RICE POST HARVEST HANDLING
.
•Whole Kernel:
Husked or milled kernel without any broken part, or part of kernel
with a length greater than or equal to nine-tenths of the average
length of grain.
•Head Rice:
Kernels of milled rice of not less than 8/10 of the average length of
grain.
•Large Broken:
Kernels of milled rice of less than 8/10 and not less than 5/10 of
the average length of grain.
•Small Broken:
Broken kernels of milled rice of less than 5/10 and not less than
2/10 of the average length of grain.
•Chips:
Broken kernels of milled rice of less than 2/10 of the average
length of grain.
Proximate composition of rough rice and its milling
fractions at 14 percent moisture
Rice Crude Crude Crude Crude Availabl Neutral Energy content Density Bulk density
fraction protein fat (g) fibre (g) ash (g) e deterge (g/ml) (g/ml)
(g N x 5. carbohy nt fibre
95) drates (g)
(g)
(kJ) (hcal)
Rough rice 5.8‐7.7 1.5‐2.3 7.2‐10.4 2.9‐5.2 64‐73 16.4‐ 1580 378 1.17‐1.23 0.56‐0.64
Brown rice 7.1‐8.3 1.6‐2.8 0.6‐1.0 1.0‐1.5 73‐87 19.2
2.9‐3.9 1520‐1 610 363‐385 1.31 0.68
Milled rice 6.3‐7.1 0.3‐0.5 0.2‐0.5 0.3‐0.8 77‐89 0.7‐2.3 1460‐1 560 349‐373 1.44‐1.46 0.78‐0.85
Rice bran 11.3‐ 15.0‐ 7.0‐11.4 6.6‐9.9 34‐62 24‐29 670‐1 990 399‐476 1.16‐1.29 0.20‐0.40
Rice hull 14.9 19.7 66‐74 1110‐1 390 265‐332 0.67‐0.74 0.10‐0.16
2.0‐2.8 0.3‐0.8 34.5‐ 13.2‐ 22‐34
45.9 21.0
Vitamin and mineral content of rough rice and its milling
fractions at 14 percent moisture
Rice Thiamin Ribofla Niacin a ‐ Calciu Phosph Phytin Iron Zinc
fraction e (mg) vin (mg) Tocophe m orus (g) P (g) (mg) (mg)
(mg) rol (mg) (mg)
Rough rice 0.26‐ 0.06‐ 2.9‐5.6 0.90‐ 10‐80 0.17‐ 0.18‐ 1.4‐ 1.7‐3.1
0.33 0.11 2.00 0.39 0.21 6.0
Brown 0.29‐ 0.04‐ 3.5‐5.3 0.90‐ 10‐50 0.17‐ 0.13‐ 0.2‐ 0.6‐2.8
rice 0.61 0.14 2.50 0.43 0.27 5.2
Milled rice 0.02‐ 0.02‐ 1.3‐2.4 75‐0.30 10‐30 0.08‐ 0.02‐ 0.2‐ 0.6‐2.3
0.11 0.06 0.15 0.07 2.8
Rice bran 1.20‐ 0.18‐ 26.7‐ 2.60‐ 30‐ 1.1‐2.5 0.9‐2.2 8.6‐ 4.3‐
2.40 0.43
49.9 13.3 120 43.0 25.8
Rice hull 0.09‐ 0.05‐
0.21 0.07 1.6‐4.2 0 60‐ 0.03‐ 0 3.9‐ 0.9‐4.0
130 0.07 9.5
Amino acid content of rough rice and its milling fractions
at 14 percent moisture (9 per 16 9 N)
Rice Histidi Isoleuci Leucin Lysine Methio Phenylal Threo Tryptop Valine Amino
fraction
ne ne e + nine + anine nine han acid
cystei tyrosine scorea
ne
Rough 1.5‐ 3.0‐4.8 6.9‐ 3.2‐ 4.5‐6.2 9.3‐10.8 3.0‐ 1.2‐2.0 4.6‐ 55‐81
rice 2.8 8.8 4.7 4.5 7.0
Brown 2.3‐ 3.4‐4.4 7.9‐ 3.7‐ 4.4‐4.6 8.6‐9.3 3.7‐ 1.2‐1.4 4.8‐ 64‐71
rice 2.5 8.5 4.1 3.8 6.3
Milled 2.2‐ 3.5‐4.6 8.0‐ 3.2‐ 4.3‐5.0 9.3‐10.4 3.5‐ 1.2‐1.7 4.7‐ 55‐69
rice 2.6 8.2 4.0 3.7 6.5
Rice bran 2.7‐ 2.7‐4.1 6.9‐ 4.8‐ 4.2‐4.8 7.7‐8.0 3.8‐ 0.6‐1.2 4.9‐ 83‐93
3.3 7.6 5.4 4.2 6.0
Rice hull 1.6‐ 3.2‐4.0 8.0‐ 3.8‐ 3.5‐3.7 6.6‐7.3 4.2‐ 0.6 5.5‐ 66‐93
7.5
2.0 8.2 5.4 5.0
a Based on 5.8 g lysine per 16 g N as 100% (V/HO, 1985).
