Campbell Biology

Index

Index NOTE: A page number in regular type indicates Acorn worms, 687f cytotoxic T cells in responses of, to infected cells,
where a topic is discussed in the text; a bold Acquired immunodeficiency, 970. See also AIDS 964f, 965
page number indicates where a term is bold and Acquired traits, noninheritance of, 469f
defined; an f following a page number indicates Acrosomal reactions, 1042, 1043f helper T cells in responses of, to all antigens,
a figure (the topic may also be discussed in the Acrosomes, 1026f, 1042, 1043f 961, 962f
text on that page); a t following a page number Actias luna, 43
indicates a table (the topic may also be discussed Actin, 76f, 115, 241, 877f immune rejection and, 967–968
in the text on that page). Actin filaments, 113t, 1054f, 1123, 1124f–1125f. See also immunological memory of, 960, 961f
molecular recognition by, 951f
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 847 Microfilaments overview of, 956f, 962, 966f
3′  end (sugar-phosphate backbone), 85f, 345f, 348f Actinistia, 717f, 727f Adaptive radiations, 15f–16f, 540, 541f, 542, 734,
3-phosphoglycerate, 201, 202f Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes), 717f, 726f–727f
5′  cap, 345f, 348f Action potentials, neuron, 1071 1181, 1182f
5′  end (sugar-phosphate backbone), 85f Addition rule, 277f, 278
5-methylcytosine, 63f adaptations of axon structure for, 1074f–1075f Adenine, 85f, 86, 317f, 318, 341f, 848
10-nm fibers, DNA, 330f conduction of, 1073f, 1074 Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), 389f, 392
30-nm fibers, DNA, 331f, 332 evolution of, 1082 Adenosine diphosphate. See ADP
300-nm fibers, DNA, 331f generation of, 1072f, 1073 Adenosine triphosphate. See ATP
graded potentials, voltage-gated ion channels, Adenoviruses, 398f
A Adenylyl cyclase, 223f–224f
and, 1071f, 1072 Adhesion, 45, 46f, 793–794
a (yeast mating type), 213f, 217 hyperpolarization and depolarization of Adhesive chemicals, echinoderm, 712f, 713
ABC hypothesis, flower formation, 778f–779f Adipose tissue, 876f, 913
abd-A gene, 705f membrane potentials and, 1070f–1071f ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
Abdomen, insect, 708f in long-term potentiation, 1099f
Abiotic factors, 1167 in sensory systems, 1107 as enzyme activator, 160
Action potentials, plant, 860 hydrolysis of ATP to, 150, 151f
microclimate and, 1167 Action spectrum, 193, 194f, 853 in sliding-filament model of muscle contraction,
in pollination, 822f Activation, allosteric, 160f, 161
in species distributions, 1176, 1181f–1184f Activation, egg, 1044 1124, 1125f
Abiotic stresses, plant, 860–861, 862f, 863 Activation energy, 153, 154f–155f synthesis of ATP from, 153f, 169, 175, 176f,
Abiotic synthesis, organic molecule, 57f, 58, 524f–525f Activators, 160f, 367f, 371f–372f, 395
Abnormal chromosome number disorders, 307f Active immunity, 966 177–178
ABO blood groups, 280f, 292, 968 Active sites, enzyme, 155f–156f Adrenal cortex, 1002f, 1011f, 1012
Abomasum, 912f Active transport, 136 Adrenal glands, 1010
Abortion, 1037 ATP as energy for, 137f
spontaneous, 306 cotransport in, 138f, 139 epinephrine and. See Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Abscisic acid (ABA), 796, 844t, 850f, 861 maintenance of membrane potential by ion in human endocrine system, 1002f
Abscission, leaf, 850, 852f responses of, to stress, 1010f–1011f, 1012
Absorption, 902 pumps in, 137, 138f smooth ER and, 104
in animal food processing, 903f passive transport vs., 137f Adrenaline. See Epinephrine
in large intestine, 908, 909f in plant cells, 209f Adrenal medulla, 1002f, 1010f–1011f
plant and animal, 893f of solutes across plant plasma membranes, 786, 787f Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 1002f, 1006f,
in small intestine, 907f–908f Activity, animal metabolic rate and, 889–890
of water and mineral by root cells, 790 Actual range, 1182 1010f, 1011–1012
Absorption spectrum, 193f Acyclovir, 407 Adult stem cells, 429f
Abstinence, 1036f Adaptation, sensory, 1107–1108 Adventitious roots, 758f, 775
Abyssal zone, 1175f Adaptations, 470. See also Evolution; Natural selection Adventitious shoots, 775, 831f
Acacia trees, 10f, 777f, 811f, 1218f in amniote development, 1051 Aerial roots, 758f
Acanthocephalans, 685f, 696f axon width and myelination as, 1074f–1075f Aerobic prokaryotes, 575f
Acanthodians, 724 evolution and, 2f, 14f–16f, 470, 471f–474f Aerobic respiration, 165, 179–181
Accessory fruits, 829f as evolutionary compromises, 499 Afferent neurons, 1087f, 1106f
Accessory glands, male reproductive, 1023f, 1024 floral, to prevent self-fertilization, 832, 833f Afghanistan, age-structure pyramid for, 1207f
Acclimatization, 881f, 886 gas exchange, 945f–947f Africa, human population in, 1206–1207
Accommodation, visual, 1120f for heat exchange in animals, 883f–887f African-Americans, sickle-cell disease in, 286f, 287
Acetic acid, 63f herbivory, 1217f African buffalo, 1219f
Acetone, 63f mycorrhizae as plant, 815 African elephants, 472f, 1195f
Acetylation, histone, 369f of pathogens to evade immune systems, African elephants (Loxodonta africana), 1263f
Acetylcholine, 1078, 1079t, 1126, 1127f African golden mole, 556f, 557
Acetylcholinesterase, 1078 970–971, 972f Africans
Acetyl CoA (acetyl coenzyme A), 171f–173f of plants and animals to life challenges, 892f–893f
Acetylsalicylic acid, 649 of plants to global climate change, 204–205 genomes of, 460–461
Achillea lanulosa, 1187 of plants to terrestrial life, 203 sickle-cell disease in, 286f, 287
Achondroplasia, 287f of plants to toxic elements, 30f African sleeping sickness, 711
Acid growth hypothesis, 846, 847f prokaryotic, 571f–575f, 576, 579, 580f Agave, 1198, 1199f
Acidic rain, 55 as property of life, 3f Agave plant, 146f
Acidification, ocean, 53f, 54 to reduce terrestrial nutrient limitations, 1242 Agent Orange, 395
Acid precipitation, 819, 1264f of seed plants, 651 Age structure, human population, 1206, 1207f
Acid reflux, 906 sexual reproduction patterns as, 1020 Aggregate fruits, 829f
Acids, 51 of smooth muscles, 1130 Aging
acid precipitation and, 819, 1264f terrestrial, of fungi and plants, 617f, 658 process of, 233
amino acids as, 76, 77f terrestrial, of seed plants, 635f–636f, 637 telomeric DNA and, 329
buffers and, 52–53 of vertebrate digestive systems, 909f–912f Aglaophyton major, 627f, 658
hydrogen ions, bases, and, 51 Adaptive evolution, 492, 497f. See also Evolution; Agonistic behavior, 1151f
ocean acidification and, 53f, 54 Agriculture. See also Crop plants
pH scale and, 51, 52f Natural selection allopolyploidy in, 512f–513f
Acoela, 685f Adaptive immunity, 951f biotechnology in, 436–437
Acoelomates, 678f, 679 C3 plants in, 203
Acorn woodpeckers (Melanerpes formicivorus), 1160 active and passive immunity of, and C4 plants in, 203
immunization, 966f climate change and, 861
community disturbances by, 1229
antibodies of, as medical tools, 967f effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide on
antigen recognition by B cells and antibodies of,
productivity of, 205
956f–957f fertilizing in. See Fertilization, soil
antigen recognition by T cells, 957f–958f fungal food products of, 668
B cell and T cell development of, 958, 959f–961f global human population size and, 1209
B cells and antibodies in responses of, to importance of insects to, 711
importance of mycorrhizae to, 816
extracellular pathogens, 962, 963f

I-1 INDEX

nematode pests in, 703f mutations as sources of, 265, 486–487 Amniocentesis, 288, 289f, 1037 Index
nitrogen fixation and, 815 recessive, in genetic disorders, 285f–286f, 287 Amnion, 478, 733f, 1051f
nutrient pollution from, 1273f, 1274 in sexual life cycles, 259 Amniotes, 732, 1051
plant biotechnology and genetic engineering in, sickle-cell, 500f–501f
testing populations for frequencies of, 488, 489f, derived characters of, 732, 733f
834f–836f, 837–838 developmental adaptations of, 1051
plant breeding in, 821, 833–835 490–491 evolution of, 676
plant cloning in, 427 Allergens, 837, 968f, 969 fossils and early evolution of, 733f
plant control systems in, 869 Allergies, 436–437, 968f, 969 mammals as, 738
seed plants in, 649 Alliaria petiolata, 816 phylogeny of, 732f
soil conservation and sustainable, 805f–807f, 1271 Alligator mississippiensis. See American alligator reptiles, 733f–738f
vegetative propagation of plants in, 833 Alligators, 735f, 736 Amniotic egg, 732, 733f
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 420, 582f, 593 Allohexaploid, 512–513, 522 Amoebas, 117f, 234, 235f, 447, 595f, 605
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), 404, Allolactose, 366f Amoebocytes, 688f, 689
Allopatric populations, character displacement in, Amoeboid movement, 117f
972. See also HIV Amoebozoans, 609f–611f
cell-surface proteins and blocking HIV 1214, 1215f AMP (adenosine monophosphate), 183f, 184, 349f
Allopatric speciation, 509f–510f, 511, 537 AMPA receptors, 1099f
to prevent, 130f Allopolyploids, 512f–513f Amphetamines, 1100, 1101f
drug cocktails in treatment of, 487 All-or-none responses, 1072 Amphibians, 729
emergence of, 408 Allosteric regulation, 160f–161f adaptations of kidneys of, 990
fungal mycoses and, 668 α (yeast mating type), 213f, 217 axis formation in, 1058f
G protein-coupled receptors and, 217f α chain, 957f breathing in, 942
HIV and, 396f, 404, 405f α-globin gene family, 451f cell developmental potential in, 1058, 1059f
host range of, 399 α-helix, 80f cell fate and pattern formation by inductive
immune system response to, 972f α-lactalbumin, 454, 455f
Aigarchaeota clade, 585 Alpha cells, 914f signals in, 1060f
Ailuropoda melanoleuca, 446t Alpha proteobacteria, 582f, 596 cleavage in, 1046f, 1047
Ain, Michael C., 287f Alpine chickweed, 1279f diversity of, 730f–731f
Air circulation patterns, global, 1164f Alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens), 807 double circulation in, 922f
Air roots, 758f Alpine tundra, 1174f evolution of, 676
Air sacs, 942, 943f Alpine wood sorrel, 833f external fertilization in, 1020f
Alanine, 77f Alternate phyllotaxy, 784 fungal parasites of, 667, 668f
Alarm calls, 1146f Alternation of generations, 258f, 601f, 602, 618f gastrulation in, 1049f, 1050
Albatross, 975f, 980f Alternative RNA splicing, 347f, 375f, 376, 447 hearing and equilibrium in, 1114f
Albinism, 285f, 335f, 338 Altruism, 1154f–1155f, 1157 parental care in, 1149–1150
Albumen, 733f Alu elements, 450, 457 species distributions of, 1162f, 1183
Albumin, 374f, 932f Aluminum toxicity, plant, 807, 809–810 vaccine for, 731
Albuterol, 62f Alveolates, 595f, 602f–604f, 605 Amphipathic molecules, 127
Alcohol compounds, 63f Alveoli, 602f, 941f Amplification, cancer gene, 386f, 387
Alcohol dehydrogenase, 66f Alzheimer’s disease, 83, 231, 311, 411, 432, 1101, 1102f Amplification, sensory, 1107–1108
Alcohol fermentation, 180f Amacrine cells, 1116f, 1118, 1119f Amplification, signal, 221, 226–227
Alcoholic beverages, 668 Amazon rain forest, 1269f Ampulla, sea star, 712f
Aldehyde compounds, 63f Amborella trichopoda, 646f, 648f, 651 Amygdala, 1093f, 1094
Alder, 1228f Amebic dysentery, 611 Amylase, 904
Aldoses, 68f American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), 735f Amyloid plaques, 1102f
Aldosterone, 220, 221f, 994f, 1012 American beech trees, 1167, 1168f Amylopectin, 70f
Algae, 596 American chestnut trees, 1224, 1232 Amyloplasts, 111
alternation of generations in, 258f, 259 American Dust Bowl, 805f Amylose, 70f, 111
biofuels from, 188f American flamingo, 14f Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), 1127
blooms of, 1225f, 1240, 1241f American pika (Ochotona princeps), 1278f Anableps anableps, 363f
brown, 600f–601f, 602 American pokeweed, 828f Anabolic pathways, 144, 183
chloroplasts in, 110, 111f Amine compounds, 63f Anabolic steroids, 1012
as earliest multicellular eukaryotes, 533 Amines, 1000f Anabrus simplex, 447, 710f, 1110f
evolution of plants from green, 616, 617f Amino acids Anaerobic respiration, 165, 179–181, 579
evolution of photosynthetic, 596f–597f Analogies, 556f
fossils of, 527f abiotic synthesis of, 524f–525f Analogous structures, 479
fungi and, as lichens, 662, 666f–667f activation of, in eukaryotic cells, 356f Anaphase, 252
golden, 600f deamination of, for catabolism, 182 Anaphase (mitosis), 237, 239f, 241f, 243f, 263f
green, 596f–597f, 607f–608f, 615–617 in DNA-binding proteins, 91 Anaphase I, 260f, 263f, 266f
horizontal gene transfer in, 567f in enzymatic catalysis, 156 Anaphase II, 261f, 266f
photosynthesis in, 187, 188f essential, 897 Anaphylactic shock, 969
as protists, 595f in evolution of enzymes, 159f Anatomical homologies, 477f, 478
red, 596f–597f, 606, 607f in genetic code, 339, 340f–341f, 342 Anatomy, 871. See also Animal form and function;
structure and organelles of cells of, 101f human dietary deficiencies in, 899
Algin, 601 in nitrogen cycle, 1249f Morphology; Plant structure
Alimentary canals, 686f, 695f, 702, 903f, 910f in polypeptides and proteins, 67, 75, 76f–77f, 78f. Ancestral characters, shared, 559, 560f
Alkaline vents, 524, 525f Ancestry, common, 15f–16f, 477f–479f, 553, 554f–555f,
Alkaloids, 866f See also Polypeptides; Proteins
Alkaptonuria, 293, 336 in proteins, 75, 77f 557–558, 646
Allantois, 733f, 1051f sequences of, 442, 443f, 444, 456 Anchorage dependence, 247, 248f
Alleles, 272. See also Genes sickle-cell disease and, 82f Anchoring junctions, 120f
combination predictions of, 268 specified by nucleotide triplets in translation, Androgens, 1002f, 1012, 1013f, 1028, 1029f
correlating behavior of chromosome pairs Anemia, 934
347f–349f Anesthetics, 1082
with, 297f structure of, 91 Aneuploidies, 307, 308f, 309
degrees of dominance of, and phenotypes, 279f, 280 using sequences of, to test hypothesis on Angiosperm reproduction
dominant, in genetic disorders, 287f
dominant vs. recessive, in Mendelian inheritance, horizontal gene transfer, 568 asexual, 831f–834f
Amino acid sequence identity tables, reading, in breeding and genetic engineering in, 834f–836f,
272, 273f–276f, 293
frequencies of, in gene pools of populations, 488f Scientific Skills Exercise, 456 837–838
genetic markers for disease-causing, 426f, 431–432 Amino acid sequences, 442, 443f, 444, 456 flower pollination in, 822f–823f
genetic variation from recombination of, 305. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, 349f flower structure and function in, 821f–822f, 828
Amino group, 63f fruit structure and function in, 828f–829f
See also Recombination Aminoacyl tRNA, 349f life cycle of, 644f, 645, 824, 825f, 826
genetic variation preserved in recessive, 498 Amitochondriate protists, 592 mutualisms in, 820–821, 823f
genomic imprinting of maternal or paternal, 370 Ammonia, 980 seeds in, 826f–828f
as information, 293 Angiosperms, 621
microevolution as alteration in frequencies of, in as base, 51 bulk flow in sugar translocation in, 798, 799f
hydrogen bonds and, 39f characteristics of, 642f–644f, 645
populations, 485f, 491, 492f–495f as nitrogenous waste, 980, 981f, 986, 987f evolutionary mystery of, for C. Darwin, 475
multiple, and pleiotropy, 280f, 281 Ammonites, 700
Ammonium, in nitrogen cycle, 1249f

INDEX I-2

Index Angiosperms (continued) regulation of appetite and consumption by, seed dispersal by, 643f
evolution of, 645f–647f 915f, 916 sensory and motor systems of. See Motor systems;
evolution of seeds in, 636–637
flowers of, 642f in regulation of digestive systems, 913f Sensory systems
fruits of, 642, 643f in regulation of mammalian reproduction, 1028, tropical deforestation and extinctions of, 649f, 650
gametophyte-sporophyte relationships in, 635f zoonotic pathogens and, 1233f
life cycle of, 644f, 645, 651, 824, 825f, 826 1029f–1030f, 1031 Animal viruses
G. Mendel’s techniques of crossing, 270f–271f in regulatory functions of endocrine glands, classes of, 404t
phylogeny of, 621t, 646f–648f, 651 as pathogens, 405f–411f
reproduction of. See Angiosperm reproduction 1009f–1013f replicative cycles of, 402, 403f, 404t, 405f
in sex determination, 1028 Anions, 37, 38f, 804, 805f, 1068t
Angiotensin II, 994f Animalia kingdom, 12f, 566, 567f Ankle bones, 479f–480f
Anhydrobiosis, 978f Animal nutrition, 896. See also Human nutrition Annelids, 686f, 701f–702f, 703, 921f, 983f, 1084f
Animal behavior, 1137 adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems for diets Annual human population growth rates, 1205f, 1206
Annuals, 764
cerebral cortex information processing and, 1095f, in, 909f–912f Antagonistic functions, autonomic nervous system,
1096 diets and requirements for, 896f–900f
digestive systems and, 903, 904f–909f 1088f
genetics, altruism, and inclusive fitness in feedback regulation of digestion, energy storage, Antagonistic muscle pairs, 1130f
evolution of, 1152, 1153f–1157f, 1158 Antarctica, 1222f
and appetite in, 912, 913f–915f, 916 Antennae, 43, 1108, 1109f, 1121
hormones and, 997f feeding mechanisms in, 901f Anterior pituitary gland, 1002f, 1005f–1009f, 1014,
learning and, 1142t, 1143f–1146f food processing stages in, 900, 901f–903f
species distributions and habitat selection, nutritional modes in, 671f, 672, 892f 1028, 1029f–1030f, 1031
prokaryotes in, 584 Anterior-posterior axis, 1058f
1181–1182 Animal pole, 1046f Anterior sides, 677
stimuli for simple and complex, 1138f–1141f Animal reproduction. See also Human reproduction Antheridia, 619f
survival and reproductive success in evolution of, amphibian, 730f, 731 Anthers, 642f, 821
asexual, 266, 267f, 1018f Anthocerophyta (hornworts), 622, 624f
1146, 1147f–1152f development and, 672f, 673 Anthophyta. See Angiosperms
in thermoregulation, 885f fertilization mechanisms in, 1020f–1022f, 1023 Anthozoans, 689f–690f
Animal cells. See also Eukaryotic cells of fish, 726 Anthrax, 573f, 583f
apoptosis in, 230f–231f hormonal regulation of mammalian, 1028, Anthropoids, 744f–745f, 746
cell junctions of, 120f Anti-aging effects, 848
cellular respiration in. See Cellular respiration 1029f–1030f, 1031 Antibiotic drugs
cytokinesis in, 241, 242f reproductive cycles in, 1019f
endocytosis in, 140f sexual, as evolutionary enigma, 1019, 1020f bacteria and, 572–573
extracellular matrix of, 118, 119f sexual life cycles in, 258f. See also Sexual life cycles bacterial resistance to, 215, 579, 587
local and long-distance cell signaling in, of sharks and rays, 725 for cystic fibrosis, 286, 293
variations in patterns of, 1018, 1018f as enzyme inhibitors, 158–159
215f, 216 Animals. See also Animal behavior; Animal evolution of resistance to, 476f, 477, 590
meiosis in, 260f–261f fungal, 668
nuclear transplantation of differentiated, development; Animal form and function; gram-positive bacteria and, 583f
Animal hormones; Animal nutrition; Animal prokaryotic ribosomes and, 575
427f–428f reproduction sponges and, 689
stem cells, 429f–430f, 431 aquatic. See Aquatic animals viruses and, 407
structure and organelles of, 100f carbon in organic compounds of, 56 Antibodies, 957f
structure and specialization of, 672 catabolic pathways in, 182f, 183 antigen recognition by, 957f
water balance of, 134f–135f cells of, 6f–7. See also Animal cells gene rearrangement by, 959f, 960
Animal development. See also Human embryonic cell structure and specialization of tissues of, 672 in humoral immune response, 961–962, 963f–964f
cellular respiration in hibernating, 178 as medical tools, 967f
development circulatory and gas exchange systems of. See as proteins, 76f, 79f
adaptations of, 892f Cardiovascular systems; Circulatory role of, in adaptive immunity, 963f–964f
animal phylogeny and, 680, 681f systems; Gas exchange Anticodons, 348f–349f
cell fate specification in, 1055, 1056f–1062f climate change and, 11 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 992f–993f, 1002f, 1005f,
comparing processes of, 461f–462f cloning of, 427f–428f, 429
developmental biology and, 1041f–1042f as consumers and predators, 671f 1006, 1153f
fertilization and cleavage in, 1042, 1043f–1045f correlation of diversity of miRNAs with complexity Antifreeze proteins, 863, 886
morphogenesis in, 1047, 1049f–1055f of, 676 Antigen fragments, 957–958
protostome vs. deuterostome, 679f, 680 defense mechanisms of, 28f Antigenic variation, 970–971
reproduction and embryonic, 672f, 673 in domain Eukarya, 12f Antigen presentation, 958f
Animal form and function in ecosystem interaction, 10f–11 Antigen-presenting cells, 961, 962f
anatomy and physiology as, 871f, 872 endangered or threatened, 1260f Antigen receptors, 956f–957f, 958f
bioenergetics of, 887, 888f–891f in energy flow and chemical cycling, 9f Antigens, 956f–957f, 961f–962f
body plans, 677f–679f, 680 evolutionary history of, 673f–675f, 676–677 Antihistamines, 969
correlation of, at all levels of organization, evolutionary links between plants and, 646, 647f Anti-inflammatory drugs, 1011–1012
extinctions of, 700f, 701 Antimicrobial peptides, 952f–953f, 954
872f–878f flower pollination by, 822f–823f Antioxidants, 195
evolution of body size and shape in, 872f fruit and seed dispersal by, 830f Antiparallel DNA sugar-phosphate backbones, 86f,
exchange with environment in, 872, 873f, 874 fungal mutualisms with, 666f
feedback regulation of homeostasis in, 879f–881f fungal parasites of, 667f–668f 317f, 318, 319f–320f, 324, 325f–327f
hierarchical organization of body plans in, 874t, glycogen as storage polysaccharide for, 70f, 71 Antithrombin, 434f
herbivore adaptations in, 475f, 476 Antivenin, 966
875f–877f immune systems of. See Immune systems Antiviral drugs, 407
mammalian organ systems in, 874t kingdom and domain mutualisms with, 811f Antiviral RNA-based defense in insects, 952f
regulation of, by endocrine and nervous land colonization by, 534, 535f Ants, 28f, 298f, 483, 666f, 710f, 830f, 871f, 872, 1218f
latitude and size of, 895 Anurans, 730f
systems, 878f life challenges and solutions for, 892f–893f Anus, 909
thermoregulation in, 882f–887f maximizing body surface area of, 693f Aorta, 924f, 928f
Animal hormones, 878, 997. See also Endocrine microevolution of populations of. See Apes, 744, 745f, 746
Microevolution Aphids, 550f, 568, 799f
systems; Hormones neurons and nervous systems of. See Nervous Aphotic zone, 1175f
birth control, 1036f, 1037 systems; Neurons Apical buds, 759
in cell signaling pathways, 998f–999f nutrition of, 13 Apical dominance, 768, 848f
chemical classes of, 1000f as opisthokonts, 611 Apical ectodermal ridge (AER), 1060f–1061f, 1062
as chemical signals of endocrine systems and osmoregulation and excretion of. See Excretory Apical meristems, 619f, 764f–765f
systems; Osmoregulation Apical surface, epithelial, 875f
nervous systems, 997f, 998 phylogeny of, 680, 681f, 682, 684f Apicomplexans, 602, 603f
in childbirth and labor, 1035f plant recruitment of, as herbivore defense, 867f Apicoplasts, 603f
embryonic, 1033 production efficiency of, 1244f Apodans, 730f
endocrine signaling pathways of, 1000f–1002f protein production by “pharm” transgenic, 434f Apomixis, 831
endocrine system glands and, 1002f relationship to unikont protists, 608–609 Apoplast, 785, 786f
endocrine systems and, in cell signaling, 878f reproduction and development of, 672f, 673
erythropoietin, 934
evolution of, 1013f
in fight-or-flight responses, 212
multiple effects of single, 1002f
in neuroendocrine signaling, 998f, 999, 1004f–

