博士毕业论文（MCU）

A THEORETICAL MODEL OF LEARNING PROCESS
BASED ON MODERN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

AND THE CONCEPT OF SEED IN YOGĀCĀRA
BUDDHISM

VEN. HUI CHEN

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirement for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
(Buddhist Studies)
Graduate School

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
C.E. 2018

A Theoretical Model of Learning Process Based on Modern
Educational Psychology and the Concept of Seed in
Yogācāra Buddhism

Ven. Hui Chen

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirement for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
(Buddhist Studies)
Graduate School

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
C.E. 2018

(Copy right by Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University)

The Graduate School, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya
University, has approved this dissertation entitled “A Theoretical Model
of Learning Process Based on Modern Educational Psychology and
the Concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism”, concerning the
qualifying examination in the specified subject in Buddhism and Modern
Sciences, submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of
the Doctor of Philosophy in Buddhist Studies.

..............................................................
(Phramaha Somboon Vuḍḍhikaro, Dr.)

Dean of Graduate School
Examination Committee:

.......................................... Chairperson
(Assoc. Prof. Dr. Praves Intongpan)
................................................Member
(Prof. Dr. Pataraporn Sirikarnchana)
................................................ Member
(Assoc. Prof. Dr. Suvin Ruksat)
................................................ Member
(Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull)
Dissertation Supervisor Committee:
Prof. Dr. Phrarajpariyattikavi Chairperson
Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull Member

Researcher: ...............................................
(Ven. Hui Chen)

i

Dissertation Title : A Theoretical Model of Learning Process

Based on Modern Educational Psychology

and the Concept of Seed in Yogācāra

Buddhism

Researcher : Ven. Hui Chen

Degree : Doctor of Philosophy (Buddhist Studies)

Dissertation Supervisory Committee

: Prof. Dr. Phrarajpariyattikavi, Pāli IX, M.A.

(Buddisht Studies), Ph.D. (Pāli & Buddhist

Studies).

: Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, B.A.

(Advertising), M.A. (Buddhist Studies), Ph.D.

(Buddhist Studies)

Date of Graduation : November 26, 2018

Abstract

This qualitative research consists of three objectives: 1) to
study the learning process in modern educational psychology; 2) to study
the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism; ) to propose a theoretical
model of learning process based on modern educational psychology and
the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism.

Findings show that theories in modern educational psychology
have great disputes concerning the source of learning, the role of the
learner and the faculty that enables learning. As the concept of Seed in
Yogācāra Buddhism deals with the mechanism of the mind at a
fundamental level, it helps the establishment of a theoretical model that
explains learning process in an integral way in which Seeds and the
manifest activities have influence upon one another, known in this paper
as Tri-interaction. As an extension, the model engages an effective
learning process in which the function of Object Contingent and
Wholesome Mental Factors is emphasized while that of the
Unwholesome ones discouraged.

ii

Acknowledgement

I would like to show my sincere gratitude for all those who have
been supporting me in accomplishment of this paper.

First of all, I would like to thank all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas,
including my spiritual masters Most Venerable Mingxiang and Teacher
Yang, who have been giving me so many blessings both spiritually and
materially. Without these blessings, I couldn’t have realized the real
meaning of this life and the urgency of my devotion to the practice and
study of Dharma.

Besides, I do owe my thanks to my supervisor Prof. Dr.
Phrarajpariyattikavi, Rector of Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya
University, for he has given me full support and freedom for such a
challenging task.

Then, I have to show my sincere gratitude to Venerable Assoc. Prof.
Dr. Hansa Dhammahaso, Director of International Buddhist Studies College,
MCU for he’s the first person who gave me help when I was in despair on
my arrival at this university and he’s also the first person I met who paid so
much respect to students from Mainland China with Mahayana background.

Last but not least, I have to thank Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu
Mahatthanadull, Thematic Paper Supervisor for his diligence and patience in
giving me suggestions of great importance on composition of this paper.

I’m also grateful for my parents, dharma friends and dharma
protectors both visible and invisible who supported me with their loving
kindness.

Ven. Hui Chen
November 26, 2018

iii

CWSL Abbreviation
MA
S : Cheng Wei Shi Lun
SC : Manifest Activities
TC : Seed
: Student-Centered
: Teacher-Centered

iv

Table of Contents i
ii
Abstract iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abbreviation 1
Table of Contents 1
CHAPTER Introduction 6
6
1.1 Background and Significance of the Problems 7
1.2 Objectives of the Research 8
1. Statement of the Problems Desired to Know 8
1.4 Scope of the Research 9
1.5 Definition of the Terms Used in the Research 12
1.6 Conceptual Framework 14
1.7 Review of Related Literature and Research Works 15
1.8 Research Methodology 15
1.9 Advantages Expected to Obtain from the Research 15
Chapter II Learning Process in Modern Educational Psychology 17
2.1 Definitions and Types of Learning Process 21
21
2.1.1 Definitions of Learning Process 2
2.1.2 Types of Learning Process 25
2. Factors of the Learning Process 26
2. .1 Memory 27
2. .2 Motivation 27
2. . Emotion 29
2. .4 Intelligence 29
2. .5 Sleep 1
2. .6 Stress
2. Major Western Theories on Learning Process 7
2. .1 The Classical Theories 8
2. .2 Modern Theories 39
2. . A Summary of Major Western Theories on Learning 9
Process 9
2.5 Conclusion Remarks 40
Chapter III The Concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism 40
.1 Introduction to the Concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism 41
.1.1 The Definition of Seed 46
.1.2 Types of Seed
.1. Characteristics of Seeds
.2 Seed, Manifest Activities and Mental Factors
. Case Studies from Mahāyāna Sutras
.4 Conclusion Remarks52

v

Chapter IVA Theoretical Model of Learning Process Based on

Modern Educational Psychology and the Concept of Seed in

Yogācāra Buddhism 53

4.1 Definition and types of Learning in Yogācāra 5

4.1.1 Definition of Learning in Yogācāra 55

4.2.2 Types of Learning in Yogācāra 56

4.2 Factors of Learning in Yogācāra 58

4. Yogācāra’s Critique of Western Theories on Learning Process 60

4. .1 Innate VS. Nurture 60

4. .2 Active VS. Passive 6

4. . Mental VS. Physical 65

4.4 A Theoretical Model of Learning Process Based on Modern

Educational Psychology and the Concept of Seed in Yogācāra

Buddhism 67

4.5 The Application on Teaching Methods 7

4.5.1 Teacher-Centered Teaching 7

4.5.2 Student-Centered Teaching 74

4.5. The Main Differences Between Direct Teaching and

Student-Centered Teaching 75

4.5.4 Teaching Methods in Yogācāra 76

Chapter V Conclusion and Suggestion 79

5.1 Conclusion 79

5.2 Suggestion 80

Bibliography 81

CHAPTER I

Introduction

1.1 Background and Significance of the Problems

There are generally two kinds of teaching methods in modern
pedagogy. One is teacher-centered, and the other is student-centered1.
The former one, also known as direct teaching, pays more attention to the
role of the teacher, who is supposed to control the whole class and plays a
key role in the whole learning process. The latter, on the contrary, focuses
more on the part the students take in the learning process, asserting that
the students learn not from the teacher but from their own experience and
inquiry and the teacher just serve as a supporter. The former one is the
kind generally thought to be out-dated and boring, thus discouraged by
many teaching institutes while the latter style seems to have won hearts of
the majority. Many developed countries have designed their teaching
policies in favor of student-centered teaching methods and teachers also
seem to favor those teaching approaches that can better arouse students’
attention and interest, namely task-based teaching, inquiry-based teaching,
etc, in which there is as less involvement of the teacher as possible,
students taking the central role. However, recently this new trend is
getting more and more criticism from the educational field, complaining
that the students almost learned nothing from this fancy fad and teachers
do not prepare their lessons with effort as they did before.2 So in general,
debates and arguments take place not only in academic journals but also
in the real teaching situations, concerning which approach is better or
more suitable for the students. Such a situation is precisely stated by
Gingell and Winch.

1 Westwood, P, What teachers should know about, (Camberwell: ACER
Press, 2008), p.2.

2 Delpit, L, “The silenced dialogue: power and pedagogy in educating other
people’s children”, Harvard Educational Review, Vol.58 (1988): 280–298.

