special economic development of that region.
horticultural crops are the alternative for
traditional agriculture, however they can be Different plantation crops are as follows
grown along traditional crops. These crops
a. Tea - Camellia sinensis
Family - Theaceae

can be grown on commercial scale as well Tea plant is an evergreen shrub grown for
as on amature scale .These crops can be its leaves. Top shoots along with two youngest
cultivated in various combinations and with leaves are removed and cured to impart taste
different objectives and flavor. Leaf, broken and dust are the three
grades of tea.
15.1 Different horticultural crops having
special economic importance Tea is important crop of Assam, Nilgiri,
Dargiling and hilly areas of India.
The special horticultural crops are categorized

in following way

(1) Plantation crops (2) Spice crops
(3) Aromatic crops (4) Medicinal plants

(5) Vegetable crops (6) Exotic crops

(7) Flower crops (8) Ornamental Plants
One or few crops from the each group

are known be special as they have distinctive

characters and uses Fig. 15.1 Tea

180

b. Coffee - Coffea robusta Coffea arabica Do you know ?
Family - Rubiaceae
All coffee plant species are woody Cocoa beans were used as currency
during ancient period
evergreens, but the plants range in size from
small shrubs to trees more than 10 meters tall. d. Rubber- Hevea brasiliensis
Leaves vary in colour from yellowish to dark Family- Euphorbiaceae
green, with touches of bronze or purple. The Natural rubber, also called Indian
plant produces white flowers and red berries rubber, as initially produced, consists
or “cherries” that contain seeds. Most coffee of polymers of the organic compound isoprene,
berries contain two seeds, which are known as with minor impurities of other organic
“beans”. Beans are harvested from matured compounds, plus water.  Currently, rubber is
fruit, dried and powdered and used to make harvested mainly in the form of the white latex
coffee beverage. Coffee is one of the important from rubber plant trunk. The latex is a sticky,
crops of Karnataka. milky colloid drawn off by making incisions
in the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels
Fig. 15.2 Coffee in a process called "tapping". The latex then
Use your brain power is refined into rubber ready for commercial
processing. Latex is allowed to coagulate in
the collection cup and lumps are collected
and processed into dry forms for marketing.
Natural rubber is used extensively in many
applications.

You may have drunk coffee which is made
by conventional filtering method or an
instant coffee. Can you find how both the
type of coffee powders are made?

c. Cocoa - Theobroma cocoa
Family - Malvaceae

Cocoa fruit contain seeds with pulp. The Fig. 15.4 Rubber
matured seeds are fermented, washed and e. Coconut- Cocos nucifera
powdered and then used for chocolate making.
Family - Arecaceae
Forestero and Criello are the two famous

varieties of cocoa. The coconut tree  is a member of the palm

tree family  The term "coconut" can refer to

the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit,
which botanically is a drupe and not a nut.
Coconuts are known for their versatility of

uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. The inner

Fig. 15.3 Cocoa flesh of the mature seed forms a regular part of
the diets of many people known as khobara.

Coconuts are distinct from other fruits

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because their endosperm contains a large Fig. 15.6 Arecanut
quantity of clear liquid and when immature, g. Cashew nut - Anacardium occidentale
may be harvested for their coconut water
known as shahale. Mature, ripe coconuts can (Kaju)
be used as prasad or nariyal (edible seeds), or Family - Anacardeacae
processed for oil and coconut milk from the
flesh,  charcoal (active carbon) from the hard The cashew nut, often simply called a
shell, cocopeat and coir from the fibrous husk. cashew, is widely consumed. It is eaten on
Dried coconut flesh is called copra, and the oil its own, used in recipes, or processed into
derived from it is commonly used in cooking cashew cheese or cashew butter. The shell
as well as in making soaps and cosmetics. The of the cashew seed yields derivatives that
hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate can be used in many applications including
leaves can be used as raw material to make lubricants, waterproofing, paints, and arms
a variety of products for furnishing and production. The cashew apple has a light
decorating, brooms, chatai, etc. The coconut reddish to yellow colour. Its pulp can be
fruit also has cultural and religious significance processed into a light sweet, astringent fruit
in certain societies. drink or distilled into liquor (called fenny in
Goa). Cashew nut is known as dollar earning
crop. India is the world’s leading producer and
exporter of cashew kernels.

Fig. 15.5 Coconut Fig. 15.7 Cashew nut
f. Arecanut - Areca catchue (Supari)
Family- Arecaceae

It is a species of palm which grows in
much of the tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts
of East Africa. The palm is believed to have
originated in the Philippines, but is widespread
in cultivation and is considered naturalized
in India, widely grown in Karnatka state. The
species has many common names including
the areca palm, areca nut palm, betel
palm, Indian nut, etc. This palm is called
the betel tree because its fruit, the areca nut, is
often chewed along with the betel leaf. Further
is has medicinal and industrial uses.