1009f. See also Neuroendocrine signaling
plant hormones vs., 216, 892f

I-3 INDEX

Apoplastic route, 786f, 791f Arctic ground squirrel (Spermophilus parryii), 891 Athlete’s foot, 668 Index
Apoptosis, 229 Arctic sea ice, effects of loss of, 48f, 1277 Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), 89
Arctic terns, 1236f Atmosphere
cell signaling pathways of, 230, 231f Arctic tundra ecosystem, 1254f–1255f
cytotoxic T cell response and, 964f, 965 Ardipithecus ramidus, 746f–747f animal evolution and oxygen in, 675
emergent properties of, 233 Area effects, community diversity and, 1230, 1231f carbon dioxide in, 11
ethylene in response to senescence and, 851–852 Arginine, 77f, 336f–337f, 338 Earth’s early, 524f–525f
in immune cells, 233 Argo complex, 952f global climate change and carbon dioxide in,
molecular mechanisms of, 230f Argyroneta aquatica, 949
in morphogenesis, 1055 Arid conditions 1275f–1279f, 1284
p53 gene and, 388 ozone in, 1280f, 1281
plant response to flooding with, 862f irrigation and, 142 photosynthesis and oxygen in, 532f
as programmed cell death, 212, 229f, 230 plants and, 203, 204f–206f Atomic mass, 31
self-tolerance vs., 960 Aristotle, 468 Atomic mass unit (amu), 31
Aposematic coloration, 1216f, 1217 Arms, chromatid, 236 Atomic nucleus, 30f, 31
Appendages, arthropod, 704, 705f, 706 Arnold, A. Elizabeth, 665f Atomic number, 31
Appendix, 909f Arousal Atoms, 30f–36f, 37
Appetite regulation, 915f, 916 autonomic, 1094 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 64, 150
Apple fruit, 829f brain functions in sleep and, 1092f in bioenergetics, 888f
Apple maggot fly (Rhagoletis pomonella), 506f, 513–514 human sexual, 1031–1032, 1080 catabolic pathways and production of, 165
Aptenodytes patagonicus, 738f Arsenic, 29 conversion of, to cyclic AMP, 223f–224f
Aquaporins, 132, 789, 986 Art, humans and, 752f in DNA replication, 324
cellular membrane selective permeability Arteries, 922f–924f, 927f–928f, 929, 935f, 937 energy coupling and, 150, 151f–153f
Arterioles, 922, 927f–928f, 929 as energy for active transport, 137f
and, 132 Arthrophytes, 630f as energy for membrane proteins, 130f
facilitated diffusion and, 135f Arthropods, 704. See also Ecdysozoans as energy source for cellular processes, 64
in kidney regulation, 992f–993f chelicerates, 706f, 707 in feedback regulation of cellular respiration,
mutations in, as causes of diabetes insipidus, 993f chitin as structural polysaccharide for, 72f
in nephron processes, 986, 987f compound eyes of, 1115f, 1116 183f, 184
selective permeability of, 126f crustaceans and insects as pancrustaceans, in muscle fiber contraction speed, 1129
water diffusion and role of, 788–789 phosphofructokinase and, 186
Aquatic animals 707f–710f, 711 in photosynthesis, 191f, 192, 197f–200f, 201,
adaptations of kidneys of, 990, 991f evolution of, 676
gills for gas exchange in, 938f–939f exoskeletons of, 1131 206, 207f
nitrogenous wastes of, 980, 981f general characteristics of, 704, 705f, 706 regeneration of, in ATP cycle, 153f
osmoregulation in, 977f–978f Hox genes and body plan of, 704, 705f regulation of regeneration of, 160
Aquatic biomes land colonization by, 535 in sliding-filament model of muscle contraction,
acid precipitation in, 1264f Malpighian tubules of, 983f, 984
biodiversity hot spots in, 1270f myriapods, 707f 1124, 1125f, 1126
biomass pyramids in, 1245f, 1246 nervous systems of, 1084f synthesis of, by cellular respiration, 164, 165. See
coral reefs, 1180f origins of, 704f–705f
decomposition in, 1247 phylogeny of, 687f, 707f also Cellular respiration
estuaries, 1178f Artificial corridors, 1269, 1270f synthesis of, by fermentation and anaerobic
habitat loss in, 1262 Artificial selection, 472, 473f–474f, 649, 821, 834f, 835
intertidal zones, 1179f Artiodactyls, 743f respiration, 179, 180f, 181
lakes, 1177f Ascending limb, loop of Henle, 986, 987f thylakoids and production of, 211
locomotion in, 1133 Asci, 661 in translation, 349f
marine benthic zones, 1180f Ascocarps, 659f, 661f work as hydrolysis of, 151f, 152
nutrient cycling in, 1248f–1249f Ascomycetes, 659f, 661f–662f, 663t, 669f yield of, at each stage of cellular respiration,
oceanic pelagic zones, 1179f Asexual reproduction, 255, 831, 1018
primary production in, 1240f–1241f, 1241t in angiosperms, 831f–834f 177f, 178
protists as producers in, 612, 613f in bryophytes, 625 ATP synthase, 175f–176f, 177, 186
streams and rivers, 1178f evolution of, in animals, 266, 267f Atria, heart, 922f–925f
thermoregulation in, 879f in fungi, 656f–657f Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), 994
wetlands, 1177f inheritance in, 255f Atrioventricular (AV) nodes, 926f
zonation in, 1175f–1176f in lichens, 666f–667f Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 925f–926f
Aqueous humor, 1116f mechanisms of, 1017, 1018 Attached earlobes pedigree analysis case, 284f, 285
Aqueous solutions, 49 in protists, 592 Attachment function, membrane protein, 130f
acidic and basic conditions of, 51, 52f–53f, 54 in rotifers, 695–696 Attachment stage, phage lytic cycle, 400f
solvents, solutes, and, 49f, 50 sexual reproduction vs., 255f, 831–832, 1019, Auditory communication, 1140
Aquifers, 806 Aurea mutant tomato, 842f, 843
Arabidopsis thaliana (mustard plant) 1020f. See also Sexual reproduction Australia, 479f, 538, 602f, 740, 741f
altering gene expression of, with touch, 860f switch to, 268 Australian moles, 556f, 557
genome size of, 446t of triploid organisms, 268 Australian thorny devil lizard (Moloch horridus), 735f
as model organism, 22, 772–773, 774f, 781 Asian elephant, 472f Australopiths, 747, 748f–749f
triple response in, 851f Asian ladybird beetles, 473f Autism, 1098
Arachnids, 687f, 706f, 707 A site (aminoacyl-tRNA binding site), 350f, 352f–353f Autocrine signaling, 998f, 999
Arbuscular mycorrhizae, 654, 659f, 661f, 815, 816f A soil horizon, 804f Autoimmune diseases, 969f
Arbuscule, 535f Asparagine, 77f Autonomic arousal, 1094
Archaea, 12f Aspartic acid, 77f Autonomic nervous system, 1087f–1088f
domain, E-1, 12f, 566, 567f, 584t, 585 Aspen trees (Populus tremuloides), 782f, 789f, 831f Autophagy, 107f, 108
genome sizes and number of genes for, 446t, 447 Aspirin, 649, 1011–1012, 1110 Autopolyploids, 512f
prokaryotic cells of, 6f–7, 97. See also Prokaryotes; Assassin bugs, 710f Autosomes, 257
Assembly stage, phage lytic cycle, 400f Autotrophs, 187, 188f, 579, 580t, 585, 887, 892f,
Prokaryotic cells Association areas, cerebral cortex, 1094
Archaean eon, 530f, 531t Associative learning, 1144f 1238f
Archaefructus sinensis, 645f Asteroidea, 711, 712f Auxin, 775f, 843, 844t, 845f, 846f, 847f, 848,
Archaeoglobus fulgidus, 446t Asters, 238f, 240f
Archaeognatha (bristletails), 710f Asthma, 62, 220, 931, 1010 852f, 859
Archaeology, peat moss and, 626f Astragalus bones, 479f Avery, Mary Ellen, 942f
Archaeopteris, 639 Astrobiologists, 50 Avery, Oswald, 315
Archaeopteryx, 737f Astrocytes, 1085f–1086f Avian flu, 408, 1233f
Archaeplastida, 595f, 606, 607f–608f Asymmetrical cell division, 775f Avogadro’s number, 50
Archegonia, 619f Asymmetric carbon, 61f–62f, 68, 75 Axel, Richard, 1122
Archenterons, 679f, 680, 1049f Asymmetry, body, 1057, 1062f Axial polarity, 775f
Architeuthis dux, 700 Atherosclerosis, 74, 75, 139, 935f, 937 Axillary buds, 759
Archosaurs, 734 Athletes Axis (graph), F–1
Arctic, 48f abuse of anabolic steroids by, 1012 Axis formation, 384f–385f, 1057, 1058f
Arctic fox, 1236f, 1254f blood doping by, 934 Axolotls, 543f, 919f
Axons, 877f, 1066f, 1074f–1075f, 1082, 1086
Azidothymidine (AZT), 407

B

Bacillus anthracis, 573f, 583f
Bacillus thuringiensis, 835, 836f
Backbone, nucleic acid, 86f

INDEX I-4

Index Backbone, polypeptide, 78f Barrier defenses, 951f, 953 Bilateral symmetry, 677
Bacteria, 12f Barrier reefs, 1180f animal, 677f, 678, 680
Basal angiosperms, 647f–648f axis formation and, 1057, 1058f
alcohol fermentation by, 180f Basal animals, 680, 681f, 688 flower, 642f, 647f
anaerobic respiration in, 179–180 Basal body, 115, 116f
antibiotic drugs and, 350 Basal cells, 826f Bilaterians, 675
antibiotic resistance in, 476f, 477, 579 Basal lamina, 927 chordates, 717f
binary fission in, 242, 243f Basal-like breast cancer, 391f invertebrates, 684f
bioremediation using, 1253f Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 888f–889f, 890 Lophotrochozoans, 692
cell signaling in, 213f, 215 Basal nuclei, 1091f origin of, 675
cell structure of, 97f Basal surface, epithelial, 875f phylogeny of, 680, 681f, 715
cellular integration and, 121f Basal taxon, 555f
cholera and, 224 Base pairing, DNA and RNA, 86f, 319f–321f Bilayers, phospholipid. See Phospholipid bilayers
conjugation in, 577, 578f, 579 Bases, 51 Bile, 907
as detritivores, 1238f Binary fission, 242, 243f, 575–576, 604f, 605
in digestive systems, 909–910, 911f–912f amino acids as, 76, 77f Binding sites, ribosome, 350f
as DNA cloning vectors, 416f, 417 buffers and, 52–53 Binomials (nomenclature), 468, 552, 553f
DNA packing in chromosomes of, 330–331 hydrogen ions, acids, and, 51 Biochemical pathways. See Metabolic pathways
DNA replication in, 322f–327f pH scale and, 51, 52f Biochemistry, 96
domain, E-1, 12f, 566, 567f, 581f–583f, 584t Basidiocarps, 664f Biodiesel, 188f
evidence for DNA in research on, 315f–316f, 317 Basidiomycetes, 655, 659f, 663f–665f Biodiversity
evolution of cell division in, 242, 243f Basidiospores, 664f
evolution of glycolysis in, 181–182 Basidium, 663 angiosperm, 647f–648f. See also Angiosperms
expressing cloned eukaryotic genes in, 420–421 Basilar membrane, 1111f animal. See Animals
flagellum, movement of, 991f Basin wetlands, 1177f of bacteria and archaea. See Archaea; Bacteria
genome sizes and number of genes for, 446t, 447 Basking, reptilian, 733–734 cellular structures and, 125
G proteins and infections by, 218f Basophils, 932f–933f classification of, 468
Gram staining of, 572, 573f Bass fishes, 879f climate change effects on, 1277
land colonization by, 534 Bassham, James, 191 conservation biology and, 1259. See also
as model organism. See Escherichia coli Batesian mimicry, 1216f, 1217, 1235
mutualistic and pathogenic, 586, 587f, 811f Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, 667, 668f Conservation biology
nitrogen-fixing, and plants, 812f–814f, 815, 1242 Bats, 15, 16f, 715, 823f, 989f, 990, 1260f effects of mass extinctions on, 538f–540f
nutrient limitations and, 1242 B cells, 956 evolution and, 14f–16f, 466f, 471. See also
origin of photosynthesis in, 532 activation of, 962, 963f
origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts, antigen recognition by, 956f–957f Evolution
development of, 958, 959f–961f of fungi. See Fungi
109, 110f diversity of, 958, 959f gymnosperm, 639, 640f–641f
in Permian mass extinction, 538–539 DNA of, 974 habitat loss and fragmentation and, 1262f
photosynthesis of, 188f, 189, 199 immunological memory, 960, 961f human welfare and, 1260, 1261f
phylogeny of, 581f–583f, 584 Bdelloid rotifers, 266, 267f, 696 invertebrate. See Invertebrates
plant defenses against, 864 Beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), 2f, 20f–21f landscape ecology and regional conservation to
in polymerase chain reaction, 419, 420f Beadle, George, 336, 337f, 338
prokaryotic cells of, 6f–7, 97. See also Prokaryotes; Beagle, Charles Darwin’s voyage on H.M.S., 469, 470f sustain, 1268, 1269f–1272f
Beaks levels of, 1259f–1260f
Prokaryotic cells finch, 470, 471f, 484f–485f plant. See Plants
regulation of transcription in, 364f–367f shapes of bird, 738f protist. See Protists
relatedness of, to mitochondria, 593 soapberry bug, 475f, 476 within species, 505f
reproduction rate of, 590 Beans, 827f–828f, 856f, 897 taxonomy and classification of, 12f–13f
root mutualism with, 590 Bears, 145f, 508f, 1266f, 1267 threats to, 1258f–1259f, 1261, 1262f–1264f
soil, 805, 1221f Beavers, 1224f tree of life and, 15f–16f. See also Phylogenetic trees;
transcription and translation in, 338, 339f, 355f Bed bugs, 710f
transcription in, 342, 343f–344f Beech trees, 1167, 1168f Phylogenies; Tree of life
translation in. See Translation Bees, 298f, 710f, 822f, 885 tropical deforestation as threat to, 649f, 650
viral infections of. See Phages Beetles, 473f, 710f, 715, 1242f, 1243, 1257, 1278f unity in, 13f, 14f, 27, 466f, 471
Bacteriophages (phages), 315, 398 Behavior, 1137. See also Animal behavior vertebrate. See Vertebrates
capsids of, 398f Behavioral ecology, 1138 Biodiversity hot spots, 1270f
in DNA research, 315f–316f, 317 Behavioral isolation, 506f Bioenergetics, 144, 887. See also Metabolism
prophages and temperate, 400, 401f Beijerinck, Martinus, 397 energy allocation and use in, 887, 888f
replicative cycles of, 400f–402f Belding’s ground squirrels, 1154, 1157f, 1191t, energy budgets in, 890
in transduction, 577f energy costs of foraging in, 1147
virulent, 400f 1192f–1193f, 1211 influences on metabolic rate in, 889f, 890
Bacteriorhodopsin, 129f Beluga whales, 1109f of locomotion, 1134
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, 586 Benfey, Philip, 755f metabolic rates and thermoregulation in, 888–889
Bacteroids, 814f, 815 Benign tumors, 249 of osmoregulation, 978–979
Bada, Jeffrey, 58 Bennettitales, 646f principles of, 163
Bait-and-switch defense, 598 Benson, Andrew, 191 thyroid regulation of, 1007f
Baker, C. S., 555f Benthic zone, 1175f torpor, hibernation, and energy conservation in,
Baker’s yeast. See Saccharomyces cerevisiae Benthos, 1175
Balance, body, 1110f–1114f, 1133 Bergmann, Christian, 895 890, 891f
Balancer, 1064 Berthold, Peter, 1155f of urea and uric acid wastes, 981
Balancing selection, 498, 499f, 500f–501f Best-fit curve, F–2 Biofilms, 215, 580
Baleen, 901f β2-adrenergic receptor, 217f, 220 Biofuels, 188f, 669f, 836
Ball-and-socket joints, 1132f β-amyloid, 1102 Biogenic amines, 1079t
Ball-and-stick models, 39f, 59f β chain, 957f Biogeochemical cycles, 1247f–1250f. See also Energy
Ballooning, spider, 707 β-galactosidase, 159f, 366f
Ball pythons, 890 β-globin, 87, 89, 357f, 362 flow and chemical cycling
Banana, 268, 313 β-globin gene family, 451f Biogeographic factors, community diversity and,
Barbiturates, 104–105 β-keratin, bird feathers and, 736f
Barbs, 643f β pleated sheet, 80f 1229, 1230f–1232f
Bar graph, F–2 β-thalassemia, 289, 433 Biogeography, 480–481
Bar graphs in Scientific Skills Exercises, 23, 179, 373, Beta-carotene, 836f Bioinformatics, 9, 87, 441
Beta cells, 914f
481, 588, 627, 698, 760, 862, 1148, 1184, 1215 Beta oxidation, 182–183 in analysis of protein structure, 83
Bark, 772 Beta proteobacteria, 582f centralized resources of, for genome analysis,
Bark beetles, 1242f, 1243, 1278f BGI (formerly Beijing Genome Institute), 442
Barley, 648f, 849f Bicoid gene, 384f–385f, 461 442, 443f
Barnacles, 706, 708f, 1018, 1214f Biennials, 764 genome analysis using genomics and, 441
Barr, Murray, 300 Big-bang reproduction, 1198 genomics, proteomics, and, 86–87f
Barr body, 300f, 309 identifying protein-coding genes using gene
Barrier contraceptives, 1036f
annotation in, 443–444
in study of genomes, 9
systems biology and proteomics in study of genes

and gene expression in, 444, 445f–446f
Biological augmentation, 1253
Biological clocks, 855, 856f–858f, 1092–1093. See also

Circadian rhythms
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project, 1269f
Biological magnification, 1274f

I-5 INDEX

Biological molecules. See also Organic compounds Bipedal animals, 748f, 1133 cell division of bone marrow cells and, 234, 235f Index
analyzing polypeptide sequence data of, 87, 89 Bipolar cells, 1116f, 1118, 1119f cholesterol in, and atherosclerosis, 75
carbohydrates as. See Carbohydrates Bipolar disorder, 1101 in closed circulatory systems, 705, 921f, 922.
four classes of, 66 Birds
genomics and proteomics in study of, 86–87f See also Cardiovascular systems; Closed
lipids as, 72, 73f–75f adaptations of kidneys of, 990f circulatory systems
macromolecules as polymers of monomers and, alimentary canals in, 903f clotting of, 10, 300, 416f, 434, 701f, 702, 934f, 935
66f–67f avian flu in, 1233f components of, 932f–933f, 934
as measures of evolution, 87, 89 axis formation in, 1058 diffusion to interstitial fluid across capillary
nucleic acids as, 84, 85f–86f brains of, 1089f walls, 930, 931f
proteins as. See Proteins breathing by, 942, 943f enzymes and glucose levels in, 157
cleavage in, 1046–1047 filtration by nephrons, 985–986, 987f
Biological species concept, 505f–508f DDT and, 1274f flow in mammalian excretory system, 985f
Biology, 2 derived characters of, 736f, 737 flow velocity of, 928f
as descended from dinosaurs, 562f gas exchange systems and components of, 945f–947f
astrobiology in, 50f endangered or threatened, 1260f glucose level regulation in, 10f
biodiversity in. See Animals; Biodiversity; Plants evolution of, 677 glycoproteins and types of human, 131
biophilia and, 1282f evolution of cognition and brains of, 1097f hormonal regulation of volume and pressure
cells in. See Cells evolution of finches, 470, 471f, 484f–485f of, 994f
chemical connection to, 28 evolution of genes in, 454 hormones in, 997
classification in. See Cladistics; Phylogenies; flight adaptations of, 1133–1134 immune system rejection of transfusions of, 968
flower pollination by, 823f melatonin concentrations in human, 881f
Systematics; Taxonomy gastrulation in, 1050f pH of human, 52f, 53
connection of, to chemistry. See Chemistry genetic variation in migration patterns of, 1154, 1155f regulation of calcium levels in, by parathyroid
conservation biology in. See Conservation biology greater prairie chicken, 493f, 494, 1265f glands, 1009f
developmental biology in, 1041f–1042f hearing and equilibrium in, 1114f screening of human for previously encountered
ecology in. See Ecology limb formation in, 1060, 1061f, 1062 viruses, 967f
emergent properties at levels of biological living, 737f–738f sickle-cell disease and. See Sickle-cell disease
migration behaviors of, 1138 small intestine and, 125
organization in, 4f–5f, 6 nitrogenous wastes of, 980, 981f vampire bat digestion of, 989f, 990
evolutionary developmental (evo-devo) biology in, organogenesis in, 1053f Blood-brain barrier, 1085
origin of, 737f Blood doping, 934
385–386, 461, 542 as pollinators, 520 Blood flow velocity, 928f
evolution as core theme of, 2, 4, 11, 12f–16f. See problem solving of, 1145 Blood flukes, 694f, 1218
red-cockaded woodpecker decline, 1267f, 1268 Blood groups, 280f, 968
also Evolution salt excretion in marine, 980f Bloodhounds, 1136
expression and transmission of genetic sex determination of, 298f Bloodletting, 701f, 702
species-area curves for, 1231f Blood poisoning, 582f
information in, 7f–8f, 9. See also Genetics thermoregulation in, 884f Blood pressure
genomics and proteomics in, 86–87f unity and diversity of, 14f cardiac cycle of, and regulation of, 928,
interactions in biological systems in, 10f–11f. See wings of, 738f 929f–930f, 949
Birth control, human, 1036–1037 in closed circulatory systems, 923
also Interactions Birth control pills, 1036f, 1037 hypertension and, 937
molecular biology in. See Molecular biology Birth defects, human, 900f, 1034 Blood vessels
organization in, 4f–5f, 6 Births blood flow velocity in, 928f
science of, 2, 16f–24f. See also Case studies; Inquiry demographics of, 1191t, 1192f–1193f blood pressure in, 928, 929f–930f
in density-dependent population growth, capillary function, 930f–931f
Figures; Research Method Figures; Scientific lymphatic systems and, 931f
Skills Exercises 1201f–1203f of mammalian excretory system, 985f
sociobiology in, 1157–1158 in exponential population growth, 1194, 1195f structure and function of, 927f, 928
systems biology in, 6, 444, 445f–446f in population dynamics, 1190f Viagra and, 224
transfer and transformation of energy and matter Births, human Blooms
in, 9f. See also Energy birth defects in, 900f, 1034 algal, 1225f, 1240, 1241f
unifying themes of, 4f–11f effects of vitamin supplementation on neural tube diatom, 600
Bioluminescence, 143f dinoflagellate, 602f
Biomanipulation, 1225 defects in, 900f nitrogen pollution and phytoplankton,
Biomass, 836, 1221, 1239–1240 life-expectancy at birth, 1206–1207 1273f, 1274
Biomass pyramid, 1245f, 1246 newborn screening and, 289–290 Blowflies, 820f
Biomes, 1168, 1169f. See also Aquatic biomes; stages of labor in, 1034, 1035f Blowfly, 823f
Biosphere; Global ecology; Terrestrial biomes zero population growth and, 1206 Blue crab, 1235
Biophilia, 1260, 1282f Biscuit star, 146f Blue dragon mollusc (Glaucus atlanticus), 684f
Bioremediation, 589f, 807, 1251 Bisphenol A, 1013 Bluefin tuna, 1263f
ecosystem restoration using, 1251, 1253f Bitter tastes, 1121f–1122f Blue-footed boobies, 506f
Biorhythms, melatonin and, 1013 Bivalves, 699f, 700f, 701 Bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum), 1018
Biosphere, 4f, 1163f. See also Earth Black-bellied seedcracker finches, 496 Blue jays, 1144f
biomes of, 1168, 1169f. See also Aquatic biomes; Black bread mold, 660f, 661 Blue-light photoreceptors, 853, 854f, 856
Terrestrial biomes Black-breasted hill turtle (Geomyda spengleri), 734f Bluestreak cleaner wrasse, 1212f
biophilia and future of, 1282f Black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus), 515 Blue whales, 717
ecological role of prokaryotes in, 585f, 586 Blackcap warblers, 1154, 1155f Bobcat, 892f
global climate change of. See Climate change Black guillemots, 44f Body axes, 1058f
global ecology of, 1163f. See also Global ecology Black rush plants, 1219f Body cavities, 678f, 679
as global ecosystem, 1236–1237 Blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus), 725f Body hairs, insect, 1110f
human population, and carrying capacity of, Bladderwort, 446t, 447 Body plans, 677
1205f–1208f, 1209 Blades, 600f, 759 angiosperm, 646f
importance of seedless vascular plants to, 631–632 Blastocoel, 1045f animal, 677f–679f, 680
as level of biological organization, 4f Blastocysts, 429f, 1032f, 1033, 1050, 1051f arthropod, 704, 705f, 706
photosynthesis as process that feeds, 187f–188f. See Blastomeres, 1045f cell fate and. See Cell fate
also Photosynthesis Blastopores, 679f, 680, 683, 1049f, 1060f correlation of diversity of miRNAs with complexity
Biosynthetic pathways, 144, 183 BLAST program, 442, 443f of animal, 676
Biotechnology, 414 Blastula, 672f, 1042, 1045f fungal, 653f–654f
as DNA technology, 414. See also DNA technology Blebbing, 229f–230f hierarchical organization of animal, 874t, 875f–
evolution and, 439 Blending hypothesis on inheritance, 269–270 877f. See also Animal form and function
genetic code and, 342, 439 Blindness, 311, 493, 583f, 1120 homeotic genes and, 461f–462f
genetic engineering of plants, 835, 836f, 837–838 Blind spot, eye, 1116f human. See Human body
in genetic testing, 288, 289f Blood, 876f, 921. See also Blood pressure; Blood vessels lichen, 666f–667f
genome-sequencing, 9 ABO blood groups for human, 280f, 292 macroevolution of, 542f–544f, 545
phytoremediation, 807 animal thermoregulation and, 883, 884f maximizing body surface area in animal, 693f
practical applications of, 431, 432f–435f, 436–437 apoptosis of human white blood cells, 229f
prokaryotes in, 587, 588f–589f blood groups of, 968
science, society, and, 23, 24f
Biotic factors, 1167
microclimate and, 1167
in pollination, 822f–823f
in species distributions, 1176, 1181f, 1182f
Biotic stresses, plant, 860, 864, 865f–867f

