博士毕业论文（MCU）

42

produce all of the phenomena that one cognizes, which is named Manifest
Activities. The storage of the Seeds have no beginning nor ending. They have
been accumulated from countless lives of an individual and they are stored in
the form of the Eighth Consciousness, which is so subtle that ordinary beings
are not able to realize its existence at all. However, when conditions, both
internal and external factors, become mature, these stored Seeds are able to be
activated and present themselves as Manifest Activities, and this process is
called generating. The Manifest Activities, on the hand, have their influence on
the original Seeds simultaneously, and this reverse effect made on the Seeds
are called perfuming. Once the original Seeds are perfumed, new Seeds will
come into existence on the basis of the original ones also at the same time, and
thus called Seeds generating Seeds. The Eighth Consciousness functions
through such a continuous process of producing and perfuming among these
Seeds and Manifest Activities. This process is named as Tri-interaction in this
research. By these non-stopping and repetitive pattern of producing and
performing, new Seeds as well as new Manifest Activities appear constantly,
each resembles the previous one both on the side of Seeds and on that of the
Manifest Activities. Following is the diagram showing this pattern, with Seeds
(S) represented by the arrow above and Manifest Activities (MA) below.

Chart 6: Pattern of Seeds and Manifest Activities

S S’ S- S+

Such interaction between S and MA as well as S and S’ is named as Tri-
interaMctAion in this paper. TMrAi-'interaction is thMeAfu- ndamental mMeAch+anism of how
all things, be they spiritual or physical, develop in a incessant manner.

Buddhist theory as it is, the establishment of this paradigm serves
soterical purpose, fully justifying the possibility of transformation of an
ordinary sentient being, say a man, into a sage. The basic pattern for such
transformation is to increase the amount of undefiled Seeds while decreasing
that of the defiled ones. The defiled Seeds are those Seeds associated with

4

delusion or ignorance. And undefiled Seeds that are those, possessing
wholesome morality, that lead to spiritual liberation. For an ordinary sentient
being, both the defiled Seeds and undefiled Seeds are stored in the Eighth
Consciousness. Through practice, the amount of undefiled Seeds gradually
surpass that of the defiled ones, and eventually there will be no defiled Seeds,
only undefiled Seeds existing. This moment is called Buddhahood. A sentient
being with only undefiled Seeds stored in his Eighth Conscience is Buddha.

The attempt to change the amount of the two kinds of Seeds requires
deliberate practice primarily through the change of the activities of the Six
Consciousness because it is the only consciousness that is controllable
meanwhile entails three moral qualities, wholesome, unwholesome and neutral.
In another word, the spiritual practice in Buddhism is essentially to modify the
way of thoughts, emotion, and will etc. The mechanism, if explained in Tri-
interaction, is to modify MA (i.e. an unwholesome activity of Six
Consciousness) in a desired way MA’ (i.e. a wholesome activity or neutral) to
an extent that it has enough force to perfume S (i.e. a defiled Seed), so that S
can produce S’ (an undefiled Seed) stored in the Eighth Consciousness. As the
MA’ continues for a sufficient period of time, the amount of S’ will be
significant enough for spiritual liberation.

Eighth and Seventh Consciousnesses are too subtle to be controlled, so
they cannot take an active role in one’s spiritual practice. The five sensory
consciousnesses, though controllable, for example, you can choose to close
your eyes etc, are not involved with any moral change. The five sensory
consciousnesses, however, can serve as conducive conditions or support for
transformation of the Sixth Consciousness via Tri-interaction. For example,
one can stop listening to music so that he can have less distraction for the
transformation of his emotion from unrest to peace, or one can see a real dead
corpse which may better aid the reduction of his sexual desire.

In conclusion, the Seed and the manifest activity are two functions of
Eighth Consciousness, just like two sides of one coin. The Seed is the
potential capacity of Eighth Consciousness to transform, while the Manifest
Activity is the result of the transformation.

As mentioned above, the mechanism of practice aiming at the spiritual
liberation is essentially and primarily the transformation of activities of the
Sixth Consciousness. Therefore, a detailed description of activities of the Sixth
Consciousness is in great need, concerning what are the activities of the Sixth

44

Consciousness and how they function. Activities of the Sixth Consciousness
can be understood by the study the concept of mental factor.

When Seeds produce consciousnesses, they also produce mental
factors. Mental factors are mental activities that are associated with the
consciousnesses in the form of affiliation to the latter. The function of the
consciousnesses are mainly for cognizing phenomena in a general sense, while
the mental factors are in responsible of assisting this cognition with more
specific features. As the metaphor given in CWSL ， the respective roles the
consciousnesses and mental factors play are “just as the master painter draws
the outlines and the student fills in the colors”65.

There are six kinds of Mental Factors. According to the frequency of
their occurrence, there are two groups classified, Omnipresent Mental Factors
and Contingent Mental Factors. Omnipresent Mental Factors are those mental
factors that can occur all the time while Contingent Mental Factors only arise
in some specific occasions. According to the moral quality, which is related to
whether a mental factor has a positive effect on the spiritual practice or not,
there are four groups, Wholesome Factors, Afflictions, Secondary Afflictions,
and Uncategorized Factors. Among the four groups, the Wholesome Factors
have a positive effect on the spiritual practice while the Afflictions and
Secondary Afflictions have a negative effect, with the last group of factors
don’t take either side unless specific situations are given. Both fall into the
unwholesome category though, the Afflictions differ from the Secondary
Afflictions in that the former are afflictions in general and the latter are more
specific ones that derive from the former. There are five Omnipresent Mental
Factors five Object Contingent Factors, eleven Wholesome Ones, six
Afflictions, twenty Secondary Afflictions, and four Uncategorized Factors.
Thus there are fifty one Mental Factors in six classes. Lucid Introduction to the
One Hundred Dharmas66 gives explanation to them in detail:

1) omnipresent factors: attention, contact, sensation, perception,
intention.

65 Lin, Guoliang, Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and
Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition).
(Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007), p.158.

66 Ch.: Da Cheng Bai Fa Ming Men Lun; Skt.:Mahāyāna-śatadharma-
prakāśamukha-śāstra

45

2) object contingent factors: desire, resolve, mindfulness,
concentration, intelligence.

) wholesome factors: faith, zeal, conscience, shame, not coveting, no
anger, no folly, pliancy, no laxity, indifference, not harming.

4) afflictions: craving, ill-will, pride, ignorance, doubt, incorrect views.

5) Secondary afflictions: anger, enmity, anxiety, concealing, deceit,
flatter, arrogance, hostility,jealousy, parsimony, unscrupulousness,
shamelessness, unbelief, indolence, negligence, slackness, agitation forgetting,
incorrect cognition, distraction.

6) Four uncategorized factors: drowsiness, regret, discovery, scrutiny.

Among the six groups of mental factors, only the first group
omnipresent factors exist in all the eight consciousnesses, the other mental
consciousnesses are mostly absent except the Sixth Consciousness which has
all of the mental factors on the list. Therefore, the process of the Tri-
interaction of the Sixth Consciousness can be specifically interpreted as the
process of Tri-interaction of its mental factors. That is to say there must be a
change for the mental factors so that the original Seeds that produce these
mental factors will be perfumed and new Seeds will be produced, hence the
new mental factors can continue to be produced. In practice for spiritual
liberation, this mechanism can be presented in an intrinsic formula generated
from all dharma paths.

This pattern can be the common feature of all practicing paths leading
to spiritual liberation. well presented as in the definition of Buddhism. “Avoid
the evil, follow the good, and purify your mind. This is called Buddhism.” 67

This definition consists of three parts:

1) void the evil

2) follow the good

) purify your mind

In order to practice, one needs to know what are evil and what are
good, and how to purify the heart. Since mind precedes speech and deeds, the

67 诸恶莫作，众善奉行，自净其意，是诸佛教。《增一阿含经》(Skt:
Ekottaragama-sutra.) (Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka: Vol. 2, No. 125) ，CBETA.

46

elaboration of mental factors corresponding to the three parts of the definition
is necessary for the purpose of practicing Buddhism.