S
Yield and composition of defatted and protease‐amylase treated cell wall
preparations obtained from different histological fractions of milling of
brown rice
Rice fraction Yield Composition (% of total) Uronic acid Arabinose:xylose
(%deffat
ed in pectin ratio
tissue)
(%)
Pectic Hemicellul a ‐ Lignin Pectic Hemicel
substan lulose
substan ose cellulose ces
1.63 0.82
ces
1.78 0.84
Caryopsis coat 29 7 38 27 32 32
2.29 0.96
Aleurone tissue 20 11 42 16 25 25 1.09 0.64
Germ 12 23 47 9 16 16
Endosperm 0.3 27 49 1 34 34
RICE HARVESTING
Harvesting is the process of collecting the
mature rice crop from the field. Paddy
harvesting activities include reaping,
stacking, handling, threshing, cleaning, and
hauling. These can be done individually or
a combine harvester can be used to
perform the operations simultaneously.
It is important to apply good harvesting
methods to be able to maximize grain yield,
and minimize grain damage and quality
deterioration.
• Harvesting rice consists of the basic operations which can
be done in individual steps or in combination using a
combine harvester. These include:
• Reaping - cutting the mature panicles and straw above
ground
• Threshing - separating the paddy grain from the rest of cut
crop
• Cleaning - removing immature, unfilled, non-grain materials
• Hauling - moving the cut crop to the threshing location
• Field drying - leaving the cut crop in the field and exposing
it to the sun for drying (optional)
• Stacking/piling - temporarily storing the harvested crop in
stacks or piles (optional)
• Bagging - putting the threshed grain in bags for transport
and storage
• Traditional harvesting activities such as field
drying and stacking/piling are not recommended
because they can lead to rapid quality
deterioration and increased harvest losses.
• Besides these, a variety of other activities can be
included in harvesting such as gathering, reaping
(gathering standing grain by cutting), bundling,
and various forms of transporting the crop and
grain.
• Harvesting systems vary depending on location or
region, and can be done using a wide variety of
traditional, semi-mechanical, and mechanical tools.
• Manual system is the most common means of rice
harvesting. The rice crop is cut by using simple hand
tools like sickle (best for cutting 15−25 cm above ground
level), and simple hand-held knives (best for cutting just
below the panicle, e.g. ani ani in Indonesia).
• When cutting crop with a sickle, always hold the stems
with thumb pointing upwards, away from the blade.
• Advantages: Very effective in lodged crop conditions
• Disadvantages: Labor-intensive; Manual harvesting
requires 5−10 person days per hectare. It will take
additional labor to manually collect and haul the
harvested crop.
• The time of cutting must be closely linked with
threshing and drying. Threshing and drying
need to be done within 24 hours of cutting.
• Reaping or cutting is the first operation in
harvesting. Depending on the crop's
condition, and availability of labor or
machinery, it can be done either manually or
mechanically.
• Manual system is the most common means of
rice harvesting. The rice crop is cut by using
simple hand tools like sickle (best for cutting
15−25 cm above ground level), and simple
hand‐held knives (best for cutting just below
the panicle, e.g. ani ani in Indonesia).
• When cutting crop with a sickle, always hold
the stems with thumb pointing upwards, away
from the blade.