INDEX I-6

Index Body plans (continued) Branching, plant, 768 apoptosis in, 230f
mollusc, 697f Branching evolution, 546–547 fate mapping for, 1056f–1057f
morphogenesis and. See Morphogenesis Branch length, phylogenetic tree, 560, 561f genome size and number of genes of, 446t, 447
pattern formation of, 382, 383f–385f, 386 Branch points, 553, 554f as model organism, 22, 703f
plant, as herbivore defense, 866f Brassinosteroids, 843, 844t, 853 nervous system of, 1084f, 1085
Brazil nut tree, 1200f Caffeine, 233
Body size, metabolic rate and animal, 889f BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, 390f–391f, 392 Calcitonin, 1002f, 1009f
Body temperature regulation. See Thermoregulation Bread mold. See Neurospora crassa Calcium, 29t
Bog mummy, 626f Breakdown pathways, 144 Calcium homeostasis, 1009f
Bohr shift, 946f Breast cancer, 220, 249f, 389, 390f–391f, 392, 432 Calcium ions
Bolting, 849 Breasts, 1025 diffusion of, across synapses, 1076f
Bolus, 904f Breathing, 754, 918, 942, 943f–944f in formation of fertilization envelope, 1043, 1044f
Bombardier beetle, 43 Breathing control centers, 944f in regulation of muscle contraction, 1126,
Bombina toads, 514, 515f, 517 Breeding
Bonasa umbellus, 1269 1127f, 1130
Bonds, chemical. See Chemical bonds as artificial selection, 472, 473f in signal transduction pathways, 224, 225f,
Bone, 723, 876f plant, 821, 833, 834–835
Bone marrow, 234, 235f, 432f, 433, 967 Brenner, Sydney, 1056–1057 842f, 843
Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP-4), 1060 Brewer’s yeast. See Saccharomyces cerevisiae California Current, 1166f
Bones Briggs, Robert, 427 California two-spot octopus (Octopus bimaculoides), 440
Brightfield microscopy, 95f Callus, 833
of human skeleton, 1132f Brine shrimp, 462f, 543f, 544 Calmodulin, 1130
of mammalian ear, 739f Bristlecone pine tree, 641f Calochortus tiburonensis, 30f
Bonobos, 458–459, 745f Bristletails, 710f Calorie (cal), 46, 888
Bony fishes, 977f, 978 Brittle stars, 712f, 713 Calories, food, 46, 888
Book lungs, 706 Broca, Pierre, 1096 Calorimeters, 888
Boom-and-bust population cycles, 1203f, 1204 Broca’s area, 1096f Calvin, Melvin, 191
Borisy, Gary, 241f Bronchi, 941f Calvin cycle, 191f, 192, 201, 202f, 206, 207f
Botox, 1079 Bronchioles, 941f Cambrian explosion, 534f, 675f, 676, 683
Bottleneck effect, 493f Brood bodies, 625 Cambrian period, 716f
Bottlenose dolphins, 884f, 1092f Brooding, 562f, 563 Camels, 978
Bottom-up model, trophic control, 1225 Brown algae, 594f, 600f–601f, 602 Camouflage, 20f–21f, 23, 466f, 474f, 1216f, 1217
Botulism, 218f, 401, 583f, 587, 1079 Brown bears, 145f cAMP, 223f–224f, 233, 367f, 1001f, 1078
Boundaries Brown fat, 178, 885f CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants, 205,
community, 1213 Brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), 1269, 1284
ecosystem, 1236–1237, 1268, 1269f, 1284 Brown tree snake, 1262 206f, 796, 797f
Bound ribosomes, 103f, 104, 354f Brundtland, G. H., 1261 cAMP receptor protein (CRP), 367f
Boveri, Theodor, 294 Brush border, 907f Campylobacter bacteria, 582f
Bowden, Richard, 625f Brushtail possum, 740f Canada goose, 884f
Bowman’s capsule, 985f Bryophytes, 620, 622 Canary Islands, 1211
Boysen-Jensen, Peter, 845f ecological and economic importance of, 625f–626f Cancer. See also Breast cancer, cervical cancer
Brachiopods, 685f, 696f, 697 evolution of, 633
Brainbow technology, 1083f, 1084 gametangia of, 619f abnormal cell cycle control systems in, 248,
Brain cancer, 250 gametophytes of, 622, 623f, 625 249f, 250
Brain Research through Advancing Innovative gametophyte-sporophyte relationships in, 635f
mosses, liverworts, and hornworts as, 622, 624f abnormal protein kinases in, 223
Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative, 1102 as nonvascular plants, 620, 621t biotechnology in treatment of, 432–433
Brains, 1066. See also Nervous systems phylogeny of, 621f carcinogen screening and, 360
sporophytes of, 625 chromosomal translocations and, 309
arousal and sleep functions of, 1092f Bryozoans, 685f, 696f DNA microarray detection of, 424
biological clock regulation by, 1092–1093 B soil horizon, 804f endocrine disruptors and, 1013
breathing control centers in human, 944f Bt toxin, 835, 836f, 837 faulty apoptosis in, 231
in central nervous systems, 1084f, 1085 Buck, Linda, 1122 faulty cell-surface receptors in, 220
cerebral cortex and cognitive functions of, 1094, Budding, 100f, 255f, 657f, 1018 faulty growth factors in, 226
Buffers, 52–53 genetic diagnosis of, 432
1095f–1097f Bugs, 710f genetic markers for, 426
development, 1090f, 1097–1098 Bulbourethral glands, 1023f, 1024 genomics, cell signaling, and breast, 389, 390f–391f
disorders of, 1101, 1102f Bulk feeders, 901f genomics and proteomics in study and treatment
drug addiction and reward system of, 1101f Bulk flow, 789
emotional functions of, 1093f, 1094 as long-distance transport, 789 of, 88f
evolution of chordate and vertebrate, 720f as translocation mechanism in angiosperms, HIV and, 972
evolution of cognition in avian pallium and HPV and, 870
798, 799f immunity against, 972f
human, 1097f of water and minerals from roots to shoots, immunodeficiency and, 970
evolution of vertebrate, 1089f inherited disposition and environmental factors
frontal lobe function of, 1096 790, 791f–793f, 794
glia in mammalian, 1067f Bumblebees, 520, 1168f, 1277 in, 392
glioblastoma cancer of, 445 Bundle sheath, 769f interferences with normal cell-signaling pathways
human, 746, 1090f–1091f, 1093f, 1094–1102 Bundle-sheath cells, 203, 204f
hypothalamus of human, in thermoregulation, Burgess Shale fossil bed, 527f in development of, 387f–388f, 389
Burkholderia glathei, 585f lymph nodes and, 931
886, 887f Burkitt’s lymphoma, 392 mismatch repair and colon, 327
imaging of, 1083f, 1094f Burmese pythons, 886f multistep model of development of, 389f
information processing by, 1094, 1095f–1096f Bush babies, 744 ozone depletion, UV radiation, and, 1280
language and speech functions of, 1096f Butterflies, 313, 709f–710f, 822f, 837, 1004f, 1005 PET scanners and, 31, 32f
lateralization of cortical function of, 1096 Buttress roots, 758f skin, 328, 1280
mammalian, 739 Buxbaum, Joseph, 459f species and genetic diversity and treatments
Neanderthal, 750
nervous tissue of, 877f C for, 1261f
in neuroendocrine signaling, 1005f–1009f stem cells and, 430
neurons in, 1066, 1083f, 1089. See also Neurons C3 plants, 203, 205 systems biology approach to, 445, 446f
opiate receptors in mammalian, 1080 C4 plants, 203, 204f–206f telomeres and prevention of, 329
of primates, 744 Cabomba caroliniana, 773f treatment of, with cell cycle inhibitor, 250
regions of, 1089f, 1092f–1094f Cacao tree, 665f, 666 tumor-suppressor genes and, 387
in sensory systems, 1107 Cachexia, 1014 types of genes associated with, 386f, 387
size of, 754 Cactus, 797f, 823f, 1170f viruses in, 392
strokes in, 935 Caddisflies, 549 Cancer Genome Atlas, 389, 390f–391f, 445
visual information processing in, 1119f Cadherin proteins, 674f Candida albicans, 668
Zika virus and, 407 Caecilians, 730f Cane toads, 1215
Brainstem, 1090f–1091f, 1092–1093 Caenorhabditis elegans (soil worm) Cannibalism, 411, 1235
Brain waves, 1092f Canopy, 1170
Branching, body surface area and, 693f Canyon tree frog, 1216f
Branching, carbon skeleton, 60f Capecchi, Mario, 424
Capillaries, 922f–924f, 927f–928f, 930f–931f
I-7 INDEX Capillary beds, 922, 930f–931f

Capsaicin, 1109 hearts and blood vessels in single and double Cell body, 877f, 1066f, 1077f Index
Capsids, 398f–399f circulation of, 922f, 923 Cell-cell recognition
Capsomeres, 398f, 400
Capsule, 97f, 573f hearts in mammalian, 924f–926f by cellular membranes, 130f, 131
Capsule, sporangium, 625 lymphatic systems and, 931f in local cell signaling, 215f
Carbohydrates, 68 patterns of blood pressure and flow in blood Cell cycle, 235. See also Cell cycle control system;

cell-cell recognition role of membrane, 130f–131f vessels of, 927f–931f Cell division
digestion of, 906f–907f, 908 single and double circulation in, 922f, 923 binary fission in bacterial, 242, 243f
as fuel for catabolism, 182f, 183 Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), 488f, 1019, cell division roles in, 234f–235f
glycoproteins and, 398. See also Glycoproteins cellular organization of chromosomes in, 235f, 236
as macromolecules, 66 1254f–1255f, 1279f cytokinesis in, 241, 242f–243f
monosaccharides and disaccharides, 68f–69f Carnivora, phylogenetic tree of, 553f distribution of chromosomes during eukaryotic,
oxidation of, during cellular respiration, 166–167 Carnivores, 896
in plant composition, 807 236f, 237
polysaccharides, 70f–72f alimentary canals of, 910f evolution of, 252
as product of photosynthesis, 206, 207f dentition and diet in, 909f, 910 evolution of mitosis of, 243, 244f
Carbon diets of, 896 interpreting histograms on, 250
in amino acids, 75 energetic hypothesis and biomass of, 1223f mitosis stages of, in animal cells, 238f–239f
as essential element, 29t, 56, 64 trophic efficiency of, 1244, 1245f, 1246 mitotic phases and interphases of, 237f
half-life of, 33 Carnivorous plants, 803f, 816, 817f, 818 mitotic spindle in mitotic phase of, 237, 240f–241f
isotopes of, 31–33 Carolina chickadees (Poecile carolinensis), 515 regulation of eukaryotic, by cell cycle control
in organic compounds, 58, 59f, 60. See also Organic Carotenoids, 194f, 195, 550, 568, 602f
Carpellate flowers, 832 system, 244, 245f–249f, 250
compounds Carpels, 270f, 271, 642f, 821f treating cancer by inhibiting, 250
in peatlands, 626 Carrier proteins, 132, 135f–137f Cell cycle control system, 244. See also Cell cycle
in plant composition, 807 Carriers, genetic disorder, 285f, 286, 288 in cancer development, 248, 249f, 250,
Carbon-12, 528 Carrion flower, 823f
Carbon-14, 528 Carroll, Scott, 475f 386f–391f, 392
Carbonate ions, 53f, 54 Carrots, 427 checkpoints in, 244, 245f
Carbon cycle, 1248f, 1255f Carrying capacity (K), 1195–1196 cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases in, 245, 246f
Carbon dioxide (CO2) global, for human population, 1207, 1208f, 1209 cytoplasmic signals in, 245f
atmospheric, 205, 1275f–1279f, 1284 in logistic population growth model, 1196t, 1197f internal and external signals at checkpoints of, as
in carbon cycle, 1248f Carson, Rachel, 1274f
in carbon fixation, 191f, 192, 201, 202f–206f Cartilage, 876f stop and go signs, 246, 247f–248f
covalent bonding of carbon atoms in, 60–61 Cartilage skeleton, 722, 724 interpreting histograms on, 250
diatom capture of, 600 Cas9 protein Cell cycle–inhibiting pathway, 388f
diffusion of, across capillary walls, 930 in gene editing, 424, 425f, 433 Cell cycle–stimulating pathway, 387f, 388
in ecosystem interaction, 10f–11 prokaryotes and, 587, 588f Cell differentiation. See Differentiation, cell
fossil fuels, ocean acidification, and, 53f, 54 Casein, 76f Cell division, 234
in gas exchange, 937t, 938, 945f–947f Case studies bacterial, 242, 243f
in global climate change, 204–205 on decline of red-cockaded woodpecker, cancer and interference with cell-signaling
global climate change and, 11, 48, 1167
inhibition of fruit ripening with, 852 1267f, 1268 pathways of, 387f–388f, 389
insect effects on forest absorption of, 1243 on evolution of tolerance to toxic elements, 30f in cell cycle, 234f–235f. See also Cell cycle
in mammalian circulation, 924 on greater prairie chicken extinction vortex, 1265f cytokinins in, 848
metabolic rate and, 888 on grizzly bear populations, 1266f, 1267 cytoplasmic determinants and induction in,
net ecosystem production and, 1240, 1243 on kidney function in vampire bats, 989f, 990
nonvascular plants and, in Ordovician Period on nutrient cycling in Hubbard Brook 380f, 381
distribution of chromosomes during eukaryotic,
climate change, 627 Experimental Forest, 1250f, 1251
in Permian mass extinction, 538–539 on predation and mouse coat coloration, 20f–21f 235f, 236–237
in photosynthesis, 41f on variation in migratory patterns, 1154, 1155f as embryonic development process, 379f, 380. See
photosynthetic processing of, by marine on variation in prey selection, 1153, 1154f
Casparian strip, 790, 791f also Embryonic development
protists, 613f Caspases, 230, 233 evolution of, 243, 244f
in plant cells, 209f Cas protein, 402f of HeLa cancer cells, 252
prokaryotic chemical recycling of, 585 Cassava, 649, 836f in meiosis, 259f–262f. See also Meiosis
in regulation of human breathing, 944f Castor beans, 827f in mitosis vs. in meiosis, 262, 263f, 264
rubisco as acceptor for, 201, 202f Catabolic pathways, 144 newt lung cell, 7f
seedless vascular plants and, 631 ATP production and, 165 in plant growth, 774, 775f–776f
in Sphagnum peat moss, 626 cellular respiration as, 165 prokaryotic, 575–576
as stimulus for stomatal opening and closing, redox reactions in, 165, 166f–168f Cell fate
regulation of, 183f, 184 cilia and, 1062
795–796 versatility of, 182f, 183 determination, differentiation, and, 1055
tropical rain forest deforestation and, 649f, 650 Catalysis, 154, 155f–156f. See also Enzymatic catalysis fate mapping and, 1055, 1056f–1059f
Carbon fixation, 191f, 192, 201, 202f–206f Catalysts, 75, 153. See also Enzymatic catalysis inductive signals in pattern formation and
Carbonic acid, 51, 53f, 54, 944 Catalytic cycle, 156f
Carbon monoxide, 1080 Catalytic knob, ATP synthase, 175f determination of, 1059, 1060f–1061f, 1062
Carbon sink, 1243 Cataracts, 1280 Cell fractionation, 96, 97f, 125
Carbon skeletons, 60f–61f Catecholamines, 1010f Cell junctions
Carbon source, 1243 Catenulida, 692
Carbonyl group, 63f Caterpillars, 466f, 486f, 869, 895, 901f, 1004f, in local cell signaling, 215f
Carboxyl group, 63f plasmodesmata in plants, 119f, 120
Carboxylic acid, 63f 1005, 1244f tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions in
Carcharhinus melanopterus, 725f Catharanthus roseus, 1261f
Carcinogens, 360, 386. See also Cancer Cation exchange, 804, 805f animals, 120f
Cardiac cycle, 925f, 928, 929f–930f, 949 Cations, 37, 38f, 804, 805f Cell-mediated immune response, 951f, 961, 962f
Cardiac muscle, 877f, 1129 Cats, 293, 300f, 362, 428f Cell motility, 113t, 114, 115f–117f, 1054f–1055f
Cardiac output, 925 Catskill Mountains, 1261 Cell plate, 241, 242f–243f
Cardiomyopathy, familial, 357 Cattails, 1184 Cells, 5f, 757
Cardiovascular diseases, 74, 311, 935f, 936–937, 949 Cattle, 912f
Cardiovascular systems, 922 Cattle egrets, 1182f, 1219f animal. See Animal cells
blood composition and function in, 932f–934f, 935 Causation, behavioral, 1138 in animal morphogenesis, 1054f, 1055
as closed circulatory systems, 922. See also Cavalier-Smith, Thomas, 609f auxin in differentiation of, 848
Cavendish banana, 268 auxin in elongation of, 846, 847f
Circulatory systems CC (Carbon Copy, cloned cat), 428f blood, 932f–933f, 934
coordination of gas exchange systems and, CCR5 protein, 130f calculating volume and surface area of, 99
Cdks, 245, 246f cell fractionation in study of, 96f, 97
945f–947f. See also Gas exchange Cecum, 909f cellular integration of, 121f
diseases of, 74, 935f, 936–937 Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve, 1221f cellular membranes of. See Cellular membranes
effects of adrenal hormones on, 1010 Celera Genomics, 441f cellular respiration and. See Cellular respiration
evolutionary variations in double circulation of, 923 Cell adhesion molecules, 1054 climate change effects on, 1278f
communication between. See Cell signaling
cytokinins in division and differentiation of, 848
density and relative sizes of components of,

122–123f
differentiation of. See Differentiation, cell
division of, as fundamental to life, 234. See also

Cell cycle; Cell division

INDEX I-8

Index Cells (continued) fermentation vs., 165, 179, 180f, 181f shared ancestral and shared derived, 558–559
eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic, 97f–98f, 99. See also glycolysis in, 170f–171f taxonomy and, 552–553
Eukaryotic cells; Prokaryotic cells metabolic rate and, 888 traits and, 270–271
as fundamental units of life, 5f–6f, 7, 93f mitochondria in, 109–110, 111f Character tables, 559f
locations of enzymes in, 161f monosaccharides in, 69 Chargaff, Edwin, 317f, 318
metabolism of. See Metabolism origin of, 532, 533f Chargaff’s rules, 317f, 318, 320
microscopy in study of, 94f–95f, 96 overall reaction for, 149 Charged tRNA, 349f
molecular machinery in, 122–123f oxidative phosphorylation in, 174f–177f Charophytes, 607, 617f–618f
molecules in, 122–123f oxygen diffusion and, 133 Charpentier, Emmanuelle, 424
photosynthesis and. See Photosynthesis photosynthesis vs., 191. See also Photosynthesis Chase, Martha, 315, 316f, 317
plant. See Plant cells in plant cells, 209f Cheating behavior, 1157
programmed death of. See Apoptosis pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle in, Checkpoints, cell cycle control system, 245f–247f
programming of, by viral DNA, 315f–316f, 317 Cheetahs, 212f, 1203f
protein folding in, 83 171f–173f Chelicerae, 706
protocells as first, 525f, 526 redox reactions and, 165, 166f–168f Chelicerates, 706
scale of molecules in, 122–123f regulation of, via feedback mechanisms, 183f, 184 Chemical bonds, 36
sequential gene regulation in differentiation of, stages of, 168, 169f with carbon, 58, 59f, 60
381, 382f using cell fractionation to study, 97 covalent, 36f–37f
in sickle-cell disease, 500f versatility of catabolic pathways and, 182f, 183 hydrogen bonds, 38, 39f
size range of, 94f Cellular slime molds, 610, 611f ionic, 37, 38f
of small intestine, 125 Cellulose, 71 van der Waals interactions, 39
stem cells. See Stem cells fiber, 909 Chemical cycling, energy flow and. See
transcription specific to type of, 373, 374f microfibrils, 776f
unity in, 13f in plant cell walls, 70f–71f, 72, 118 Biogeochemical cycles; Energy flow and
water regulation of, 142 as product of photosynthesis, 206, 207f chemical cycling
proteins synthesizing, 617 Chemical defense, prey, 1216f
Cell sap, 108 water and, 49 Chemical digestion, 905f–906f
Cell signaling. See also Signal transduction pathways Cellulose synthase, 118 Chemical energy, 144, 887, 888f. See also Cellular
Cell walls, 118 respiration; Photosynthesis
by animal endocrine and nervous systems, 878f cellulose in plant, 617 Chemical equilibrium, 41
in apoptosis, 212, 229f–231f fungal cell, 100f buffers and, 52–53
cancer and interference with normal, osmosis, water balance, and, 134f–135f in chemical reactions, 41
plant cell, 101f, 118f free energy change and, 147, 148f
387f–388f, 389 prokaryotic, 97f, 572, 573f metabolism and, 149f–150f
in cell cycle control system, 245f–248f. See also Cell Cenozoic era, 530f, 531t, 537f, 677 Chemical mutagens, 360
Center for Plant Conservation, 1260 Chemical reactions, 40
cycle control system Centipedes, 706, 707f activation energy barrier of, 153, 154f–155f
cellular membrane selective permeability and, 130f Central canal, 1086f chemical energy in, 144–145
cilia in, 114 Central disk, sea star, 712f endergonic, 148, 149f
evolution of, 213f, 215, 233 Central dogma, DNA, 339 enzymatic catalysis of. See Enzymatic catalysis
feedback regulation of, 1004 Central nervous system (CNS), 1067, 1084. See also exergonic, 148, 149f, 154f, 165
fight-or-flight responses in, 212f free energy change and, 147, 148f
local and long-distance, 215f, 216 Brains making and breaking of chemical bonds by, 40f–41f
mechanical, 119 neuronal plasticity of, 1097, 1098f metabolism and, 143. See also Metabolism
pathways of, 998f–999f, 1003f, 1004. See also neurons of, 1067 in photosynthesis, 190f, 191. See also Light
neurotransmitters and, 1079 reactions
Endocrine signaling; Neuroendocrine peripheral nervous system and, 1084–1085, 1088f Chemical signals, 1065–1066. See also Animal
signaling in sensory systems, 1106, 1107 hormones; Hormones; Plant hormones
reception stage of, 217f–221f structure and function of vertebrate, 1086f–1087f Chemical structure, DNA, 319f
response stage of, 226f–228f, 229 Central vacuoles, 101f, 108 Chemical synapses, 1075, 1076f. See also Synapses
symplastic, 799–800 Centrifuge, 96f, 97 Chemical work, 150–151, 152f
three stages of, 216f, 217 Centrioles, 114f Chemiosmosis, 175, 176f–177f, 191f, 199f–200f, 201
transduction stage of, 221, 222f–225f Centromeres, 236f Chemistry
Cell-surface proteins, 119f, 130f Centromeric DNA, 450 atoms in, 30f–36f, 37
Cell-surface receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), 250 Centrosomes, 100f, 114f, 240f biological molecules in. See Biological molecules
Cell-surface transmembrane receptors, 217f–220f Centrostephanus rodgersii, 1279f calculating standard radioactive isotope decay
Cellular hormone response pathways, 1000f–1003f Century plants, 1198, 1199f curves in, 33
Cellular innate immune defenses, 953f–954f Cephalization, 1084–1085 chemical bonding between atoms in, 36f–41f
Cellular-level herbivore defenses, plant, 866f Cephalochordata (lancelets), 717f, 718, 719f–720f chemical bonding with carbon in, 58, 59f, 60
Cellular membranes. See also Plasma membranes Cephalopods, 699f, 700 connection to biology, 28. See also Biology
active transport across, 136, 137f–138f, 139 Cercozoans, 605, 606f matter as elements and compounds in, 29f–30f. See
animal, 672 Cerebellum, 1089f, 1090f–1091f also Compounds; Molecules
bulk transport across, by exocytosis and Cerebral cortex, 1091f, 1094, 1095f–1097f, 1098, 1112 organic, as study of carbon compounds, 57f, 58. See
endocytosis, 139, 140f, 141 Cerebral ganglia also Organic compounds
evolution of differences in lipid composition of, 129 earthworm, 702f of water. See Water
fluidity of, 128f, 129 insect, 708f Chemoautotrophs, 580t
as fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins, 127f, 128 Cerebral hemispheres, 1091f Chemoheterotrophs, 580t
interpreting scatter plots on glucose uptake Cerebrospinal fluid, 944f, 1086f Chemoreceptors, 1108, 1109f, 1121f–1123f
across, 136 Cerebrum, 1089f, 1090f–1091f, 1092 Chemosynthetic organisms, 1238
membrane carbohydrates in cell-cell recognition Certainty of paternity, 1149 Chemotaxis, 574
by, 130f–131f Cervical cancer, 870, 972 Chemotherapy, 249, 391f
membrane proteins of, 129f–130f, 132 Cervix, 1024, 1025f Chemotrophs, 579, 580t
of mitochondria, 110, 111f Cetaceans, 479f–480f, 743f Chesapeake Bay estuary food web, 1223f, 1235
movement across plant cell, 209f Cetartiodactyla, 742f–743f Chestnut blight, 667, 865, 1224, 1232
nuclear envelopes, 102, 103f cGMP, 224, 842f, 843 Chewing, 918
organelles and internal, 98f, 99 Chaetae, 701, 702f Chiasmata, 260f, 262f–263f, 264
passive transport as diffusion across, 132, 133f–135f Chagas’ disease, 598 Chickadees, 515
phospholipids in, 74f, 75 Chambered nautilus, 700f Chicken pox, 960
in plant response to cold stress, 863 Chameleons, 671f, 733f Chicks
selective permeability of, 127f, 131–132 Chamerion angustifolium, 634f embryo image, 1041f
specialized prokaryotic, 575f Chamois, 899f gastrulation in, 1050f
synthesis and sidedness of, 131f Change, global. See Global change limb formation in, 1060, 1061f, 1062
Cellular respiration, 165 Change, spontaneous, 148f organogenesis in, 1053f
ATP production by catabolic pathways and, 165 Channel proteins, 132, 135f, 136 Chicxulub crater, 539f
ATP yield at each stage of, 177f, 178 Chaparral, 1172f Chief cells, 905f
bar graphs of, 179 Character displacement, 1214, 1215f, 1235 Chikungunya virus, 407f
biosynthesis in anabolic pathways and, 183 Characters, 270 Childbirth, human, 1034, 1035f. See also Births,
in carbon cycle, 1248f dominant vs. recessive traits and, 271f, 272t human
as catabolic, 144, 165 multifactorial, 282f
in energy flow and chemical cycling, 9f, 164, 165
enzymes for, in mitochondria, 161f
evolutionary significance of glycolysis in, 181–182

I-9 INDEX

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) plant cell, 101f cardiovascular systems as closed, 922. See also Index
comparison of human genome with genome of, regulation of structure of eukaryotic, 369f, 370 Cardiovascular systems
87, 89, 452f, 453, 458f, 459 remodeling of, by siRNAs, 378f, 379
complete genome sequence for, 440f Chromoplasts, 111 gas exchange systems and, 919f, 920. See also Gas
heterochrony and differential growth rates in Chromosomal basis of inheritance exchange
skulls of, 542f as basis for Mendelian inheritance, 294f–295f, 296
humans vs., 746 chromosomal alterations and genetic disorders in, gastrovascular cavities as, 920f, 921
J. Goodall’s research on, 17f internal exchange surfaces and, 873f
as primates, 745f 306, 307f–309f invertebrate, 697f, 699, 702f
problem solving of, 1145 evolution of gene concept from, 360 open and closed, 921f, 922
skulls of humans and, 556 exceptions to Mendelian inheritance in, 310f, 311 thermoregulatory adaptations of animal, 883, 884f
social learning in, 1146f genomic imprinting in, 310f, 311 cis face, Golgi apparatus, 106f, 107
tool use by, 748 inheritance of organelle genes in, 311f cis isomers, 61f
linked genes and linkage in, 301f–306f Cisternae, 104, 106f, 107
China, 1206 sex-linked genes in, 298f–300f Cisternal maturation model, 106
Chips, human gene microarray, 445, 446f T. H. Morgan’s experimental discovery of, 296f–297f Cisternal space, 104
Chiroptera, 742f–743f Chromosomal breakage points, 453 cis-trans isomers, 61f
Chi-square (x2) distribution table, F–3 Chromosome conformation capture (3C) techniques, Citric acid cycle, 168, 169f, 172f–173f, 177f
Chi-square (x2) test in Scientific Skills Exercise, 304 Citrulline, 337f
Chitin, 72f, 653f, 654, 704–705, 1131 374–375 Clades, 558, 559, 621, 679
Chitons, 697f, 1084f Chromosomes, 102, 235. See also DNA; Genes Cladistics, 558, 559f, 570. See also Systematics;
Chlamydias, 583f, 1038
Chlamydomonas, 101f, 607, 608f. See also Green algae alleles on, 272. See also Alleles Taxonomy
Chlamydomonas nivalis, 211 alterations of, 306, 307f–309f, 452f, 453 Clams, 697, 699f
Chlorarachniophytes, 597f, 606 bacterial, 242, 243f Classes, taxonomy, 552, 553f
Chloride cells, 990, 991f in cancer cells, 249–250 Classical conditioning, 1144
Chloride ions, 1068t, 1069f in cell division, 234f–235f, 244f Classification of life, E-1
Chloride transport channels, 286 in chromosomal basis of Mendelian inheritance, Clausen, Jens, 1187
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 1274f Claw waving behavior of male fiddler crab, 1137f, 1139
Chlorine, 29t, 1280f 294f–295f, 296. See also Chromosomal basis Cleanup, environmental, 416f, 435–436
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 1280f, 1281 of inheritance Cleavage, 241, 672, 1045
Chlorophyll, 5f, 189f, 190 correlating behavior of alleles with pairs of, 297f
crossing over and recombinant, 265, 266f in animal embryonic development, 672, 1042,
chemiosmosis, 199, 200f, 201 distribution of, during eukaryotic cell division, 1045f–1046f, 1047
cyclic electron flow in, 198f, 199 235f–236f, 237
light excitation of, 195f DNA, genes, and, 7f–8f in cell cycle, 241, 242f–243f
linear electron flow in, 197f–198f DNA and chromatin packing in, 330f–332f in human embryonic development, 1032f, 1033
in photosystems, 195, 196f, 197 in eukaryotic cell nucleus, 102, 103f in protostome and deuterostome development,
structure of, 194f evidence for evolution of plants from green
Chlorophyll a, 193, 194f, 196–198 algae, 617 679f, 680
Chlorophyll b, 193, 194f, 196 gene expression and interaction of, in interphase Cleavage furrows, 239f, 241, 242f, 1046f
Chlorophytes, 607f–608f nucleus, 374, 375f Clements, F. E., 1226
Chloroplasts, 109, 187 genetic variation due to mutations in, 486–487 Climate, 1165. See also Climate change
chemiosmosis in, 177 in genome evolution, 452f, 453
chemiosmosis in mitochondria vs. in, homologous, 256f–257f continental drift and changes in, 537
human, 256f–257f, 258 effect of large bodies of water on, 47f
199f–200f, 201 independent assortment of, 265f global patterns of, 1164f
evolutionary origins of, 109, 110f as information, 268, 313 greenhouse gases and, 1275f–1279f
folding of, 693f inheritance of genes and, 255 latitudinal gradients and, affecting community
light reactions in. See Light reactions in interphase, 252
as organelles, 5f, 6–7 karyotypes of, 256f diversity, 1230f
photosynthesis by, 109–110, 111f locating genes along, 294f–295f, 296 macroclimate, microclimate, and, 1167
in plant cells, 101f, 209f mapping distance between genes on, 305f–306f nonvascular plants in Ordovician Period changes
as sites of photosynthesis, 189f, 190, 206, 207f in meiosis, 259f–263f, 264
transgenic crops and DNA in, 838 molecular tags and karyotypes of human, 332f of, 627
Chlorosis, 808, 810f movement of, on kinetochore microtubules, Permian mass extinction and changes in, 538–539
Choanocytes, 688f 240, 241f regional and local effects on, 1165f–1167f
Choanoflagellates, 611, 673f–674f in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, 97f, 98, 575f seedless vascular plants and ancient, 631
Cholecystokinin (CCK), 913f prokaryotic conjugation and gene transfer terrestrial biomes and, 1168, 1169f
Cholera, 218f, 224, 582f, 587 between, 577, 578f, 579 using dendrochronology to study, 771f
Cholesterol, 75f Chromosome theory of inheritance, 296 Climate change, 11, 1275
effect of diet on, 75 Chronic inflammation, 955 biological effects of, 1276–1277, 1278f–1279f
in cellular membranes, 128f Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), 309f, 433 black guillemots and, 44f
in egg yolks, 91 Chrysanthemums, 858 caribou population decline and, 1019, 1279f
G protein-coupled receptors and, 217f Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta), 89 coral reefs and, 691
receptor-mediated endocytosis and, 139 Chylomicrons, 908f crop productivity and, 861
types of, in blood, 935–936 Chyme, 905, 913f ecological footprints, fossil fuels, and, 1208f, 1209
Chondrichthyans, 717f, 724, 725f Chytrids, 658, 659f–660f, 667, 668f, 731 as ecosystem interaction, 11
Chondrocytes, 876f Cichlid fish, 513f, 517f effects of, on photosynthetic marine protists, 613f
Chondroitin sulfate, 876f Cigarette smoke, cardiovascular and lung disease and, extinction rates and, 539f, 540
Chondromyces crocatus, 582f 392, 949 fossil fuel burning and, 11
Chordates, 717 Cilia, 114 greenhouse gases and, 1275f–1279f
endoskeletons of, 1131, 1132f architecture of eukaryotic, and unity, 13f habitat loss from, 1262
evolution of, 720f bronchial, 941 hybrid zones and, 515
hagfishes and lampreys, 721f, 722 cell fate and, 1062 keystone species distribution and, 1184f
invertebrate, 687f, 713, 717f–720f ciliate, 604f lizards and, 11f
lancelets, 718, 719f flagella vs., 115f melting of Arctic sea ice and, 48f
phylogeny and derived characters of, 717f–718f as microtubules, 114, 115f–116f mosquito ranges and, 410
phylogeny of, 680, 681f Ciliates, 604f, 605, 615 nonvascular plants in Ordovician Period, 627
tunicates, 719f, 720 Cilium-based signaling, 114 ocean acidification and, 53f, 54–55
vertebrates as, 720 Circadian rhythms, 796, 856, 880. See also overharvesting of peat moss and, 626
Chorion, 733f, 1051f Biological clocks in Permian mass extinction, 538–539
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS), 288, 289f, 1037 in animal behavior, 1138 plant adaptations to, 204–205
Choroid, 1116f in animal homeostasis, 880, 881f positive feedbacks of, 1187
Christmas tree worm, 701f brain regulation of, 1092–1093 primary production response to, 1242f, 1243
Chromatin, 102, 235, 331 hibernation and, 891f seedless vascular plants and, 631–632
animal cell, 100f melatonin and, 1013 solutions for, 1277
in cell division, 235f–236f, 237 in plant responses to light, 855, 856f–858f species distributions and, 1167, 1168f
in eukaryotic cell nucleus, 102, 103f in stomatal opening and closing, 796 tropical rain forest deforestation and, 649f, 650
in eukaryotic chromosomes, 330f–332f Circannual rhythms, 1139 tropical rain forest photosynthesis and, 211
Circulatory systems using dendrochronology to study, 771f
viral transmission and, 410
Climax communities, 1226
Climographs, 1168, 1169f
Clitoris, 1024, 1025f
Cloaca, 725, 1022f