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15.1.2 Spice Crops Fig. 15.8 Cardamom

Spice is a substance that is used in cooking b. Black Pepper (Kali Miri) – Piper nigrum
to add flavour to food which comes from dried Family - Piperaceae
plant part, powder or seed.
A vine crop cultivated for its small fruits
Spice is a seed, fruit, root or other plant which are usually dried and used as spice.
part primarily used for flavouring, colouring Universally known as King of spices. Black
or preserving food. pepper and white pepper are the types and
have used for different purposes.
Rem ember this

India produces 75 varieties of spices
of the 109 listed by Internatinal Spice
Organisation and is also the largest producer
of spices

Spices are classified according to their share
in spice trade industry of the world.

(i) Major spices

Contribute about 75-90% of total spice Fig. 15.9 Black pepper
trade .These are pepper, cumin, cardamom, c. Ginger (Ale) - Zingiber officinale
ginger, turmeric and chilli.
Family Zingiberaceae
(ii) Minor spices
Ginger is a flowering plant whose
These have less contribution in trade and are rhizome, is widely used as a spice and
further classified as follows for medicinal purposes. It is a 
herbaceous perennial, which grows annual
(a) Seed spices - Coriander, mustard, poppy, pseudostem about a meter tall bearing narrow
caraway, celery, fenugreek, etc. leaf blades. The inflorescences bear pale
yellow with purple flowers and arise directly
(b) Bulbous spices - Garlic, onion, leek, from the rhizome on separate shoots.
shallot, etc.
Ginger originated in Island Southeast
(c) Aromatic spices - clove, cinnamon, all Asia. Ginger produces a hot, pungent fragrant
spices, ani seed, nutmeg, etc. taste. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and
fleshy with a mild pungent taste due to gingrol.
(d) Leafy spices - Curry leaf, mint, rosemary, They are often pickled in vinegar . They can
parsley, bay leaf, etc. be steeped in boiling water to make ginger herb
tea. Ginger can be made into candy or ginger
(e) Acidulant tree spices -Tamrind, kokum, wine. Ginger sets are dried into 'sunth', powder,
anardana, etc. ginger oil and oleo-resin. Ginger essence is
used in pharmaceutical produces.
a. Cardamom (Veldoda) -
Elettaria cardamomum
Family-Zingiberaceae

Cardamom is grown for small black
seeded pods. Spindle shaped pods contain

black seeds. These are used for flavoring as

well as cooking spice. Cardamom is known as Fig. 15.9 Ginger
Queen of spices.

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R emind Fig. 15.12 Cinnamon
f. Clove (Lavang) - Eugenia caryophyllata
Medicinal property of ginger is because of
gingrol. Family - Myrtaceae
Have you eaten alepak or sunth vadi? And Clove is native to India grown in South
When?
India. Clove flower buds are used as a
d. Turmeric (Halad) - Curcuma longa spice in India. It is an evergreen  tree of
Family - Zingiberaceae humid tropical climate and hilly tract of
the Western Ghats and the red soils are
The plant is native to the Indian best suitable for clove cultivation. A major
subcontinent. After haresting the rhizomes are component of clove taste is imparted by
boiled in water for about 30–45 minutes and the chemical compound eugenol  and it is
then dried in hot dryer, after which they are used in traditional medicins. The clove oil is
ground into a deep orange-yellow powder. It effective for toothache pains or other types of
is commonly used as a coloring and flavoring pains related health problems. It is widely used
agent in ayurvedic  medicines. in all types of masala preparations.

Fig. 15.13 Clove

Fig. 15.11 Turmeric g. Chilli – Capsicum annum
Family Solanaceae
e. Cinnamon (Dalchini) - Cinnamomum
zealanicum Chilli fruit is used in green and red form.
(The dried ripe fruit) The chilli is an annual
Family - Lauraceae shrub. The flowers converted in red peppers
after maturity, Capsicum frutescence is a
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the perennial chilly with small sized pods which
inner bark of a perennial shrub. Cinnamon is are highly pungent. It is commonly known
used mainly as an aromatic condiment and as ‘bird chilly’. Green chilli pods and dried
flavouring spice additive .The aroma and chilli powder are commonly used in food
flavour of cinnamon is derived from its essential preparation to get desired pungent taste and
oil and principal component, cinnamaldehyde, red colour. The pungency in chilli is due to
as well as numerous other chemical capsaicin compound.
constituents, including eugenol.