With an understanding of mental factors of wholesome and
unwholesome (afflictions and secondary afflictions) one can have criteria for
adjustment of his/her thinking, speech and action so that the evil can be
avoided and the good can be followed. Meanwhile, the Object Contingent
Mental Factors provide practitioners a group of mental factors that are
exclusively conducive to the accumulation of undefiled Seeds and reduction of
defiled ones, which is nothing but the very process of purifying the mind. It is
necessary to point out that the the Object Contingent Mental Factors are the
very mental factors that guarantee the success of spiritual practice in
Buddhism possible. It should be noted that the omnipresent mental factors and
uncategorized mental factors are morally neutral or undetermined and don’t
take an active role in modifying the quality of the Sixth Consciousness, so this
research will not elaborate on them.

3.3 Case Studies from Mahāyāna Sutras

The Tri-interaction pattern and the function of mental factors in
Yogācāra can well be demonstrated by the practice of Pure Land, which is one
of major Mahāyāna school. The sutras on which the practice of Pure Land is
based are the Sutra on the Buddha of Infinite Life (also known as the Larger
Sutra on Amitāyus, abbreviated to Larger Sutra; the Sanskrit text is popularly
known as the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sutra); 2) the Sutra on Visualization of
the Buddha of Infinite Life (abbreviated to Contemplation Sutra); and ) the
Sutra on Amitāyus Buddha (also known as the Amida Sutra or the Smaller
Sutra on Amitāyus, abbreviated to Smaller Sutra; the Sanskrit text is popularly
known as the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sutra.

According to the teachings of these sutras, in order to be born in the
Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha, one needs to be equipped with such
conditions as enough merit as well as incessant recollection of Amitabha
Buddha.

“The Buddha said to Maitreya, “If here in this world you are upright in
thought and will, and abstain from doing evil, then you will attain the

47

utmost virtue, unsurpassed in all the lands throughout the ten
directions....” 68

“Śāriputra, one cannot attain birth in that land with few roots of good or a
small store of merit.”69

These verses explicit explain the necessity of merit accumulation in
order to attain the rebirth in the Pure Land. Merit accumulation largely
depends on one’s avoidance of the evil and practice of the good. This is
exclusively expounded by Shakymuni Buddha in the Larger Sutra, listing one
by one the major misconducts that man is likely to commit in this world and
admonishing that they should immediately be abandoned. The corresponding
mental statuses of these misconducts are associated with mental factors of the
afflictions and secondary afflictions.

“People of the world, being dark-hearted and lacking insight, hate and
abuse good people and show them no respect. They are attached to
wrongdoing and willfully commit unlawful acts. They always covet the
wealth of others and harbor intentions of stealing. After spending and
squandering what they have robbed from others, they seek to regain it.
Because of their own hidden motives and dishonesty, they slyly study the
reactions shown on the faces of others. Since they are unable to think far
ahead, when things go wrong they become despondent with chagrin. ...”70

This is an excerpt of the Larger Sutra that exhibits the Buddha’s
admonition of not doing anything evil. Following is the table of the correlation
between the misconducts mentioned in the sutra and the mental factors of the
afflictions and secondary afflictions.

68 The Larger Sutra (Taishō Volume 12, Number 60), Hisao Inagaki & Harold
Stewart (Tr.), (Berkeley, US: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 200 ),
p. 47.

69 The Smaller Sutra (Taishō Volume 12, Number 66), Hisao Inagaki & Harold
Stewart (Tr.), (Berkeley, US: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 200 ),
p. 9 .

70 The Larger Sutra (Taishō Volume 12, Number 60), Hisao Inagaki & Harold
Stewart (Tr.), (Berkeley, US: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 200 ),
p. 49.

48

Chart 7 Correlation between the Misconducts Mentioned in the
Sutra and the Mental Factors of the Afflictions and Secondary Afflictions

Misconducts Afflictions and Secondary
Afflictions

1 being dark-hearted hostility, incorrect views

2 lacking insight ignorance, unbelief, incorrect views

hating ill-will, jealousy

4 abusing good people hostility, unscrupulousness,

shamelessness

5 showing people no respect pride, arrogance

6 wrongdoing and willfully unscrupulousness, shamelessness
committing unlawful acts

7 coveting the wealth of others craving, jealousy

8 harboring intentions of stealing concealing

9 spending and squandering what craving, unscrupulousness,
they have robbed from others, shamelessness
seeking to regain it

10 slyly studying the reactions shown deceit
on the faces of others

11 becoming despondent with chagrin unscrupulousness, shamelessness
when things go wrong

From this table, it can be clearly concluded that the mental factors of
afflictions and secondary afflictions have a high correlation with those
misconducts that should be avoided in practice for the purpose of being reborn
in the Pure Land. That is say, one should avoid the occurrence of the mental
factors of afflictions and secondary afflictions in Pure Land practice.

Following is an another excerpt in which the Buddha encourages
devas and people to follow the good:

49

“... You and other devas and people of the present and future generations,
having received the Buddha’s teachings, should reflect upon them and,
while following them, should remain upright in thought and do virtuous
deeds. Rulers should abide by morality, reign with beneficence, and
decree that everyone should maintain proper conduct, revere the sages,
respect people of virtue, be benevolent and kind to others, and take care
not to disregard the Buddha’s teachings and admonitions. All should seek
liberation, cut the roots of samsara and its various evils, and so aspire to
escape from the paths of immeasurable sorrow, fear, and pain in the three
evil realms. In this world, you should extensively plant roots of virtue, be
benevolent, give generously, abstain from breaking the precepts, be
patient and diligent, teach people with sincerity and wisdom, do virtuous
deeds, and practice good. ...”71

And here is the table showing the correlation between the encouraged
good deeds and the wholesome mental factors.

Chart 8 Correlation between the Encouraged Good Deeds and the
Wholesome Mental Factors

Good Deeds Wholesome Mental Factors

1 reflecting upon and following the faith
Buddha’s teaching

2 abiding by morality, maintaining proper conscience, shame, no laxity
conduct, revering the sages, respecting
people of virtue

reigning with beneficence, being not harming
benevolent and kind to others

4 taking care not to disregard the no folly, no laxity
Buddha’s teachings and admonitions

5 seeking liberation faith, zeal

6 cutting the roots of samsara and its not coveting, no anger, no

various evils folly

71 Longer Sutra (Taishō Volume 12, Number 60), Hisao Inagaki & Harold
Stewart (Tr.), (Berkeley, US: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 200 ),
p. 55.

50

7 aspiring to escape from the paths of zeal, no laxity
immeasurable sorrow, fear, and pain in
the three evil realms

8 being patient and diligent, teaching indifference, zeal
people with sincerity and wisdom

The table above shows a high correlation between the good deeds
encouraged by the Buddha in practicing to be reborn in the Pure Land and the
wholesome mental factors. Therefore, in order to practice Pure Land one needs
to have wholesome mental factors.

Besides enough merit through avoidance of the evil and pursuit of the
good, the Pure Land practice requires purification of mind as well. In
Yogācāra, this is conducted mainly through the arising of the object contingent
factors, namely, desire, resolve, mindfulness, concentration, intelligence.

Desire is more or less equivalent to the term of “interest” in modern
psychology. In the practice of Pure Land, one needs to have interest in
Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land. Therefore, the Shakyamuni Buddha gives a
description on the sublimity of the land so that listeners can be interested:

“Śāriputra...The beds of the ponds are covered solely with gold sand, and
from the four sides of each bed rise stairs of gold, silver, beryl, and
crystal. ...

Again, Śāriputra, in that buddha land heavenly music is played
continually. The ground is made of gold. Six times during the day and
night māndārava flowers rain down from the sky.” 72

“... none of the three evil realms exists in that buddha land... the lives
of the Buddha and the people of his land last for innumerable, unlimited,
and incalculable kalpas...”7

“...all sentient beings born in the Land of Utmost Bliss dwell in the
stage of non-retrogression. Many of them are in the stage of becoming a
buddha after one more life.”74

72 Short Sutra (Taishō Volume 12, Number 60), Hisao Inagaki & Harold Stewart
(Tr.), (Berkeley, US: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 200 ), p. 91.