2

“The twentieth century has seen a flowering of such theories ranging
from behaviourism to cognitivism. While some of these are partially
complementary, they are very often incompatible, even before the
truth of any of them has been established. In other words, it is quite
likely that most learning theories are contraries – they may be jointly
false but not jointly true... This poses a large dilemma for educators,
including self-educators. On the one hand they may adopt a learning
theory as a basis for pedagogy and take the risk that it is partially or
wholly false, or they may dispense with theory altogether and take
the risk that any gains that might be achieved by a systematic
approach will be lost.”3

In order to answer the question “which teaching method is
more suitable for the students?”, one has to go deeper to have a look at
the pedagogy theories underlying these two teaching methods.Teacher-
centered teaching method is believed to have its origin from behaviorism
which has the assumption that learning process has the same mechanism
with stimulus and response model, thus the key factor for learning
process is sufficient repetition and practice, and the basic means for the
transmission of knowledge and skills is directly conducted from the
teacher to the students. Student-centered teaching method, however, is
under the influence of constructivism which holds the opposite opinion
stating that the knowledge and skills acquired are not directly from
lessons given by a teacher but from indirect acquiring behaviors of the
learners themselves who construct their knowledge and skills by
establishing connection between the new information and the experience
they originally have. 4

Concerning the essential cause of learning process, the
relationship between the two opposite theories above seem to match the
nature vs. nurture paradigm. Behaviorism seems to emphasize more on
the nurture part, defining learning as something mainly concerning the

John Gingell, Christopher Winch, Philosophy of Education: The Key
Concepts, (New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 116

4 Ibid., p.10.

acquisition of new behaviour that is based on environmental conditions5
in a way Skinner says ”Our increasing knowledge of the control exerted
by the environment makes it possible to examine the effect of world
within the skin and the nature of self-knowledge.”6 That is to say
Behaviorism puts environmental factors in a prior position when one’s
learning process is concerned, i.e. nurture outweighs nature. As for
learning process explained by Constructivism, Qiong Jia says:

“Learning is the process that individuals construct their
cognitive structures. “Construction” is a kind of initiative, conscious,
and self-organized recognition way. It is the “interaction” between
the subject and the object. The learning process is the construction of
knowledge. Learning is an initiative construction and the generation
of meanings. This process is completed by the interaction of
learners’ old and new knowledge. In other words, pure external
stimulation is meaningless. Only when learners code, process, and
construct their unique understandings based on their previous
experiences, can it be real learning.” 7

According to Constructivism, the leading factors in the learning
process come internally, which “rests on the notion that there is an innate
human drive to make sense of the world”. 8 Therefore, this theory,
although with strong tendency of balance between the subject and the
object9, still sees the innateness as a main factor, thus more nature than
nurture. Although many have tried to integrate all of the theories about

5 D.C. Phillips & Jonas F. Soltis, Perspectives on Learning, (New York:
Teachers College Press, 2009), p. 6.

6 Skinner, B. F, About behaviorism,(New York: Ramdom House, Inc.,
1974), p.19.

7 Jia,Q, “A Brief Study on the Implication of Constructivism Teaching
Theory on Classroom Teaching Reform in Basic Education”, International
Education Studies, Vol. , No. 2 (May 2010): 197-199.

8 Kerka, Sandra, “Constructivism, Workplace Learning, and Vocational
Education”, ERIC Digest, ED40757 ,No. 181(1997): 2.

9 Jia,Q, Op. cit.

4

learning into one, but “no such attempt has been a resounding success”10.
The fundamental reason here is the imbalanced scale of nature vs. nurture.

From what has been analyzed, it seems to indicate that what
eventually determines the teaching method, teacher-centered or student-
centered, is the inclination of nurture or nature. teacher-centered method
seems to put more weight on nurture while student-centered one
emphasizes more on nature part. The question here is what is the
relationship between nature and nurture and how they interact with each
other. If this question is answered, the relationship between the two
teaching methods will also be clarified.

From the other side, Yogācāra Buddhism, considered as a
Buddhist philosophy, offers an metaphysical explanation on the
relationship between nature and nurture. Yogācāra is one of the most
influential schools in Mahayana Buddhism. The word derived from
Sanskrit Yogācāra has the implication of its justification based on
meditation practice. Another commonly known word Consciousness-
Only, translation of the Chinese word Weishi( 唯 识 ), points out the
essential teaching of this theory which is the existence of every
phenomenon can only be manifested through consciousnesses.According
to Yogācāra, there are basically five kinds of phenomena (dharma) in the
world:

“All of the Dharmas can be classified into five kinds:
Consciousnesses (citta-dharma), mental factors (caitasika-dharma),
Forms (rūpa-dharma), Embodied-conditioning Not Directly
[perceived] by Consciousnesses (citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra-dharma,
asaṃskṛta-dharma), Unconditioned Dharmas (Asaṃskṛta-dharmas).

11

... ...

10 D.C. Phillips & Jonas F. Soltis, Perspectives on Learning, (New York:
Teachers College Press, 2009), p. .

11 Vasabandhu, Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra, tr.
Xuanzhuang, (Chang’an: Bei Que Hong Fa Yuan, 648), p.1.

5

For Consciousnesses (citta-dharma), there are eight kinds: Seeing-
Consciousness (cakṣur-vijñāna), Hearing-Consciousness (śrotra-
vijñāna), Smelling-Consciousness (ghrāṇa-vijñāna), Tasting-
Consciousness (jihvā-vijñāna), Tactile-Consciousness (kāya-
vijñāna), Empiric-Consciousness (mano-vijñāna), Focusing (manas),
Warehouse-Consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna).”12

Among these phenomena, there is a fundamental one called
Ālaya Vijñāna, the last one among the eight consciousnesses, because
from this one all of the other phenomena are generated either directly or
indirectly. The Eighth Consciousness is also called Warehouse
Consciousness because it stores numerous Seeds which are all kinds of
potential energy that can produce all of the phenomena that one cognizes,
which is named Manifest Activities. The storage of the Seeds have no
beginning nor ending. They have been accumulated from countless lives
of an individual and they are stored in the form of the Eighth
Consciousness, which is so subtle that ordinary beings are not able to
realize its existence at all. However, when conditions, both internal and
external factors, become mature, these stored Seeds are able to be
activated and present themselves as Manifest Activities, and this process
is called generating. The Manifest Activities, on the hand, have their
influence on the original Seeds simultaneously, and this reverse effect
made on the Seeds are called perfuming. Once the original Seeds are
perfumed, new Seeds will come into existence on the basis of the original
ones also at the same time, and thus called Seeds generating Seeds. The
Eighth Consciousness functions through such a continuous process of
producing and perfuming among these Seeds and Manifest Activities. By
these non-stopping and repetitive pattern of producing and performing,
new Seeds as well as new Manifest Activities appear constantly, each
resembles the previous one both on the side of Seeds and on that of the
Manifest Activities. Shun’ei says:

12 Op.cit.

6

“Yogācāra presents a classification in seed theory that separates
types of Seeds in a way that resembles this nature vs. nurture
paradigm. This is the division between what are known as innate
seeds and newly perfumed Seeds.”1

Since the separation of the Seeds can be related to the nature
vs. nurture paradigm, the whole function of Seeds and manifest activities.
to some extent, can give an account of nurture vs. nature from a certain
perspective, which correspondingly can extends to constructivism vs.
behaviorism, and teacher-centered vs. student-centered.

From the above statement, this research to be conducted is
aimed at proposing a theoretical model of a Buddhist pedagogy by
studying the process of learning from the perspective of Yogācāra theory,
which is to give explanation to the nature vs. nurture paradigm, the
essential philosophical issue underlying modern pedagogy theories.

1.2 Objectives of the Research
1.2.1 To study the learning process in modern educational

psychology
1.2.2 To study the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism
1.2. To propose a theoretical model of learning process based

on modern educational psychology and the concept of Seed in Yogācāra
Buddhism

1.3 Statement of the Problems Desired to Know
1. .1 What is the learning process in modern educational

psychology?
1. .2 What is the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism?

1 Tagawa Shun'ei, Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-Only
Buddhism, Tr. Charles Muller, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009), p. 55.

7

1. . How to propose a theoretical model of learning process
based on modern educational psychology and the concept of Seed in
Yogācāra Buddhism?

1.4 Scope of the Research
The scope of the research is stipulated into the following five dimensions:

1.4.1 Scope of Sources of Data
The researcher focuses on studying the primitive teachings on
Yogācāra theory that appeared in the primary source of Chinese Tripiṭaka,
Commentaries and Sub-commentaries, referring to related English works
for translation. Secondary source of Buddhist textbooks, research works,
and journals respectively in both English and Chinese will also be
referred to, as well as later interpretation from modern scholars, e.g. Lin
Guoliang, Tagawa Shun’ei, Dan Lusthaus etc.. For pedagogy part, the
data mainly comes from academic books, journals and encyclopedia
mainly in English.

1.4.2 Scope of Content
For pedagogy, this research mainly focuses on two main
categorized methods, student-centered and teacher-centered, and their
underlying theories, constructivism and behaviorism, as well as
corresponding their philosophical concepts, nature vs. nurture. All these
theories will be studied just within the realm of learning process, i.e. how
knowledge and skills are learned?