184

milky precious wood scent. Used in perfume,
acts as finative, cosmetic and soap industry
Sandalwood oil prices have risen to Rs 1.4
lakh per kg. 

Fig. 15.14 Chilli
Find information on

Allspice-Plants Allspice, also called Fig. 15.15 Sandalwood
pimenta, Jamaica pimenta, or myrtle pepper, b. Senna (Sonamukhi) - Senna alexandrina
is the dried unripe fruit of Pimenta dioica,
a mid canopy tree, native to the Greater Family - Fabaceae
Antilles, southern Mexico, and Central
America, now cultivated in many warm
parts of the world. 

15.1.3 Aromatic crops Senna is a large genus of flowering plants
in the legume family .This diverse genus is
These are plants that produce and native throughout the tropics, with a small
exude aromatic substances which are used in number of species in temperate regions. The
making perfumes, in cooking and in the food, leaves of senna plant are used in tea hot
pharmaceuticals and liquor industries. drink and may help to relieve constipation.
Some senna species are used as ornamental
Odoriferous and volatile substances occur plants in landscaping. The plant is adapted to
as essential oils, gum extract, balsam and many climate types. Cassia gum, an extract
oleoresin in one or more parts viz. root, wood, of the seeds of Chinese senna is used as
bark, foliage, flower and fruit of the aromatic a thickening agent.
plant. The aromatic substances are obtained
by the methods like distillation, maceration,
expression and solvent extraction.

a. Sandalwood- Santalum album (Chandan)
Family - Santalaceae

Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees Fig. 15.16 Senna
in the genus Santalum. The wood is heavy, c. Geranium - Pelargonium graceolens
yellow, and fine-grained, and unlike many other Family - Geraniaceae
aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance
for decades.  Sandalwood is the second-most The family includes both the
expensive wood in the world. Both the wood genus Geranium (the cranesbills, or true
and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that
has been highly valued. Sandalwood trees are
medium sized hemiparasitic.  It is a threatened
species indigenous to South India. Oil has a
distinctive soft worm, smooth, creamy and

185

geraniums) and the garden plants are called material for the indeginious pharmaceuticals,
geraniums, which modern botany classifies as perfumery, flavour and cosmetic industry.
genus pelargonium, along with other related
genera. The oil of geranium has a refreshingly The curative property of drugs are due to
delicate rose like aroma. As such itself is a the presence of complex chemical substance of
perfume. varied composition in one or more parts of the
plant.
Fig. 15.17 Geranium
e. Khus (Wala) - Vetiveria incognito India is known as rich wealth of medicinal
Family - Poaceae plants.One of th oldest book 'Charak samhita'
records the use of over 340 drugs of vegetable
Khus is a perennial bunch grass  native origin.
to India. The plant helps to stabilize  soil and
protects from erosion, but it can also During last few decades the
protect fields against pests and weeds. It is also pharmaceutical industry has made massive
used as animal feed. Its spongy branched fine investment on pharmacological, clinical and
rootlets contain fragrant oil. Oil is extracted chemical researches all over the world.
and used for cosmetics,  aromatherapy,
herbal skin care and ayurvedic soap. Due to a. Opium (Aphu)– Papaver somniferum
its fibrous properties, the plant can also be used Family Papaveraceae
for handicrafts, ropes, food and flavourings,
perfumery, etc. Latex of unripe fruit contains codeine,
morphine used for pain relief. Approximately
12 % of opium latex is made up of analgestic
alkaloid morphine which is processed
chemically to produce heroin and other
synthetic opioids for medical use and for
illegal drug trade.

Fig. 15.19 Opium
b. Psyllium (Isabgol) Plantago ovata
Family – Plantaginaceae

Fig. 15.18 Khus Psyllium is mainly used as a dietary fibre
15.1.4 Medicinal plants to relieve symptoms of both constipation and
mild diarrhea and occasionally as a food
The plants having medicinal property thickener. Research has shown that lowering
in their any of the plant parts are known as of blood cholesterol levels in people with high
medicinal plants.They provide basic raw cholesterol, and lowering of blood glucose
levels in people with type 2 diabetes. The plants
from which the seeds are extracted tolerate dry

186

and cool climates and are mainly cultivated in
northern India. Fruit, husk and seed coat are
used against chronic constipation.