7 Ibid, p. 92.
74 Ibid, p. 9 .

51

Resolve is a mental factor with which a person will show strong
determination to achieve something that he considers to be of great value and
worth pursuing. The doctrine of the Pure Land encourages those who want to
escape from Samsara to make a strong mind to get reborn in the Pure Land, as
exhibited in the scripture:

“Śāriputra, those sentient beings who hear of that land should aspire to be
born there.”75

In order to be born in the Pure Land one needs to recollect Amitabha
Buddha all the time. There many ways to do so, but the most commonly
known way is to recite Amitabha Buddha’s name. It is said that enough a
dying person, with enough merit and wholesome root, is able to recite
Amitabha Buddha’s name with concentration, then he is able to be welcomed
by Amitabha Buddha and other sages and transferred and be reborn in the Pure
Land.

“Śāriputra, if a good man or woman who hears of Amitāyus holds fast to
his Name even for one day, two days, three, four, five, six, or seven days
with a concentrated and undistracted mind, then, at the hour of death,
Amiyāyus will appear with a host of holy ones. Consequently, when their
life comes to an end, the aspirants’ minds will not fall into confusion and
so they will be born immediately in the Land of Utmost Bliss of
Amitāyus.” 76

Intelligence, also known as Understanding, is a mental factor that
involves one’s ability to have a clear idea of the essence or reality of the
surrounding phenomena and the things occurring to the person. In the practice
of Pure Land, one needs to have a precise understanding of the exigency to get
reborn in the pure land because of the suffering situation in the Samsara, where
the shortage of the lifespan of a man that can hardly support him to attain
enlightenment within one life as well as the high possibility of getting reborn
in unwholesome realms due to lack of merit and laxity in observance of
precepts in such an era distant from the Buddha’s time. And the intelligence of

75 Ibid, p. 9 .
76 Ibid, p. 9 .

52

believing and cherishing the teaching of Pure Land is also highly required, as
taught in the scripture.

“Śāriputra, you must realize that I have accomplished this difficult task
during the period of the five defilements. That is to say, having attained
highest, perfect enlightenment, I have for the sake of the world delivered
this teaching, which is so hard for [people] to accept in faith. This is
indeed an extremely difficult task.”77

3.4 Conclusion Remarks
With the study made above, it can be found that Seed in Yogācāra

Buddhism is considered to be potent energy that enables both spiritual and
physical phenomena to be manifested. Stored in the fundamental
consciousness, the Eighth Consciousness, Seed constantly updates itself by
generating new Seed with the help of constant perfuming from the Manifest
Activities it has manifested. Such an update, Seed producing new Seed, is the
very act that allows Manifest Activities to be renewing, which is the very
essence of the changing process of everything in the universe. These
interactions among the Seed, new Seed and the manifestation is termed Tri-
interaction, the essential mechanism the explains all changing process, be it
spiritual or physical. Seed exists in two types, spiritual and physical. Each type
of Seed produces Manifest Activities in consistence with the type that the Seed,
which simply means spiritual Seed produces spiritual Manifest Activities and
the same with physical one. Therefore, the changing process of anything
spiritual can be explained by Tri-interaction, including Buddhist practice for
the spiritual liberation.

According to Buddhist sutras, a Buddhist practice involves one’s
engagement in the form of faith, zeal, morality, avoidance of the evil thinking,
etc. These are classified into different categories of Mental Factors of the Sixth
Consciousness, spiritual Manifest Activities produced by Seed, which is also
known as consciousness at the surface level. Specifically, a Buddhist practice
for the spiritual liberation is essentially the process of Tri-interaction involving
the modification of Sixth Consciousness through the functions of Object
Contingent Mental Factors which is accompanied by manifestation of
wholesome mental factors and eradication of mental factors of afflictions and
secondary afflictions.

77 Ibid, p. 95.

Chapter IV

A Theoretical Model of Learning Process Based on Modern
Educational Psychology and the Concept of Seed in Yogācāra

Buddhism

This Chapter aims at establishing a theoretical model of Buddhist
educational Psychology through the synthesis of western theories on learning
analyzed in Chapter II and the Yogācāra concept of Seed in Chapter III. The
Tri-interaction, serving as the bridge between the western theories on learning
and the Yogācāra concept of Seed, will be the main component of the
structure of the theoretical model that is to be established. Before this
establishment, the plausibility of the intended synthetic work is based on the
idea that the methods of practice for supramundane purpose can be applied on
courses with a mundane aim both in terms of both necessity and possibility,
which has been fully discussed in Chapter I.

Upon the establishing the theoretical model, learning is refined and
reclassified in the context of Yogācāra based on the structure of the western
definition and classification. Factors that will affect learning will also be
discussed from Yogācāra’s perspective. As regards learning, this idea will be
particularly expounded by pointing out the superiority of the Yogācāra concept
of Seed in mending the disputes among the western theories on learning.
Therefore, the critique of western theories on learning will be carried out from
Yogācāra’s perspective, before the establishment of the theoretical model in
which learning is defined and classified. Apart from the establishment of the
theoretical model, the tentative approach of applying the theory will also be
expounded regarding the teaching methodology.

4.1 Definition and types of Learning in Yogācāra

This section is to give definition and classification on learning in
Yogācāra based on the definition of learning in modern educational
psychology and the concept of seed in Yogācāra Buddhism. The general

pattern is the decontextualization of the definition and classification in the
former followed by their contextualization in the latter.

55

4.1.1 Definition of Learning in Yogācāra

Although learning is not specifically and exclusively defined in
Yogācāra, the latter has a systematic analysis of the human consciousnesses
and psychological activities. Since learning is included and studied in
psychology, it can be well defined in the context of Yogācāra as long as all
elements regarding the psychological mechanism are interpreted in the context
of Yogācāra.

As defined in the western theories in Chapter II, “learning is an
enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion,
which results from practice or other forms of experience.”78 This definition
consists of the following elements:

a) behavior,

b) the capacity to behave,

c) enduring change

d) practice or other forms of experience.

Behavior is the result of the function of mental and physical factors
which, to large extent, are subject to the awareness and function of the surface
consciousnesses including Sixth Consciousness and the five sensory
consciousnesses. Therefore, in Yogācāra, a behavior can be interpreted as the
the manifested activities of Eighth Consciousness at the level of surface mind,
i.e. MA. The capacity to behave indicates the latent potential of a behavior
which can be interpreted as the latent form of the Eighth Consciousness, i.e. S.
Enduring change can be interpreted as an enduring process of S producing
MA’, which is significantly different form the previous MA, if the change
takes place in the behavior, and of S producing S’, which is significantly
different from the previous S, if the change takes place in the capacity to
behave. Practice or other forms of experience, in Yogācāra’s context, are
activities involving participation of Sixth Consciousness with or without that
of the five sensory consciousnesses. This will be discussed in detail in the
following section. Therefore, practice or other forms of experience can be
interpreted as the process of MA perfuming S. The following chart presents

78 Schunk, D.H., Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. (New York:
Macmillan, 1991), p.2.

56

the equivalent pattern on the elements of the definition of learning between
modern psychology and Yogācāra:

Chart 9: Equivalent Pattern on the Elements of the Definition of Learning
between Modern Psychology and Yogācāra

Modern Psychology Yogācāra

1 Behavior MA

2 Capacity to behave S

Enduring change Enduring S producing M’ or

S producing S’

4 Practice or other forms of experience MA perfuming S

Therefore, the definition of learning in the context of Yogācāra can be given in
this way:

Learning is an enduring process of the Seed producing new manifest activity
(at the level of surface mind) or the Seed producing new Seed through the
process of manifest activity (at the level of surface mind) perfuming Seed.

4.2.2 Types of Learning in Yogācāra

As discussed in Chapter II, learning can be classified into two major
types according to how learning takes place: associative learning and cognitive
learning. Within each type, there are subdivisions. Associative learning can be
divided into escape learning and avoidance learning, and cognitive learning
can be divided into latent learning, rote learning, discovery learning, and
observational learning.