As for Yogācāra theory, the concepts that have a closer
relationship with learning behavior will be mainly studied including the
concepts of consciousnesses, mental factors, Seed and manifest activities.

The pedagogy model to be established is basically relied on the
clarification and explanation, from the concepts of consciousness, Seeds
and mental factors in Yogācāra theory, on the relationship between nature
and nurture when learning process takes place, while the application of
this model will also involve mental factors in Yogācāra theory.

8

1.4.3 Scope of Timing
The timing of this research has been set at 12 months. Starting
from May 1st 2017 to April 1st 2018.

1.5 Definition of the Terms Used in the Research
In this research, some of the terminologies may have exclusive

meanings. The specific definitions are listed as follows:
1.5.1 Theoretical Model refers to a model that theoretically

explains the learning process by based on Yogācāra Buddhism and
modern educational psychology.

1.5.2 Learning Process refers to the process when a person
learns knowledge and skills especially from the classroom.

1.5.3 Modern Educational Psychology refers to psychology
that is applied on educational field including theories such as behaviorism
and cognitivism that guide explains learning behaviors of human beings.

1.5.4 The Concept of Seed refers to the definition of Seed, its
characteristics, different forms of changing, and its interaction with
manifest activities, especially mental factors.

1.5.5 Yogācāra Buddhism refers to a school of Mahayana
Buddhism, with another name Weishi (Conscious-Only), represented by
the theory expounded in Cheng Weishi Lun composed by Master
Xuanzang in China’s Tang Dynasty.

1.6 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the research exhibits the

significant research process in terms of input, process, and output as
follows:

9

Chart 1: Conceptual Framework

Modern Theories of Analyzing A Theoretical Model
Educational Psychology Comparing of Learning Process
Synthesizing Based on Modern
on Learning Interpreting
Educational
Yogācāra Buddhism Psychology and the
and Explanation on the Concept of Seed in
Yogācāra Buddhism
Concept of Seed

1.7 Review of Related Literature and Research Works

The related literature and research works, both in Chinese and
in English, have been reviewed by the researcher as follows:

I. Literature in Chinese

1.7.1 Lin Guoliang has translated “Cheng Weishi Lun
(Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only)”14, a primary source
of Yogācāra theory, from Traditional Chinese language to Modern
Chinese, together with detailed secondary commentary chapter by chapter.
In the introduction part of this translation work “Cheng Weishi Lun
Zhijie (A Direct Translation and Commentary to Cheng Weishi Lun)”,
Lin has not only given an outline of Yogācāra theory but also pointed out
some similarities and differences between this Buddhist theory and
western philosophy and psychology

1.7.2 Hong Chaoji has explained in his work “Tu Jie Fojiao Ba
Shi (An Introduction to Eight Consciousnesses in Buddhism with

14 Master Xuanzhuang, Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation
and Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese
Edition), tr. Lin Guoliang, (Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007), pp. 9-24.

10

Illustrations)”15 Yogācāra theories in simple words and with examples
quite related to daily life. This work provides the research with plentiful
information about the connection of this ancient Buddhist theory and
human behaviors, which gives implication to learning process as well.

1.7.3 Master Guangchao has given commentary to “Dacheng
Bai Fa Ming Men Lun (Lucid Introduction to the One Hundred
Dharmas)”16 which explicitly explains how consciousnesses and mental
factors function and how they are related to human behaviors, which is
especially important in accounting for learning mechanism, both the
essential factor and relating factors. It mentions specifically with
examples that how one cognizes a certain thing with the functioning of
all/some of the eight consciousnesses and how the mental factors arise
meanwhile. This process is directly related to one’s learning behavior.

1.7.4 Zhang Zhiwei has introduced the philosophical paradigm
nature vs. nurture starting from Plato’s ideas in his work “Xifang Zhexue
Shiwu Jiang (Fifteen Topics on Western Philosophy)”17, which has lot to
do with the division of idealism and empiricism in philosophy field. This
philosophical division has led to further division in educational
psychology, typically behaviorism vs. constructivism.

II. Literature in English

1.7.5 Tagawa Shun’ei has explicit introduction to the
relationship between Seeds and manifest activities and how they interact
with each other in “Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-
Only Buddhism”18. Besides, a connection of nature vs. nurture paradigm

15 Hong Chaoji, Tu Jie Fojiao Ba Shi ( An Introduction to Eight
Consciousnesses in Buddhism with Illustrations, Chinese Edition), (Taipei:
Xiangshulin Wenhua, 201 ), pp.1- .

16 Master Guangchao, A Record of the Lecture on Mahāyāna-
śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (Chinese Edition), (Shanghai: Fudan Press,
2009), pp. 1-10.

17 Zhang, Z, Fifteen Topics on Western Philosophy (Chinese Edition),
(Beijing: Beijing University Press, 2004), pp. 210-26 .

18 Tagawa Shun'ei, Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to
Consciousness-Only Buddhism, Charles Muller (tr.), (Boston: Wisdom Publications,
2009), pp. 5 -60.

11

has also been made according to his opinion. This offers possibility of
explanation on educational psychologies constructivism vs. behaviorism
from Yogācāra theory.

1.7.6 Westwood has given a systematic introduction to the main
teaching methods, teacher-centered and student-centered, in his work
“What teachers should know about”19, with analysis of both advantages
and disadvantages of each as well as proper situations they should be
adopted. His book also offers the educational psychology that underlies
each method and their relationship, clear enough for one to find out the
clue to the dependency of the method on the theory, though not discussed
as a main point.

1.7.7 Wang Qiang has designed his textbook “A Course in
English Language Teaching”20 based on communicative teaching method,
a typical student-centered teaching method with constructivism as its
theory foundation. In this textbook, a series of specific teaching skills has
been presented for the purpose of teaching English as a second language,
from which quite amount of teaching strategies showing the concept of
constructivism are embodied.

1.7.8 Denis Charles Phillips and Jonas F. Soltis have
equipped the real learning samples with educational theories at a
philosophical level in their work “Perspectives on learning”21. Much of
the book discusses about the essence of learning process in the light of
epistemology that whether the knowledge is acquired innately or from
experience. Corresponding educational theories have also been
introduced immediately after these philosophical discussions. This book
relates learning process well at three educational levels: methodological,
psychological, and philosophical.

19 Westwood, P, What teachers should know about, (Camberwell:
ACER Press, 2008), pp. 1-15.

20 Wang Q, A Course in English Language Teaching, (Beijing: Higher
Education Press, 2006), pp. 1-10.

21 Phillips, D.C. &Soltis, J. F. , Perspectives on Learning, (New York:
Teachers College Press, 2009), pp. 2-4.

12

From the literature review above, obviously there has been no
study on pedagogy from the perspective of Yogācāra idea. Therefore, it’s
highly necessary that the research should carry out the research so that a
theoretical model of Buddhist pedagogy can be established.

1.8 Research Methodology
This qualitative research work is a documentary research. The

research methodology can be divided into six stages as follows:
1.8.1 Data Collection
In order to have a further study on the Yogācāra theory, data is

to be collected from both the primary source and the secondary source of
commentaries, sub-commentaries, textbooks, research works, Buddhist
journals, together with the new interpretation from modern scholars
respectively both in Chinese and English languages. For the source
concerning education and philosophy, data is mainly collected from
academic works in English.

1.8.2 Analysis and Synthesis
The entire data collected is to be analyzed and synthesized in
order to have a clear picture of the Yogācāra theory and modern
educational theories.
1.8.3 Outline Construction
Overall outline of the research work is to be Constructed in all
related dimensions corresponding to the objectives.

1.8.4 Problem Discussion
Possible problems encountered are to be discussed depending on
the their significance to the study.
1.8.5 Conclusion and Suggestion
Conclusion is to be made identifying significant research
findings, and offering suggestions for further research.
The research methodology is presented in the form of a chart as
follows:

Educational Chart 2: The Res
Scholars:
Data of Modern
Wang Qiang Educational
Westwood
Denis Charles Phillips Psychology on
Jonas F. Soltis Learning Process

Philosophical Data of the Concept
Scholars: of Seed in Yogācāra

Zhang Zhiwei Buddhism
Zhang Dongsun
George Berkley

etc.

Primary Sources:

Sanshi Guiju Song
Ershi Guiju Song
Ba Shi Guiju Song
Bai Fa Mingmen Lun
Cheng Weishi Lun

Modern Scholars:

Master Guangchao
Tagawa Shun’ei
Lin Guoliang
Hong Chaoji

1

search Process

Analyzing A Theoretical Model of
Synthesizing Learning Process Based on

And Modern Educational
Interpreting Psychology and the Concept

of Seed in Yogācāra
Buddhism

14

1.9 Advantages Expected to Obtain from the Research
This research paper contributes to the advantages as follows:
1.9.1 Acquisition of understanding about the learning process from

modern educational psychology;
1.9.2 Acquisition of understanding about Yogācāra Buddhism on the

concept of Seed from primary source and sub-commentaries as well as modern
scholars;

1.9. Acquisition of a a theoretical model of learning process based on
modern educational psychology and the concept of Seed in Yogācāra
Buddhism.