Fig. 15.22 Sarpgandha

e. Lemon grass (Gavati chaha) –
Cymbopogon schoenantus

Family - Poaceae

Fig. 15.20 Isabgol Lemon grass is widely used as a
c. Mints (Pudina) Mentha piperata culinary herb in Asian cuisines and also
Family – Lamiaceae as a medicinal herb in India. It has a
subtle citrus flavour and can be dried and
Mint is aromatic perennial herb. It has powdered, or used fresh. It is commonly used
wide spreading underground and over ground in teas, soups, and curries. Lemon grass oil
stolons and erect branched stems. Volatile oil is used as a pesticide and a preservative.
of plant is used as antiseptic, carminative and Research shows that lemon grass oil
stimulant. has antifungal properties. Despite its ability to
repel some insects, such as mosquitoes, its oil
is commonly used as a "lure" to attract honey
bees.
Used in tea, soups and curries

Fig. 15.21 Mint Fig. 15.23 Lemon grass
d. Rouwolfia (sarpagandha) - f. Vasaka (Adulsa) – Adhatoda vasaca
Rouwolfia serpentina Family Acanthaceae
Family - Apocynaceae
Adhatoda, commonly known adulsa, vasa
Roots contain alkaloids like reserpine, or vasaka is a medicinal plant native to Asia.
The plant is native of Indian subcontinent.. This
serpentinine. Antidote for snake bite and shrub has a number of traditional medicinal
medicine for blood pressure. Reserpine is uses in Ayurvedic and Unani systems. Drug
an alkaloid first isolated from R. serpentina and vasaka is obtained from dried leaves of the
was widely used as an antihypertensive drug.It plant. Vasaka is mainly used in treatment of
had drastic psychological side effects and has
been replaced as a first-line antihypertensive
drug by other compounds that lack such adverse
effects, although combination drugs that
include it are still available in some countries
as second-line antihypertensive drugs.

187

chronic bronchitis and asthma. Leaf juice 15.1.5 Vegetable Crops
is given in the treatment of dysentery and
diarrhea. Leaves contain vaccine which is Vegetables are parts of plants that are
expectorant and antiplasmodic. consumed by humans as food or as a part of
a meal.
Fig. 15.24 Adulsa
g. Amla – Emblica officinale Vegetables collectively refer to all edible
Family - Euphorbiaceae plant matter including the flowers, fruits,
stems, leaves, roots and seeds.
The tree is small to medium in size,
usually deciduous. The fruit is nearly spherical, Vegetables supply vital vitamins and
light greenish-yellow, quite smooth and hard minerals and known as protective food. They
on appearance, with six vertical stripes or enhance palatability and intake of food.
furrows.
According to plant part consumed vegetables
After ripening the berries are harvested are classified as under,
by hand. The taste is sour, bitter and
astringent and it is quite fibrous in nature. (1) Leafy vegetables – Spinach, Amaranthus,
Indian gooseberry is a common constituent, Cabbage, Fenugreek
and most notably is the primary ingredient
in an ancient herbal Chyawanprash. The (2) Fruit vegetables – Bottle gourd, Bitter
fruit is commonly pickled with salt, oil, and gourd, Brinjal, Tomato, Capsicum,
spices. Murambah, a sweet dish is made by Pumpkin, Cucumber, Okra, etc.
soaking the berries in sugar syrup until they
are candied. It is traditionally consumed after (3) Immature seeds and pods – Pea, Cowpea,
meals. Popularly used in inks, shampoos and French bean, Cluster bean, Indian bean,
hair oils.Fruit contains large quantity of etc.
Vitamin C (600 mg/ 100 g) and is used against
cough, cold and as a laxative in hyperacidity. (4) Root vegetables - Radish, Turnip, Carrot,
Amla fruit is commonly used squash, juice, Beet root
syrup, and crush.
(5) Tuber and bulb vegetables – Onion, Garlic,
Potato, Sweet potato

(6) Other vegetables – Cauliflower, knolkhol,
Yam, Colocasia, etc.

a. Tomato – Lycopersicon esculentum
Family – Solanaceae

It is grown for its mature or ripe fruit.
which has various culinary uses and used in
preparation of many preserved products. It
is very much popular all over the world. The
tomato red color is due to antioxidant lycopene.

Important varieties – Arka sourabh, Arka
vikas, Sl -120, Pusa early dwarf, Pusa rubi, etc.

Fig. 15.25 Amla Fig. 15.26 Tomato
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b. Brinjal – Solanum melongena
Family – Solanaceae

It is one of the most common tropical
vegetables grown in India. Many delicious
dishes are prepared from fruits. Important
varieties – Pusa kranti, manjarigota, Pusa
purple long, etc.