A) Associative learning: escape learning, avoidance learning

B) Cognitive learning:

Latent learning

Rote learning

Discovery learning

Observational learning

57

According to the definition in modern psychology, learning concerns
change through practice or other forms of experience. Practice or other forms
of experience the learner contacts is something particular to him/her, which is
to give rise to Object Contingent Mental Factors. As discussed above, practice
or other forms of experience can be interpreted in Yogācāra’s context as MA
perfuming S. Therefore, MA definitely include object-contingent mental
factors. According to CWSL79, these five Object Contingent Mental Factors do
not have to arise all at once. They can arise by any number. So the
classification of learning according to how learning takes place has much to do
with prevalence of Object Contingent Mental Factors. Associative learning,
due to its simple stimulus-response pattern, does not have much involvement
of the mental factor intelligence. However, the instinctive desire to escape or
avoid certainly lead to the mental factor desire. Rote learning fits in the
description of the mental factor mindfulness and concentration. Observational
learning requires the learner’s attention highly focused on every single
movement of the object that he/she is trying to imitate with full assurance that
this object is correct and worth imitating, thus the mental factor resolve and
concentration prevails. Discovery learning is based on insight and
understanding, so the mental factor intelligence dominates in this case. All
types of learning above follows the pattern of S producing MA’, but latent
learning follows the pattern of S producing S’, which means what is learned is
not manifested yet, remaining latent in the form of Seed.

In conclusion, types of learning in Yogācāra can be generally
classified into two: S producing MA’ and S producing S’. And the first type
can be further divided into four types according to the dominance of the
mental factor manifested: desire dominating learning, resolve dominating
learning, mindfulness dominating learning, concentration dominating learning,
intelligence dominating learning. Following is the chart showing the types of
learning in the context of Yogācāra and their equivalents in modern
psychology:

79 Xuanzang, tr. Francis H. Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness-Only, (Berkeley, US:
Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1999), pp.169-170.

58

Chart 10: Types of Learning in Yogācāra

Yogācāra Modern psychology

Desire dominating learning Associative learning

Resolve Learning Observational Learning

S producing MA’ Mindfulness Learning Rote Learning
Concentration Learning
Observational / Rote
Learning

Intelligence Learning Discovery Learning

S producing S’ Latent Learning

4.2 Factors of Learning in Yogācāra

It has been discussed in Chapter II that factors of learning in modern
psychology include memory, motivation, emotion, intelligence, sleep and
stress. From Yogācāra’s perspective, factors are those mental factors that will
increase or decrease the process of S producing new MA’, S producing new S’
and MA perfuming S. All the factors of learning in modern psychology can be
interpreted as such mental factors in Yogācāra.

As mentioned in Chapter II, memory in modern psychology include
short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory is considered
to be preferable in learning, and rehearsal is the only possible solution in
transferring information from short-term memory into long-term memory. In
Yogācāra, it is the interaction between fundamental consciousness (i.e. the
Eighth Consciousness) and all dharmas (i.e. manifest activities), that entails
long-term memory, as CWSL says,

“It may be asked, if there is no self, how do you account for such things
as recollection, perception, repetition, volition, anger,and so forth?

...

However, all sentient beings possess a fundamental consciousness that is
homogeneous, continuous, and contains Seeds [of all dharmas]. This
consciousness and all dharmas act upon each other, and due to the power
of perfuming (vāsanā), such things as recollection, perception, etc., can

59

exist. Therefore difficulties concerning recollection, etc., are in your
tenets, not in ours.”80

From this, it can be inferred that recollection or memory is a
homogeneous and continuous state in the form of Seeds retained in the Eighth
Consciousness. And such a state is the result of perfuming from “all dharmas”,
which can be understood as information to be memorized in the form of
manifest activities. Tao Jiang points out that the Eighth Consciousness is “a
subliminal reservoir of memories, habits, tendencies, and future
possibilities”.81

The process in which information is memorized and preserved in
modern psychology can be interpreted in Yogācāra as the process of MA
perfuming S and S producing S’. That is, a certain piece of information to
memorize, say a new word in a book, is an external object in the form manifest
activity (MA1) of the Eighth Consciousness. Through the function of sensory
consciousnesses such as Eye Consciousness and Ear Consciousness, the Sixth
Consciousness cognizes the image of the new word which is manifest activity
of the Seed (S) in Eighth Consciousness, thus MA2 similar to MA1 . The
cognizing process of the Sixth Consciousness enables MA2 to perfume S, and
then S produces S again. As a result S is reinforced, that is the new word is
memorized. This following chart exhibits the process.

In modern psychology, the key factor to make memory endurable is
the transfer short-term memory into long memory through rehearsal. In
Yogācāra, the crucial part is the process of MA2 perfuming S, as the more
forceful the perfuming process is, the more forceful the production of S will be.
Contribution to such reinforcement of perfuming can be made from object-
contingent mental factors such as mindfulness (smṛti) and concentration
(samādhi).

“The mental factor of mindfulness (smṛti) presevers the previously
cognized object such that is not forgotten. ...The mental factor that allows us to
deeply concentrate feelings on this object without distraction is called

80 Xuanzang, Three Texts on Consciousness-Only, Berkeley, tr. Cook, Francis
H. ,(US: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1999), pp.14-15.

81 Tao Jiang, Yogācāra Buddhism & Modern Psychology, (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 2010), p.8.

60

concentration (samādhi). This mental factor of concentration has the factor of
mindfulness as its support.” 82

Meanwhile, mental factors such as forgetting and distraction will be
detrimental to the perfuming process. Therefore, these unwholesome mental
factors should be avoided when faced with a memorizing task. The whole of
process of memory is exhibited in the following chart:

Chart 11: Process of Memory

The Sixth Consciousness

Mental factors: Mindfulness The sensory consciousnesses
& Concentration

The new word in the book The image of the word

Physical Seeds The Eighth Consciousness Spiritual Seeds

4.3 Yogācāra’s Critique of Western Theories on Learning
Process

Western theories on learning vary to a great extent regarding to the
origin of learning (Innate VS. Nurture), the role of the learner in learning
(Active VS. Active), the faculty where learning takes place (Mental VS.
Physical).

4.3.1 Innate VS. Nurture

This dispute concerning the origin of knowledge among western
theories on learning can be unified by the concept of origin of Seeds in
Yogācāra. This is what Shun’ei says,

82 Tagawa Shun'ei, Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-Only
Buddhism, Tr. Charles Muller, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009), p. 24.

61

“Yogācāra presents a classification in seed theory that separates types
of Seeds in a way that resembles this nature vs. nurture paradigm. This is the
division between what are known as innate Seeds and newly perfumed
Seeds.”8

Innate and newly-perfumed Seeds are two kinds of Seeds stored in the
Eighth Consciousness. The innate Seeds are those stored in the Eighth
Consciousness originally, not the result of perfuming from manifest activities.
Since Manifest Activities including all the experience one has, this means the
formation of these Seeds have nothing to do with anything external, and they
can exist independently from experience.Newly-perfumed Seeds are Seeds
formed as a result of perfuming from manifest activities in both this life and
lives in the past. Since knowledge is stored in the form of Seeds, it can be
inferred that it is possible, in Yogācāra, that the knowledge consists of both
origins, innate and acquired. Innate knowledge is stored as innate Seeds and
newly-perfumed Seeds in the past lives, and acquired knowledge is only stored
as newly-perfumed Seeds in the present life.

Chart 12: Knowledge and Seeds

Innate knowledge Acquired knowledge

Innate Newly-perfumed in the past Newly-perfumed in the present
lives life

The co-existence of two kinds of Seeds are well justified within Buddhism.
Seeds can not be completely innate without perfuming from the manifest
activities, because it will be contradictory with the teachings of the sutras and
sastras. As Abhidarmma Sutra points out that everything has a relationship of
mutual causality with Ālaya Vijñāna, which means Ālaya Vijñāna is the result
of the perfuming process of every manifest activity, or the perfuming process
of every manifest activity is the cause of the Ālaya Vijñāna. she da cheng lun
also says dependent-origination can be established only through Seeds and
manifest activities. If the Seeds are not the result of perfuming process, it’s
impossible for dependent-origination be established between the previous
seven consciousnesses and the Ālaya Vijñāna. Therefore, the Seeds cannot be
completely innate.

8 Tagawa Shun'ei, Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-Only
Buddhism, Tr. Charles Muller, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009), p. 55.