Chapter II

Learning Process in Modern Educational Psychology

Since learning is a abroad concept, this chapter is only aims at
analyzing some of the essential aspects concerning learning, including the
definition and type of learning process, factors of learning, and some of the
prominent western theories on learning.

2.1 Definitions and Types of Learning Process

Definitions and Types of learning vary due to different research
approach and academic stance. There are basic two kinds of genres
approaching to the study of learning, behaviorism and cognitivism.
“Behaviorism is a natural science approach to psychology that focuses on the
study of environmental influences on observable behavior.”22 Cognitivism
from psychological perspective is named cognitive psychology, which is “The
study of the mental operations that support people’s acquisition and use of
knowledge”. 2 The definition and type of learning is largely determined by
these two different approaches. Although, to some extent, definitions and types
given from both sides share a lot in common, yet differences are still quite
apparent.

2.1.1 Definitions of Learning Process

The definition of learning can vary according to different research
methods and different perspectives. For those who focus on the evidence and
elements that a observable, learning is more considered to be a kind of
behaviour.

“Learning is a hypothetical construct: it cannot be directly observed, but
only inferred from observable behaviour. Learning normally implies a
fairly permanent change in a person’s behavioural performance
(temporary fluctuations in behaviour can occur as a result of fatigue,
drugs, temperature changes, and so on). ... if a change in behaviour is to

22 Russel A. Powell & P. Lynne Honey & Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to
Learning and Behavior (4th edition), (Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009), P14.

2 Stephen K. Reed, Cognition Theories and Application (9th edition), (Boston:
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 201 ), p.2.

16

be counted as learning, the change must be linked to some kind of past
experience (regardless of whether there was any attempt to bring about
that change).” 24

In accordance with such accentuation of behavior observation in
dealing with learning, many psychologists give such definitions to learning as
“a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to past experience”25 , “a
relatively permanent change in behavior that brought about by experience”,26
or “a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through
experience”27.

Instead of considering learning as a process of change in behavior as
something essential, some psychologists consider it a process more related to
thought or cognition. Thus, according to Rathus, Learning

“(1) According to behaviorists, a relatively permanent change in behavior
that results from experience.

(2) According to cognitive theorists, the process by which organisms make
relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment
because of experience. These changes influence the organism’s behavior
but do not fully determine it.” 28

According to the definition given above, learning, though
characterized by the change of behavior, is fundamentally determined by
something mental. The physical and behavioral elements are not considered to
be essential mechanism, but the consequence of what is mental.

Due to the disputes over the definition of learning, many scholars have
tried to provide a unified definition by combining all of the main concepts
concerning the learning. One of such attempts is from Schunk: “Learning is
an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion,

24 Richard Gross, Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour 6th Edition,
(London: Hachette UK, 2010).

25 Dennis Coon, Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application,
(Eagan, US: West Publishing, 198 ).

26 Robert S. Feldman, Understanding Psychology Tenth Edition, (New York:
2011, McGraw-Hill), p.175.

27 Laura A. King, The Science of Psychology: An Appreciative View (Third
Edition), (New York: Mc Graw-Hill, 2014), p.182.

28 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology: Concepts & Connections (8th Edition),
(Belmont, US: Thomson Higher Education, 2007), pp. 209-210.

17

which results from practice or other forms of experience.”29 Not universally
agreed though, this definition has incorporated all the major elements of
learning from both behaviorist and cognitive sides, with “in behavior”
indicating the stance of behaviorism and “in the capacity to behave in a given
fashion” indicating the involvement of mental process which is emphasized by
cognitivism.

In conclusion, the definition of learning is commonly agreed on upon
as relatively permanent change of human behavior or the ability to behave as a
result of practice or other kinds of experience.

2.1.2 Types of Learning Process
In classifying learning fashions, there are several criteria. Among them,

two major criteria are mainly discussed. One concerns the mechanism of
learning or how learning takes place, and the other regards the content of
learning or what is learned.

When dealing with how learning takes place, there are different ways
of classification result from different academic stance. For those who take a
Behavioral perspective, less types of learning are generalized, such as

“Latent learning: learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not
demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it,

Observational learning: learning by observing the behavior of another
person or model”. 0

Other classification of the types of learning proposed four types of learning:

“Associative learning: learning that occurs when an organism makes a
connection, or an association, between two events,

Observational learning: learning that occurs through observing and
imitating another’s behavior,

Latent learning or implicit learning: Unreinforced learning that is not
immediately reflected in behavior,

29 Schunk, D.H., Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. (New
York: Macmillan, 1991), p.2.

0 Robert S. Feldman, Understanding Psychology Tenth Edition, (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2011), pp.198-20 .

18

Insight learning: A form of problem solving in which the organism
develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s
solution.” 1

According to this classification, the first learning fits in the pure
pattern of behaviorism while the following three have cognitive factors
involved.

Layhey thinks that the disputes over the theoretical interpretations of
learning is between cognition or connection. For connection, it is believed that
“neural connections between brain regions associated with specific stimuli and
specific responses are acquired during the learning process.” While “cognition
refers to the intellectual processes of thinking, expecting, believing, perceiving,
and so on.” Besides the types of learning mentioned above, he also puts place
learning into the group of cognition which refers to the learning process in
which the learner learns a cognitive map when exposed to a situation without
enforcement. 2

Dennis Coon & Mitterer classify learning into two general types,
associative learning and cognitive learning, with former including escape
learning and avoidance learning, and the latter including latent learning, rote
learning, discovering learning, and observational learning.

“Associative learning: The formation of simple associations between
various stimuli and responses.

Escape learning: Learning to make a response in order to end an
aversive stimulus.

Avoidance learning: Learning to make a response in order to
postpone or prevent discomfort.

Cognitive learning: Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing,
understanding, and anticipation.

Latent learning: Learning that occurs without obvious
reinforcement is provided.

1 Laura A. King, The Science of Psychology: An Appreciative View (Third
Edition), (New York: Mc Graw-Hill, 2014), pp.182-206.

2 Benjamin B. Lahey, Psychology: An Introduction (eleventh edition), (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), pp.217-218.

19

Rote learning: Learning that takes place mechanically, through
repetition and memorization, or by learning rules.

Discovery learning: Learning based on insight and understanding.

Observational learning: Learning achieved by watching and
imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those
actions.”

By comparing the two main types of the learning, Coon & Mitterer
point out that the associative learning is a relatively simpler form of learning
related to stimuli and responses which both human beings and animals share to
a large extent, but cognitive learning is more complex because of the
involvement of higher mental processes, which is engaged more by man than
other species, and the the highest form such as learning from a language is
unique to mankind.

From the analysis above, It is obvious that the classification of
learning types from Coon & Mitterer tend to be more specific and systematic.
Although there are still other perspectives on types of learning, yet the general
two types of learning associative learning and cognitive learning seem to be
out of doubt.

Besides the types of learning concerning based on how learning takes
place, types of learning on the criterion that what is learned has also been
studied. According to the definition concluded above, learning is a process
involves change of behaviors or the capacity to behave in the given fashion,
different changes of behaviors or capacity to behave, then, will lead to
different types of learning based on the criterion of learning content. Such
changes include, according to Phillips & Soltis 4, a habit, memorization, a new
and complex sill, and understanding. That is to say, the learning types based on
the content can be as follows:

A. Learning to form or quit a habit, such as quitting smoking or
procrastination.

Dennis Coon & John O. Mitterer, Introduction to Psychology: Active
Learning Through Modules, (Marceline, US: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009). pp.
279- 08.

4 D.C. Phillips & Jonas F. Soltis, Perspectives on Learning, (New York:
Teachers College Press, 2009), pp.1-2.

20

B. Learning to memorize new information, such as memorizing
English vocabulary to be tested in the following exam.

C. Learning a new and complex skill, such as public speaking skills.

D. Learning to understand, such as Einstein’s theory.

The types are not limited to the four types above though. According to
Schunk, learning takes many different forms and can varies from simple to
complex:

“Learning involves acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies,
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. People learn cognitive, linguistic, motor,
and social skills, and these can take many forms. At a simple level,
children learn to solve 2+2=?, to recognize y in the word daddy, to tie
their shoes, and to play with other children. At a more complex level,
students learn to solve long-division problems, write term papers, ride a
bicycle, and work cooperatively on a group project.” 5

According to the analysis above, learning can be is a kind human
activity that results in accumulation of new knowledge. In this sense,
behaviors from animals are not considered as learning since it is generally
believed that such behaviors are nothing but their innate intuition. There are
some arguments over such a belief, but this paper just focuses on that of we
human beings. There are four kinds of knowledge, information that one
memorizes, understanding of a concept, attitude towards something or
competency on a kind of skill. Accumulation of new knowledge, therefore, is
a situation where a person memorizes a piece of information, understands a
concept, changes attitude towards something or masters a kind of skill. These
four types of knowledge accumulation are four types of learning, learning
information by memorization such as learning the capital city of each country
by heart, learning a concept such as the concept of relativity in the formula
“E=mc2”, learning an attitude towards a certain phenomenon such as
vegetarianism, and learning how to do something such as meditation.