• Advantages: Very effective in lodged crop
conditions
• Disadvantages: Labor‐intensive; Manual
harves ng requires 5−10 person days per
hectare. It will take additional labor to
manually collect and haul the harvested crop.
• The time of cutting must be closely linked with
threshing and drying. Threshing and drying
need to be done within 24 hours of cutting.
• Mechanical cutting uses reapers (machine that cuts
and gathers). Reapers are either hand‐driven or
mounted on the front of a tractor. While the use of
reapers has not been widespread, it is gaining
popularity where labor shortages have occurred.
• Most reapers lay the crop in a windrow, which allows
easy pick‐up of the harvested crop. A reaper with a
cutting‐width of 1.5 m can operate at a rate of 2−4 ha
per day.
• To efficiently use reapers, fields need to be leveled and
water drained at least 10−20 days before harvest.
• Advantages: Low labor requirements
• Disadvantages: Difficult to reap lodged crop;
Availability of machine may be an issue
• The time of cutting must be closely linked with
threshing and drying. Threshing and drying
need to be done within 24 hours of cutting.
Threshing
• Threshing is the process of separating the grain
from the straw. It can be either done by hand, by
using a treadle thresher or mechanized.
• The common method for manual threshing is
hand beating against an object, treading, or by
holding the crop against a rotating drum with
spikes or rasp bars.
• Hand beating methods are normally used for
threshing rice that easily shatters (i.e., at lower
moisture content).
• Methods of manual threshing
• Pedal thresher (recommended best practice)
• The pedal or treadle thresher consists of
threshing drum, base, transmission unit and a
foot crank. When pedaled, the threshing drum
rotates and rice can be threshed when panicles
are applied against the threshing drum. Because
small straws, chaff, and foreign matter drop along
with the threshed grain, whole grains must be
separated using a flail, sieve or by winnowing
(see section on cleaning).
• Trampling
• This involves the use of bare feet or animals to thresh
the crop. The crop is spread over a mat or canvass and
workers trample with their own feet or use their
animals. Animal treading or trampling is normally
carried out at a designated location near the field or in
the village. In some regions, animals have been
replaced by tractors. After animal treading, the straw is
separated from the grains and cleaning of the grain is
done by winnowing, with or without the aid of an
electric fan. Losses are high from broken and damaged
grains.
• hreshing rack
• The crop is held by the sheaves and beats it
against a slatted bamboo, wooden platform,
or any other hard object such as a steel oil
drum. This is very labor intensive.
• Flail
• The use of a flail or stick for threshing the crop
is not popular for rice.
• The use of small stationary machine threshers
commonly replaces manual threshing given the
high labor requirements of manual threshing.
Stationary threshing is generally done in the field,
or near the field.
• Many stationary threshers for paddy have peg‐
toothed threshing drums, however threshers
fitted with wire‐loop or rasp‐bars are used as
well. Most threshers are of the feed‐in type (e.g.
entire crop is fed through the thresher) which
ensure high throughput.
• Hold‐on threshers (only panicle is fed into the machine)
generally have a lower capacity than feed‐in threshers and
are primarily used in areas where rice straw is bundled and
stored for later use.
• Large stationary threshers are fitted with additional
cleaning devices such as an oscillating screen, centrifugal
blower, and windboard, and threshed grain can be handled
without further cleaning.
• In many regions, machine threshers are owned by
individuals who offer custom operations to farmers. This
requires that farmers schedule harvesting dates depending
on the availability of the thresher. Many threshers are
mounted on trailers or trucks which enables the operator
to quickly move from field to field.
• Principle of feed‐in type axial‐flow thresher
• Harvested crop is loaded onto the tray and fed into the
opening between the cylinder and the concave at one end
of the machine. The pegs on the threshing cylinder hit the
material separating the grain from the straw, and at the
same time accelerating them around the cylinder.
• The majority of the grain is threshed during initial impact
but further threshing is performed as the material moves
axially until the straw is discharged at the opposite end.
Threshed grain, including impurities such as leaves and
short pieces of straw, pass through the openings in the
concave and fall on the oscillating screen where large
impurities are separated.
GUIDELINE FOR PROPER THRESING
• For manual threshing
• For hand threshed crops, partial drying in the field for a
couple of days may be necessary to lower the moisture
content and make threshing easier.