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The Seeds cannot be completely perfumed either. If so, the undefiled
Seeds during all kinds of Buddhist practices for liberation will not arise, for
everything an ordinary person thinks, speaks or does is defiled and the Seeds
that are perfumed by these manifest activities should also be defiled only. The
fact is that more or less some ordinary persons they are able to follow the
Buddhist practices for liberation which are undefiled. So there must be innate
undefiled Seeds. Therefore, co-existence of two kinds of Seeds does not only
comply to what is taught in Buddhist scriptures, but also stand up to the
practical evidence.

This indicates that, according to Yogācāra, knowledge does not only
comes from experience in the past lives as proposed by Plato but also can
result from experience in the present life as supported by other theories such as
Locke. So these two opposite theories are unified in Yogācāra. And this origin
of Seeds can also explain the what the constructivists have proposed synthesis
of innate constructing ability and the environment experienced. The innate
constructing ability can be a kind of knowledge stored as original Seeds or
newly-perfumed Seeds in the past lives, and the environment experienced
leads to the formation of newly-perfumed Seeds in the present life. Such a
situation allows two kinds of Seeds, both innate and newly-perfumed Seeds, to
be formed at the same time. That is to say, in Yogācāra, either or both origins
of Seeds can yield knowledge. It is the possibility of knowledge comes into
being from different origins that enables the western theories on learning to be
unified in Yogācāra.

Among these origins of knowledge, the one proposed by Plato maybe
least to be acceptable. However, it will be nothing odd if the concept of rebirth
or reincarnation is taken into consideration. Although such a concept is still
not completely accepted by main scientific realm, many researches and
evidences have already given substantial support for the existence of such a
phenomenon. For example, many people in the world can remember their past
lives and are able to recognize their parents, and many can do some tasks
easily without even having to learn them, such as an old lady in Shaanxi
Province in China can read and recite ancient classics and write Chinese
characters even she is an illiterate and has never learned how to read and write,
an Australian man, who never learned Mandarin before, began to speak
Mandarin frequently without any foreign accent after an accident. And also
practically, there are many ways to recollect the knowledge in stored in the

6

past lives such as meditation, hypnosis and so on. According to Yogācāra,
whatever an individual has experienced in his past lives will be stored as Seeds
in the Eighth Consciousness, and they will be activities and manifest whenever
the conditions are met.

Locke’s theory, the other extreme compared with Plato, can also be
explained in Yogācāra. His “blank slant” can be interpreted as the mind of a
baby without few activated Seeds in the past lives and all he has to do is to
experience as much as he can and has newly-perfumed Seeds be stored, which
is knowledge acquired only from experience in the present life.

Constructivism’s concept can be understood in the way that Piaget’s
constructing ability can be taken as manifest activities from original Seeds or
newly-perfumed Seeds in the past lives, and the environmental contact as
manifest activities from newly-perfumed Seeds in the present life. That is to
say, Constructivism concept shows the learning process where knowledge can
come from both innate and newly-perfumed origins.

4.3.2 Active VS. Passive

The dispute over the role a learner takes in learning can be unified in
Yogācāra by the concept of Five Contingent mental factors.

Behaviorism is a typical theory that puts the learner into a passive
position based on teacher-centered approach is adopted in the classroom,
where the teacher dominates the learning process, the students are supposed to
listen to the teacher and filled in with large amount of knowledge as well as
exercises. Quite on the contrary, other theories such as that proposed by
Dewey emphasizes the active role of the students in learning.

Theories advocating active role of the learner in learning process offer
different forms of such activeness. For Kohler, it’s the insight caused by the
learner’s nerve system, and for Dewey, it’s the drive for survival, and for
Piaget, it’s the construction of knowledge structure when the equilibrium is out
of balance. However, in general, in all these theories, the learner seems to have
been set up in a situation where a learner is faced with a problem, a question,
or anything that worries him, arouses his curiosity or triggers his desire to
learn. Such activeness, in Yogācāra’s term, is described in mental factors,
namely Aspiration, Wisdom, Reasoning and Investigation.

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Aspiration “has as its nature a wish for a pleasing object, and its
activity is that of supporting effort. ”84 “Aspiration is the wish to do something
concerning a desired object. It ascertains that which is desirable within the
objective field and having focused on the intended object it takes a strong
interest in it. Thus the wish or yearning to obtain the desired object is
formed.”85

Wisdom “is the capacity of fine discrimination which examines and
distinguishes the specific characteristics or value (e.g. the defects and qualities)
of a recollected object. It analyses the object from every angle, compares
alternatives and dispels doubts and indecision.”86

“Reasoning is a mental discussion which searches depending on
volition or the intellect. It is the gross aspect of mental analysis based on
volition, the wish to identify an object. It leads to the point where one knows
what this object is, independent of whether one is satisfied or dissatisfied with
this object. “87

“Investigation is a mental discussion which reflects depending on
volition or the intellect. It is the subtle aspect of mental analysis. It is a more
detailed examination of the already identified object, going further into its
different aspects. ”88

Theories that don’t mention much about the active role of a learner,
such as Behaviorism, focus more on the function of mental factors such as
Appreciation, Recollection, Concentration

“Appreciation or determination (mos-pa; adhimoksa or adhimukti)
stabilises the apprehension of a previously ascertained cherished object. It
further defines the object already grasped with conviction and establishes
definite certainty or conviction about the object and thus prevents changing
opinions or decisions concerning it. Appreciation is the factor that makes the
mind sure of the object’s qualities as being worthwhile or valuable and secures

84 Xuanzang, Three Texts on Consciousness-Only, Berkeley, tr. Cook, Francis H. ,(US:
Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1999), pp.14-15.

85 Lhündrub, The 51 mental factors, a brief introduction teaching, May-June
1997.re-edited transcript March 200 .

86Lhündrub, The 51 mental factors, a brief introduction teaching, May-June
1997.re-edited transcript March 200 .

87 Op.cit.
88 Op.cit

65

the recollection of it. Appreciation serves as the basis for faith and confidence
and can be either mistaken or unmistaken/realistic.”

Recollection (dran-pa; smrti) is not forgetting the thought concerning
the experienced object. It can also be translated as mindfulness. It repeatedly
brings the already familiar object to mind and protects against forgetfulness
and distraction. It acts as the basis of concentration, mental stability and
absorption. Recollection makes us be mindful of the various mental factors
that arise, it makes us remember our commitments and decisions, it helps us to
remember what we have learnt, it gives structure to our daily activity by not
letting us forget what we set out to do. Thus it is compared to a treasure house
that can store many wholesome qualities without letting them perish. There are
mentally disturbing and undisturbing recollections.

“Absorption or concentration (ting-nge 'dzin; samadhi) is the one-
pointed, continued focusing or collecting the mind on an object to be examined,
not being distracted by any other object. This kind of stable abiding on the
object can last but a short moment or several minutes or longer. The steadier
our absorption/concentration becomes, the clearer becomes our understanding
of a given object.”

In passive learning, especially in a classroom, the teacher and the
textbook are normally considered to be authoritative and are not supposed to
be challenged. And the learners are supposed to follow whatever the teacher
instructs. Although this traditionally adopted approach is criticized by many
modern educationalists, it does enable the learner’s appreciation of the teacher
and the textbook, so that he/she is less likely to be distracted by his/her own
thoughts and emotions. Concentration can easily be build in the learning
process. And through many times of repetition through drills, exercises, tests,
the knowledge will be solidly mastered by the leaner. Those teaching methods
based on Behaviorism such direct teaching has been proved to be great success
in improving students’ performance in learning.

Both active learning and passive learning have been proved to be
effective yet with shortages, because they emphasize the function of part of the
mental factors that are essential in learning according to Yogācāra. Therefore,
mental factors involved in learning provide a unifying frame for both kinds of
theories.

4.3.3 Mental VS. Physical

66

Concerning the faculty that enables the learning process, most theories
such as Locke, Behaviorism,and others, believe that it is something physical
that makes the learning start and others such as the Plato believe it is the mind
that undertakes such a function.

In Yogācāra, the faculty that enables the learning the process is Eighth
Consciousness, which is the source of both mental and physical phenomena.
According to CWSL, the learning is the essentially the process of Tri-
Interaction between Seeds and manifest activities. There are two kinds of
Seeds, mental and physical, by which two corresponding kinds of manifest
activities are produced, mental phenomena and physical phenomena. From
Eighth Consciousness, mental faculties such as the Six Consciousness and its
mental factors are transformed as well as the physical faculties such as the
brain, the nerve system, and the five sensory organs.