INDEX I-10

Index Clock, cell cycle, 245, 246f Color blindness, 299f, 1120f Conidia, 662f
Clock genes, 856 Colorectal cancer, 389f, 392 Conifers, 621, 637, 638f, 639, 641f
Clonal selection, 960, 961f, 974 Color vision, 1115–1116, 1119, 1120f Conjugation, 577, 578f, 579, 604f, 605
Clone (term), 426. See also Organismal cloning Columbine flowers, 823f Connective tissue, animal, 76f, 876f
Cloned genes. See also DNA cloning; Gene cloning Columnar cells, 875f Connell, Joseph, 1214f
Columnar epithelium, 875f Conodonts, 722f, 723
of crystallin, 439 Combinatorial control elements, 372–373, 374f Consanguineous mating, human, 285–286
expressing eukaryotic, 420–421 Comb jellies, 685f Conservation Areas, Costa Rican, 1271f
in gene therapy, 432f, 433 Comet collision, mass extinction by, 539f Conservation biology, 1259. See also Ecology
uses for, 416f Commensalism, 586, 659f, 660, 1219f
Clones, 255, 1064. See also Organismal cloning Commercial value biodiversity and, 1258f–1264f
asexual reproduction of, 255f conservation of mollusc species, 700f, 701
fragmentation and, 831f of fungi, 668, 669f genomics and proteomics in, 88f
from plant cuttings, 833 of mosses, 626f global change and, 1272, 1273f–1280f, 1281
test-tube or in vitro, 834f Common arrowhead flower, 833f landscape and regional conservation in, 1268,
Cloning vectors, 416. See also Recombinant DNA Common juniper, 641f
Closed circulatory systems, 699, 702f, 921f, 922, 979. Communicating junctions, 120f 1269f–1272f
Communication, animal, 878f, 1139f–1141f logistic population growth model in, 1198
See also Cardiovascular systems Communication, cellular. See Cell signaling population conservation in, 1264,
Clostridium botulinum, 583f, 587 Communities, 4f, 1163f, 1212
Clotting, blood, 10, 300, 416f, 434, 701f, 702, 934f, 935 biogeographic factors affecting, 1229, 1230f–1232f 1265f–1267f, 1268
Cloudina, 675f climate change effects on, 1279f species-area curves of species richness in, 1230, 1231f
Club fungi, 663f–665f disturbances of, 1226f–1229f sustainable development in, 1281f–1282f
Club mosses, 629, 630f, 631 diversity in, 1259f–1260f Conservation of energy, 145f, 146, 1237
Clumped dispersion, 1190f interspecific interactions in, 1213f–1219f Conservation of mass, 1237–1238
Clutch size, 1198, 1199f–1200f as level of biological organization, 4f Conservative model, DNA replication, 321f–322f
Cnemaspis psychedelica, 1258f pathogen alteration of structure of, 1232, 1233f Conserved Domain Database (CDD), 443f
Cnidarians, 685f, 689f–691f, 1084f scientific, 19f, 24 Constant (C) region, light and heavy chain, 956f, 957
Cnidocytes, 689f–690f species diversity and stability of, 1220f–1221f. See Constipation, 909
Coal, 631–632. See also Fossil fuels Consumers, 9, 188, 671f, 672
Coal gas, 850 also Species diversity in carbon cycle, 1248f
Coastal Japan restoration project, 1252f study of, by community ecology, 1163f, 1212–1213. primary, 1238f, 1244, 1245f, 1246
Coat coloration case studies, 20f–21f, 23 secondary, 1238f, 1244, 1245f, 1246
Cocaine, 1101f See also Community ecology tertiary, 1238f, 1244, 1245f, 1246
Coccidioidomycosis, 668 trophic structure of, 1221, 1222f–1225f. See also Consumption, regulation of animal, 915f, 916
Coccosteus cuspidatus, 527f Continental drift, 480–481, 536f–537f, 538
Cochlea, 1111f–1113f Trophic structure Contour tillage, 807f
Cocklebur, 857 Community diversity, 1259f–1260f Contraception, 1036f, 1037, 1206
Cocktails, drug, 407, 487 Community ecology, 1163f. See also Ecology Contraceptives, as environmental toxins, 1275
Coconut, 826, 830f Contractile proteins, 76f
Cod (Gadus morhua), 726 biogeographic factors in, 1229, 1230f–1232f Contractile vacuoles, 108, 135f
Coding DNA strands, 340 community boundaries in, 1213. See also Contraction, muscle, 1124, 1125f, 1126. See also Muscle
Codominance, 279 Contrast, 94
Codon recognition, 352, 353f Communities Control center, homeostatic, 880f
Codons, 340 disturbances in, 1226f–1229f Control elements, 371f–374f
interspecific interactions in, 1213f–1219f Control groups, 20, 21f, F–3
evolution of, 362 pathogens in, 1232, 1233f Controlled experiments, 20–21, F–3
in genetic code, 339, 340f–341f, 342 species diversity and trophic structure in, 1220f– designing, in Scientific Skills Exercise, 1011
in translation, 347f–349f, 352, 353f Conus geographus, 1065f, 1067f
Coefficient of relatedness (r), 1156f–1157f 1225f. See also Species diversity; Trophic Convection, animal heat exchange and, 883f
Coefficients, correlation, 676, 749 structure Convergent evolution, 479
Coelacanths, 717f, 727f zoonotic diseases in, 1233f analogies and, 556f
Coelom, 678f, 679, 702f Community-level herbivore defenses, plant, 867f of cacti and euphorbs, 1170f
Coelomates, 678f, 679, 696 Companion cells, 763f of fast swimmers, 872f
Coenocytic fungi, 654 Competition, 1213, 1254f–1255f of homologies, 479f
coenzyme Q, 175, 186 density-dependent population regulation by, of marsupials, 741f
Coenzymes, 158 1202f in phylogenies, 551f–552f
Coevolution, 823f interspecific, 1213, 1214f–1215f Convergent extension, 1054, 1055f
Cofactors, 158 sexual, 497f–498f, 1151f Conversion, data, 264
Coffee, 649 in species distributions of plants, 1183–1184 Cooksonia sporangium, 620f
Cognition, 1094, 1097, 1144, 1145f Competitive exclusion, 1213 Cooling, evaporative, 47, 884f
Cognitive maps, 1144 Competitive inhibitors, 158, 159f Cooper, Vaughn, 576f
Cohesins, 236, 240, 262f Complementary base pairing, DNA and RNA, 86f Cooperativity, 160
Cohesion, 45, 46f, 793–794 Complementary DNA (cDNA), 422, 423f–424f in allosteric activation, 160f
Cohesion-tension hypothesis, 792f–793f, 794 Complement systems, 954, 964f prokaryotic metabolic, 580f
Cohorts, 1191 Complete digestive tracts, 903f science and, 22–23, 24f
Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), 89, 1198 Complete dominance, 279 Coordinately controlled genes, 364, 374
Coitus, human, 1031–1032, 1036–1037 Complete flowers, 642f, 822 Coordination, cell-signaling response, 227, 228f
Coitus interruptus, 1036f Complete growth medium, 336f–337f Copepods, 708f
Cold Complete metamorphosis, 709f, 710f Coprophagy, 912
plant response to stress of, 863 Complex eyes, 545, 546f Copy-number variants (CNVs), 460
thermoreceptors and, 1109f Compound eyes, 710f, 892f, 1115f, 1116 CoQ (coenzyme Q), 175, 186
Cold viruses, 399, 402 Compound leaves, 759f Coral atolls, 1180f
Coleoptera (beetles), 710f Compounds, 29. See also Molecules Coral polyps, 1017f
Coleoptiles, 827f–828f, 845f, 846 biological. See Biological molecules Coral reefs, 53f, 54, 612, 1180f, 1232, 1262
Coleorhiza, 827f emergent properties of, 29f Corals, 690f–691f
Collagen, 76f, 81f, 118, 119f, 672 ionic, 38f Corepressors, 365f
Collagenous fibers, 876f organic. See Organic compounds Cork cambium, 764f, 772
Collar cells, 673f pure elements vs., 37 Cork cells, 772, 781
Collared flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis), 516, 517f Compromises, evolutionary, 499 Cormorant, flightless (Phalacrocorax harrisi), 504f, 509
Collared lemmings, 1202f Computational tools, 9, 442, 443f–446f, 774. See also Corn (Zea mays), 440, 446t, 649, 775f, 808–809f
Collecting duct, 985f–987f Bioinformatics
Collenchyma cells, 762f, 768 Concentration gradients, 132, 133f, 136, 137f–138f, 139 See also Maize
Colon, 909f Concentrations, chemical reactions and, 41 Cornea, 1116f
Colon cancer, 327 Conception, human, 1032f Corn smut, 667f
Coloration Condoms, 1036f Corpus callosum, 1091f, 1096
case studies on mouse, 20f–21f, 23 Conduction, animal heat exchange and, 883f Corpus luteum, 1027f, 1031
of chromosomes, 332f Conduction, neuron action potential, 1073f, 1074 Correlation coefficients in Scientific Skills Exercise,
as prey defensive adaptation, 1216f–1217f Cones (photoreceptor), 1117f–1119f, 1120–1121, 1136
skin, 1014, 1016 Cones, gymnosperm, 637, 641f 676, 749
Cone snails (Conus geographus), 1065f, 1067f Correlations, positive and negative, in Scientific Skills
I-11 INDEX Confocal microscopy, 95f, 96
Conformer animals, 879f Exercise, 832
Congenital disorders, 256f

Correns, Carl, 311f Cross-talk, cell-signaling, 228f membrane proteins and attachment to, 130f Index
Corridors, movement, 1269, 1270f Crows, 1148 microtubules of, 113t, 114f–116f
Cortex, 116, 761, 768f CRP, 367f in morphogenesis, 1053, 1054f–1055f
Cortical microfilaments, 116 Crustaceans, 462f, 543f, 544, 687f, 707f–708f plant cell, 101f
Cortical nephrons, 984f, 989 Crustose lichens, 666f, 670 structure and function of, 113t
Cortical reactions, 1043f, 1044 Cryptic coloration, 1216f, 1217 support and motility roles of, 112f–113f
Cortical rotation, 1058f Cryptochromes, 854 Cytosol, 97
Cortinarius caperatus, 652f Cryptomycota, 658 Cytosolic calcium ions, 842f, 843
Cortisol, 1000f Crypts, 797f Cytotoxic chemotherapy, 391f
Corvids, 1145 Crystallin, 374f, 439 Cytotoxic T cells, 964f, 965
Corynebacterium diphtheriae, 97f Crystallin proteins, 8f
Costa Rica Crystals, ice, 47, 48f D
C soil horizon, 804f
sustainable development in, 1281f, 1282 Ctenophora, 685f DAG, 225f
zoned reserves in, 1271f C-terminus, 78f, 352 Daklak orchid (Dendrobium daklakense), 1258f
Cost-benefit behavior analysis, 1147 Cuatro ojos fish, 363f Dalton (atomic mass unit), 31, 50
Cotransport, 138f, 139 Cuboidal epithelium, 875f Dalton, John, 31
Cotton, 49, 802 Cubozoans, 690f–691f Dance language, honeybee, 1140f
Cottongrass, 1254f Cuckoo bee, 1216f, 1217 Dandelions, 651, 822f, 830f, 1190f, 1200f
Cotyledons, 645, 826f–828f Cud, 912f Dangl, Jeffery, 812f
Counseling, genetic, 288 Culex pipiens, 494–495 Danio rerio (zebrafish) as model organism, 22
Countercurrent exchange, 884f, 939f Culture, 1146, 1157f, 1158 Daphnia pulex, 446t, 1019, 1197f
Countercurrent multiplier systems, 988–989 Cupula, 1114f Darkness
Courtship rituals. See also Mating behavior Curl cat, 293
behavioral isolation and, 506f Curvularia, 670 flowering in long-night plants and, 857f, 858
external fertilization and, 1021 Cuscuta, 817f, 840f, 841 plant etiolation response to, 841f
forms of animal communication in, 1139f–1140f Cushing’s syndrome, 1016 Dark responses, rod cell, 1119f
genetic basis of, 1153f Cuticle, ecdysozoan, 703, 705 D’Arrigo, Rosanne, 771f
reproductive cycles and, 1019f Cuticle, exoskeleton, 1131 Darwin, Charles. See also Evolution
sexual selection and, 497f–498f, 1150f–1151f, 1152 Cuticle, plant, 620, 761 on barnacles, 708
Covalent bonds, 36 Cuttings, plant, 427, 833, 847 Beagle voyage and field research of, 469, 470f–471f
of disaccharides, 69f Cutworms, 703 on coevolution of flower-pollinator
formation of, 36f Cuvier, Georges, 467f, 468
in organic compounds, 58, 59f, 60, 64 Cyanobacteria mutualism, 823
in protein tertiary structure, 81f on earthworms, 702
types of, 36–37f blooms of, 1225f evidence supporting theory of, 475f–480f, 481
Cowbirds, 1269, 1284 bryophyte symbiosis with, 624f, 625 on grandeur of evolutionary process, 482
Coyotes, 910f chemical recycling by, 585f historical context of life and ideas of, 467f–469f
Crabs, 707f, 896f evolution of glycolysis in, 181–182 on island species, 481
“Crank” drug, 62 fungi and, as lichens, 662, 666f–667f on lung evolution from swim bladders, 726
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants, 205, land colonization by, 534 on mystery of flowering plants, 475, 645, 823f
metabolic cooperation in, 580f on mystery of speciation, 504
206f, 796, 797f mutualism with, 811f on natural selection, 266, 267f, 485
Crawling, 1131f, 1133 origin of photosynthesis in, 532 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
Crayfish, 938f, 1110 photosynthesis by, 188f, 199, 583f
Creatin phosphate, 1126 protist endosymbiosis and photosynthetic, by, 467, 471, 481–482
Crenarchaeota clade, 585 speciation theory of, 471, 472f–474f
Cretaceous mass extinction, 539f 596f–597f, 606f on species diversity of tropics, 1230
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 410 terrestrial, 616 study by, of phototropism in grass coleoptiles, 845f
Crick, Francis Cycads, 640f theory of descent with modification by, 14f–16f
Cyclic AMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate, time line of work of, 467f
central dogma of, 339 Darwin, Francis, 845f
discovery of DNA molecular structure by, 5, 23–24, cAMP), 223f–224f, 233, 367f, 1001f, 1078 Dasyatis americana, 725f
Cyclic data, graphing, in Scientific Skills Exercise, 1276 Data, 17, 19f, 21–22, F–1–F–3
314f, 317, 318f–320f Cyclic electron flow, 198f, 199 Databases
model of DNA replication by, 320, 321f Cyclic GMP (cGMP), 224, 842f, 843 in estimating reproductive rates, 1192, 1193f
Crickets (Anabrus simplex), 447, 710f, 1110f Cyclin, 245, 246f genome-sequence, 442, 443f
Cri du chat, 309 Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks), 245, 246f Dating, radiometric, 32–33, 528f
Crinoidea, 713f Cycliophora, 686f dATP, 324
CRISPR-Cas system, 402f Cyclosporine, 668 Daughter cells, 234, 235f–236f, 237, 266f
in gene editing, 424–425f, 433 Cyclostomes, 721 Day-neutral plants, 857f
in gene identification, 444 Cynodonts, 529f db gene, 916
prokaryotes in development of, 587–588f Cysteine, 63f, 77f DDT pesticide, 158, 483, 1274f
Cristae, 110 Cystic fibrosis, 83, 280–281, 286, 431 Dead-leaf moth (Oxytenis modestia), 466f
Critical habitat, population conservation and, Cystic kidney disease, 1062 Dead Sea, 584
Cytochromes, 175, 199, 230, 564 Dead zone, 1273f
1267f, 1268 Cytogenetic maps, 306 Deamination, amino acid, 182
Critical load, 1273 Cytokines, 955, 999 Deaths
Crocodiles, 562f, 717f, 736 Cytokinesis demographics of, 1191t, 1192f–1193f
Crop (esophageal pouch), 903f, 912 in density-dependent population growth,
Crop plants. See also Agriculture; Plants in meiosis, 260f–261f
in mitosis, 236, 239f, 241, 242f–243f 1201f–1203f
artificial selection and breeding of, 833–835 nuclear envelope during, 252 in exponential population growth, 1194, 1195f
biotechnology and genetic engineering of, 835, Cytokinins, 844t, 847, 848f in human population dynamics, 1206–1207
Cytology, 96, 294 in population dynamics, 1190f, 1254f
836f, 837–838 Cytoplasm, 98 Death signals, apoptosis, 230, 231f. See also Apoptosis
climate change and, 861 cell cycle control signals in, 245f Decapods, 707f, 708
effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide on, 205 cell-signaling responses in, 226, 227f Decay curves, radioactive isotope, 33
as polyploids, 512–513 cytokinesis and division of, 236, 239f, 241, December solstice, 1165f
seed plants as, 649 Deciduous forest, nutrient cycling in, 1250f, 1251
transgenic and genetically modified, 436–437 242f–243f Declining-population approach, population
Crop rotation, 815 of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, 98–99
Cross-fostering studies, 1141, 1142t Cytoplasmic determinants, 380f, 381 conservation, 1267f, 1268
Crossing over, 260f, 302 Cytoplasmic genes, 311 Decomposers, 188, 585, 1238f
chromosomal alterations during, 307, 308f Cytoplasmic responses, cell-signaling, 226, 227f
evolution and, 313 Cytoplasmic streaming, 117f, 605 in energy flow and chemical recycling, 9f,
gene duplication due to unequal, 453f Cytosine, 84, 85f, 86, 317f, 318, 341f 1238f, 1239
genetic variation from, 265, 266f Cytoskeletons, 112
in meiosis, 260f, 262f actin microfilaments of, 113t, 115, 116f–117f fungi as, 653, 656f, 659f, 662–663, 665
recombination of linked genes in, 302, 303f animal cell, 100f lichens as, 667
Cross-pollination, 644 ATP in mechanical work of, 152f prokaryotic, 585, 586f
angiosperm, 644f, 645 intermediate filaments of, 113t, 117 Decomposition, 1257
G. Mendel’s techniques of, 270f–271f in carbon cycle, 1248f
of plants, 835 in ecosystems, 1238f, 1239, 1246f, 1247
in nitrogen cycle, 1249f

INDEX I-12

Index Decomposition (continued) Development, 773 effects on water balance of osmosis as, 133f–135f
in phosphorus cycle, 1249f brain, 720f, 1090f, 1097–1098 extracellular, 766
temperature effects on, 1246f as cell division function, 234, 235f free energy change and, 148f
embryonic. See Embryonic development interpreting scatter plots on glucose uptake as, 136
Deconvolution microscopy, 95f, 96 in human life cycle, 257f, 258. See also Human as passive transport, 132, 133f
Deductive reasoning, 18, 615, F–3 embryonic development in plant cells, 209f
Deep-sea hydrothermal vents, 524, 525f, 1180f macroevolution of, 543f–544f, 545 proteins and facilitated, 135f, 136
Deer, 869, 1147, 1269 plant and animal, 892f. See also Animal of water across plant plasma membranes, 786,
Deer mice, 496f, 890 development; Plant development
DEET insect repellant, 1121 at points in life cycles, 1042f 787f–789f
De-etiolation (greening), 841f–842f, 843 postzygotic barriers and, 507f, 508 of water and minerals into root cells, 790
Defensive adaptations, 28f, 43, 1215, 1216f–1217f as property of life, 3f Digestion, 902
Defensive proteins, 76f sustainable. See Sustainable development in animal food processing, 902f
Deficiencies, plant, 808, 809f, 816 digestive compartments in, 900, 901f–903f
Deforestation Developmental biology, 1041f–1042f digestive systems and, 873f
Developmental genes. See Homeotic genes; Hox genes extracellular, 902, 903f
experimental, and nutrient cycling, 1250f, 1251 Developmental plasticity, 773f feeding mechanisms and, 901f
greenhouse gases and, 1277 Developmental potential, cell fate and, 1058, 1059f fungal, 653, 666
as human community disturbance, 1229 Diabetes hydrolysis in, 67
loss of species from, 1258f–1259f, 1262 intracellular, 902
rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from, aquaporin mutations as causes of diabetes lysosomes in intracellular, 107f, 108
insipidus, 993f regulation of animal, 913f
1275f, 1277 sea star, 711, 712f
threats to biodiversity from, 1258f–1259f, 1262 autoimmunity and, 969 in small intestine, 906f–908f
of tropical rain forests, 649f, 650, 1258f–1259f, 1262 disruption of glucose homeostasis in, 914–915 in stomach, 905f–906f
Degradation, protein, 376 genetic engineering of insulin to treat, 434 vertebrate adaptations for, 909f–912f
Dehydration genetic markers for, 426 Digestive enzymes, 76f
animal, 978 mitochondrial mutations in, 311 Digestive systems
plant, 203, 204f–206f, 534 neonatal, insulin mutations and, 359 adaptations of, 909f–912f
Dehydration reactions, 67f stem cells for, 430 alimentary canal of, 904f
Dehydrogenases, 167f, 168 Diabetes mellitus, 914–915 feedback regulation of, 913f
Deinococcus radiodurans, 571 Diacodexis, 480f internal exchange surfaces and, 873f
Delayed reproduction, 1206 Diacylglycerol (DAG), 225f of invertebrates, 715
Deletions (mutations), 358f, 359–360 Diagnosis large intestine in, 908, 909f
Deletions, chromosome, 307, 308f, 309 antibodies as tools in, 967f oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus in, 903,
Delta proteobacteria, 582f biotechnology in, 431–432
Dementia, 1101, 1102f Diaphragm, birth control, 1036f 904f–905f
Demographics, population, 1191t, 1192f–1193f Diaphragm, breathing and, 943f small intestine in, 906f–908f
Demographic transition, 1206 Diapsids, 734 stomach in, 905f–906f
Demography, 1191. See also Demographics, Diarrhea, 139, 224, 587, 594f, 909 Digger wasps, 1143f
Diastole phase, 925f Dihybrid crosses, 275, 276f
population Diastolic pressure, 928, 929f Dihybrids, 274–275, 276f
Denaturation, 82f, 83 Diatomaceous earth, 600 Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), 609f
Dendrites, 877f, 1066f, 1077, 1108f Diatoms, 244f, 595f, 599f, 600, 615, 1168 Dihydroxyacetone, 68f
Dendritic cells, 953 Diazepam, 1079 Dijkstra, Cor, 1199f
Dendrobates pumilio, 522 Dicer-2, 952f Dikaryotic mycelia, 656
Dendrobium daklakense, 1258f Dickinsonia costata, 527f Dimers, tubulin, 114
Dendrochronology, 771f Dicots, 647f–648f Dimetrodon fossil, 527f
Dendroctonus ponderosae, 1242f, 1243, 1278f Dictyostelium discoideum, 610, 611f Dimorphism, sexual, 1147–1148, 1149f
Dengue fever, 410 Dideoxyribonucleotide (dideoxy) chain termination Dinitrophenol (DNP), 186
Denitrifying bacteria, 1249f Dinoflagellates, 143f, 244f, 602f
Density, population, 1189, 1201f–1203f, 1254f DNA sequencing, 414, 441 Dinosaurs, 734
Density-dependent inhibition, 247, 248f Didinium, 615 blood pressure of, 929
Density-dependent population change, Diencephalon, 1091f disappearance of, 677
Diets. See also Food as early reptiles, 734
1201f–1203f, 1211 flying, 1133
Density-independent population change, 1201 adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems for, in fossil record, 527f, 562f, 563
Dentition, 528, 529f, 909f, 910 909f–912f mass extinction of, 539f, 540
Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA in Mesozoic era, 530
Deoxyribose, 85f, 317f, 324 assessing nutritional needs in, 900f Dioecious species, 832, 833f
Dependent variables, 21, 511, F–1–F–3 catabolism and human, 182f, 183 Dionaea muscipula, 800, 817f, 860
Dephosphorylation, protein, 223 deficiencies in, 899f–900f Dioxin, 395
Depolarization, 1043, 1070f, 1071f, 1072f essential nutrients for, 897f, 898t–899t Diphtheria, 401
Depolymerization, protein, 240 genetic variation in prey selection and, 1153, 1154f Diploblastic animals, 678
Depression, 1079, 1100 nonheritable variation and, 486f Diploid cells, 257
Derived characters, shared, 559, 560f phenylketonuria and, 490 genetic variation preserved in recessive
Derived traits, plant, 617, 618f–619f, 620 typical and opportunistic, 896f, 897
Dermal tissue system, plant, 760, 761f Differential centrifugation, 96f alleles of, 498
DES (diethylstilbestrol), 1013 Differential gene expression, 368. See also Gene haploid cells vs., 257
Descending limb, loop of Henle, 986, 987f mitosis vs. meiosis in, 262, 263f, 264
Descent with modification theory, 11, 14f–16f, 467, regulation in sexual life cycles, 258f, 259
cytoplasmic determinants and induction in, Diplomonads, 597f
470, 471f, 481–482. See also Evolution Dipnoi (lungfishes), 717f, 727
Desert ant, 871f, 872 380f, 381 Dipodomys merriami, 996
Desert camels, 978 in eukaryotic gene regulation, 368f, 369 Diptera, 710f
Desert iguana, 887 in gene regulation, 363f Direct contact, cell signaling by, 215f
Desert mice, 979 in pattern formation of body plans, 382, Direct inhibition hypothesis, 848
Deserts, 796, 797f, 1167f, 1171f Directionality, DNA replication, 324, 325f–326f
Desiccation, 978 383f–385f, 386 Directional selection, 496f
Desmognathus ochrophaeus, 511 in processes of embryonic development, 379f, 380. Disaccharides, 68, 69f
Desmosomes, 120f Diseases, animal
Desynchronization, 856–857 See also Embryonic development density-dependent population regulation
Determinate cleavage, 679f sequential regulation of, during cellular
Determinate growth, 764f–765f by, 1202f
Determination, 381, 382f, 1055 differentiation, 381, 382f movement corridors and spread of, 1270
Detoxification, 104–105, 112, 807 Differential-interference microscopy, 95f viral, 398f, 405f, 407f–410f
Detritivores, 1238f, 1255f Differential reproductive success, 266, 267f Diseases, plant
Differential speciation success, 546–547 community structure and pathogens in, 1232
in energy flow and chemical recycling, 1238f, 1239 Differentiation, cell, 380 density-dependent population regulation by, 1202f
Detritus, 1175, 1238f, 1239 disease-resistant genes and, 864, 865f
Deuteromycetes, 657 cytokinins in, 848 disease-suppressive soil and, 588
Deuterostome development, 679f, 680, 683 as embryonic development process, 379f, 380. See
Deuterostomes, 680, 681f, 687f, 711, 712f–713f, 717f.
also Embryonic development
See also Chordates; Echinoderms plant development and, 761, 773, 777f
sequential gene regulation in, 381, 382f
I-13 INDEX stem cells and, 429f. See also Stem cells
Differentiation, determination vs., 1055
Diffusion, 132, 920
body surface area and, 693f