Fig. 15.27 Brinjal Fig. 15.29 Okra
c. Cauliflower – Brassica oleracea var.
e. Potato - Solanum tuberosum
botrytis Family-Solanaceae
Family – Cruciferae
It is the top ranked vegetable grown in the
Edible part of cauliflower is known as world. It has high food value. It is grown for
curd which consists of a shoot system with its stem tubers. It is a cool season crop. The
short internodes, branches apices and bracts. aerial part of the stem is hollow, except its
nodes. The tuber is shortened, thickened stem
Important varieties – Early kunwari, Pusa bearing buds. Potato tubers are used as a fresh
synthetic, Pusa sharad, Pant shubhra, Pusa vegetables and can be processed into many
shubhra, etc. products.

Important varieties-Kufri Badashaha,
Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri chandramukhi, Kufri
Chamatkar, Kufri Jyoti, etc.

Fig. 15.30 Potato

f. Cucumber - Cucumis sativus
Family - Cucurbitaceae

Fig. 15.27 Cauliflower Vine crop grown for its tender fruits
which are usually used as salad. The stems are
d. Okra (Bhendi) - Abelmoschns esulentus long and trailing. The fruits are elongated and
Family - Malvaceae

The crop is cultivated for its young tender Fig. 15.31 Cucumber
fruits. It is major vegetable crop, available
round the year having high export potential.
Important varieties Arka anamika, Pusa
makhamali, Parbhani kranti, Pusa sawani, etc.

189

cylindrical, vary in size and sometimes can be attachment of to underground part of stem
oval or short. which is small and rudimentary.

Important varieties - Japenese long green, Varieties – Arka kalyan, Arka Pragati,
Poona Khira, Sheetal, Pusa Sanyog, etc. Baswant-780, N-53, Agrifound dark red,
Agrifound light red.
g. Carrot - Daucus carrota
Family - Umbeliferae

Grown for its delicious tap roots.Roots
are highly nutritive and useful as a salad

Important varieties - Nantes, Pusa
yamdagni, Pusa kesar, Chantaney, etc.

Fig. 15.32 Carrot Fig. 15.34 Onion

h. Amaranthus - Amaranthas species 15.1.6 Exotic Crops
Family - Amaranthaceae
The crops which are not indigenous to
Entire young plant is used as a leafy country are known as exotic crops.
vegetable
Certain exotic crops are becoming popular
Important varieties - Chhoti Chaulai, in India. Indian farmers have started growing
Badi chaulai. exotic crops as they are in great demand in
Indian market and have scope for export.
Exotic fruit like dragon fruit is becoming
popular and fetches higher price in domestic
market.

a. Broccoli - Brassica oleracea var.italica
Family - cruciferae

Braccoli is a cruciferous vegetable. It
contains high amount of many nutrients, fibre,
Vitamin C, Vitamin K, etc. Braccoli also
contains more protein than other vegetables.
Varieties-Calabrease, Brouzino, etc.

Fig. 15.33 Amaranthus Fig. 15.35 Broccoli
i. Onion - Allium cepa
Family - Amarylidaceae/ liliaceous

It is biennial herb with a characteristics
smell. Bulb is formed by the attachment
of swollen leaf bases the is formed by the

190

b. Zucchini - cucurbita pepo as vegetable since antiquity. Celery has long
Family - cucurbitaceae fibrous stalk tapering into leaves. Its stalk,
leaves or hypocotyle are eaten and used in
It is known as type of summer squash cooking.
which can reach nearly 1 m in length. It is
usually harvested when still immature. Some Varieties - standard bearer, weigh grove
cultivars have dark green or deep yellow giant, etc.
colour. Varieties - Raven, Bush baby, Black
beauty, faudbook, etc.

Fig. 15.36 Zucchini Fig. 15.38 Celery

c. Dragon fruit (Pitaya) - Hylocereus species f. Lettuce - Lactula sativa L.
Family - Cactaceae Family - Asteraceae

Dragon fruit is very strange looking fruit. It is an annual plant. It is often grown as
The dragon fruit is also known as a pitahaya or a leafy vegetable but some times for stem and
pitaya. Dragon fruit plant sowing is excellent seeds. Lettuce is mostly used for salads. It can
in the less rainfall areas. Varieties - Pitaya also used in soups, sandwiches and wraps.
rosa,pitaya blanca, etc.
Varieties - Great lakes, Chinese yellow,
slobalt, etc.

Fig. 15.37 Dragon fruit Fig. 15.39 Lettuce

Remember this 15.1.7 Flower crops

Dragon Fruit is used in jams, ice Flowers symbolize beauty, love and
creams, jelly production, fruit juice, wine tranquility. Besides there aesthetic value, they
face packs. are important for their economic uses such as
cut blooms and for extracting essential oils.
d. Celery - Apium graveolens L. In India flowers are sanctified and use for
Family - Apiaceae worshipping

It is marshland plant has been cultivated

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