It is generally believed in modern days, that the brain is the base of the
mind, the place where mind is produced. Therefore, it is taken for granted that
we human beings learn by brain. Yogacara holds a different view, saying that
the base of the mind, or the Sixth Consciousness, is the Seventh Consciousness,
which is responsible of making sure that the continuity of the awareness of “I”
will not be interrupted when the Sixth Consciousness stops functioning at
certain occasions such as deep sleep, shock, or non-conceptual concentration
(Pali:asamjni-samapatti). Besides the Seventh Consciousness, there are other
four indispensable conditions for the Sixth Consciousness to arise: 1) the
objects that are thought of ; 2) Seeds from the Eighth Consciousness; ) the
behavior of paying attention; 4) the Eighth Consciousness as the fundamental
support.

These conditions, indispensable though, are not the only conditions
for the Sixth Consciousness. There can be conditions that can assist or
strengthen the arising process of the Sixth Consciousness, these conditions,
theoretically, can include physical parts of the body including the brain and
other relating physical organs. Altogether, these parts of the body then serve as
tools in assisting the function of the mind. The function of the mind can also
be reflected by these parts in the form of certain kinds of acting phenomena.
Any damage of these parts, of course, will affect the function of the mind, in
the sense that the tool is not working properly, and, accordingly, the function
of the mind can not be reflected properly, instead of being damaged. There are
cases where significant damage to the brain doesn’t result in significant loss of

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mental factors according to scientific researches. That the French man with
90% brain lost live a relatively normal life can serve as a typical example.89
Also there are quite a lot of mental factors that can not be explained just by
physical organs of the human body. Walshe says:

“The human brain is a very remarkable organ, which has still been only
very superficially explored, owing to obvious practical difficulties in
addition to its own quite extraordinary complexity. But quite certainly not
all mental factors can be related to it. The various forms of ESP (extra-
sensory-perception) phenomena are facts, and nothing in the physical
brain has been found to account for them, even by officially materialist
Soviet-bloc scientists who have a vested interest in establishing such a
connection. Telepathy, for instance, is not (except metaphorically) a form
of "mental radio": as the late G.N.M. Tyrrell, who was both a
distinguished psychic researcher and a radio expert, long ago pointed out,
it does not obey the law governing all forms of physical radiation, the
inverse square law connecting intensity with distance.”90

Therefore, the brain or any other physical parts of the body should not
be exalted to a status where it plays an essential role in the mental factors.

In conclusion, the faculty that enables learning in Yogācāra Buddhism
is the Eighth Consciousness which consists of both mental and physical Seeds,
which can unify the disputed opinions of the western theories that emphasize
either mind or physical organ as the faculty that enables learning.

4.4 A Theoretical Model of Learning Process Based on Modern
Educational Psychology and the Concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism

The theoretical model of learning process based on modern educational
psychology and the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism is to be carried out
by synthesizing the theories of the west and the theory of Yogācāra on learning.
The following chart shows such a theoretical model that covers all of the
theories and concepts discussed in previous chapters.

89 Macdonald, F. “Meet the Man Who Lives Normally With Damage to 90% of
His Brain”, Science Alert, 1 July 2016, http://www.sciencealert.com/a-man-who-lives-
without-90-of-his-brain-is-challenging-our-understanding-of-consciousness.

90 Walshe, M. O'C. "Buddhism and Death", Access to Insight (Legacy Edition),
0 November 201 , http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/walshe/wheel261.html.

Chart 13: A Theoretical Model of Learning Proce
Concept of Seed in Yo

With Faith

68

ess Based on Modern Educational Psychology and the
ogācāra Buddhism

Without Faith

69

The chart above depicts the mechanism of learning process with all
close factors involved. It starts with S, representing Seeds, which are potential
energies that produce everything in the phenomenal world both spiritual and
physical. Seeds are also constituents of the Eighth Consciousness where all
information about everything in the phenomenal is stored in Seeds, including
knowledge, skills, experience, etc. Since there are two types of Seeds, innate
and newly-perfumed, the knowledge can also be two kinds, the innate and
acquired. That is, even before we learn anything, we have some innate
knowledge stored as potential energy in our fundamental consciousness. S’
refers to the newly-perfumed Seeds.

Seeds can produce phenomena both spiritual and physical in the way
that spiritual Seeds produce other consciousnesses such as the Sixth
Consciousness and its affiliating Mental Factors, while the physical Seeds
produce the physical phenomena such as human bodies, which are considered
in Yogācāra Buddhism as parts of the Eighth Consciousness.91 Although
apparently learning process involves function of physiology such as eyes,
brain and nerve system as well as that of mentality, the fundamental faculty is
Eighth Consciousness which is both mental and physical. As Buddhism in
general emphasizes predominantly on the cultivation of mind, Yogācāra
Buddhism, without exception, pays attention mostly on the mind. Therefore,
learning process in Yogācāra Buddhism is thought to take place mainly in the
Sixth Consciousness, known as the mind, with physiology taking a supporting
role.

Within the Sixth Consciousness, there are five categories of Mental
Factors, among which Object Contingent, Wholesome and Unwholesome
Mental Factors are closely related to the learning process, especially Object
Contingent Mental Factors play an essential role.92 The Wholesome and
Unwholesome Mental Factors can greatly influence the learning process in
which the Object Contingent Mental Factors are functioning. the Wholesome
Mental Factors will have a positive effect on the process while the
Unwholesome will be negative.

91 Lin, Guoliang, Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and
Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition).
(Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007), p.121-12 .

92 Tagawa Shun'ei, Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-Only
Buddhism, Tr. Charles Muller, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009), p. 2 -26.

70

Finally comes the MA, Manifest Activity, which refers to anything
that is produced by the Seed in a broad sense. However, MA here exclusively
refers to the behavior that is to be changed before the learning takes place and
MA’ refers to the behavior after the learning.

The whole learning process has the core pattern of Tri-interaction.
That is, MA, originally produced by the S, either innate or newly-perfumed,
perfumes S through the function of Object Contingent Mental Factors. This is
the moment when the learner cognizes the knowledge. Then S produces S’, the
newly perfumed Seeds. This the the moment when the fundamental
information about the behavior is modified. Coming next is S’ producing MA’,
which means the behavior is changed, marking the completion of learning at
this time point. By saying time point, what is implied here is that the whole
Tri-interaction, although analyzed here in sequential order, actually takes place
simultaneously.9 That is MA perfuming S, S producing S’, and S’ producing
MA’ take place at the same time. The completion of learning is repetition of
such time-spot of Tri-interaction til the altered behavior becomes stable and
relatively permanent as stated in the definition of learning.

When the core pattern of Tri-interaction comes together with
Wholesome and Unwholesome Mental Factors, it brings the issue what an
effective learning is. As required for the purpose of liberation, a successful
learning process should follow the such requirements as well:

1) Keeping Wholesome Mental Factors

2) Avoiding Unwholesome Mental Factors

) Sticking to the Object Contingent Mental Factors

Keeping Wholesome Mental Factors and Avoiding Unwholesome
Mental Factors can provide the learning process with a sustainable mental
status, which allows the learning process to take place without much hindrance.
The learning process, as mentioned earlier, is essentially Tri-interation, where
the desired Seeds should be stored in the Eight Consciousness with enough
power. This requires a continuous and forceful perfuming process from
corresponding MA, which is not supposed to be interrupted by other MAs,
which may cause distractions towards the desired Tri-interaction process.

9 Lin, Guoliang, Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and
Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition).
(Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007), p.1 8-141.

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Keeping Wholesome Mental Factors and Avoiding Unwholesome Mental
Factors can effectively prevent unwanted Seeds in the Eighth Consciousnesses
from transforming into Manifest Activities.

Under the condition of the keeping the Wholesome Mental Factors and
avoiding the Unwholesome Mental Factors, sticking to the Object Contingent
Mental Factors, it can make sure that the desired Seeds can transform into
Manifest Activities with greatest efficiency.