prokaryotes in protection against, 588 neurotransmitters and, 1078–1080 in ecological forensics, 1263 Index
viral, 397f, 398f, 410 from ozone depletion, 1280 elevation and UV damage to, affecting species
Diseases and disorders, human parasitic. See Parasites
adenoviruses and, 398f Parkinson’s disease, 411, 1079, 1102 distributions, 1184f
alkaptonuria, 336 phenylketonuria, 490–491 eukaryotic, 6f–7, 97f, 98, 102, 103f
allergies, 968f, 969 pleiotropy and inherited, 280–281 evidence for, as genetic material, 315f–317f, 318
Alzheimer’s disease, 411, 1101, 1102f pneumonia, 315f, 577 evolutionary significance of mutations of, 328
amebic dysentery, 611 polydactyly, 280 evolution of genomes from changes in,
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), 1127 protein misfolding and, 83
antibiotic resistance and, 476f, 477 protists and, 594f–595f 452f–455f, 456
asthma, 62 recessively inherited, 285f–286f, 287 in expression and transmission of genetic
atherosclerosis, 74, 75, 139, 935f, 937 respiratory distress syndrome, 942f
autism, 1098 retinitis pigmentosa, 493 information, 7f–8f, 9
autoimmune, 969f schizophrenia, 1100f gene density and noncoding, 447–448
bacterial, 401, 572, 573f–574f, 586, 587f sexually transmitted diseases. See Sexually genetic code for, 339, 340f–341f, 342
β-thalassemia, 289 genetic variation due to mutations in, 486–487
biotechnology in diagnosis and treatment of, transmitted diseases genomics, bioinformatics, and proteomics in
sickle-cell disease. See Sickle-cell disease
431–432, 434f sleeping sickness, 598f study of, 9
cachexia, 1014 spina bifida, 1053 genomics and proteomics in study of, 86–87f
cancer. See Cancer Tay-Sachs disease and lysosomal storage, 108, 280, homeoboxes in, 461f–462f
cardiovascular diseases, 74, 935f, 936–937 human gene microarray chips containing, 445, 446f
chikungunya virus, 407f 285, 288, 289f in hybrids, 522
cholera, 224 testing genetic markers for, 426f inheritance of, in chromosomes and genes, 255
color blindness, 299f, 1120f thyroid, 1007f as measure of evolution, 87, 89, 395
community ecology, pathogens, and, 1232, 1233f Turner syndrome, 309 methylation of, 369–370, 389, 428–429
cri du chat and chronic myelogenous leukemia, 309f Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, 228–229 molecular homologies and, 478, 556, 557f
cystic fibrosis, 286, 293 xeroderma pigmentosum, 328 ozone depletion and damage to, 1280
cystic kidney disease, 1062 X-linked disorders, 299f, 300 p53 gene and repair of, 388
density-dependent population regulation by, 1202f Zika virus, 407f packing of proteins and, into chromosomes,
detecting fetal, during pregnancy, 1037 Disease-suppressive soil, 588
diabetes. See Diabetes Disorder, entropy and, 146 330f–332f
diarrhea, 139 Disparity, vertebrate, 717 phylogenies based on, 552f
dominantly inherited, 287f Dispersal, 1181 in plant cells, 208f
Down syndrome, 307, 308f, 309 fruit and seed, 830f programming of cells by viral, 315f–316f, 317
drug addiction, 1101f movement corridors and, 1269, 1270f prokaryotic, 6f–7, 97f, 98, 575f, 577f–578f, 579
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 299 seed, 643f proofreading and repairing of, 327, 328f
due to chromosomal alterations, 306, 307f–309f in species distributions, 1181, 1182f recombinant. See Recombinant DNA
Ebola virus, 407f Dispersion, population, 1189, 1190f, 1191 repetitive noncoding, 448f–449f, 450
emerging viruses and, 407f–410f Dispersive model, DNA replication, 321f–322f replication of. See DNA replication
endocrine disruptors and, 1013 Disruptive selection, 496f roles of, in gene expression, 84f
endometriosis, 1031 Dissociation, water, 51 sequencing of. See DNA sequencing
epilepsy, 1096 Distal control elements, 371 simple sequence and short-tandem repeat, 450
erectile dysfunction, 1080 Distal tubule, 985f, 986, 987f species identity in mitochondrial, 555f
familial cardiomyopathy, 357 Distance vision, 1120f structure of, 86f
faulty apoptosis in nervous system and, 231 Distribution patterns, analyzing, 283 structure of, and inheritance, 334, 362
faulty cell-surface receptors and, 218f, 220 Distributions, species. See Species distributions technology of. See DNA technology
fetal screening for, 288, 289f Disturbances, 1170, 1226f–1229f testing of, in forensic science, 434, 435f
flatworm parasites and, 694f–695f Disulfide bridges, 81f in transcription, 338, 339f
flesh-eating disease, 476f, 477 Divergence viral, 398f–405f, 404t
fungal, 668 allopatric speciation and, 509f–510f, 511 DNA amplification, 418, 419f
gastric ulcers and acid reflux, 906 of angiosperms, 645f, 646 DNA “barcode,” 1220
genetic. See Genetic disorders of closely related species, 458, 459f, 460 DNA bending, 449
genomics and proteomics in, 24, 88f of fungi, 657f, 658 DNA-binding domain, 371f
gonorrhea, 574 in phylogenetic trees, 553, 554f, 555 DNA-binding proteins, 91
gout, 981 of unikonts from other eukaryotes, 609f DNA chips, 423
growth-related, 1008, 1009f Diversity DNA cloning, 416
heart murmurs, 926 B cell and T cell, 958, 959f–961f amplification of DNA using polymerase chain
hemophilia, 93, 300 biological. See Biodiversity
HIV/AIDS. See AIDS; HIV cellular structures and, 125 reaction in, 418, 419f
Hodgkin’s disease, 970 evolution and, 11, 466f, 471 copying DNA with gene cloning and, 416f, 417
Huntington’s disease, 287 scientific, 24 expressing cloned eukaryotic genes in, 420–421
hypercholesterolemia, 139 within a species, 505f in gene therapy, 432f, 433
hypertension, 937 Diving bell spider (Argyroneta aquatica), 949 using restriction enzymes to make recombinant
immune system disruptions and, 968f–972f Diving mammals, respiratory adaptations of, 947f
immunization against, 966f Division, cell. See Cell division DNA plasmids for, 417f–418f
immunodeficiency, 969–970 Dixon, Henry, 792 DNA Data Bank of Japan, 442
influenza, 398f, 407–408 Dizygotic twins, 1034 DNA deletion experiments in Scientific Skills
insects as carriers of, 711 Dizziness, 1114
iodine deficiency and goiter, 29 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 7, 84. See also Exercise, 373
Kartagener’s syndrome, 1062f DNA ligases, 325f–326f, 327t, 328f, 417f, 418
karyotypes and, 256f Chromosomes; Genes; Genetics; DNA methylation, 369–370, 389, 428–429
Klinefelter syndrome, 309 Nucleic acids DNA microarray assays, 423f, 424. See also Microarray
lactose intolerance, 70 amplification of, using polymerase chain reaction,
Leber’s congenital amaurosis, 1120 418, 419f chips, human genome
lymphatic system and, 931 analysis of Neanderthal, 751f DNA pol I and pol III, 325, 326f, 327t
major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, analyzing DNA deletion experiments, 373 DNA polymerases, 324f
in bacterial binary fission, 242, 243f DNA profiles, 1221f
1100–1101 of B and T cells, 974 DNA replication, 314
malaria. See Malaria bending of, 371, 372f
mitochondrial, 311 in cancer cells, 249–250 base pairing to template strands in
mosaicism, 300f changes of, in meiosis of yeast cells, 264 semiconservative model of, 320, 321f–322f
multifactorial, 287–288 Chargaff’s rules on structure of, 317f, 318
mutations and, 357f–358f, 359–360 complementary DNA. See Complementary DNA errors in, and genome evolution, 453f–455f
myasthenia gravis, 1127 components of, 84–85f evolutionary significance of mutations during, 328
myotonia and epilepsy, 1074 discovery of structure of, 5, 18–19, 23–24, 314f, 317, inheritance and, 7f–8f
nematode parasites and trichinosis, 703f, 704 318f–320f in molecular basis of inheritance, 314. See also
of nervous system, 1100f–1102f diseases of mitochondrial, 311f
neurodegenerative, 411 distribution of, during eukaryotic cell division, Molecular basis of inheritance
235f–236f, 237 proofreading and repairing of DNA during, 327, 328f
steps of, 322f–327f
of telomeres, 328, 329f
DNA replication complex, 326f–327f, 334
DNA sequences
analyzing phylogenetic trees based on, to

understand viral evolution, 409
animal phylogeny and, 680, 681f, 682
constructing phylogenetic trees using, 560, 561f, 562
evaluating molecular homologies in, 556f–557f

INDEX I-14

Index DNA sequences (continued) 326f–327f, 334, 342, 345f, 355, 360, 395, 412, importance of water on, 44
exon and intron, 345f–347f 417f, 421, 439, 464, 483, 489f, 522, 528f, 556f, mass extinctions of life on, 538f–540f
genes as, 360 558f–559f, 570, 594f, 612, 615, 633, 642f, 651, origins of life on, 57f, 58, 524f–525f, 526
interpreting sequence logos for, 351 707f, 717f, 728, 754, 767f, 779f, 781, 819, 839, plate tectonics of, 536f–537f, 538
on medical records, 446 869, 902f, 918, 949, 961, 974, 995, 1016, 1040, Earthworms, 702f, 703, 805, 903f, 921f, 983f
noncoding, 447–448 1071f–1073f, 1082, 1104, 1136, 1159, 1193, Eastern tent caterpillars (Malacosoma americanum), 895
promoter and terminator, 342, 343f 1201f, 1235, 1251, 1257, 1284 Eating disorders, 900
types of, in human genome, 448f Drip irrigation, 806 Ebola virus, 407f
Dromaius novaehollandiae, 737f Ecdysis. See Molting
DNA sequencing, 87, 414 Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly). See also Fruit flies Ecdysozoans, 681f
of complementary DNA, 424f alternative RNA splicing in, 375f, 376 arthropods, 704f–710f, 711. See also Arthropods
in genetic testing for cancer predisposition, 392 analyzing single-gene expression in, 421, 422f–423f nematodes, 703f, 704
genome sequencing and, 441f, 442 changes in developmental genes of, 543f, 544 phylogeny of, 686f–687f
genomics, bioinformatics, proteomics, and, 86–87f complete genome sequence for, 440 Ecdysteroid, 1004f, 1005
human genome sequencing by, 413f, 414 courtship behaviors of, 1139f, 1140 Echidnas, 740f
standard vs. next-generation techniques for, diploid and haploid numbers of, 257 Echinoderms, 687f, 711, 712f–713f, 717f, 1043f, 1045f,
414f–415f, 416 female bias in sperm usage of, 1022f
systems biology, medicine, and, 445, 446f foraging genes of, 1147f 1084f, 1131
three-domain taxonomy system and, 12f, 13 gene density of fungi vs., 663t Echinoidea, 713f
genetic basis of behavior in, 1153 ECM. See Extracellular matrix
DNA strands, 7f–8f, 317, 318f–320f, 340, 417f, 418. See genetic variation of, 485, 486f Eco-evolutionary reciprocal effects, 1185f
also DNA replication genome size and number of genes of, 446t, 447 Ecological footprint, 1208f, 1209
homeotic genes in, 461f–462f Ecological forensics, 1263f
DNA technology, 413 linkage maps of, 305f–306f Ecological niches, 1213, 1214f
amplifying DNA with polymerase chain reaction linked genes and, 301f–303f Ecological pyramids, 1244, 1245f, 1246
in, 418, 419f as model organism, 22, 296f–297f, 1041–1042 Ecological species concept, 508
in analyzing gene expression and function, 421, natural selection and adaptive evolution of, 492 Ecological succession, 1227, 1228f–1229f
422f–426f one gene–one enzyme hypothesis on, 336 Ecology, 1162. See also Community ecology;
bioinformatics and, 442, 443f–446f pattern formation of body plan of, 382, 383f–385f
in biotechnology applications, 414, 432f–435f, phylogenetic trees of, 560f Conservation biology; Ecosystem ecology;
436–437. See also Biotechnology reproductive anatomy of, 1022f Global ecology; Landscape ecology;
in breast cancer treatment, 250 Drosophila species (fruit flies), 510f, 520, 565 Organismal ecology; Population ecology
creating recombinant DNA plasmids using Drought evolution and, 1185f
restriction enzymes and gel electrophoresis abscisic acid in plant tolerance to, 850 factors of, in evolutionary rates, 536
in, 417f–418f American Dust Bowl and, 805f genomics and proteomics in, 88f
DNA cloning and gene cloning in, 416f, 417 climate change and, 11 as interactions between organisms and
DNA sequencing in, 413f–415f, 416 insect outbreaks and, 1242f environment, 1162f
in ecological forensics, 1263f plant responses to, 861–862 mosses in, 625f–626f
in eukaryotic gene regulation, 369 Drugs. See also Medicine; Pharmaceutical products population growth and, 1211
evolution and, 439 addiction to, 1101f prokaryotes in, 585f–589f
in expressing cloned eukaryotic genes, 420–421 antibiotic. See Antibiotic drugs roles of fungi in, 665f–668f
genetic code and gene transplantation in, 341, 342f antiviral, 407 scope and fields of, 1163f
organismal cloning in, 426, 427f–430f, 431 biotechnology in production of, 433, 434f seedless vascular plants in, 631–632
science, society, and, 23, 24f cocktails of, in AIDS treatment, 487 urban, 1272
enantiomers in, 62f Ecosystem diversity, 1259f–1260f
DNA testing, forensic, 434, 435f as environmental toxins, 1274, 1275f Ecosystem ecology, 1163f. See also Ecology;
DNA viruses, 398f–405f, 404t fungi and, 668–669 Ecosystems
DNP, 186 molecular shape and, 40f, 78 Ecosystem engineers, 1224f
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 11 plant-derived, 649t, 650 Ecosystems, 4f, 1163f, 1236, 1254f–1255f
Dodder (Cuscuta), 817f, 840f, 841 resistance to, 476f, 477, 590 biogeochemical cycles in, 1247f–1250f
Dog rose, 648f species and genetic diversity and, 1261f climate change effects on, 1277, 1279f
Dolly (cloned lamb), 428f from sponges, 689 decomposition in, 1238f, 1239, 1246f, 1247
Dolphins, 479f–480f, 884f, 1092f, 1189f, 1190, 1260f tolerance of, 104–105 diversity of, 1259f–1260f
Domains, protein, 347f, 442, 443f, 444, 674 Dryas, 1228f edges between, 1268, 1269f, 1284
Domains, taxonomy, E-1, 12f, 13, 458f, 552, 553f, 566, Dry fruits, 643f effects of mass extinctions on, 540f
Dubautia species, 541f energy budgets of, 1239, 1240f
567f, 584t. See also Archaea, domain; Bacteria, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 299, 431 energy flow and chemical cycling in, 9f, 164–165,
domain; Eukarya, domain Duckweed (Spirodela oligorrhiza), 101f 1237, 1238f, 1246f–1250f, 1251, 1254f–1255f
Domestication, plant, 649 Ducts, male reproductive, 1023f, 1024 evolution of, 1257
Dominance, degrees of, 279f, 280 Dulse, 607f fungi in, 665f–668f
Dominant alleles, 272, 273f, 279f, 280, 287f, 293. See Dune fescue grass, 1201f importance of mosses to, 625f–626f
also Alleles Dung beetle, 1257 importance of seedless vascular plants to, 631–632
Dominantly inherited disorders, human, 287f Dunstan, William, 1241f importance of seed plants to, 634f
Dominant species, 1224 Duodenum, 907 interactions in, 10f–11f
Dominant traits, 271f, 272t Duplications, chromosome, 307, 308f, 452f–454f as level of biological organization, 4f
Donkeys, albino, 335f, 338 Duplications, gene, 487, 563f, 564 metagenomics and genome sequencing of
L-Dopa, 65 Dusky salamanders (Desmognathus ochrophaeus), 511 species in, 442
Dopamine, 1079t, 1100, 1101f, 1102 Dust Bowl, American, 805f nutrient and water cycling in, 1246f–1250f, 1251
Doppler, Christian, 270 Dust mites, 706f primary production in, 1239, 1240f–1242f,
Dormancy, endospore, 574f, 575 Dwarfism, 287f, 434, 1008 1241t, 1243
Dormancy, seed, 637, 826–827, 831–832, 850 Dynamics, population, 1190f, 1202f–1204f, 1205, prokaryotes in, 585f, 586
Dormouse, 891f 1254f. See also Population growth protists in, 612f–613f
Dorsal lips, blastopore, 1049f, 1060f Dyneins, 115, 116f restoration ecology and restoration of degraded,
Dorsal sides, 677 Dysentery, 579, 611 1251f–1253f
Dorsal-ventral axis, 1058f secondary production in, 1244f–1245f, 1246
Dorudon atrox, 523f E size of, 1236, 1237f
Double bonds, 36, 37f, 60f Ecosystem services, 1261
Double circulation, 922f, 923 Eagles, 1260f Ecotones, 1170
Double fertilization, 644f, 645, 824, 825f Ear bones, mammalian, 528, 739f Ectoderm, 678, 1049f
Double helix, DNA, 7f–8, 86f, 314f, 318f–320f, 330f Eardrum, 1110, 1111f Ectomycorrhizae, 815, 816f
Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, 404t, 406 Ears. See also Hearing Ectomycorrhizal fungi, 654, 659f
Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses, 404t Ectoparasites, 1218
Doudna, Jennifer, 424 bones of mammalian, 528, 739f Ectopic cells and tissue, 1031
Douglas fir, 641f human, 1111f Ectopic pregnancies, 1033
Dowling, Herndon, 886f insect, 1110f Ectoprocts, 685f, 696f
Down syndrome, 256f, 289, 307, 308f, 309 Earth. See also Biosphere; Global ecology Ectothermic organisms, 734, 882f, 885f, 886,
Dragonflies, 885f development of photosynthesis and atmospheric 888–889
Draw It questions, 5f, 15f, 16, 27, 39f, 41f, 42–43, 45f, Edema, 931
54–55, 61f, 62, 64–65, 69f, 74f, 78f, 86, 91, 102, oxygen on, 532f Edges, ecosystem, 1268, 1269f, 1284
103f, 116f, 125, 131f, 141–142, 154f, 156f, 159, importance of seed plants to ecosystems of, 634f
163, 186, 202, 210, 224f, 233, 236f, 240f, 252,
259f, 263f, 268, 276, 290, 292, 303f, 313, 323f,

I-15 INDEX

Ediacaran biota, 527f, 533, 674f–675f Elongation, antiparallel DNA strand, 324, in regulation of digestive systems, 913f Index
Edidin, Michael, 128f 325f–326f, 327t regulatory functions of endocrine glands in,
Effective population size, 1266
Effector cells, 960 Elongation factors, 352, 353f 1009f–1013f
Effectors, 864 Elongation stage Endocytosis, 139, 140f, 141, 208f–209f
Effector-triggered immunity, 864 Endoderm, 678, 1049f
Efferent neurons, 1087f transcription, 343f–344f Endodermis, 766, 790, 791f
Efficiency, cell-signaling, 228f, 229 translation, 352, 353f Endomembrane system, 104
Egg-polarity genes, 384 Embryo development, plant, 826f–827f
Eggs, 1017–1018 Embryology, 1041 bound ribosomes and, 354f
Embryonic development. See also Differential gene endoplasmic reticulum of, 104, 105f
amniotic, 732, 733f Golgi apparatus, 105, 106f, 107
amphibian, 731 expression lysosomes, 107f, 108
of birds and dinosaurs, 562f, 563 analyzing single-gene expression in, 421, 422f–423f signal mechanism for targeting polypeptides
Burmese python thermogenesis for incubating, 886f animal, 672f, 673. See also Animal development
in embryonic development, 379f, 380 cell division, cell differentiation, and to, 354f
as female gametes, 1018, 1020f–1022f, 1023 vacuoles, 108f
in fertilization, 1043f, 1044 morphogenesis in, 379f, 380 Endometriosis, 1031
human, 236–237, 1025, 1032f cytoplasmic determinants and induction in, Endometrium, 1024, 1025f
human oogenesis and, 1027f Endoparasites, 1218
nitrogenous wastes and, 981 380f, 381 Endophytes, 665f, 666, 812
ovules and production of, in seed plants, 636f gene conservation in, 464 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 104, 109f
Egg yolk, 91 genomic imprinting and, 310f, 311 animal cell, 100f
Ejaculation, 1023 human. See Human embryonic development as biosynthetic factory, 104, 105f
Ejaculatory duct, 1023f, 1024 pattern formation of body plans in, 382, cellular membrane synthesis and, 131f
Elastic fibers, 876f ribosomes and, 103f, 104
Elastin, 76f 383f–385f, 386 in RNA virus replicative cycle, 403f
Electrically charged side chains, 76, 77f sequential gene regulation in, 381, 382f targeting polypeptides to, 354f, 355
Electrical signals Embryonic lethals, 384 Endorphins, 40f, 78, 1079t, 1080
neuron, 878f, 1065–1066. See also Neurons Embryonic stem (ES) cells, 429f, 430 Endoskeletons, 1130f–1132f
phloem and symplastic, 800 Embryophytes, 617f, 618f Endosperm, 645, 824, 825f–827f
Electrical synapses, 1075. See also Synapses Embryos. See also Embryonic development Endospores, 573f
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG), 926f anatomical homologies of vertebrate, 477f, 478 Endosymbiont theory, 109, 110f, 189, 532, 533f
Electrochemical gradients, 137, 138f ensuring survival of, 1021f Endosymbiosis, 109, 110f, 532, 533f, 593, 596f–597f,
Electroencephalogram (EEG), 1092f maternal immune tolerance of, 1035
Electrogenic pump, 138f monocot vs. eudicot, 647f 606f, 615
Electrolytes, blood plasma, 932f plant, 618f Endothelin, 929
Electromagnetic receptors, 1108, 1109f Embryo sacs, 644f, 824, 825f Endothelium, blood vessel, 927f, 930, 931f
Electromagnetic spectrum, 192f Emergent properties, 6 Endothermic organisms, 734, 882f, 885f–887f, 888–889
Electron distribution diagrams, 34f–35f, 37f of apoptosis, 233 Endotoxins, 587
Electronegativity, 37, 45 chemical waste and, 43 Energetic hypothesis on food chain length, 1223f
Electron microscope (EM), D–1, 94, 95f of compounds, 29f Energy, 32, 144
Electrons, 30 of flowers, 839
chemical properties and, 34f, 35 of gastrula, 1064 animal. See Bioenergetics
cyclic flow of, in light reactions of photosynthesis, integration of Mendelian inheritance with, 282–283 in Arctic tundra ecosystem, 1254f–1255f
levels of biological organization and, 4f–5f, 6 ATP energy coupling and, 150, 151f–153f
198f, 199 life as, 125 biofuel technology to reduce dependence on fossil
distribution of, 34f of protein function, 78
in electron transport chains, 167f–168f of sickle-cell disease, 503 fuels for, 836
energy levels of, 32f, 33–34 of water. See Water chemical, 144, 887, 888f
linear flow of, in light reactions of photosynthesis, weak chemical bonds and, 38 chemiosmosis as energy-coupling mechanism,
Emerging diseases, human, 1232
197f–198f Emerging viruses, 407f–410f 175, 176f, 177
orbitals of, 35f, 36 Emigration, population dynamics of, 1190f, 1194, conservation of, 1237
in organic compounds, 58, 59f, 60 in ecosystems, 1237, 1238f, 1239
in redox reactions, 165, 166f 1195f, 1204f, 1205, 1254f electrons and levels of, 32f, 33–34
as subatomic particles, 30f, 31 Emotions, 1093f, 1094, 1104 in energy flow and chemical cycling, 164, 165
Electron shells, 32f, 34, 35f, 36 Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), 737f enzymatic catalysis and. See Enzymatic catalysis
Electron transport chains, 168 Enantiomers, 61f–62f, 65 forms of, 144, 145f
in anaerobic respiration and fermentation, 179–180 Encephalitis, 399, 407 free-energy change and. See Free-energy change
in cellular respiration, 167f–168f ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements), 444, 448 global human use of, 1208f, 1209
in chemiosmosis, 175, 176f, 177 Endangered species, 1197f, 1260f, 1270f heat as, 46
in oxidative phosphorylation, 174f, 175 hydrothermal vents, prokaryotes, and, 590
Electrophysiologists, 1070f Siberian tiger, 1284 kinetic, 46, 144, 145f, 163
Electroporation, 420 Endemic species, 481 laws of transformation of, 145f–146f, 147
Elements, 29, 807 Endergonic reactions, 148, 149f life and transformations of, 143f
atomic number and atomic mass, 31 Endocarp, 830f light. See Light energy
electron distribution in, 34f, 35 Endocrine disruptors, 1013, 1274f locomotion and, 1133–1135
electron orbitals in, 35f, 36 Endocrine glands, 1002 metabolism and, 143. See also Metabolism
energy levels of, 32f, 33–34 in photosynthesis, 41f
isotopes of, 31 adrenal gland, 1010f, 1011 potential, 32, 144, 145f, 163
of life, 29t gonads, 1012, 1013f primary production of, 1239, 1240f–1242f,
organisms ratio of, 43 of human endocrine system, 1002f
subatomic particles in, 30f, 31 in neuroendocrine signaling, 1005f–1009f 1241t, 1243
tolerance to toxic, 30f parathyroid glands, 1009f processing of, as theme of biology, 3f
Elephantiasis, 931 pineal gland, 1013 regulation of storage of, in animal nutrition, 913,
Elephants, 10f, 88f, 472f, 1195f, 1263f thyroid gland, 1007f
Elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris), 997f, 1265 Endocrine signaling. See also Endocrine systems 914f–915f, 916
Elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii), 440 in cell signaling, 216f secondary production of, 1244f–1245f, 1246
Elevation cellular response pathways for, 1000f–1003f storage of, in fats, 74
climate and, 1167f feedback regulation of, 1004 thermal, 46, 132, 144
genetics and, 1187 hormones in, 997f–998f transfer and transformation of, as theme of
ultraviolet (UV) light damage at, 1184f Endocrine systems, 878, 998. See also Animal
Elicitors, 864 biology, 9f
Elimination, 902, 903f, 908, 909f hormones transformation of, by mitochondria and
Elk, 1149f cell signaling pathways of hormones and signaling
Elkhorn coral, 1232 chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells, 109, 110f–111f
Elkinsia, 639f molecules in, 997f–1003f transformations of, in plant cells, 209f
Elodea, 55 coordination of nervous systems and, 998f, trophic levels and, 1238f, 1239, 1244, 1245f, 1246
Energy and matter
999, 1004f–1009f. See also Neuroendocrine bioenergenetics, 163
signaling decomposition and, 1257
disruption of, 1013, 1274f hibernation, 895
endocrine glands and hormones of human, 1002f photosynthesis and, 211
evolution of hormone function in, 1013f reproductive success and, 1040
feedback regulation of, 1004 as theme of biology, 4
hormones and cell signaling in, 878f transfer and transformation of, 9f
in regulation of blood pressure, 929