Learning is characterized by obvious change in the learner’s mental or
physical status. Learning process is the process where such change comes into
being, from non-existence to existence in the memory, from not understanding
to understanding, from attitude A to attitude B, or from incapacity to capacity.

5 Schunk, D.H., Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. (New York:
Macmillan, 1991), p.2.

21

To study to learning process is to investigate how exactly such changes take
place, or what is the mechanism underlying these changes.

In conclusion, there are two large types of learning in general,
behavioral learning and cognitive learning. The former involves simple and
instinctive behavioral change and the latter is more complicated requiring both
mental and physical functions, especially the learner’s effort in mental effort.

2.3 Factors of the Learning Process
Before 1960, theories on learning are predominantly behaviorist with

the approach of generalizing the common principles for learning process of
human beings based on empirical evidences from animals. However, later
studies find out that this kind of approach to learning excludes some of the
essential factors in learning. Geiwitz says,

“So there are general principles of learning. But unique character of each
species makes exceptions and variations likely; each species must be
considered separately....In fact, by setting their focus on behavior, they
encountered a series of difficulties. Factors other than learning had to be
considered - instinctive behaviors, for example. Studies of latent learning
showed that motivation must be taken into account.” 6

Not only motivation, as with the development of theories on learning,
more factors are considered crucial, including memory, emotion, intelligence,
sleep and stress.

2.3.1 Memory
Memory is “the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing,
organizing, altering, and retrieving information.” Memory can be sorted into
Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory. Sensory
Memory is the memory when our sensory organs keep the external information
received for a few seconds or less at an unconscious level. Short-Term
Memory is the memory system that keeps the information for a short period of
time at the conscious level. Long-Term Memory stores meaningful
information for a relatively long time or even permanent. These three types of

6 James Geiwitz, Psychology: Looking at Ourselves (Second Edition),
(Toronto: Little, Brown and Company, 1980), P.176.

22

memory are the three sequential stages of the memory process elaborating on
how the incoming information is memorized permanently, as shown in the
figure below. 7

Chart 3: Three Sequential Stages of the Memory Process

It is obvious to find out that incoming information is constantly
filtered by human mind during such process. Only those important pieces of
information can be preserved and stored.

An important task in learning process is to remember the targeted
information. The essence of the task is to transfer information from Short-
Term Memory to Long-Term Memory which is not something easy. There are
several strategies that can help. These strategies are called control process.
1) “Rehearsal is the repetition of information -- either aloud or silently -- over

and over until it is learned.
2) Coding attempts to place the information to be remembered in the context

of additional, easily retrievable information, such as a mnemonic phrases
or sentence. For example,...the lines of a treble clef are E, G, B, D, F by
remembering the sentence “Every good boy does fine.

7 Dennis Coon & John O. Mitterer, Introduction to Psychology: Active
Learning Through Modules, (Marceline, US: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009).
p.292.

2

) Imaging involves creating visual images to remember verbal
information.” 8

As discussed above, memory is one type of learning that involves
short or long term storage of new information. So in some situations,
memorizing is tantamount to learning. For example, learning the historical or
geographical facts by heart. In other situations, memory is not completely
equal to learning, for example, learning how to play basketball or how to
debate, or how to understand Einstein’s theory. Learning how to play
basketball has more to do with physical factors than mental ones, and learning
how to debate, although related to something mental, largely depends on
training and experience rather than memorization. Understanding is more
associated with something abstract in a “mysterious state” 9. Despite the fact
that skill training and understanding are types of learning that are not so much
related to memorization, they do, however, require the process of memory to
some extent especially at the early stage of learning. For example, for those
basketball or debate novices, they are generally required to keep some
important principles in mind and constantly recall them and adjust their
performances by referring to them before they achieve high proficiency. And
in the case of learning Einstein’s theory, one has, at least, to learn beforehand
some basic physical concepts by heart.

2.3.2 Motivation

Motivation concerns the reasons of certain behaviors, which comprises
of a series of concepts such as motives, needs, and drives, and incentives.

“Motive: A hypothetical state within an organism that propels the
organism to ward a goal.

Need: A state of deprivation.

Drive: A condition of arousal in an organism that is associated with a
need.

Physiological drives: Unlearned drives with a biological basis, such as
hunger, thirst, and avoidance of pain.

8 Stephen K. Reed, Cognition Theories and Application (9th edition), (Boston:
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 201 ), pp.100-101.

9 D.C. Phillips & Jonas F. Soltis, Perspectives on Learning, (New York: Teachers
College Press, 2009), p.2.

24

Incentive: An object, person, or situation perceived as being capable of
satisfying a need.”40
The model of motivation can be shown in this way41:

Chart 4: Model of Motivation

There are three types of motives:
1) “Biological motives are based on biological needs that must be met for

survival. The most important biological motives are hunger, thirst, pain
avoidance, and needs for air, sleep, elimination of wastes, and regulation
of body temperature. Biological motives are innate.
2) Stimulus motives express our needs for stimulation and information.
Examples include activity, curiosity, exploration, manipulation, and
physical contact. Although such motives also appear to be innate, they are
not strictly necessary for survival.
) Learned motives are based on learned needs, drives, and goals. Learned
motives, which are often social in nature, help explain many human
activities...Many learned motives are related to learned needs for power,
affiliation (the need to be with others), approval, status, security, and
achievement.” 42

40 Spencer A. Rathus, Psychology: Concepts & Connections (8th Edition), (Belmont, US:
Thomson Higher Education, 2007), p. 2 .

41 Dennis Coon & John O. Mitterer, Introduction to Psychology: Active
Learning Through Modules, (Marceline, US: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009). pp.
78- 81.

42 Dennis Coon & John O. Mitterer, Introduction to Psychology: Active
Learning Through Modules, (Marceline, US: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009). pp.
78- 81.

25

Motivation has two sides, negative side and positive side. “Negative
motivation is the experience of anxiety about a course of communicative
action or the perception of low reward potential, in a real or imagined
communication situation. Positive motivation, in contrast, is the perception of
potential reward value in pursuing a course of communicative action. ”4 There
is no doubt that motivation plays a primary role in learning, and how to
increase learner’s motivation in learning has been a major task for educational
psychologists. Reinforcement used by behaviorists is able to increase the
learner’s motivation to some extent, but evidence also shows that it may also
reduce the motivation in certain situations. There are many theories dealing
with this issue based on cognitive approaches, proposing important factors
contributing to the increase of motivation.44

1) Expectancy x value theory: expectation of success

2) Self-efficay: belief on the ability to succeed

) Goal setting: setting up goals for learning

4) Attribution theory: explaining success and failure

5) Self-determination theory: the will to control one’s environment

2.3.3 Emotion

Emotions are a series of combined experiences that involve (1) a
physiological response such as increased blood pressure, heart rate, muscle
tension, respiration; (2) an expressive reaction such as facial expression, acting
out; ( ) some kind of subjective experience such as feeling of happiness, anger,
fear, etc.45

Human beings and animals can better survive with the function of
various emotions. Emotions can enable creatures to complete tasks,
communicate, and enjoy arts. According to Yerkes-Dodson law46, the degree

4 Morreale, S. P., Spitzberg, B. H. & Barge, J. K., Human Communication:
Motivation, Knowledge, and Skills (Second Edition), (Boston: Cengage Learning, 2006),
p. 5.

44 Hugh Coolican, Applied Psychology (2nd Edition), (London: Hodder Education, 2007).
pp. 95-96.

45 James S. Nairne, Psychology (5th Edition), (Belmont: Thomson Higher Education,
2009). p. 64.

46 Cacioppo, J. T. & Freberg, L.A., Discovering Psychology: The Science of Mind
Briefer Version, (Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 201 ). pp.250- 51.

26

of arousal of emotions is related to the complexity of the task dealt with. For
simple tasks, the higher arousal of emotions, the better performance will be
achieved. For example, to run away from a dangerous situation, say fire, needs
high arousal of the emotion. That is to say, the more urgent one feels, the more
likely he can escape successful from harm caused by the fire. As for difficult
tasks, arousal of emotion is necessary, but too much arousal will decrease the
performance. For example, one needs to be motivated, with some anxiety, in
order to prepare for an examination, but too much anxiety will bring negative
effect on such a task. That is to say moderate arousal of emotion is ideal for
good performance on learning, which is a relatively difficult task requiring a
large amount of mental devotion as well as physical support.