However, it has to be noted that among all the Mental Factors,
regardless Wholesome or Unwholesome, the Mental Factor “Faith” takes a
decisive role, which has been emphasized in the sutra as “faith is the source of
spiritual cultivation and the mother of virtues, nourishing all kinds of
wholesome roots. ”94 This verse extols Faith to the highest status saying that
with Faith all the other Wholesome Mental Factors can be obtained. Therefore,
in order to accumulate Wholesome Mental Factors and avoid Unwholesome
Mental Factors for the sake of boosting the efficiency of learning process, a
learner has to place their mind on the faith upon their teachers. It is such faith
who can help develop the virtuous conditions required for a better learning.

To demonstrate the mechanism, here is an example that can be
commonly encountered. In a classroom, a teacher is giving a lecture on the
Development of Science, which none of the students have ever learned before.
The teacher is reading the textbook without much interaction with the students.
Some of the students are playing with their mobile phones while some students
are still paying attention to the class.

In such a situation, the ideal learning process is essentially Tri-
interaction. Since none of the students have learned this subject, MA is the
ignorance status of the Six Consciousness of the subject Development of
Science, and the corresponding latent status in the Eighth Consciousness is S.
Through the function of Object Contingent Mental Factors, MA is changed
into MA’, which represent knowing some knowledge of the the subject
Development of Science, then MA’ perfumes the original S which produces
S’ in the Eighth Consciousness, which means new knowledge is restored in the
deep consciousness in the form of memory. This ideal pattern is that MA is
changed into MA’ successfully without any distortion, and MA’ perfumes S

94 信為道源功德母。長養一切諸善根。X 8n0694_002 梵網經合註 第 2 卷
CBETA 漢文大藏經: http://tripitaka.cbeta.org/ko/X 8n0694_002

72

with enough force so that S’ is produced exactly in accordance with MA’,
which means S’ is able to produce MA’ thereafter. In this case, the student,
ignorant before, now learns that the the modern science starts from Francis
Bacon instead of Issac Newton. Then this knowledge is remembered deeply
and precisely that when asked from whom the modern science start, the
student can come up with “Francis Bacon”.

However, such ideal pattern can not be achieved without proper
involvement of Mental Factors, especially Faith. In the example above, the
teacher’s reading the textbook, considered to be a boring by some of the
students, prevents these students’ desire, the first of Object Contingent Mental
Factors, from functioning. Obviously because of their lack of Faith on the
teacher, some of them fail to show any respect to the teacher by playing with
their mobile phones, thus allowing such Unwholesome Mental Factors to arise
as unscrupulousness (as they have no self-discipline), shamelessness (as they
don’t feel shameful), negligence (as they neglect the negative effect of their
behavior), forgetting (as they forget their duty as a student), etc. Meanwhile,
they don’t keep Wholesome Mental Factors such as zeal (as they don’t try to
pay effort), conscience (as they don’t have self-reflection), shame (as they
don’t care about what negative effect they will bring to the class), no laxity (as
they are not alert), indifference (as they care much about what is pleasant and
what is unpleasant to them) etc.95 As a result, these students fail to enable the
other Object Contingent Mental Factors namely, resolve,, mindfulness,
concentration, and intelligence. Therefore, they fail to come to receive the new
knowledge, i.e. the MA fails to be turned into MA’, hence the S’ is not
produced due to the fact that no MA’ perfuming S.

The opposite situation is the rest of the students who have sufficient
Faith on the same teacher and do pay attention to the class when they keep the
Wholesome Mental Factors and avoid Unwholesome Mental Factors
mentioned above. As a result, despite the fact that the teacher’s unfavorable
teaching method fails to trigger these students’ desire to learn, other Object
Contingent Mental Factors are still functioning, namely resolve (as they
believe they still can learn well under such a teaching method), mindfulness
(as they try to pull their attention to the class again) are concentration (as they

95 Ch.: Da Cheng Bai Fa Ming Men Lun; Skt.:Mahāyāna-śatadharma-
prakāśamukha-śāstra.

7

can focus on the class without distraction) and intelligence (as they can
understand and remember the knowledge).

In conclusion, learning process is essentially Tri-interaction among
Seeds and Manifest Activities through the function of Object Contingent
Mental Factors, upon which the Wholesome Factors can have positive effect
while the Unwholesome can have negative effect, among which Faith is the
catalyst. An effect learning process requires the learner to keep the
Unwholesome Mental Factors preceded by Faith, avoid Unwholesome Mental
Factors and stick to the Object Contingent Mental Factors.

4.5 The Application on Teaching Methods

Since concepts in Yogācāra can unify and harmonize the western
theories on learning to a large extent, if applied on the frontier of education,
they will not likely to lead to any teaching methods that may resemble any of
the current teaching methods that go from one extreme to another. Such kind
of middle-way stance provides the possible educational application with
moderate and integral characteristics. These characteristics will largely be
exhibited through proposing the role of the teacher and the students and a
series of possible effective learning strategies.

Before the early 20 Century, it was widely accepted that the role of the
teacher was dominant over the class. And his/her authority were not supposed
to be challenged and the students were supposed to show absolute deference to
the teacher. Such a teacher-centered mode was doubted in the later time, and
the teacher is, under the student-centered mode, described as assistant of the
students in the latter’s learning process.

4.5.1 Teacher-Centered Teaching

Teacher-centered teaching (TC) refers to that the teacher transmits
knowledge directly to the students. It “is a form of explicit instruction that
attempts to present information to learners in a form they can easily access, TC
is a fast-paced method of teaching that provides very high levels of interaction
between students and their teacher. Instructional procedures are based on clear

74

objectives, modelling, high response rate, reinforcement, error correction,
criterion-referenced performance and practice to mastery.” 96

TC is based on a belief that learners can clearly understand the
information without much misunderstanding if the teacher presents it clearly
step by step.97 “It is argued that direct teaching procedures are based upon
behavioural views of learning where modelling, imitation, practice, shaping
and reinforcement are key ingredients for helping learners master the
objectives set for each lesson.”8 Hall states that “explicit instruction is a
systematic instructional approach that includes a set of delivery and design
procedures derived from effective schools research merged with behavior
analysis”.98

From what has been discussed above, direct teaching method has a
strong preference for the dominant role of the teacher as well as a systematic
process of delivering the knowledge.

4.5.2 Student-Centered Teaching

Student-centered (SC) teaching methods are based on the
constructivist view which emphasizes “the essential role of activity and
firsthand experience in shaping human learning and understanding.” And it
believes that learners are able to construct “their own knowledge through their
own endeavours, because most of what individuals learn in everyday life
clearly comes from personal discovery and experience, not from instruction.”

Under such a belief, the teaching methods are normally required to
“focus primarily on learners playing the active and major role in acquiring
information and developing concepts and skills while interacting with their
social and physical environment. The role of the teacher becomes one of
facilitator and supporter, rather than instructor. The importance of social
interaction, language and communication is recognised in constructivist

96 Westwood, P, What teachers should know about, (Camberwell: ACER Press, 2008),
p.9-10.

97 Ellis, L.A., Balancing approaches: revisiting the educational psychology research on
teaching students with learning difficulties, (Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational
Research, 2005).

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classrooms and therefore much group activity, discussion and cooperative
learning is encouraged.”99

What has been discussed above leads to the conclusion that the
student-centered teaching method pays more attention on the experience of the
students during the learning.

4.5.3 The Main Differences Between Direct Teaching and
Student-Centered Teaching

The teacher plays a major role in the teaching process under direct
teaching methods. He/she will dominate the class, and give directly to students
knowledge or skills digested by him/herself in the way he/she has
systematically planned. The lesson will be carried on mainly in the form of
lectures, based on which the students can raise questions or doubts. However,
interaction between the teacher and an individual student is not considered
common in this mode. While for student-centered teaching, the students are
supposed to take an active role in the learning process with little dominance
from the teacher, who is supposed to teach in a direct way leaving more
chance for the students to understand and learn by experience and discovery of
their own. In this teaching mode, more consideration will be given to an
individual student who can have close interaction with the teacher on issues,
topics, questions and doubts brought forth from his previous active learning.
The following table shows the main differences:

Chart 14: The Main Differences Between Direct Teaching and Student-
Centered Teaching

99 Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers should know about. Camberwell: ACER
Press. p.4

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Aspects Direct Teaching Student-Centered

Dominance of the Teacher Great Less

Learning Source Digested Knowledge Real-Life Situation

Interaction Less More

Directness Direct Indirect

Individual Consideration Less More

Teaching Planning Prescribed Less Prescribed

As a form of conclusion, the table above shows explicitly the
difference between direct teaching and student-centered teaching from six
major perspectives. It should be noted that the difference is not to be
understood as sharp contrast, that is black and white, rather it is more or less
concerning the degree of factors involved for each of the teaching method. In
general, direct teaching is characterized by greater dominance of the teacher
who is more likely to give more direct and prescribed teaching on digested
knowledge with less interaction and individual consideration with the students.
While student-centered teaching is more described as less dominance of the
teacher who transmits knowledge indirectly by conducting teaching activities
through real-life situations with more interaction and consideration with the
individuals.