• The highest milling yield will be attained for hand threshed,
sun dried rice at grain moisture content between 18–20%.
• Care must be taken not to overdry the crop if it is to be
transported any distance before threshing as excessive
shattering will occur.
• While the crop may be dried before threshing, dried crop
should not be subjected to rewetting. Rewetting causes
grain fissures which lead to high broken grain when milled.
• For machine threshing
• Harvest the grain at optimum maturity to maximize yield and
minimize losses. Axial‐flow threshers that are particularly designed
for rice can handle very wet crop.
• Timing of threshing
Ideally, machine threshing should begin immediately after cutting
and often these crops can be threshed in the field.
• Immediate threshing reduces the exposure of crop to insects, birds
and rodents, disease, and molds. Crop that is piled over a period of
time generates heat that will serve as an ideal medium for growth
of molds, disease and pests. Piling for several days will lead to grain
discoloration, germinated grains, and spoilage.
• Machine adjustments
Always make sure that threshing drum speed and the cleaner
settings are done properly according to the crop
conditions. Wrongly adjusted threshers create higher threshing loss
and grain damage.
Measuring moisture content
• Moisture content (MC) is the weight of water
contained in paddy or rice expressed in percent. MC is
usually referred to the wet basis meaning the total
weight of the grain including the water (MCwb). For
research moisture content referred to the dry matter of
the grain is sometimes used (MCdb).
• Why is measuring the moisture content important?
• Accurate moisture content testing is important in
managing and marketing paddy and rice because
depending on the purpose rice has different ideal
moisture contents. Inaccurate moisture content
measurements lead to:
• Extra drying cost and harvesting loss if paddy
is harvested wetter than necessary
• Spoilage if the grain is too wet in storage
• Extra drying cost and loss of quality if paddy is
dried too far
• Lower head rice when milled at wrong MC
• Weight loss (loss in profit) if grain is sold too
dry
• How to measure moisture content
• Moisture content of grain can be measured by
using either:
• primary method, based on weight
measurements like the (a) oven method or an
(b) infrared moisture balance or
• secondary method, using an electronic
instrument that uses electrical characteristics
of the grains.
Cleaning
• Cleaning grains after harvest is important as it
removes unwanted materials from the grain.
• A clean grain has a higher value than a grain that
is contaminated with straw, chaff, weed seeds,
soil, rubbish, and other non‐grain materials.
• Grain cleaning will improve the drying, the
storability of grain, reduce dockage at time of
milling, and improve milling output and quality;
while, seed cleaning will reduce damage by
disease, and improve yields.
• Winnowing
Lighter materials such as unfilled grains, chaff, weed seeds,
and straw is removed through winnowing. To improve
efficiency when there is no sufficient wind, a blower or an
air fan can be used. However, winnowing recovers only the
heavier grains. Other heavy particles like heavier weed
seeds, off types, stones and dirt might still be included in
the rice.
• Screening/Sifting
Smaller materials such as weed seeds, soil particles and
stones can be removed by sieving the grain through a
smaller sized screen (1.4 mm or less sieve opening). This
can also be done mechanically through machine cleaners
which use an air stream to remove light materials such as
straw, chaff, and unfilled grains.
• Recommended winnowing practices:
• Place grain on a winnowing tray.
• Place a net or mat on the ground.
• Tilt the tray against the wind.
• Pour grain slows at a height of about 1 m.
• Wind will separate light from heavy grains.
• Recover only the heavier grains.
• Repeat the procedure if needed.
• Use a fan or blower if there is not sufficient wind.
Harvesting costs
• Costs of harvesting rice are often (but not always)
estimated in terms of percent of grain output, as in the
following examples from 2004:
• Vietnam: harvesting costs are 8% for manual collection by a
crew and stationary thresher
• Philippines: harvesting costs are 15% for cutting by sickle
and use of trailer mounted thresher
• China: harvesting costs are 6% by tractor‐mounted combine
harvester
• The table below shows an example of costs of the three
systems:
• manual harvesting (including cutting, threshing, cleaning);
• manual cutting + machine threshing/cleaning by own labor
and machine;
• manual cutting + machine threshing by contracted labor
and machine.