2.3.4 Intelligence

Intelligence is “the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt
effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning,
and overcome obstacles.”47 Coming to intelligence, assessment is the most
critical issue. There are many attempts to measure intelligence, including
intelligence quotient (IQ) used by Terman in 1916, which was developed later
into most frequently used tests such as Standford-Binet Intelligence Scales and
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). However, no test so far is
perfect.These tests are normally criticized by their partial prediction about
individual’s ability in mathematics and verbal skills which are more important
in modern education.

Some psychologists have proposed concepts of intelligence based on
one’s overall abilities such as Charles Spearman’s general intelligence. This
intelligence can be further classified into fluid intelligence and crystallized
intelligence.

“ 1) fluid intelligence: The ability to think logically without then need to
used learned knowledge.

2) crystallized intelligence: The ability to think logically using specific
learned knowledge.” 48

47 Cacioppo, J. T. & Freberg, L.A., Discovering Psychology: The Science of
Mind Briefer Version, (Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 201 ). P. 41

48 Cacioppo, J. T. & Freberg, L.A., Discovering Psychology: The Science of
Mind Briefer Version, (Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 201 ). p.421.

27

Some theories treat intelligence as a complex combined with different factors
instead of something as a whole. According to Gardener and Sternberg, there
are at least eight different types of intelligence, such as verbal, mathematical,
spatial, logical skills, etc..

People with high IQ tend to have more advantages in survival and will
have learning much easier than those with normal IQ. Thus IQ is such a
desired thing that many researches have been done in order to find out the
source of IQ. The findings have shown that some mental aspects of IQ are
substantially related to genetic heritage while many others are determined by
environmental factors such as cultural background, economic status, stereotype
threat, and even built-in test biases. 49

2.3.5 Sleep

Sleep is a phenomenon that has not been given a definite answer from
a scientific perspective as regards its nature, reason, etc. However, researches
do show that sleep is very crucial for one’s memory and thinking, and it can
affect emotions significantly. Some theories suggest that consolidation of
memory occurs in sleep, when the information collected and retained in the
form of Short-Term Memory is processed and stored in the form of Long-
Term Memory. And this has been proven to be reasonable by recent studies.
Other studies show that those who sleep can perform significantly better than
those who don’t on tasks that require thinking and problem solving ability.
Although the amount of sleep needed varies from people to people, most
people need 8 to 9 hours’ sleep. Lack of sleep will result in health problems
especially mental such as easy irritation, low concentration, etc.50

2.3.6 Stress

Short-term stress will not cause harm to one’s health. However,
prolonged stress will be detrimental. A series of bodily reactions will occur in
a prolonged stress, which is called general adaptation syndrome (GAS). GAS
goes through three stages, alarm reaction characterized by symptoms of illness,

49 Nairne, J. S., Psychology (5th Edition), (Belmont: Thomson Higher Education,
2009). pp. 11- 9

50 Feldman, R. S., Understanding Psychology, (New York: 2011, McGraw-Hill)
pp. 142-152.

28

stag of resistance characterized by disappearance of outward symptoms, and
stage of exhaustion characterized by psychosomatic illness. Among the three
stages, the last stage include some of the typical negative psychological
symptoms:

1) “Emotional signs: Anxiety, apathy, irritability, mental fatigue.

2) Behavioral signs: Avoidance of responsibilities and relationships, extreme
or self-destructive behavior, self-neglect, poor judgement.

) Physical signs: Excessive worry about illness, frequent illness, exhaustion,
overuse of medicines, physical ailments and complaints.” 51

A particular situation when a stress turns out into strain is burnout, in
which an individual is completely out of eager to do anything related to his/her
present work, mentally, physically, and emotionally powerless. This situation
occurs to those who have to work on a specific task under pressure. It is also
common among students who feel their workload is too heavy. However, this
doesn’t mean the person who works on a task without having a deadline will
help reduce the stress. Study shows that this will bring more stress than those
who are given a deadline.52

A series of systematic strategies for coping with stress can be
developed in a Stress Management Program which has been established in
many educational institutes for the sake of helping those who are faced with
stress in their learning. In order to cope with stress, one has to live a healthy
life, because it has been suggested that stress has a lot to do with health
condition, including eating, sleeping and exercise. To have optimistic thinking
and emotion is essential in reduction of stress as shown in many researches
that positive emotions can substantially increase the ability to cope with stress.
The personality of hardiness is also conducive in a stressful situation.
Hardiness is “a personality trait characterized by a sense of commitment rather
than alienation and of control rather than powerlessness; a perception of
problems as challenges rather than threats”.5

51 Dennis Coon & John O. Mitterer, Introduction to Psychology: Active
Learning Through Modules, (Marceline, US: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009). pp.
510-5 6.

52 Op.cit.
5 Laura A. King, The Science of Psychology: An Appreciative View (Third
Edition), (New York: Mc Graw-Hill, 2014), pp. 570-584.

29

2.3 Major Western Theories on Learning Process
Learning has long been studied in the west, forming a lot of schools

with various theories. According to periods of time, these theories can be
divided into classic and modern theories.

2.3.1 The Classical Theories
Theories on learning can date back as early as the the time of Plato,
who is considered to be the first person proposing theories concerning the
origin of knowledge followed by Locke during the Renaissance. These two are
the main figures who proposed the classic theories on learning with opposite
opinions.

a. Plato’s Theory of Learning
For Plato, knowledge is innate, and learning is a process of
recollecting what man has fully or partly forgotten in his previous life. And
what a teacher does is to help him in his recollection. If something was not
learned in his previous life, he is not able to pick up this knowledge in this life.
Criticized by many, Plato’s theory seems to treat learning process as
something rather passive, the learner merely receiving information from his
soul or mind. According to Plato, learning, mainly through training one’s
reasoning, is a process of approaching the reality which is mistakenly taken as
true. Modern scholars seem to be reluctant to accept his view that learning
isn’t possible if there is no previous knowledge. And Plato’s idea still can not
provide a satisfying answer concerning the source of the original knowledge.

“ We must reject the conception of education professed by those who say
that they can put into the mind knowledge that was not there before --
rather as if they could put sight into blind eyes.

It is a claim that is certainly made.

But our argument indicates that this capacity is innate in each man’s mind,
and that the faculty by which he learns is like an eye which cannot be
turned from darkness to light unless the whole body is turned; in the same
way the mind as a whole must be turned away from the world of change
until it can bear to look straight at reality... Isn’t that so?

0

Yes.

Then this business of turning the mind around might be made a matter of
professional skill, which would effect the conversion as easily and
effectively as possible. It would not be concerned to implant sight, but to
ensure that someone who had it already was turned in the right direction
and looking the right way.” 54

The above remarks above clearly show Plato’s absolute rejection
towards the idea on the possibility of learning things that are complete new
and serve as a strong evidence of his concept of innate oriented learning
process.

b. The Lockean Atomistic Model

Locke believe that knowledge is only required after birth. Man, as a
specie, is born with certain biological potential that is dormant. They can
function when mental content from the environment gets in. Man also has the
internal ability to form a complex idea from simple ones through his
experiences.

“Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper void of all
characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? Whence
comes it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man
has painted on it with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the
materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from
EPERIENCE. In that all our knowledge is founded; and from that it
ultimately derives itself.” 55

Locke’s theory had great influence on the education policy, specially
in the United States. This theory has the same weak point that Plato’s has,
because it, too, puts the learner at a passive position waiting for the knowledge
to fill in, which is different from later educationists’ observation. Another
weak point in Locke’s theory is his Atomism, which was influenced by Issac
Newton, one of his friends at his time. In Atomism, the complex knowledge is
understood as a result of combining simple units of concepts, which is
contradictory to some of human’s experience on meaningful complexes. A

54 Plato, The Republic (2nd Edition), trans. H.D.P. Lee (Harmondsworth: Penguin
Books, 1995), p.28 .

55 J. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Everyman ed. (London; Dent,
1947), p.65

1

simple example is that trying to improve the ability of reading alphabets seems
not to be conducive to comprehension of a meaningful word.