4.5.4 Teaching Methods in Yogācāra

The transfer of the favor from direct teaching, also known as teaching
centered teaching to student-centered teaching from the early 20 Century is
an outcome of many dissatisfaction towards the traditional teaching style,
including the tedious learning environment, passive role of the students, etc. In
general, reformers have been keeping the faith that as long as the dominant
role shifts from the teacher to the students, then the learning result will be
increased because the students will be more interested, the learning process

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will tend to be more motivated. However, nearly one century has passed, it
seems that the expected result didn’t come out significantly. According to the
reports, generally those countries keep more TC mode than SC seem to be
more successful in education.

According to Yogācāra, the performance of the MA depends on the
strength of Seeds. The stronger the power of the Seeds is, the better
performance of MA is, vice versa. And strength comes from concentration.
That is to say an efficient learning, intrinsically, comes from the learner’s
concentration. The more concentration the learner has, the better result of
learning is. Although theoretically both TC and SC aim at learning with better
effect more or less in relation to increase of the learner’s concentration, the
former practically has done a relatively better job out of the traditional concept
that students should show absolute deference to the teacher. In a traditional
learning environment, the teacher is considered to be the only reliable source
of the knowledge and any decrease of respect to the teacher will cause severe
criticism or even punishment. Such environment is conducive to the
occurrence of such wholesome mental factors as faith, zeal, conscience, shame,
no laxity, etc. , which helps increase concentration.of the students on the class.
Whatever they are taught, they’ll focus regardless of their interest. Because of
such special faith from the students as well as the whole social environment,
the teacher tends to pay more attention to his/her image, thus more responsible
for such an extolled occupation.

The SC mode though intends to attract students’ attention and attempts
to make them focus by putting the students at the central position of the
learning process. And the whole class is likely to be designed in a way to cater
for the students.This, unfortunately however, undermines, the dominant role
of the teacher. He/she will not be able to receive as much deference as he/she
did in a traditional learning environment, because in the new SC environment,
the teacher is considered nothing but an assistant, which means the teacher is
only necessary when the students encounter difficulty out of their ability
during their learning or when necessary guidance is needed in advance of the
learning process. Different from the traditional environment, he/she is not
regarded as the only source of the knowledge nor the authority in explaining
the knowledge, and further more,the teacher can always be challenged and
questioned. A sense of superiority and a feeling of being served will eventually
come from the students, and several unwholesome mental factors will arise

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accordingly such as pride, arrogance. Statistics show that behaviors of
disrespecting teachers seem to be more frequent in places where SC is more
prevailing. What’s more, the programs and activities designed in such classes
often, due to difficulty in handling the degree, turn out to be so entertaining
that within the their sixth consciousness will arise mental factors such as
distraction, forgetting and negligence.A typical example is that an EFL
(English as a Foreign Language) class is carried out by the teacher playing an
American movie in the class where the students are supposed to learn English
by watching the movie with subtitle in their first language. Interesting indeed
though, such a class might bring to the student to nowhere other than training
their native language reading speed. These unwholesome mental factors
discussed in the two situations above will cause great hindrance to their
concentration on the real learning goals the activities are designed to achieve.
From the analysis above, it can be inferred that the dominant and authoritative
role of the teacher should not be underestimated, for it’s the key to the
concentration of the students which is essentially the key to the an effective
learning.

In conclusion, what is proposed here, therefore, as regards the role of
the teacher is the necessity of consolidating the unconditional respectful status
of the teacher instead of making a optimal choice between TC and SC.
However, such consolidation doesn’t necessarily mean that the teacher can
teach in whatever way he/she prefers. According to Yogācāra, the
transformation of Seeds to MA requires conditions, which means the learning
process, although depends on the concentration of the learner, needs favorable
conditions to take place. It is the teacher’s very role to create such conditions
that optimize the learning process. Compared to the TC mode, SC seems to
have more choices in this aspect, for the various teaching techniques
developed by SC supporters, to a large extent, are aimed at creating such
favored conditions.

Chapter V

Conclusion and Suggestion

This chapter is the final part of this research, in which conclusion of
all the main points of the study are made, including the background of the
study, the study of the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism as well as the
western theories on learning, and the establishment of the theoretical model of
learning in based on the concept of Seed in Yogācāra Buddhism. The
conclusion will be followed by suggestions on the possible researches that can
be conducted in the future based on shortcomings of this research.

5.1 Conclusion
The educational field has long been dominated by the confusion of

what teaching methods should be chosen for the teaching in the classroom.
This mainly results from the disputed western theories on learning at many
aspects such as the source of learning, the role of the learner, and the faculty
that enables the learning process. As learning is closely related to the function
of human mind, a deeper and integral study in the function of human mind is
essential to close the rifts among the theories.

Buddhism, exemplified by Yogācāra Buddhism, is known as a
profound subject that looks deep into the human mind. The concept of Seed in
Yogācāra Buddhism gives explanation on the existence and change of every
phenomenon. It especially elaborates on the whole process of the change of
mind, which is essentially the mutual affect between two states of the
fundamental mind, Ālaya-vijñāna, the dormant state (Seed), the active one
(manifest activity), as well as the updating process of Seeds, Seeds producing
new Seeds. Such Tri-interaction, defined in this research, gives clear clues for
the acquisition of knowledge at a supramundane level, which specifically
requires a practitioner to keep the Six Consciousness active with the function
of the Five Object Contingent Factors, following the wholesome mental
factors and keeping away from the unwholesome ones. This principle does not
only fits the fundamental principle of Buddhist practice but also can be applied
on different practice path such as Pure Land.

Based on the such a concept in Yogācāra Buddhism, the theoretical
model of learning, at a mundane level, is established. The learning is defined

80

as a process of Tri-interaction in association with the five Object
Contingent Factors. An effective learning is related to the learner’s following
the wholesome mental factors and keeping away from the unwholesome ones.
This new model does not only close the rifts among the western theories on
learning, but also provides the teaching activity with a principle with which
how and to what extent a teaching method should be carried out, be it direct
teaching or student-centered teaching.

5.2 Suggestion
Due to various factors, this research is conducted without sufficient

data for the support of some points. Application on the teaching methods is not
fully expounded as it is not the main structure of the research. Therefore, it is
suggested that research should be conducted in the future regarding the
applicability, specific teaching strategies based on the the theoretical model in
this research and so on.

81

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Biography

Name : Ven. Hui Chen

Date of Birth : December 7, 1985

Date of Ordination : August , 2015

Nationality : Chinese

Education : 2008: BA in English Language and
Literature, Xiaogan University, China;
2010: MA in Foreign Language and
Applied Linguistics, Guangdong
University of Foreign Studies, China.

Experience : 2010-2011: Language Teacher at New
Oriental School, Guangzhou, China ;
2011-2015: Lecturer at Nanfang College
of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou,
China.

Publications : “Mange a Conflict: Goal and Action
Thanking Pattern”, JIBSC, Vol.2 No.1,
2016: pp 64-70.
“The Relationship between the Brain and
the Base of the Mind from the Perspective
of Yogacara” , JIABU, Vol.11 No1., 2018:
pp 404-41 .
“Teaching methods of the Buddha
embodied in the Dhammapada stories”,
eJournal of Buddhist Research Studies,
Vol.5, 2018: pp 65-7 .

Contact : Tel. 064- 46-4107
Email: [email protected]