INDEX I-16

Index Energy budgets enzyme inhibitors and, 158, 159f Ergots, 667f
animal, 890 evolution of enzymes and, 159f ER lumen, 104
ecosystem, 1239, 1240f graphing, for blood glucose levels, 157 Erosion, soil, 807f
lowering of activation energy by enzymes in, Errantians, 701f
Energy conservation, animal, 890, 891f Errors, DNA replication, 327, 328f
Energy coupling, 150, 151f–153f 154, 155f Erythrocytes (red blood cells), 82f, 499, 500f–501f,
Energy flow and chemical cycling, 9f, 164, 165. See also in plant cells, 208f
regulation of, 364f–367f 876f, 932f–933f
Biogeochemical cycles; Primary production; by ribozymes, 346 Erythropoietin (EPO), 934
Secondary production substrate specificity of enzymes in, 155f, 156 Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria, 582f, 593
in ecosystems, 1237, 1238f, 1246f–1250f, 1251, Enzymatic hydrolysis, 901, 906f
1254f–1255f neurotransmission and, 1078f binary fission in, 242, 243f
Energy pyramids, 1244, 1245f, 1246 in vacuoles, 108 complete genome sequence for, 440
Engelmann, Theodor W., 193, 194f Enzymatic proteins, 76f DNA cloning and gene cloning of, 416f, 417
Enhancers, 371f–372f, 395 Enzymes, 67, 153. See also Enzymatic catalysis DNA packing in chromosomes of, 330–331
Entamoebas, 611 active sites of, 155f–156f DNA replication and repair in, 322f–327f
Enteric nervous system, 913, 1087f–1088f activity measurement of, 163 in gene cloning, 587
Enthalpy, 147 as catalysts, 153 genetic recombination and conjugation in, 577,
Entomopathogenic fungus, 670 in cell-signaling nuclear responses, 226f
Entropy, 146–147, 1237 in chemical digestion, 906f, 907 578f, 579
Entry stage, phage lytic cycle, 400f evolution of, 159f genome size and number of genes of, 446t, 447
Enveloped viruses, 399, 403f facilitation of synthesis and breakdown of in human digestive system, 910, 911f
Environment as model organism, 22
adaptation to, 2f polymers by, 67f pathogenic strains of, 587
adaptive evolution as fitness to, through natural fungal, 653 rapid adaptive evolution of, 576f, 577
selection, 492, 497f. See also Adaptive in gastric juice, 905f–906f regulation of gene expression in, 364f–367f
evolution gene relationship with, in protein synthesis, viral infection of, 398–400, 401f
animal and plant responses to, 892f viral phages in DNA research on, 316f, 317
aquatic biomes and physical, 1175 336f–337f, 338 E site (exit site), 350f, 352f–353f
behavior and stimuli from, 1138f–1139f inducible and repressible, 366f, 367 Esophagus, 904f, 906
biotechnology in cleanup of, 416f, 435–436 locations of, in cells, 161f Essential amino acids, 897
bottleneck effect from changes in, 493f, 494 lowering plasma LDL levels by inactivating liver, 936 Essential elements, 29t, 56, 64, 807, 808f, 809t
cancer and factors of, 392 lysosomes and, 107f, 108 Essential fatty acids, 897–898
C. Darwin on natural selection and adaptations as proteins, 75, 76f, 130f Essential nutrients, animal, 897, 898t–899t, 900f
to, 14f–16f. See also Adaptations; Evolution; restriction. See Restriction enzymes Estivation, 891
Natural selection ribozymes as, 346 Estradiol, 62f, 1001f, 1012, 1013f, 1028, 1029f, 1035f
cell cycle control system and factors of, 247, 248f in saliva, 904 Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), 390f–391f
cellular membranes and factors of, 128f, 129 smooth ER and rough ER, 104–105 Estrogens, 62f, 374, 395, 1001f–1002f, 1012, 1013f,
Earth’s early, and origin of life, 524f–525f, 526 substrate specificity of, 155f, 156
ecology as interactions between organisms and, from Thermus aquaticus, 439 1028, 1036f, 1037, 1275
1162f. See also Ecology Enzyme-substrate complexes, 155f, 156 Estrous cycles, 1031
enzymatic catalysis and factors of, 157, 158f, 159 Eosinophils, 932f–933f, 953 Estuaries, 1178f, 1184
evolution and, 483 Ependymal cells, 1085f Ethane, 59f
exchanges with, in animals, 872, 873f, 874 Ephedra, 640f Ethanol, 63f, 180f, 589, 1203f
as factor in red maple leaf structure, 760 Ephrussi, Boris, 336 Ethene (ethylene), 59f
gene regulation in response to, 375 Epiblast cells, 1050f–1051f Ethical issues
heat exchange with, in animals, 883f–887f Epicotyl, 827f–828f
hormones and, 1016 Epidemics, 407 in biotechnology, 436–437, 837–838
human impacts on. See Human environmental emerging viruses and, 407f, 408 in diagnosing fetal genetic diseases, 1037
impacts plant disease, 865 in DNA technology, 24f
hybrid zones and, 515 Epidemiology, 900 in gene therapy, 433
impact of, on phenotypes, 282f Epidermis, 5, 760, 761f in seed plant extinctions, 650
induction in differential gene expression as Epididymis, 1023f in silencing gene expression in humans, 426
response to, 380f, 381 Epigenetic inheritance, 370 Ethylene, 216, 844t, 850, 851f–852f, 862f
influence of evolution and, on nitrogenous Epigenetics, 428–429 Etiolation, 841f
wastes, 981 Epigenome, 144 Euchromatin, 332
interaction with, as theme of biology, 10f–11f Epiglottis, 904f Eudicots, 647f–648f, 759, 767f–768f, 826f–828f
metagenomics and genome sequencing of groups Epilepsy, 1074, 1096 Eugenics, 433
of species in, 442 Epinephrine (adrenaline), 1000f, 1001 Euglenids, 598f, 599
nervous system disorders and, 1100f adrenal glands and, 1002f, 1010f–1011f Euglenozoans, 598f, 599
as organisms and their surroundings, 466 in fight-or-flight responses, 212f, 926 Euhadra species, 520
plant responses to abiotic stresses from, 795–796, multiple effects of, 1002f Eukarya, domain, E-1, 12f, 566, 567f, 584t, 592
860–861, 862f, 863 second messenger of, 223f–224f Eukaryotes. See also Animals; Fungi; Plants
population ecology as study of populations in, signal transduction pathway of, 216–217, 226, 227f cells of. See Eukaryotic cells
1188f, 1189. See also Population ecology structure of, 212f chemiosmosis in, 175, 176f, 177
prokaryotic adaptations to extreme conditions in, as water-soluble hormone, 1001f cilia in, 13f
571f, 572 Epiphytes, 630f, 816, 817f, 818 electron transport chains in, 168–169
protein structure and factors of, 82f, 83 Epistasis, 281f endosymbiosis in evolution of, 593, 596f–597f
reproductive cycles and cues from, 1019 Epithalamus, 1091f Eukarya, domain, 12f, 566, 567f, 584t, 592
response to, as property of life, 3f Epithelial milk-secreting cell, 390f genome sizes and number of genes for, 446t, 447
strength of ionic bonds and factors in, 38 Epithelial tissue, 875f origins of multicellular, 533, 534f
vertebrate kidney adaptations to diverse, 989f–991f as barrier defense, 952 origins of single-celled, 532, 533f
Environmental issues. See also Ecology cell junctions in, 120f photosynthesis of unicellular, 188f
decline in amphibian populations, 731 in small intestine, 907f phylogenetic tree of, 609f
density-dependent population regulation by toxic transport, in osmoregulation, 979, 980f protists as single-celled, 592. See also Protists
waste, 1203f Epitopes, 956, 957f, 967, 974 taxonomy of, 566, 567f
invasive plants, 816 Epsilon proteobacteria, 582f unikonts as first to diverge, 609f
prokaryotes, biotechnology, and, 587, 588f–589f Epstein-Barr virus, 392 Eukaryotic cells, 6, 97. See also Cells
threats to biodiversity, 1258f–1259f, 1261, Equilibrium animal and plant, 100f–101f. See also Animal cells;
1262f–1264f chemical. See Chemical equilibrium
threats to seed plant diversity, 649f, 650 mechanoreceptors for sensing, 1110f–1114f Plant cells
Enzymatic catalysis. See also Enzymes population, 1201f cellular integration of, 121f
activation energy barrier and, 153, 154f Equilibrium potential (Eion), 1069f, 1070 chromatin packing in chromosomes of, 330f–332f
allosteric regulation of, 160f–161f Equine encephalitis virus, 399 combinatorial transcription control for types of,
of cellular respiration, 183f, 184 Equisetum, 630f, 631
cofactors and, 158 Equus, 546, 547f 373, 374f
effects of temperature and pH on, 157, 158f ER. See Endoplasmic reticulum cytoskeletons of, 112f–117f
in enzyme active sites, 156f Erectile dysfunction, 1024, 1080 distribution of chromosomes in cell division of,
Erection, penile, 999
235f–236f, 237
DNA replication in, 322, 323f
in embryonic development, 379f, 380
endomembrane system of, 104, 105f–109f
evolution of cell division of, 243, 244f

I-17 INDEX

expressing cloned eukaryotic genes in, 420–421 bilaterian phylogenetic tree, 715 of locomotion, 1136 Index
extracellular components and connections of biochemical pathways, 163 making and testing predictions of Darwinian, 481
of biological diversity. See Biodiversity of mammals, 739f, 740
between, 118f–120f of biological order, 147 mass extinctions and, 651
genetic instructions in nucleus of, 102, 103f of bryophytes, 633 of mitochondria and chloroplasts, 109, 110f
internal membranes and organelles of, 99, of cell cycle, 252 of mitosis, 243, 244f
of cell signaling, 213f, 215 molecular clocks and rates of, 564, 565f–566f
100f–101f of cell-to-cell signaling, 233 mutation rate and, 334
mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes of, cellular structures in, 125 of mycorrhizae in plants, 815
of cellular water regulation, 142 natural selection and genetic variation from
109, 110f–112f of chewing while breathing, 918
organization of typical genes in, 370f, 371 of chordates, 720f recombination of alleles in, 305
origins of, 532, 533f cladistic analysis and, 570 of ncRNAs, 379
plasma membranes of, 98f, 99 classification of diversity of life and, 12f–13f of nitrogen recycling in bacteria, 819
prokaryotic cells vs., 6f–7, 97f–98f, 99. See also of codons, 362 of pathogen defense, 974
coevolution of flowers and pollinators in, 823f of pathogen detection by plants, 864
Prokaryotic cells of cognition in vertebrates, 1097f of pathogens that evade immune systems,
regulation of gene expression in. See Eukaryotic comparing genome sequences to study, 457,
970–971, 972f
gene regulation 458f–462f pattern and process aspects of, 467, 481
replication of DNA telomeres of, 328, 329f convergent. See Convergent evolution of patterns of sexual reproduction, 1018
ribosomes as protein factories of, 102, 103f, 104 as core theme of biology, 2, 4, 11, 12f–16f photorespiration and, 211
RNA processing in, 345f–347f crossing over and, 313 phylogenetic bracketing and, 570
transcription and translation in, 338, 339f, 356f cross-species gene expression in, 421 phylogenies as history of, 551–552, 553f–554f. See
transcription in, 342, 343f–344f Darwinian theory of, as descent with modification
translation in. See Translation also Phylogenies
volume and surface area of, 98f, 99 by natural selection, 14f–16f, 471, 472f–474f of plants, 616, 617f, 620, 621t
Eukaryotic gene regulation. See also Gene regulation of differences in cellular membrane lipid of plant secondary growth, 772
analyzing DNA deletion experiments on, 373 of plant self-compatibility, 839
differential gene expression in, 363f, 368f, 369. See composition, 129 of populations, 1188–1189
divergence of human globin genes during, 456 of prokaryotic flagella, 574f, 575
also Differential gene expression DNA and proteins as measures of, 87, 89, 395 as property of life, 3f
post-transcriptional regulation in, 375f, 376 DNA-based technologies and, 439 protein divergence and, 91
regulation of chromatin structure in, 369f, 370 of drug resistance, 433, 590 radiometric dating and, 32
regulation of transcription initiation in, 370f–375f early vertebrate, 722f–723f rapid prokaryotic, 576f, 577
Eukaryotic genomes ecological change and, 1185f of reproductive method switch, 268
evolution of, from DNA changes, 452f–455f, 456 of ecological niches, 1213, 1214f of reptiles, 734
genes and multigene families in, 450, 451f ecosystem, 1257 of resource acquisition adaptations in vascular
horizontal gene transfer in, 567 elemental makeup of organisms and, 43
noncoding repetitive DNA sequences in, endosymbiosis in eukaryotic, 593, 596f–597f, 606f plants, 782f–784f, 785
environment and, 483 reversals of, 754
448f–449f, 450 of enzymes, 159f of seeds in seed plant, 636–637
sizes and number of genes for, 446t, 447 evidence supporting Darwinian theory of, of segmentation, 1064
Eulipotyphla, 742f–743f sexual reproduction as enigma of, 1019, 1020f
Eumetazoans, 680, 681f, 684f, 689 475f–480f, 481 of short-term and long-term memory, 1098–1099
Euphorbs, 1170f evolutionary developmental biology “evo-devo” in silicon-based life and, 65
European flycatchers, 516, 517f small population size and extinction vortex in,
European glass lizard (Ophisaurus apodus), 551f–552f study of, 385–386
European hamsters, 891f exaptation, 781 1264, 1265f
European honeybees, 1140f of extraembryonic membranes in amniote of smooth muscles, 1130
European kestrels, 1199f speciation as conceptual bridge between
European larch, 641f development, 1051
European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 442 extremophiles and, 55 macroevolution and microevolution,
European robin, 14f field research by C. Darwin on, 469, 470f, 471 504–505, 521. See also Macroevolution;
European starling, 1263 of fishes, 728 Microevolution; Speciation
Euryarchaeota clade, 585 of flowers, 823f species dispersal and, 1181, 1182f, 1187
Euryhaline animals, 977 of foraging behaviors, 1147f theme of unity in diversity of life in, 466f, 471
Eurypterids, 706 of fungi, 657f, 658 theoretical aspects of Darwinian, 481–482
Eustachian tube, 1111f of fungus-alga symbiosis, 670 of tolerance to toxic elements, 30f
Eutherians (placental mammals), 479f, 541f, 741f– of gas exchange, 945f–947f of transport cells in kelp, 802
of gecko appearance, 27 tree of life and, 15f–16f
745f, 746. See also Primates gene conservation in, 464 unity in diversity in, 13f, 27
Eutrophication, 1225f, 1241, 1273f of genes and genomes, 563f, 564 using protein data to test hypotheses on
Eutrophic lakes, 1177f genes shared between organisms, 27 horizontal gene transfer in, 568
Evans, Martin, 424 of genetic code, 341, 342f of vascular plants, 626, 627f–629f
Evaporation, 45, 46f, 883f, 884f genetic variation and, of behavior, 1153f–1154f of vertebrate brain structure, 1089f
of genetic variation in populations, 266, 267f viral mutation and, 412
in water cycle, 1248f, 1257 of genomes from DNA changes, 452f–455f, 456 of viruses, 404, 406, 409
Evaporative cooling, 47 genomics and proteomics in study of, 88f of visual perception, 1115f–1117f
Evapotranspiration, 1230f of glycolysis, 181–182 Evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo),
of gnathostomes and jaws, 723f, 724 385–386, 461, 542
in water cycle, 1248f of gymnosperms, 639f Evolutionary lineage, 554f
Even-toed ungulates, 479f–480f of hermaphroditism, 1040 Evolutionary trees, 472f, 478f, 479. See also
Evergreen trees, 641f of high-density populations, 1211 Phylogenetic trees
Evidence historical context of Darwinian theory of, Exaptations, 546, 575, 781
Excavates, 594f, 597f–598f, 599
fossils as, for evolution, 13f 467f–469f Exchange surfaces, animal, 872, 873f, 874
scientific data as, 17f, 19f hominin and human, 746f–752f Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP), 1076–1077
theories and, 21–22 of hormone function, 1013f Excitement phase, sexual, 1031–1032
Evo-devo. See Evolutionary developmental biology of human genome, 522, 564 Excretion, 976, 982f. See also Excretory systems;
Evolution, 2, 11, 467. See also Adaptations; Natural imperfections of organisms and, 503 Osmoregulation
influence of environment and, on nitrogenous Excretory systems
selection excretory processes of, 982f
abiotic synthesis of organic molecules as origin of wastes, 981 hormonal regulation of, 992f–994f
of insect size, 949 internal exchange surfaces and, 873f
life on Earth, 57f, 58 of intelligence, 1104 kidneys in mammalian and human, 984f–985f
of action potentials, 1082 of intracellular receptors, 1016 Malpighian tubules in, 983f, 984
altered DNA nucleotides as mutations in, 328 of introns, 346, 347f metanephridia in, 983f
of alternative carbon fixation mechanisms in of kidneys, 996 nitrogenous wastes and, 976, 980, 981f
of plants, 616, 617f, 620, 621t osmoregulation, excretion, and, 975f–980f
plants, 203 late-acting dominant lethal alleles, 293 processing of blood filtrate by nephrons in,
of amniotes, 733f of life history traits, 1198, 1199f–1200f 985–986, 987f–991f
of anatomical and molecular features, 483 of life on planets with water, 50f protonephridia in, 982f, 983
of angiosperms, 645f–647f light-sensitive germination, 869
of animals, 673f–675f, 676–677 of lignin, 781
of animal size and shape, 872f
of antifreeze proteins, 863
of arthropods, 704f–705f
of ATP synthase, 186
of axon width and myelination, 1074f–1075f
of behaviors by associative learning, 1144

INDEX I-18

Index Executive functions, brain, 1096 Families, taxonomy, 552, 553f mechanisms preventing angiosperm self-
Exercise, immune systems and, 969 Family planning, 1206 fertilization, 832, 833f
Exercises. See Scientific Skills Exercises, Family resemblance, genetics and, 254f
Family studies, 1100 meiosis and, 237
Problem-Solving Exercises Family trees, 284f, 285 G. Mendel’s techniques of plant, 270f–271f
Exergonic reactions, 148, 149f, 154f, 165 Fanwort (Cabomba caroliniana), 773f parental care and internal vs. external, 1149
Exhalation, 942, 943f–944f Far-red light, plant response to, 855f parthenogenic self-fertilization, 1018, 1019f
Exit tunnel, ribosome, 350 Fas molecule, 233 prezygotic barriers and, 506f–507f, 508
Exocrine glands, 1002 Fast block to polyspermy, 1043 in varieties of sexual life cycles, 258f, 259
Exocytosis, 139, 208f–209f Fast-twitch fibers, 1129 in vitro fertilization, 1038f
Exons, 345f–347f, 346, 447, 454, 455f, 485, 486f Fate maps, 1055, 1056f–1059f Fertilization, soil, 805–806, 981, 1202f, 1242,
Exon shuffling, 347f, 455f Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), 1275
Exoskeletons, 691, 1131 Fatigue, muscle, 1129 1273f, 1274
Fats, 72 Fertilization envelope, 1043f–1044f
animal, 681 Fertilizers, in nitrogen cycle, 1249f
anthozoan, 691 absorption of, in small intestine, 908f–909f Fescue grass, 1201f
arthropod, 705f animal heat exchange and, 883 Fetal alcohol syndrome, 1034
chitin as structural polysaccharide in, 72f blood cholesterol and, 936 Fetal testing, 288, 289f
ectoproct, 696 digestion of, 906f Fetus, 1034
in locomotion, 1130f, 1131 in egg yolks, 91
Exotic species, 1262f, 1263 as fuel for catabolism, 182f, 183 detecting disorders of, during pregnancy, 1037
Exotoxins, 587 in glyoxysomes, 112 gestation and birth of, 1033f–1035f
Expansins, 846, 847f hydrocarbons in, 60, 61f maternal immune tolerance of, 1035
Experimental groups, 20, 21f, F–3 as lipids, 72, 73f, 74 Zika virus and, 407
Experiments, 17, F–3. See also Case studies; Inquiry oxidation of, during cellular respiration, 166–167 Fever, 886, 887f, 955
trans fats, 61 F factor, 578f, 579
Figures; Research Method Figures; Scientific Fat-soluble vitamins, 898t Fiber cells, 762f
Skills Exercises Fatty acids, 72 Fibers, muscle, 1128, 1129t
case study for, 20f–21f beta oxidation of, for catabolism, 182f, 183 Fibrin, 934f
deductive reasoning in, 18 essential, 897–898 Fibrinogen, 934f
flexibility of, 18, 19f fats and, 72, 73f, 74 Fibroblast growth factor (FGF), 1060, 1062
in scientific process, 17–18f Fd, 198f, 199 Fibroblasts, 113t, 247, 876f
variables and controls for, 20–21 Feathers, 736f, 737 Fibronectin, 119f
Exploitation, 1215, 1216f–1217f, 1218 Feather stars, 713f Fibrous connective tissue, 876f
Exploration, 17f Feces, 695, 830f, 909, 1244f Fibrous proteins, 78
Explosive seed dispersal, 643f Feedback, scientific, 19f Fibrous root systems, 758
Exponential population growth model, 1194, 1195f, Feedback inhibition, 161f, 183f, 184, 364f Ficedula species, 516, 517f
1205f, 1206 Feedback regulation, 10. See also Regulation Fiddler crabs, 1137f, 1139
Expressed sequence tags (ESTs), 443–444 of animal digestion, energy storage, and appetite, Fierer, Noah, 1221f
Expression vectors, 420 Fight-or-flight responses, 212f, 926, 1010, 1088
Extension, muscle, 1130f 912, 913f–915f, 916 Filamentous fungi, 657
External factors, cell cycle control system, 246, 247f–248f of animal homeostasis, 879f–881f Filaments, 877f
External fertilization, 1020f, 1021, 1149 Cambrian explosion and, 683 Filaments, flagellum, 574f, 575
Extinctions in density-dependent population growth, Filaments, flower, 642f
of amphibians, 731 Filter feeders, 688f, 901f
climate change and, 11, 1278f 1201–1202 Filtrates, 982f, 985–986, 987f
current rate of, 1260 of endocrine systems, 1004 Filtration, 982f
ecological factors affecting rates of, 536 of molecular interactions, 10f Fimbriae, 97f, 573f, 574
extinction vortex and, 1264, 1265f Feeding mechanisms, 395, 652f, 653, 901f Finches, 15–16f, 21, 470, 471f, 484f–485f, 496, 517
in fossil record, 479, 526, 527f, 528 Feet, bird adaptation to perching, 738f Fingerprints, DNA, 434
global and local, 1260 Female condoms, 1036 Finland, 1225f
global temperature and, 539f, 540 Female gametophytes, angiosperm, 824, 825f Fire, 1170, 1226, 1227f
human impacts on, 1259f Females Fire ants, 1161
introduced species and, 1262f, 1263, 1284 autoimmune diseases in human, 969 Firefly gene, 341, 342f
island equilibrium model and, 1231f fruit fly bias in sperm usage by, 1022f Fireweed, 634f
mass, 538f–540f, 1284 hormonal regulation of reproductive systems of First law of thermodynamics, 145f, 146, 1237
of molluscs, 700f, 701 Fishapod discovery, 728f, 729
of seed plant species, 649f, 650 human, 1029, 1030f, 1031 Fishes
speciation and, 518, 520 hormones of, 997f, 1002f, 1005f, 1006, adaptations of kidneys of, 990, 991f
Extinction vortex, 1264, 1265f allopatric speciation in, 509f, 510
Extracellular diffusion, 766 1012, 1013f in biomanipulation, 1225f
Extracellular digestion, 902, 903f inactivation of X-linked genes in mammalian, 300f changes in gene regulation of, 544f, 545
Extracellular matrix (ECM), 118, 119f, 130f, 1054–1055 mate choice by, 497f–498f, 1150f–1151f, 1152 differential gene expression in, 363f
Extraembryonic membranes, 732, 733f, 1050, 1051f maternal immune tolerance of embryo and fetus discovery of “fishapod” Tiktaalik, 728f, 729
Extranuclear genes, 311 endangered or threatened, 1260
Extreme halophiles, 584–585 during pregnancy, 1035 frequency-dependent selection in, 498, 499f
Extreme thermophiles, 584f, 585 oogenesis in human, 1025, 1027f gills for gas exchange in, 938f–939f
Extremophiles, 55, 584f, 585 parental care by, 1149 hearing and equilibrium in, 1114f
Eyes. See also Visual systems parthenogenesis by, 695–696 hybrid zones of, 513f, 517f
euglenid eyespot as, 598f reproductive anatomy of human, 1024, 1025f lux genes in, 395
evolution of, 545, 546f reproductive rates and, 1192, 1193f, 1203f, osmoregulation in, 977f, 978
evolution of light detecting organs and, parental care in, 1149f
1115f–1117f 1206, 1211 protists as pathogens of, 612
insect compound, 710f, 892f sex chromosomes of, 298f, 299 ray-finned, and lobe-finned, 726f–727f, 728
vertebrate, 1116f–1120f, 1121 Fermentation, 165 sex determination of, 298f
Eyespots, 598f, 1115f anaerobic and aerobic respiration vs., 179–180 sex reversal in, 1018
cellular respiration vs., 165, 181f single circulation in, 922f
F types of, 180f, 181 thermoregulation in, 879f
Fern galls, 676 Fish fraud, 89
F1 (first filial) generations, 271f, 522 Ferns, 628f–630f, 631, 633, 635f Fission, 1018
F2 (second filial) generations, 271f Ferrodoxin (Fd), 198f, 199 Fitness, relative, 495–496
Faceted eyes, arthropod, 1115f, 1116 Fertilization, reproductive, 258, 824, 1020, 1042. See FitzRoy, Robert, 469–470
Facilitated diffusion, 135f, 136, 209f Fixed action patterns, 1138f
Facilitation, 1219f also Reproductive isolation Fixed alleles, 488, 494
Facultative anaerobes, 181, 579 angiosperm double, 644f, 645, 824, 825f. See also Flaccid cells, 135, 788, 789f, 795f
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), 172f–173f, 178 Flagella, 114
FADH2, 172f–173f, 175, 178 Pollination in animal cell, 100f
Fairy ring, mushroom, 664, 665f in animal embryonic development, 1042, bacterial, movement of, 991f
Falling phase, action potential, 1072f, 1073 cilia vs., 115f
Familial cardiomyopathy, 357 1043f–1045f
ensuring offspring survival following, 1021f
external vs. internal, 1020f, 1021
gamete production and delivery in,