2.3.2 Modern Theories
Modern learning theories can generally be divided into two groups
according to the research methodology. Those who take an objective
experimental approach concerning only research elements that are observable
are grouped into behaviorism, for they study learning from the learner’s
change of behaviors. On the other hand, those who emphasize on the mental
activities of the learner are categorized into cognitivism. Contemporary
learning theories are mostly dominated by the latter, among which
constructivism is prevailing in today’s educational field.

a. Behaviorism
Behaviorists try to study human learning mechanism from the exterior
behaviors based on experiments conducted largely on animals, as it is believed
that biologically man is closely related to mammals. The disadvantage of this
kind search method is the lack of any introspective report from a man. This,
however, turns out to be its very advantage because of its objectivity and
replication. The process of learning new knowledge, for Behaviorists, is
acquiring a new behavior. There are two theories in Behaviorism, the classical
conditioning and the operant conditioning. In the classical conditioning,
associated with the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, a new behavior is
acquired by substitution of the natural stimulus in the mechanism of “stimulus
to response” with conditioned stimulus, which can be well exemplified by the
well-known experiment of the dog’s salivation at the bell. Watson saw this
phenomenon everywhere and he wrote:
“The main point of emphasize is that practically every responding organ
of the body can be conditioned; and that this conditioning takes place not
only throughout adult life but can and does take place daily from the
moment of birth (in all probability before birth).... All of us are shot
through with stimulus substitutions of one kind or another which we

2

know nothing about until the behaviorist tries us out and tells us about
them.” 56

This is applied in the learning process in the way that the whatever that is
supposed to be learned should be accompanied with something pleasant so that
the learner is willing to learn, for man’s natural response to a pleasant thing
(natural stimulus) is to accept and once the pleasant thing is accompanied by
the thing one should learn, the learner will then accept the learning
(conditioned stimulus) even without the presence of the pleasant thing after
some time. The operant conditioning, proposed by E. L. Thorndike, holds the
opinion that the same effect of changing the learner’s behavior in classical
conditioning can also be achieved by rewarding the learner after the learning
behavior. Such a concept was based on the experiment in which a cat, kept in a
box was rewarded with food when it escaped by triggering one of the devices
within the box, acquired the behavior of escaping from the box in a shortest
time. Later, another Behaviorist B. F. Skinner discovered that constant
rewarding for a desired learning behavior did not yield the best result when the
learner was expected to continue the acquired behavior because when once the
reward stops the corresponding behavior will also stop. Based on the
experiment of training the pigeons to dance, Skinner found that random
absence of reward would keep the pigeon’s certain behavior longer.

The single mechanism conditioning proposed by Behaviorism is
simple to operate in teaching and learning, by which the good behaviors can be
developed and the bad ones reduced. However, this theory narrows the realm
of the study on learning process by neglecting the mental function. It can result
in the situation in which students are able to answer questions correctly
without even truly understanding the knowledge. Besides, it has already been
suggested in linguistics that there must be an internal device in the mind
responsible for the acquisition of a language, for the learners can come up with
sentences and expressions they never encountered. What’s more, that the
animals in the experiments carried out by the Behaviorists are able to perform
successfully regardless of the significant change in the design the experiment
also indicates that these animals seem to have some guiding device formed in
their mind once they have experienced the previous experiment. In general,
Behaviorism doesn’t make a full contribution in explaining the process of
learning.

56 Watson, J.B., Behaviorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 19 0), pp. 8- 9.

There are common Features of the previous three theories. All propose
that There is something innate that enables the occurrence of learning. Plato
thought it was the innate information that resembles that the reality; Locke
considered it to be the innate capability; In Behaviorism, this turned to be the
innate physiology. Learning is described as a process which is passive and
mechanical, the learner more or less being a receptacle waiting for knowledge
or behaviors (in Behaviorists’ words) to be filled in.

b. The Gestalt Approach

The German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) realized
some of the weak points in the Behaviorists’ experiments which was pointed
out to have ignored the possibility of the animals’ intelligence in the first place.
It would be quite possible for these animals to finish the task actively if
provided with sufficient information instead of being imprisoned and waiting
for the chance to come to them. Kohler proposed a different concept of
learning that emphasizes the active role a learner plays in the learning process.
This was proved by an experiment in which a caged chimpanzee called Sultan
successfully pulled a hanging banana a distant away from the cage by
connecting two short bamboo sticks together longer enough to reach the
desirable fruit. The keeper who was watching the whole process reported:

“Sultan first of all squats indifferently on the box, which has been left
standing a little back from the railings; then he gets up, picks up the two
sticks, sits down again on the box and plays carelessly with them. While
doing this it happens that he finds himself holding one rod in either hand
in such a way that they lie in a straight line; he pushes the thinner one a
little way into the opening of the thicker, jumps up and is already on the
run towards the railings, to which he has up to now half turned his back,
and begins to draw a banana towards him with the double stick.” 57

Together with other experiments, Kohler and other Gestalters
concluded that learning process was based on insight and they didn’t agree
with the atomistic view proposed by Locke. They believe that meaning comes
up at the moment when the mind perceives without having to go through the
process of combining simple concepts into a complex one. For Gestalters, the
insight on which the learning is based occurs because of the physics of the

57 Kohler, W., The Mentality of Apes, (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1957). p.11 .

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nervous systems that we were born with. However, it is mysterious for those
who want to know what exactly the “insight” is.

c. Dewey
As an American philosopher, John Dewey (1859-1952) was influenced
by Darwin’s theory of evolution and proposed the idea that the learning
process of human beings is driven by the purpose of survival. That is to say,
we learn because we want to live. To live is not easy, because we’ll encounter
a lot of problems, which require knowledge and experience that is supposed to
be learned.
“As activity becomes more complex, coordinating a greater number of
factors in space and time, intelligence plays a more and more marked role,
for it has a larger span of the future to forecast and plan for. The effect
upon the theory of knowing is to displace the notion that it is the activity
of a mere onlooker or spectator of the world,... If the living, experiencing
being is an intimate participant in the activities of the world to which it
belongs, then knowledge is a mode of participation, valuable in the
degree in which it is effective.” 58
Therefore, Dewey suggested that, instead of keeping students fixed at
the desks to be filled in with knowledge, the learning and teaching process
should be conducted based on problem solving, which fits the real situation of
our learning behavior. In other words, one is supposed to learn knowledge in
the process of solving problems. However, this doesn’t mean that the teacher
should not teach any knowledge to the students at all. According to Dewey, the
knowledge from the teacher is only meaningful and easy to remember when
the students have been struggling with a problem in advance, because the mind
starts to think when met with a problem. In spite of his insightful ideas,
Dewey’s theory is still faced with the question what is going on in the learner’s
mind when a problem is solved.

d. Piaget

58 Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, p. 9

5

The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) proposed his theory
concerning the function of thinking and learning from the perspective of
cognitive structures based on his careful observation on the behaviors of his
children. Piaget believed that the reason why a child born with little innate
guidance was able to learn so much and solve such difficult problems in later
years was because he was busy constructing his cognitive structures in his
early years. This constructing work may vary in different stages for the child,
and it requires some basic experience as the “material” for the structure in each
stage. Once the structure is done, the child will be able to learn a large amount
of knowledge with the help of the structure involving comprehension and
prediction of things and environment that fit in the structure. Success of such
constructing work must be associated with the child’s active action and
operation.

“Actually, in order to know objects, the subject must act upon them, and
therefore transform them: he must displace, correct, combine, take apart,
and resemble them. From the most elementary sensorimotor actions (such
as pushing and pulling) to the most sophisticated intellectual operations,
which are interiorized actions, carried out mentally (e.g., joining together,
putting in order, putting into one-to-one correspondence), knowledge is
constantly linked with actions or operations, that is, with
transformations.” 59

Concerning concrete mechanism of constructing structures, Piaget
proposed some key notions, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. A
learner is supposed to experience them one by one so that the structure is
constructed. When a new thing is met, which means the cognitive structure is
out of equilibrium, the learner will try to assimilate it to something already
familiar with in the existing structure, then the structure will be changed in
order to accommodate the new thing, and finally the equilibrium will be
reached again. Once and once again in cycle, new things are learned in such a
fashion.

“Intelligence, whose logical operations constitute a mobile and at the
same time permanent equilibrium between the universe and thought, is an
extension and a perfection of all adaptive processes.... Only intelligence,
capable of all its detours and reversals by action and by thought, tends

59 J. Piaget, “Piaget’s Theory,”in P. Mussen, ed., Carmichael’s Manual of
Child Psychology (New York: John Wiley, 1980), p. 704.

6

towards an all-embracing equilibrium by aiming at the assimilation of the
whole of reality.” 60

Great impact on the educational field though, Piaget’s theory is not
exempted from being criticized, especially the unclear notions equilibrium,
accommodation, as well as overgeneralization of the children’s development.
His theory also seems to failed to give a definite answer to the question how,
exactly, the child, without anything in the first place, is able to develop the
cognitive structure.

e. Von Glasersfeld

Von Glasersfeld, as a psychological constructivist after Piaget,
proposes that a learner is constructing his knowledge based on the sense
organs, which is same with Locke but different from Plato. However, he also
emphasizes that the learner is not passive in such a constructing work, which is
different from both Locke and Plato. Similar to the philosopher Immanuel
Kant, von Glasersfeld believes that the knowledge constructed is not
something external in reality, but just a set of beliefs that resemble the external,
for the external realm is unknowable.

“The notion that knowledge is the result of a learner’s activity rather
than that of the passive reception of information or instruction, goes back to
Socrates and is today embraced by all who call themselves “constructivists.”
However, the authors whose work is collected here, constitute the radical wing
of the constructivist front. ... This attitude is characterized by the deliberate
redefinition of the concept of knowledge as an adaptive function. In simple
words, this means that the results of our cognitive efforts have the purpose of
helping us cope in the world of experience, rather than the traditional goal of
furnishing an objective representation of a world as it might “exist” apart from
us and our experience.” 61

Besides, we can not take it for granted that the knowledge others
construct resemble our own, which is different from Piaget who thought that

60 J. Piaget, Psychology of Intelligence (Paterson, NJ: Littlefield, Adams,
1969), p.9.

61 E.von Glasersfeld, “Introduction,” in E. von Glasersfeld, ed., Radical Constructivism
in Mathematics Education (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer, 1991), pp. xiv-xv.

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knowledge constructed by all human beings has the same structural
characteristics.

2.3.3 A Summary of Major Western Theories on Learning Process

Western theories on learning differ from each other to a large extent in
aspects such as the source of the knowledge, the role of the learner, and the
faculty that enables the learning process. These disputes can be generalized as:

1) Innate VS. Acquired

2) Active VS. Passive

) Mental VS. Physiological

Chart 5: Major Disputes among the Western Theories

Theories Source of the Role of the Faculty of
knowledge learner learning

Innate Acquired Active Passive Mental Physio-
logical

1 Plato √ √√

2 Locke √ √√

Behaviorism √ √ √

4 Dewey √

5 Piaget √√ √

6 Von Glaserfeld √ √ √ √

Concerning the source of the knowledge, some theories, especially
Plato, believe that the knowledge is stored in the soul. What one has to do is to
retreat it by recollecting it. Other theories, especially Locke, believe all
knowledge is to be required from experience, a person is originally born with a
mind like a blank slant. Although some constructivists, especially Piaget, tried
to propose a synthesizing concept,similar to that of Kant, by saying that a
person, bearing some of innate faculties, constructs structures of knowledge.
Some people believe that such a constructing view is essentially supporting the
idea in favor of innateness while others think it is obvious here that the
environment is the original source.

8

Concerning the role a learner takes in learning, early theories such as
Plato, Locke and Behaviorism put the learner in a passive position, where the
learner is waiting to be filled with knowledge. While the later theories,
especially Dewey, emphasize more on the initiative of the learner, saying that
the learner is supposed to take an active role in the learning.

Concerning the faculty that enables the learning process, most theories
such as Locke, Behaviorism,and others, believe that it is something physical
that makes the learning start and others such as the Plato believe it is the mind
that undertakes such a function.

2.5 Conclusion Remarks

Learning is studied in the western theories as a phenomenon
characterize by a relatively permanent change of behavior or the capacity of
such a change. Such studies are carried mainly from two major approaches,
behaviorist and cognitive, mainly focusing on two different perspectives,
observable behaviors for the former and mental elements for the latter. A
number of major factors are considered to have great effect on learning,
including memory, motivation, emotion, intelligence, sleep and stress.
Effective regulation of these factors will bring to an increase in the effect of
learning. Western theories on learning started form Plato and continue till
today, including both the classical and modern. Disputes among these theories
mainly concern the origin of learning, the role of the learning subject, the
faculty that entails learning.

Chapter III

The Concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism

Seed is an important concept in Yogācāra Buddhsim in that it is the
essential component of Eighth Consciousness, the core of the whole Yogācāra
theory. It gives thorough explanation on major Buddhist ideas such as karma,
rebirth, nirvana, etc. The argument over nature-nuture issue in modern
psychology can also be well reconciled by this concept. This chapter attempts
to study the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism, including its definition,
characteristics and its relationship between Manifest Activities and mental
factors.

3.1 Introduction to the Concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism

This section gives a brief introduction to the concept of Seed in
Yogācāra Buddhism including the definition, types, and characteristics of Seed,
so that more complicated parts of the concept can be expounded in the later
sections.

3.1.1 The Definition of Seed

Seeds are defined in CWSL (Ch. Cheng Wei Shi Lun) as “different
energies in the fundamental consciousness that immediately engender their
own fruit or results.”62 Lin comments that Seed is a metaphorical term that
refers to the function of the Eighth Consciousness that is to produce fruits of
various kinds.6 According to Shun’ei:

‘The term “Seeds” refers to nothing other than the potential energy, under
the right conditions, to produce subsequent manifest activities related to
those that preceded. Seeds can be characterized as “the potential within
the eighth consciousness to produce an effect.” Yesterday’s conduct and
today’s activity produce what will end up being the self of tomorrow, and
the function and power that brings about such a result is called “seed”.’64

62 Xuanzang, tr. Francis H. Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness-Only, (Berkeley, US:
Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1999), p.48.

6 Lin Guoliang, Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and Commentary to
Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition), (Shanghai: Fudan Press,
2007). p.12 .

64 Tagawa Shun'ei, Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-Only
Buddhism, Charles Muller (tr.),( Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009).p.45.

40

Therefore, it can be concluded that the word “seed” does not refer to
the seed of a plant, but a kind of energy that has the potential of producing
anything in the phenomenal world, which is similar to the feature of a plant
seed, thus the metaphor. It is the constituent of the Eighth Consciousness
which is the fundamental consciousness that produces the phenomenal world.

3.1.2 Types of Seed
There are two kinds of Seeds, one is the innate, and the other is newly
perfumed. This concept has its Buddhist theoretical support. Seeds can not be
completely innate without perfuming from the manifest activities, because it
will be contradictory with the teachings of the sutras and sastras. As
Abhidarmma Sutra points out that everything has a relationship of mutual
causality with Ālaya Vijñāna, which means Ālaya Vijñāna is the result of the
perfuming process of every manifest activity, or the perfuming process of
every manifest activity is the cause of the Ālaya Vijñāna. She Da Cheng Lun
also says dependent-origination can be established only through Seeds and
manifest activities. If the Seeds are not the result of perfuming process, it’s
impossible for dependent-origination be established between the previous
seven consciousnesses and the Ālaya Vijñāna? Therefore, the Seeds cannot be
completely innate.

The Seeds cannot be completely perfumed either. If so, the undefiled
Seeds during all kinds of Buddhist practices for liberation will not arise, for
everything an ordinary person thinks, speaks or does is defiled and the Seeds
that are perfumed by these manifest activities should also be defiled only. The
fact is that more or less some ordinary persons they are able to follow the
Buddhist practices for liberation which are undefiled. So there must be innate
undefiled Seeds.

In conclusion, there are two kinds of Seeds, innate and newly-
perfumed. These two kinds of Seeds coexist so that both dependent-origination
and Buddhist practices for liberation can be possible.

3.1.3 Characteristics of Seeds

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According to Cheng Wei Shi Lun, the concept of Seeds has six
features.

1) Simultaneous arising and disappearing. A Seed will arise and
immediately disappear without interval. Nevertheless, it still functions.

2) Coexistence with the fruit. The Seed and the fruit can exist together
sharing the same entity, though they have different natures.

) Continuous arising. A Seed can arise, resembling the previous one,
without any stop for a long term till the achievement of Buddhahood.

4) Determined ethical nature. The nature of the Seed is determined,
meaning that the ethical feature of the Seed will determine that of its
corresponding fruit, or this feature is not to change when producing the fruit.
For example, when the Seed is wholesome, the corresponding fruit should also
be wholesome.

5) Producing the fruit under effective conditions. Seeds can not
produce fruits without the need of conditions. Once the conditions with effect
functions are met, a Seed can produce a fruit.

6) Producing the same kind of fruit. There are two kinds of Seeds,
mental and physical. The mental Seeds will only produce mental phenomena,
and physical Seeds will only produce physical phenomena.

In conclusion, Seeds are unstable and inclined to produce fruits with
consistent ethical feature under certain conditions.

3.2 Seed, Manifest Activities and Mental Factors

According to Yogācāra, there are basically five kinds of phenomena
(dharma) in the world: Consciousnesses (citta-dharma), mental factors
(caitasika-dharma), Forms (rūpa-dharma), Embodied-conditioning Not
Directly [perceived] by Consciousness (citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra-dharma,
asaṃskṛta-dharma), Unconditioned Dharmas (Asaṃskṛta-dharmas). Among
these phenomena, there is a fundamental one called Ālaya Vijñāna, the Eighth
Consciousness among the eight consciousnesses, because from this one all of
the other phenomena are generated either directly or indirectly.

The Eighth Consciousness is also called Store Consciousness because
it stores numerous Seeds which are all kinds of potential energy that can