1020f–1022f, 1023
genetic variation from random, 266, 305
in human life cycle, 257f, 258, 1032f

I-19 INDEX

dinoflagellate, 602f genetically modified organisms as, 436–437 tetrapod, 728f, 729f Index
euglenozoan, 598f genetically modified organisms (GMOs) as, 835, whisk ferns as living, 631
flagellated sperm, 617 Foundation species, 1224f
as microtubules, 114, 115f–116f 836f, 837–838 Founder effect, 493
in prokaryotic cell, 97f, 574f, 575 as limiting factor for human population size, 1209 Fovea, 1120f, 1121
in protistan cell, 101f plants as, for animals, 616 Fox, 1236f, 1254f
stramenopile, 599f population cycles and shortages of, 1203f, 1204 FOXP2 gene, 459f, 460
Flagellated sperm, 617 ray-finned fishes as human, 726 F plasmids, 578f, 579
Flagellin, 864 red algae as human, 606, 607f Fractals, 756f
Flame bulbs, 692, 983 seed plants as human, 649 Fragmentation, habitat, 1262f, 1268, 1269f
Flamingo, 14f Food chains, 1221, 1222f–1223f, 1255f Fragmentation, reproductive, 831, 1018
Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), 738f biological magnification in, 1274f Frameshift mutations, 358f, 359–360
Flashlight fish, 395, 586f energy loss along, 1244, 1245f, 1246 Franklin, Rosalind, 317, 318f, 320
Flattening, body surface area and, 693f Food poisoning, 401, 582f–583f, 587, 1079 Fraternal twins, 1034
Flatworms Food vacuoles, 107f, 108, 604f, 902 Free energy, 147
characteristics of, 685f, 692, 693f–695f Food webs, 612, 613f, 1222f–1223f Free-energy change
gastrovascular cavities of, 920f, 921 Foolish seedling disease, 849 in coupled reactions, 152f
hydrostatic skeletons of, 1131f Foot, mollusc, 697f free energy and, 147
nervous systems of, 1084f Foot, sporophyte, 625 metabolism and, 148, 149f–150f
protonephridia of, 982f, 983 Foraging behaviors, 1147f, 1148, 1159 stability, equilibrium, and, 147, 148f
Flavin adenine dinucleotide, 172f–173f, 178 Foraminiferans (forams), 595f, 605f Free energy of activation (activation energy), 153, 154f
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), 175 Forebrain, 1089f Free ribosomes, 103f, 104, 354f
Flavoproteins, 175 Forelimbs, mammalian, 477f Freezing, 863
Flemming, Walther, 237 Forensic ecology, 1263f Frequency-dependent selection, 498, 499f
Flesh-eating disease, 476f, 477 Forensic science, 24f, 434, 435f Freshwater animals, 977f, 978, 990
Fleshy fruits, 643f Foreskin, penile, 1024 Freshwater biomes, 1175f–1176f
Flexion, muscle, 1130f Forest fires, 1226, 1227f habitat loss in, 1262
Flies, 710f, 823f Forests Freshwater lakes, primary production in, 1241
Flight, 708, 709f, 736f, 737, 1133–1134 climate change effects on CO2 absorption by, 1243 Freshwater marshes, 1184
Flightless birds, 504f, 509, 737f–738f decomposition in, 1246 Friction, locomotion and, 1133
Floating bladderwort (Urticularia gibba), 446t, 447 northern coniferous, 1173f Fringe wetlands, 1177f
Floating fern, 811f temporate broadleaf, 1174f Fringing reefs, 1180f
Floating of ice, 47, 48f tropical, 1171f Fritillaries, 1204f, 1205
Flooding, 1226f Formic acid, 28f Frogs
plant responses to, 802, 862f Fossil fuels as amphibians, 717f, 730f–731f
Floral meristems, 828 biofuels as alternatives to, 188f axis formation in, 1057, 1058f
Florida, restoration projects in, 1252f biofuel technology to reduce dependence on, 836 cell developmental potential in, 1058, 1059f
Florida Keys mangrove islands, 1231f–1232f in carbon cycle, 1248f cell fate and pattern formation by inductive
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, 1272f ecological footprints and, 1208f, 1209
Florigen, 858f global climate change and, 204–205, 1275f, 1277, signals in, 1060f
Flowering, 828 cleavage in, 1046f, 1047
FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) gene, 858f 1278f–1279f coloration of, 1216f
Flowers, 642, 821 humans and burning of, 11 discovery of new species of, 1162f, 1183
adaptations of, that prevent self-fertilization, hydrocarbons as, 60 embryonic development of, 379f
nutrient cycling and, 1247 external fertilization of, 1020f
832, 833f ocean acidification and, 53f, 54 fate mapping for, 1056f
coevolution of pollinators and, 823f photosynthesis as source of, 188 fungal parasites of, 667, 668f
as emergent property, 839 seedless vascular plants and, 631–632 gastrulation in, 1049f, 1050
genetic control of formation and flowering of, Fossil record. See also Fossils mate choice among tree, 498f
angiosperms in, 645f, 646 metamorphosis of, 1013f
778f–779f animals in, 673f–675f, 676–677 neurulation in, 1052f
hormonal control of flowering of, 858f arthropods in, 704f, 705, 708 nuclear transplantation in, 427f, 428
monocot vs. eudicot, and pollination of, 647f colonization of land in, 534, 535f polyploidy in, 512
photoperiodism and flowering of, 857f–858f ecological factors affecting evolutionary reproductive isolation in, 522
pollination of, 820f–823f Fronds, 630f
preventing transgene escape with genetically rates in, 536 Frontal lobe, 1095f, 1096
evidence in, for dinosaurs as ancestors of birds, Frontal lobotomy, 1096
engineered, 838 Frost-tolerant plants, 863
structure and function of, 642f, 821f–822f 562f, 563 Fructose, 68f, 153, 155
trends in evolution of, 823f, 824 evidence in, for evolutionary change, 13f Fructose-6-phosphate, 186
Flu. See Influenza viruses evolutionary trends in, 546, 547f Fruit flies
Fluctuation, population, 1202f, 1203 forams in, 605f hybrid sterility of, 520
Fluid feeders, 901f fungi in, 657f, 658 model organism. See Drosophila melanogaster
Fluid mosaic model, 127f geologic record and, 530, 531t molecular clock of, 565
Fluorescence, 195f, 250 gymnosperms in, 639f reproductive isolation of allopatric populations
Fluorescence microscopy, 95f, 96 as history of life, 526, 527f, 528
Fluoxetine, 1101 plant origin and diversification in, 620 of, 510f
Fly agaric, 659f molecular clocks and, 565 Fruiting bodies, 213f, 610f–611f, 659f, 661f–662f, 663t
Flycatchers, European, 516, 517f origin of mammals in, 528, 529f Fruitlets, 828
Flying fox bats (Pteropus mariannus), 1260f origin of multicellular organisms in, 533, 534f Fruits, 643, 828
Flying squirrels, 479f, 515 origin of single-celled organisms in, 532f–533f
FMN, 175 plant origin and diversification in, 620 angiosperm seeds as, 642, 643f
Focusing, visual, 1120f, 1121 seedless vascular plants in, 626, 627f auxin in growth of, 847
Folding, body surface area and, 693f whales in, 523f dispersal of, 830f
Folding, protein, 83 Fossils, 468. See also Fossil record in ecosystem interaction, 10f–11
Foliose lichens, 666f, 670 amniote, 733f ethylene in ripening of, 852
Follicles, 1024, 1025f biogeography and, 480–481 gibberellins in growth of, 849f
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 1002f, 1006f, bird, 737f structure and function of, 828f–829f
dating of, 528f Fruticose lichens, 666f, 670
1028, 1029f–1030f, 1031 early Homo, 749, 750f Frye, Larry, 128f
Follicular phase, 1030 of early vertebrates, 722f–723f Fuels
Food. See also Animal nutrition; Trophic structure as evidence for Darwinian evolution, 479f–480f alternative, 188f
evolutionary theories and, 468f bacteria in production of ethanol, 589
animal processing of, 900, 901f–903f of gnathostomes, 724f fossil. See Fossil fuels
in bioenergetics and metabolic rates, 887, 888f hominin, 746f–747f, 748 genetic engineering of, using fungi, 669f
brown algae as human, 601 Homo sapiens, 751f–752f peat and coal, 626f, 631–632
calories of, 46 horseshoe crabs as living, 706f seed plants as, 649
digestion of. See Digestion; Digestive systems radiometric dating of, 32 Fumonisin, 837
as fuel for catabolism, 182f, 183 reptile and dinosaur, 734 Function, structure and, 6
as fuel for cellular respiration, 164–165 speciation patterns of, 518f
fungi as human, 668

INDEX I-20

Index Functional groups, 62f–63f Garlic, 834f RNA synthesis via DNA-directed transcription in,
Functional magnetic resonance imaging Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), 816 342, 343f–344f
Garrod, Archibald, 336
(fMRI), 1094f Garter snakes, 1153, 1154f stages of, that can be regulated, 368f
Fundamental niches, 1213, 1214f Gas chromatography, 850 study of, by systems biology, 444, 445f–446f
Fungi Gases summary of eukaryotic transcription and

amphibian population declines due to, 731 greenhouse, 11, 48, 53f, 1167 translation in, 356f
ascomycetes, 659f, 661f–662f, 663t water vapor, 44 as transcription, 369. See also Transcription
basidiomycetes, 659f, 663f–665f Gas exchange, 937 Gene families, 563f, 564
body structure of, 653f–654f amphibian, 730 Gene flow, 494
cells of, 100f arthropod, 706, 708f biological species concept and, 505, 508f
chitin in, 72f chordate, 718 as cause of microevolution, 494, 495f
chytrids, 658, 659f–660f circulatory systems and, 919f, 920. See also Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and, 490
as decomposers, 188 in macroevolution, 549
as detritivores, 1238f Circulatory systems between Neanderthals and humans, 750f–751f
in domain Eukarya, 12f coordination of cardiovascular systems and, speciation and, 520
expressing cloned eukaryotic genes in, 420–421 Gene pools, 488f
fossils of, 527f 945f–947f. See also Cardiovascular systems General transcription factors, 371
fungal plant toxin, 837 fish, 726 Generative cells, 644f, 824
glomeromycetes, 659f, 661f gills for, in aquatic animals, 938f–939f Gene regulation
kingdom and domain mutualisms with, 811f of insects, 949 analyzing DNA deletion experiments on, 373
land colonization by, 534, 535f ion movements and gradients and, 991f in bacterial transcription, 364f–367f
maximizing surface area by, 693f mammalian respiratory systems, 940, 941f–944f. cancer due to faulty cell cycle control in, 386f–
mycorrhizal, 620, 654f, 655, 785, 815, 816f
nutrient limitations and, 1242 See also Respiratory systems 391f, 392. See also Cancer
nutritional and ecological roles of, 652f, 653, partial pressure gradients in, 937 changes in, in macroevolution, 544f, 545
plant and animal, 893f differential gene expression and, 363f.
665f–668f respiratory media in, 937t
nutrition of, 12 respiratory surfaces in, 938 See also Differential gene expression
as opisthokonts, 611 shark, 724 in eukaryotic cells. See Eukaryotic gene regulation
origin and evolution of, 657f, 658 tracheal systems for, in insects, 939, 940f faulty, in cloned animals, 428–429
phylogeny and diversity of, 658, 659f–665f Gasterosteus aculeatus, 479, 544f, 545 noncoding RNAs in, 377f–378f, 379
practical uses of, for humans, 668, 669f Gastric glands, 905f of plant cell differentiation, 777f
relationship of, to unikont protists, 608–609 Gastric juices, 905f, 906, 913f in plant signal transduction pathways, 843
sexual and asexual life cycles of, 258f, 259, 655, Gastric ulcers, 906, 910, 911f steroid hormones and, 1001f
Gastrin, 913f in treehopper, 464
656f–657f Gastrodermis, 689f Genes, 7, 84, 255. See also Chromosomes; DNA;
symbiotic associations of, 670 Gastropods, 540, 697f, 698, 700f, 701
terrestrial adaptations of, 658 Gastrotrichans, 686f Genetics; Genomes
zygomycetes, 659f–661f Gastrovascular cavities, 689f, 920f, 921 activator binding to, 395
Fungi kingdom, 12f, 566, 567f Gastrovascular cavity, 694f, 902f alleles as alternative versions of, 272.
Furcifer pardalis, 733f Gastrula, 672f, 1042, 1047, 1049f, 1064
Fusarium, 837 Gastrulation, 672f, 678, 1042, 1047, 1048f–1050f See also Alleles
Fusion, hybrid zone, 517f Gated channels, 135 animal developmental. See Hox genes
Fynbos, 1172f Gated ion channels, 1070f–1075f apoptosis, 230f
Gause, G. F., 1213 appetite regulation, 916
G Geckos, 27, 39, 1258f associated with cancer, 386f, 387
Geckskin adhesive, 39 B cell and T cell diversity and rearrangement
G0 phase, 246, 247f Geese, 884f
G1 checkpoint, 245f–247f Gel electrophoresis, 418f of, 959f
G1 phase, 237f Genbank, 442, 443f calibrating molecular clocks of, 564, 565f
G2 checkpoint, 245f–247f Genealogy, molecular, 87, 89 for color vision, 1120f
G2 phase, 237f, 238f Gene annotation, 443–444 conservation of, 464
G3P, 201, 202f Gene cloning, 416f, 417, 419, 420f coordinately controlled, 364, 374
Gadus morhua, 726 Gene drive, 425 density of, in genomes, 447
Gage, Phineas, 1096f Gene editing divergence of human globin, during evolution, 456
Gaia hypothesis, 1257 CRISPR-Cas system, use of in, 402f, 424–425f, 433 DNA technology in determining functions of, 424,
Galactose, 68f, 366f Gene expression, 8, 84, 335. See also Genes; Genetics
Galápagos Islands, 15–16f, 21, 470f–471f, 504f, 517 auxin and, 846 425f–426f
Galdieria sulphuraria, 567f basic principles of transcription and translation duplication of, due to unequal crossing over, 453f
Gallbladders, 907 editing of, 424, 425f, 433
Gälweiler, Leo, 846f in, 338, 339f effects of developmental, 542f–543f
Gambusia hubbsi, 509f, 510 of brain development genes in lancelets and enzyme relationship with, in protein synthesis,
Gametangia, 619f, 623–624
Gametes, 236, 255 vertebrates, 720f 336f–337f, 338
changes in, in macroevolution, 543f, 544f–545 evolution of, with novel functions, 454, 455f
human gametogenesis and, 1025, 1026f–1027f of cloned eukaryotic genes, 420–421 evolution of FOXP2, 459f, 460
production and delivery of, in animal control of plant cell differentiation and, 777f evolution of homologous, 563f, 564
differential. See Differential gene expression evolution of related-function, 453, 454f
reproduction, 1020f–1022f, 1023 DNA, RNA, and genes in, 8f extending Mendelian inheritance for, 278,
production of, by meiosis, 236–237 DNA technology in analysis of, 421, 422f–426f
in sexual life cycles, 255, 257 DNA technology in silencing, 425, 426f 279f–282f. See also Mendelian inheritance
Game theory, 1152f, 1157 evidence for, in study of metabolic defects, flower formation, 778f–779f
Gametic isolation, 507f foraging, 1147
Gametogenesis, human, 1025, 1026f–1027f 336f–337f, 338 gene expression and, 7f–8f, 360. See also Gene
Gametophores, 622, 623f evolutionary significance of cross-species, 421
Gametophytes, 618f, 821 experiment on, for red maple leaf structure, 760 expression
in alternation of generations, 258f flowering and, 858f genetic diversity and, 1261
angiosperm, 824, 825f as flow of genetic information, 335f genetic variation due to alterations of number or
brown algae, 601f, 602 gene concept and, 360
of plants, 618f, 622, 623f, 625 genetic code in, 339, 340f–341f, 342 position of, 487
in G. Mendel’s experiments, 270f–271f interacting groups of, 423f–424f genomic imprinting and, 310f, 311
sporophyte relationships with, in plants, 635f interpreting sequence logos to identify ribosome genomics, bioinformatics, and proteomics in
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), 1079t, 1082
Gamma proteobacteria, 582f binding sites in, 351 study of, 9, 86, 87f
Ganglia, 1066, 1084f, 1085 mutations in, 357f–358f, 359–360 as hereditary units, 255
Ganglia, planarian, 694f. See also Cerebral ganglia nematode parasite control of host, 704 homeotic and Hox, 383f, 461f–462f, 543–544
Ganglion cells, 1116f, 1118, 1119f nucleic acids in, 84f homologous, 478
Gap junctions, 120f, 215f polypeptide synthesis via RNA-directed translation horizontal gene transfer of, 566, 567f–568f
Garden peas, G. Mendel’s experiments with, Hox genes, 1062
in, 347f–356f identifying linked or unlinked, 304
269f–276f regulation of. See Gene regulation identifying protein-coding, 443f, 444
Garigue, 1172f RNA modification after transcription by inheritance of organelle, 311f
jumping. See Transposable elements
I-21 INDEX eukaryotic cells in, 345f–347f linked, 301f–303f. See also Linked genes
locating, along chromosomes, 294f–295f, 296
in macroevolution of development,

543f–544f, 545

mapping distance between, on chromosomes, in diagnosing diseases, 431–432 genome-wide association studies of, 426f, 431–432 Index
305f–306f in forensic evidence and genetic profiles, 434, 435f genomics, proteomics, and bioinformatics in
in genome-wide association studies, 426f
maternal effect, egg-polarity, and bicoid, SNP linkage to, 439 study of, 9, 86, 87f, 441
384f–385f Genetic mutants in Scientific Skills Exercises, 916, 1093 horizontal gene transfer between, 566, 567f–568f
Genetic profiles, 432, 434, 1192, 1193f Human Genome Project and development of DNA
G. Mendel’s hereditary factors as, 269–270 Genetic prospecting, 581
meristem identity and organ identity, 778f–779f Genetic recombination, 302 sequencing techniques for, 441f, 442
molecular homologies and, 556, 557f identifying linked genes for, 304 interpreting data from, and generating
multigene families and, in eukaryotic genomes, of linked genes in crossing over, 302, 303f
natural selection and genetic variation from, 305 hypotheses, 655
450, 451f in prokaryotes, 577f–578f, 579 nervous systems and, 1104
notation system for, 296 transposable elements and, 457 noncoding DNA and multigene families in
nucleic acids and, 84. See also DNA; of unlinked genes in independent assortment of
eukaryotic, 448f–451f
Nucleic acids; RNA chromosomes, 302f p53 gene as guardian angel of, 388
number of, in genomes, 446t, 447 Genetics, 254. See also Genetic variation; Inheritance; prokaryotic, 575f
olfactory, 1122 species with complete sequences of, 440f, 446t
organization of typical eukaryotic, 370f, 371 Mendelian inheritance variations in size, number of genes, gene density,
pseudogenes, 448 of blood cholesterol levels, 936
rearrangement of parts of, 454, 455f cytology and, 294 and noncoding DNA of, 446t, 447
regulation of. See Gene regulation designing experiments using genetic viral, 398, 399f–405f, 404t
regulatory, 365f widespread conservation of developmental genes
sex-linked, 298f–300f mutants, 1093
speciation and, 520f in ecological forensics, 1263f in animal, 461f–462f
split, 345f–346f in estimating reproductive rates, 1192, 1193f Genome sequencing, 441f, 442, 445, 446f, 655
study of, by systems biology, 444, 445f–446f flow of genetic information in plant cells, 208f
transcription factors for, 221 of foraging behaviors, 1147f genomics, bioinformatics, proteomics, and, 9
transcription of, during cell-signal response genetic basis of animal behavior, 1153f Genome-wide association studies, 426f, 431–432
genomics and proteomics in, 86–87f Genomic data in Scientific Skills Exercise, 655
stage, 226f inheritance of chromosomes and genes in, 255 Genomic imprinting, 310f, 311, 370
transgenes, 434f interpreting data from experiments with genetic Genomics, 9, 86–87f, 87, 441–442, 581
transplanting, into different species, 341, 342f
types of, associated with cancer, 388f mutants, 916 cell signaling, cancer, and, 389, 390f–391f
variability of, in genetic variation, 485 of nervous system disorders, 1100f cracking the genetic code, 341f
Gene therapy, 425, 432f, 433, 1120f Punnett square as tool in, 273 DNA sequence analysis, 8f–9
Genetically modified (GM) organisms, 436. See also of sickle-cell disease, 500f genetic material in, 7f–8f
solving complex problems of, with rules of polyadenylation signal sequence, 345f
Transgenic animals; Transgenic plants polygenic inheritance, use of in studying, 281
fungi as, 669 probability, 277–278 simple sequence DNA, 450
for gene cloning, 417 of speciation, 520f start codon, 350
issues about, 436–437, 837–839 as study of heredity and hereditary variation, 254 taxonomy and, 12f, 13
plant biotechnology and genetic engineering of, vocabulary of, 274f transcription termination, 344
Genetic sequences in Scientific Skills Exercise, 593 transposable elements, 448f–449f, 450
835, 836f Genetic testing Genotypes, 274
Genetic code biotechnology in, 431–432 DNA transformation and, 315
for breast cancer predisposition, 392 gene expression as link between phenotypes
biotechnology and, 439 fetal, 288, 289f, 1037
codons and triplet code of nucleotides as, 340f identifying carriers, 288 and, 336
cracking of, 341f newborn, 289–290 genetic variation and, 485, 486f
of DNA, 7f–8f Genetic variation, 254, 485 heterozygote advantage and, 499
evolution of, 341, 342f chromosome activity and, 268 phenotypes vs., 274f, 282f, 283
as molecular homology, 478 from crossing over and recombinant relative fitness of, 496
in mutations, 357f–358f, 359–360 Gentoo penguin, 14f
neutral variation and redundancy of, 486–487 chromosomes, 265, 266f Genus (genera), 12, 552, 553f
as sequence of nitrogenous bases, 85 evolutionary significance of, within populations, Geochemical cycles, 1247f–1250f
universality of, 16 Geographical barriers, allopatric speciation and,
Genetic counseling, 288, 293 266, 267f
Genetic disorders extinction vortex and loss of, 1264, 1265f 509f–510f, 511
alkaptonuria, 336 in genetic diversity, 1259f. See also Genetic diversity Geographic species distributions. See Species
biotechnology in diagnosis and treatment of, 431, genetics as study of, 254. See also Genetics
from independent assortment of chromosomes, distributions
432f, 433 Geologic record, 530f, 531t
from chromosomal alterations, 306, 307f–309f 265f Geologic time, 530f, 531f
counseling for, 288, 293 microevolution of populations and sources of, Geomyda spengleri. See Black-breasted hill turtle
diagnosing fetal, 1037 Geospiza fortis, 484f–485f
dominantly inherited, 287f 485f–486f, 487 Germ cells
ethics of testing for, 24 in migratory patterns, 1154, 1155f
multifactorial, 287–288 molecular clocks and rates of, 564, 565f fate maps and, 1056, 1057f
mutations and, 357f–358f, 359–360 natural selection and, from recombinant human, 258, 1027f
recessively inherited, 285f–286f, 287 telomerase and telomeres in, 329
sickle-cell disease. See Sickle-cell disease chromosomes, 305 Germination
testing for, 288, 289f, 290 phylogenetic tree branch lengths and, 560f gibberellins in, 849f
Genetic diversity. See also Genetic variation preservation of, 498 light-sensitive, 869
in biodiversity, 1259f in prey selection, 1153, 1154f phytochromes in, 854, 855f
as factor in extinction vortex, 1264, 1265f from random fertilization, 266 seedling development after, 827, 828f
in human welfare, 1261 in sexual reproduction, 255 strigolactones in, 853
prokaryotic, 576f–578f, 579, 581 in small-population approach to population Germ layers, 678, 1047, 1049f
in small-population approach to population Gestation, 1033f–1035f
conservation, 1264, 1265f–1266f, 1267 Ghost crabs, 707f
conservation, 1264, 1265f–1266f, 1267 Gene trees, 555f Ghrelin, 915f
Genetic drift, 490, 492f–493f, 494, 549 Genlisea, 803f Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), 446t
Genetic engineering, 414 Genomes, 8, 235. See also Genes Giant sequoia tree, 772f
Giant squids, 700
of antifreeze proteins, 863 analyzing phylogenetic trees based on, to Giardia intestinalis, 594f, 597
DNA technology tools for, 414, 416f–420f, 421 understand viral evolution, 409 Gibberellins, 844t, 848, 849f
of ethylene signal transduction pathways, 852 Gibbons, 87, 89, 745f
fungi in, 669 animal phylogeny and, 680, 681f, 682 Gibbs, J. Willard, 147
of genetically modified organisms, 436–437. See bioinformatics in analysis of, 442, 443f–446f Gibbs free energy, 147. See also Free-energy change
in cell division, 235 Gigantism, 1008, 1009f
also Genetically modified organisms comparing, 457, 458f–462f, 674f Gills
opposition to, 837–839 comparison of Neanderthal and human, 751f annelid, 701
of “pharm” animals, 434f complete, 663, 720, 773 arthropod, 706
of plants. See Transgenic plants differential gene expression for identical, 368f, of axolotls, 919f
plant tissue culture and, 834 crustacean, 707
prokaryotes in, 587, 588f–589f 369. See also Differential gene expression of fishes, 726f
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, 288 evolutionary history in, 563f, 564 for gas exchange in aquatic animals, 938f–939f
Genetic maps, 305f–306f evolution of, from DNA duplication, rearrangement, mollusc, 697f
Genetic markers osmoregulation by, 977f, 978
and mutation, 452f–455f, 456–457
gene density of, 663t
genetic testing of fetal, 1037

INDEX I-22

Index Gill slits, 718f Glycine, 63f, 77f, 1079 scatter plots, 54, 136, 205, 511, 749, 1215
Ginkgos, 640f Glycocalyx, 97f sequence logos, 351
Giraffes, 929 Glycogen, 71 Grass, phototropism in coleoptiles of, 845f
GLABRA-2 gene, 777f Grasshoppers, 462f, 708f, 710f, 903f, 921f,
Glaciation in cell signaling, 216f, 226, 227f
in glucose metabolism, 913, 914f 940f, 1130f
ecological succession after, 1228f–1229f in muscle contraction, 1126 Grasslands, 781, 1173f, 1236f
seedless vascular plants and, 631 as storage polysaccharide, 70f, 71 Grassy stunt virus, 1261
Glacier Bay, Alaska, 1228f–1229f Glycogen phosphorylase, 216–217 Graves’ disease, 1008
Glands, endocrine system. See Endocrine glands Glycolipids, 131 Gravitational motion, free energy and, 148f
Glans, 1023f, 1024 Glycolysis, 168 Gravitropism, 859f
Glanville fritillaries (Melitaea cinxia), 1204f, 1205 ATP yield in, 177f Gravity
Glass lizard, 551f–552f evolutionary significance of, 181–182
Glaucomys volans, 515 fermentation and, 180f axis formation and, 1058
Glaucus atlanticus, 684f oxidation of glucose to pyruvate by, 170f–171f blood pressure and, 929, 930f
Gleason, H. A., 1226 as stage of cellular respiration, 168, 169f locomotion and, 1133
Glia (glial cells), 877f, 1066f–1067f, 1074f–1075f, Glycolytic fibers, 1128–1129 mechanoreceptors for sensing, 1110, 1113f
Glycoproteins, 105, 131 plant responses to, 859f
1085f–1086f in animal morphogenesis, 1054 Gray matter, 1086f
Glioblastoma, 250, 445 in cellular membranes, 127f, 130f, 131 Gray tree frogs (Hyla versicolor), 498f, 512
Global biogeochemical cycles, 1247 in extracellular matrix, 118, 119f Great auk, 1263
Global carrying capacity, human population, 1207, genetic engineering of, using fungi, 669 Greater bilby, 740f
rough ER and, 105 Greater prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido), 493f,
1208f, 1209 viruses and, 398f, 403f, 405f
Global change Glycosidic linkages, 69 494, 1265f
Glyoxysomes, 112 Great Salt Lake, 142, 584
biodiversity hot spots and, 1270 Glyphosate-resistant crops, 836 Great tits (Parus major), 738f
depletion of atmospheric ozone in, 1280f, 1281 Gnathostomes, 723 Green algae, 101f, 595f–597f, 607f–608f, 615–617, 662,
environmental toxins in, 1274f–1275f derived characters of, 723f, 724
greenhouse gases and climate change in, fossil, 724f 666f–667f
ray-finned fishes and lobe-fins as osteichthyans, Greenhouse effect, 1276, 1277f
1275f–1279f Greenhouse gases, 11, 48, 53f, 1167, 1275f–1279f
human impacts on, 1272, 1273f–1280f, 1281 726f–727f, 728 Greening, plant, 841f–842f, 843
nutrient enrichment in, 1273f, 1274 sharks and rays as chondrichthyans, 724, 725f Green manure, 815
sustainable development and, 1281f–1282f tetrapods as, 728 Green parrot snake, 1216f
as threat to biodiversity, 1264f Gnetophytes, 640f, 645 Griffith, Frederick, 315f
Global climate change. See Climate change Gnetum, 640f Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), 508f, 1266f, 1267, 1271
Global climate patterns, 1164f, 1165 gnom mutatant, 775f Grolar bears, 508f
Global cooling, 631 Goats, 434f Gross primary production (GPP), 1239, 1240f
Global ecology, 1163f. See also Ecology Goatsbeard plants (Tragopogon miscellus), 512, 513f Ground meristem, 764
aquatic biomes in, 1175f–1180f Goiter, 29, 1007 Ground squirrels, 891, 1191t, 1192f–1193f, 1211
of biosphere, 1163f. See also Biosphere Golden algae, 600f Ground tissue system, plant, 761f
effects of mass extinctions on, 540f Golden Rice, 836 Groups, control and experimental, 20, 21f
global climate in, 1164f–1168f Golgi apparatus, 100f, 105, 106f, 107, 109f, 131f, Growth, 773. See also Plant growth
global human population size issues in, 1205f–
208f, 403f as cell division function, 234, 235f
1208f, 1209 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 1012, heterochrony and differential rates of, 542f–543f
human environmental impacts in. See Human hormonal regulation of, 1002f, 1006f–1009f
1028, 1029f–1030f plant and animal, 892f
environmental impacts Gonadotropins, 1007, 1012, 1013f, 1028f–1030f, 1031 as property of life, 3f
importance of mycorrhizae to, 816 Gonads, 237, 258, 1002f, 1012, 1013f, 1021 vegetative, 828
ocean acidification in, 53f, 54 Gonorrhea, 574, 582f, 1038 Growth, population. See Population growth
species distributions in, 1176, 1182f–1184f Goodall, Jane, 17f Growth factors, 247
terrestrial biomes in, 1168, 1169f–1174f Gorillas, 87, 89, 745f in cell cycle control system, 247, 248f
Global ecosystem, biosphere as, 1236–1237 Gormley, Andrew, 1189f cell fate and, 1060–1062
Global energy budget, 1239 Gout, 981 in cell-signaling nuclear responses, 226f
Global extinctions, 1260 GPCRs, 217f–219f, 220, 224f, 1122 induction and, 381
Global human population, 1205f–1207f GPP. See Gross primary production as local regulators in cell signaling, 215f, 216
Global net primary production, 1240f G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), 217f–219f, 218, Growth hormone (GH), 1002f, 1006f,
Global temperatures, extinction rates and,
220, 224f, 1122 1007–1008, 1009f
539f, 540 G proteins, 218f, 224f Growth rings, tree, 771f
Global warming Graded potentials, 1071f, 1072, 1077 Grundler, Michael, 1162f
Grades, taxonomy, 621, 679 GTP (guanosine triphosphate), 172f–173f, 218f,
as ecosystem interaction, 11 Gradients, solute, 987, 988f, 989
fossil fuel burning and, 11 Gradual model of speciation, 518f 352f–353f
Globigerina, 595f Grafting, plant, 833 GTPase, 229
Globin genes, human, 451f, 453, 454f, 456 Gram (unit), 50 Guanine, 85f, 86, 317f, 318, 341f
Globular proteins, 78 Gram, Hans Christian, 572 Guano, 981
Glomeromycetes, 659f, 661f Gram-negative bacteria, 572, 573f, 582f Guanosine triphosphate. See GTP
Glomerulus, 985f Gram-positive bacteria, 572, 573f, 583f Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), 172f–173f, 218f,
Glottis, 904f Gram stain technique, 572, 573f
Glucagon, 914f, 1002f Grant, Peter and Rosemary, 21, 484 352f–353f
Glucocorticoids, 1002f, 1010f, 1011, 1016 Granum, 110, 111f, 189f Guard cells, 761, 768, 769f, 795f, 796
Glucose Grapefruit, 643f Guichon Creek project, 1272f
blood regulation, 10f Grapes, 849f Gulf of Carpentaria, 602f
enzymatic catalysis and, 153, 155, 157 Grapes of Wrath, The (book), 805f Gulf of Mexico dead zone, 1273f
enzymes and levels of, in blood, 157 Graphs, F–1 Gulf Stream, 1166f
epinephrine and metabolism of, 1002f Graphs in Scientific Skills Exercises Gulls, 1149f
as fuel for cellular respiration, 165–167 Guppies (Poecilia reticulata), 481, 1151f, 1185f
glucocorticoids and metabolism of, 1010f, 1011 bar, 23, 179, 373, 481, 588, 627, 698, 760, 862, Gurdon, John, 427f, 428, 430
homeostasis of, 913, 914f 1184, 1215 Gustation, 1121f–1122f
as monosaccharide, 68f–69f Gutenberg, Johannes, 24
oxidation of, to pyruvate by glycolysis, 170f–171f comparing two variables on a common Guttation, 791f
in photosynthesis, 41f, 190f, 206, 207f x-axis of, 971 Gymnosperms, 621f
in positive gene regulation, 367f
in signal transduction pathways, 216 cyclic data, 1276 evolution of, 639f
transport of, 132, 136 estimating quantitative data from, 536 evolution of seeds in, 636–637
Glucose-6-phosphatase, 157 histograms, 250, 283, 936 gametophyte-sporophyte relationships in, 635f
Glutamate, 233, 1079t, 1099f, 1100, 1118, 1119f interpreting changes in slope in, 1047 life cycle of pine and, 638f, 639
Glutamic acid, 77f, 152f, 341f line, 33, 157, 264, 409, 971, 1047, 1093, 1134, ovules and production of seeds in, 636f
Glutamine, 77f, 152f phylogeny of, 621t, 633, 639, 640f–641f
Glyceraldehyde, 68f 1184, 1276 Gymnothorax dovii, 727f, 1212f
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), 201, 202f, 206, 207f with log scales, 1134 Gynandromorph, 313
Glycerol phosphate, 63f pie charts, 890 Gyres, ocean, 1166f

I-23 INDEX

H Helicobacter pylori, 582f, 906, 910, 911f Hirudin, 702 Index
Helium, 30f, 35–36 Hirudinea, 701
H1N1 virus, 407–409, 1232–1233 Helper T cells, 961, 962f Histamine, 955f, 969
H5N1 virus, 408, 1233f Hemagglutinin gene, 408–409 Histidine, 77f
Habitat Heme group, 175 Histogram, F–2
Hemichordata, 687f Histograms in Scientific Skills Exercises, 250, 283, 936
carrying capacity of, 1196t, 1197f Hemings, Sally, 435 Histone acetylation, 369f
destruction of, in tropical rain forests, 649f, 650 Hemiptera, 710f Histone modifications, 369f, 370, 389
fragmented, 1262f, 1268, 1269f Hemispheres, brain, 1091f, 1096, 1104 Histones, 330f
island habitat, 1230, 1231f–1232f Hemizygous organisms, 299 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 404, 970. See
loss of, as threat to biodiversity, 1262f Hemochromatosis, 918
nitrogenous wastes and, 981 Hemocoel, 706 also AIDS
population conservation and critical, 1267f, 1268 Hemocyanin, 945 AIDS and, 396f
requirements for red-cockaded woodpecker, Hemocytes, 952f antiviral drugs and, as emerging virus, 407
Hemoglobin, 933 applying molecular clock to origin of, 565, 566f
1267f, 1268 attacks on immune system by, 970, 972f
sympatric speciation and differentiation of, α-globin and β-globin gene families and, 451f, biotechnology in diagnosis of, 431
453, 454f cell-surface proteins and blocking entry of, into
513–514
Habitat isolation, 506f in circulation and gas exchange, 945f–946f cells, 130f
Habitat selection behavior, 1181, 1182f cooperativity as allosteric regulation in, 160–161 G protein-coupled receptors and, 217f
Hadean eon, 530f, 531t dissociation curves of, 949 host range of, 399
Haemophilus influenzae, 446t in erythrocytes, 933 rapid reproduction of, 487
Hagfishes, 717f, 721f as measure of evolution, 87, 89 replicative cycle of, 405f
Haikouella, 722f polypeptides in, 338 as retrovirus, 404t
Hair, mammalian, 739, 918 as protein, 76f HIV-1 M strain, 565, 566f
Hair cells, 1110, 1111f–1112f protein quaternary structure and, 81f Hodgkin’s disease, 970, 1261f
Hairy-cap moss, 624f sickle-cell disease and, 82f, 286f, 287, 499, Hoekstra, Hopi, 20, 21f, 22, 27
Hakea purpurea, 781 Holdfasts, 600f
Haldane, J. B. S., 524 500f–501f, 503 Holoblastic cleavage, 1046
Half-life, 32, 528f Hemolymph, 705–706, 921f, 979, 983f, 984 Holothuroidea, 713f
Hallucigenia, 527f, 704 Hemophilia, 300, 431, 934 Homeoboxes, 461f–462f, 673
Halobacterium, 571f, 584 Hemorrhagic fever, 407 Homeodomains, 461
Hamilton, William, 1155–1156 Henslow, John, 469 Homeostasis, 879
Hamilton’s rule, 1156f–1157f Hepatic portal veins, 908 of blood calcium levels, 1009f
Hamsters, 891f, 1093 Hepatitis B virus, 407, 972 as feedback regulation of animal internal
Hansen’s disease, 65 Hepatophyta (liverworts), 618f–619f, 622, 624f
Haplo-diploid sex determination system, 298f HER2 breast cancer, 220, 250, 390f–391f environment, 879f–881f
Haploid cells, 257, 258f, 259 Herbicide resistance, 436 of glucose, 913, 914f, 1002f, 1010f, 1011
Haplotypes, 464 Herbicides hormonal regulation of kidneys for, 992f–994f
Hardy-Weinberg equation, 488–491 of human breathing, 944f
auxin in, 847 of macaques, 895
in Scientific Skills Exercise, 491 transgenic, 835–836 of marine iguana, 996
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 487, 488f–489f, 490t, 491 Herbivores, 896 osmoregulation for, 975f, 976, 979
Hares, 1203f, 1204 alimentary canals of, 910f peripheral nervous system in, 1088
Haustoria, 654f animals as, 671 thyroid, 1007f
Hawaiian Islands, 511, 541f, 542 as biotic factors limiting species distributions, 1182f Homeotherms, 882
Hawaiian silversword plants, 541f, 556, 1182 dentition and diet in, 909f, 910 Homeotic genes, 383f, 461f–462f, 543f–544f, 545. See
Hawkmoth, 823f, 1216f, 1217 energetic hypothesis and biomass of, 1223f
Hazel, 822f evolutionary links between plants and, 646, 647f also Hox genes
Hazelnut, 643f insects as, 711 Hominins, 746
Head, insect, 708f large, and grasslands, 910f
Head structure morphogen, 384f–385f mutualistic digestive adaptations of, 909f–912f Australopiths, 747, 748f
Hearing, 1110f–1114f plant defenses against, 865, 866f–867f bipedalism in, 748f
Heart attacks, 416f, 434, 935–936 Herbivory, 549, 865, 866f–867f, 1217f, 1254f derived characters of, 746
Heartbeat rhythm, 925, 926f Herceptin, 220, 250, 391f earliest, 746f–747f
Heartburn, 906 Hereditary factors, genes as, 269–270, 294f. early Homo genus, 749, 750f
Heart disease, 220, 416f, 426, 434 Homo naledi, 751f, 752
Heart murmurs, 926 See also Genes Homo sapiens, 751f–752f
Heart rate, 925, 926 Hereditary variation, 254f. See also Genetic variation Neanderthals, 750f–751f
Hearts, 921 Heredity, 254f, 269–270. See also Inheritance; tool use in, 748–749
Homo erectus, 750
atrial natriuretic peptide hormone released by, 994f Mendelian inheritance Homo ergaster, 750f
blood pressure and cardiac cycle of, 928, 929f–930f Hermaphrodites, 689, 703 Homo floresiensis, 752
in circulatory systems, 921f, 922 Hermaphroditism, 1018, 1040 Homogenization, 96f
effects of adrenal hormones on, 1010 Heroin, 40, 78, 1101f Homo genus, 745, 750f–752f
insect, 708f Herpes simplex viruses, 870, 970 Homo habilis, 749–750
location of, for human embryo, 1041 Herpesviruses, 403, 407, 970–971 Homologies, 477f–479f, 556f–557f
mammalian, in cardiovascular systems, 924f–926f Hershey, Alfred, 315, 316f, 317 Homologous chromosomes (homologs), 256
mollusc, 697f Heterochromatin, 332, 369, 379 alleles in, 259
regulation of rhythmic beating of, 925, 926f Heterochrony, 542f–543f in chromosomal basis of Mendelian inheritance,
Heartwood, 772f Heterocysts (heterocytes), 580f
Heat, 46, 144 Heterokaryon mycelia, 656 294f–295f, 296
as byproduct of cellular respiration, 178 Heteromorphic generations, 602 human, 256f–257f
carbon dioxide and, 11 Heterosporous species, 629, 636 in meiosis, 260f
diffusion and, 132 Heterotrophs, 188, 579, 580t, 592, 653, 672, 887–888, in mitosis vs. in meiosis, 262, 263f, 264
metabolic rate and loss of, 888 Homologous genes, 563f, 564
plant response to stress of, 863 892f, 1238f Homologous structures, 477f–479f
temperature vs., 46 Heterozygote advantage, 499, 500f–501f Homo naledi, 751f, 752
thermophiles and, 584f, 585 Heterozygote protection, 486 Homoplasies, 557f
thermoreceptors and, 1109f Heterozygous organisms, 274 Homo sapiens, 552, 663t. See also Humans
Heat exchange adaptations, animal, 883f–886f Hexapoda. See Insects Homosporous species, 629, 636
Heat of vaporization, 47 Hexoses, 68f Homozygous organisms, 274, 485, 486, 491, 493,
Heat-shock proteins, 863 Hfr cells, 578f, 579
Heavy chains, 956f Hibernation, 178, 891f, 895 499, 501
Heavy metals, bioremediation of, 1251, 1253f Hierarchical classification, 552, 553f Honeybees, 822f, 885, 1140f–1141f, 1144, 1145f, 1155
Hector’s dolphins, 1189f, 1190 High-density lipoproteins (HDLs), 935–936 Honeypot ant, 483
Hedgehog growth factor, 1061–1062 Highly conserved genes, 458 Hook, flagellum, 574f, 575
Heimlich maneuver, 904 High-throughput DNA technology, 9, 413f–415f, 416, Hooke, Robert, 94, 96
HeLa cancer cells, 249–250 Hookworms, 703
Helianthus species, 519f 441f, 442, 445 Hopping, 1136
Helical viruses, 398f Hindbrain, 1089f Horizontal cells, 1116f, 1118, 1119f
Helicases, 323f, 326f, 327t Hinge joints, 1132f Horizontal gene transfer, 550, 566, 567f–568f,
Hippocampus, 1093f, 1098, 1099f
Hippopotamus, 88f 577f–578f, 579, 581, 587, 687f

INDEX I-24

Index Horizontal transmission, viral, 410 introduced species, 1262f, 1263 DNA sequencing of genome of, 413f, 414
Hormonal proteins, 76f melting of Arctic sea ice, 48 ecosystem interaction with, 11
Hormone cascade pathways, 1006, 1007f, 1012 ocean acidification, 53f, 54 essential elements and trace elements for, 29t
Hormones, 216 overharvesting, 1263f ethical issues on silencing gene expression in, 426
spread of pathogens, 1232–1233 evolution of culture in, 1157f, 1158
animal vs. plant, 216, 892f. See also Animal threats to biodiversity from, 1261, 1262f–1264f fossils of, 751f–752f
hormones; Plant hormones Human genetics gene flow with Neanderthals and, 750f–751f
dominantly inherited disorders in, 287f genomics and proteomics in study of, 86–87f
coordinate control of genes by, 374 testing and counseling in, 288, 289f, 290, 293 glycoproteins and blood types of, 131
environment and, 1016 molecular tags and karyotypes of chromosomes as Homo sapiens, 746f, 747
in fight-or-flight responses, 212 importance of insects to, 711
as intracellular chemical signals, 220, 221f in, 332f importance of seed plants to welfare of, 649f, 650
kidney regulation by, 992f–994f multifactorial disorders in, 287–288 inactivated olfactory receptor genes of, 487
in long-distance cell signaling, 215f, 216 pedigree analysis in, 284f, 285 lymphatic systems of, 931f
specificity of, 227, 228f recessively inherited disorders in, 285f–286f, 287 origin of, 535
Hornworts, 622, 624f. See also Bryophytes skin pigmentation and, 281, 282f overlap of Neanderthals and modern, 33
Horowitz, Norman, 336, 337f Human genome practical uses of fungi for, 668, 669f
Horses, 413, 546, 547f α-globin and β-globin gene families in, 451f, primate phylogenetic tree and, 744f
Horseshoe crabs, 706f prokaryotic impacts on, 586, 587f–589f
Horsetails, 628f–630f, 631, 633 453, 454f red algae as food for, 606, 607f
Horvitz, Robert, 1056–1057 comparing genomes of other species with, 452f, reducing hunger and malnutrition in, with
Hosken, David, 1022f
Host cells, endosymbiont, 532, 533f 457, 458f–459f, 460 transgenic crops, 835, 836f
Host ranges, viral, 399 complete sequence for, 440f regulation of breathing in, 944f
Hosts, parasite, 1218, 1233f evolution of, 564 regulation of molecular interactions in, 10f–11f
Hosts, symbiont, 586 function of FOXP2 gene in, 459f, 460 relationship of Neanderthals and, 750f–751f
Hot spots, biodiversity, 1270f gene density of fungal vs., 663t sex chromosomes of, 298f, 299
Hot springs, 584f, 585 microarray chips containing, 446f skulls of chimpanzees and, 556
Hox genes. See also Homeotic genes sequencing of, 441f, 442, 445, 446f small intestine surface area for, 693f
as animal development genes, 461f–462f, 673 size, number of genes, gene density, and sustainable development in Costa Rica and living
arthropod body plan and, 704, 705f
cell fate and, 1062 noncoding DNA of, 446t, 447 conditions of, 1281f, 1282
jaws and, 723f, 724 types of DNA sequences in, 448f transgenic crops and health of, 837
lancelet, tunicate, and vertebrate, 720f Human Genome Project, 87, 347, 441f, 442 urban, 1272
in macroevolution of development, 543f–544f, 545 Human growth hormone (HGH), 416f, 417, 434, water gain and loss in, 996
origin of, 675 Humboldt Current, 1186f
in plants, 776, 777f 1007–1008, 1009f Hummingbird hawkmoth, 710f
in treehoppers, 464 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). See HIV Hummingbirds, 6, 520, 738f, 823f, 918
HPV. See Human papillomavirus Human nutrition. See also Animal nutrition Humoral immune response, 951f, 961, 962f–963f, 965f
HTLV-1 virus, 392 Humpback whales, 901f
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 1250f, assessing nutritional needs for, 900f Humus, 804, 805
bacteria in, 586 Hundred Heartbeat Club species, 1260f
1251, 1264f dietary deficiencies in, 900f Hunger, transgenic crops and reducing human, 835, 836f
Human body essential nutrients for, 897f, 898t–899t Huntington’s disease, 287, 430–431
transgenic crops and, 436–437 Hurricane Katrina, 1170
bacteria in, 586 Human papillomavirus (HPV), 870f, 972f Hutton, James, 467f, 468
brain in nervous system of, 1083f, 1084, 1089f– Human population Hybrid breakdown, 507f
biosphere carrying capacity for global, 1205f– Hybridization, 271, 516, 835, 837–839
1094f. See also Brains; Nervous systems Hybrid orbitals, 39f, 40
circadian rhythms in thermoregulation of, 1208f, 1209 Hybrids, 505
density-dependent population regulation of, by bears, 508f
880, 881f DNA in, 522
digestive systems. See Digestive systems diseases, 1202f reproductive barriers and sterility of, 507f
ears of, 1111f survivorship curves for, 1192f speciation rates and, 519f, 520
endocrine glands and hormones of, 1002f, 1005f– Human reproduction. See also Animal reproduction sterility of, 520
conception, embryonic development, and birth Hybrid zones, 514, 515f–517f, 518
1006f. See also Animal hormones; Endocrine Hydrangea, 282f
systems; Nervous systems in, 1032f–1035f Hydras, 255f, 689f–691f, 902f, 1084f
evolution of human eye, 545, 546f contraception and abortion in, 1036f, 1037 Hydration shells, 49
excretory systems of, 984f–985f endocrine disruptors and, 1013 Hydrocarbons, 60, 61f, 669f
eyes of, 1116f–1117f female reproductive organs of, 1024, 1025f Hydrocarbon tail, chlorophyll, 194f
glucose homeostasis in, 913, 914f hormonal regulation of, 1028, 1029f–1030f, 1031 Hydrochloric acid, 51, 905f, 906
heterochrony and differential growth rates in male reproductive organs of, 1023f, 1024 Hydrogen
skulls of, 542f maternal immune tolerance of embryo and fetus covalent bonding and, 36f–37f
hypothalamus in thermoregulation of, 886, 887f dinitrophenol and, 186
locomotion by interaction of muscles and in, 1035 electronegativity of, 45
skeletons of, 1130f oogenesis in, 1027f electrons of, 35
lymphatic system of, 954f reproductive technologies and, 1037, 1038f as essential element, 29t, 56, 64
mechanoreceptors in skin of, 1108f sexual response in, 1031–1032 in organic compounds, 59f
metabolic rates of, 890 spermatogenesis in, 1026f oxidation of organic molecules containing, 166–167
osmoregulation of, 978 Humans (Homo sapiens). See also Human body; in plant composition, 807
overnourishment, obesity, and, 915f, 916 in saturated and unsaturated fats, 73f, 74
regulation of growth of, 1007–1008, 1009f Human embryonic development; Human Hydrogen bonds, 39
skeleton of, 1132f environmental impacts; Human genetics; in DNA structure, 86f
two-solute model of kidney function, 987, 988f, 989 Human genome; Human nutrition; Human floating of ice and, 48f
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 967, 1033 population; Human reproduction in water molecules, 45f
Human embryonic development. See also Animal analyzing polypeptide sequence data for monkeys as weak chemical bonds, 38, 39f
development and, 87, 89 Hydrogen ions, 51, 52f, 53
brains in, 1090f as anthropoid apes, 745 Hydrogenosomes, 597
cilia and cell fate in, 1062f apoptosis of white blood cells of, 229f Hydrogen peroxide, 112
conception, pregnancy, and birth in, 1032f–1035f biodiversity and welfare of, 1260, 1261f Hydrogen sulfide gas, 539
embryo image, 1041f biological species concept and, 505f Hydrolagus colliei, 725f
gastrulation in, 1050, 1051f blood pH of, 52f, 53 Hydrolysis, 67
maternal immune tolerance of embryo and fetus blood pressure of, 929f of ATP, 151f, 152
in, 1035 blood screening for previously encountered disassembling of polymers to monomers by, 67f
neuron competition in, 1097–1098 viruses, 967f enzymatic, 901
Human environmental impacts brown algae as food for, 601 by lysosomes, 107f, 108
on biodiversity, 1258f–1259f catabolism and diets of, 182f, 183 Hydrolytic enzymes, fungal, 653
biodiversity crisis, 1258f–1259f. See also cells of, 93f Hydronium ions, 51, 52f, 53
Biodiversity chromosomes of, 102, 235, 236f, 237, 256f–257f, 258
biome disturbances, 1170 cilia in windpipes of, 13f
community disturbances, 1229f circulatory systems of. See Cardiovascular systems
global change, 1264f, 1272, 1273f–1280f, 1281 cloning of, 429
habitat loss and fragmentation, 1262f derived characters of, 746
determining gene function by analyzing genomes
I-25 INDEX of, 426f, 431–432
digestive system of. See Digestive systems
DNA microarray assays on tissue of, 424f

Hydrophilic substances, 49, 127f membrane carbohydrate cell-cell recognition in, ion movements and gradients and, 991f Index
amino acids as, 76, 77f 130f–131f neuron, 1065–1066, 1067f
problem solving and, 1144, 1145f
Hydrophobic interaction, 81f pathogen-specific recognition by adaptive Infrared receptors, 1108, 1109f
Hydrophobic substances, 49, 50, 127f immunity in, 956f–961f Ingestion, 900, 901f
Ingroups, 559
amino acids as, 76, 77f in plants, 864 Inhalation, 942, 943f–944f
Hydroponic culture, 808f prostaglandins in, 999 Inheritance. See also Mendelian inheritance; Sexual
Hydrostatic skeletons, 1131f recognition and response functions of innate and
Hydrothermal vents, 524, 525f, 584, 586, 590, 912f life cycles
Hydroxide ions, 51, 52f, 53 adaptive immunity in, 950f–951f blending hypothesis vs. particulate hypothesis on,
Hydroxyl group, 63f stem cells and, 430
Hydrozoans, 690f–691f trematode camouflage and, 694f 269–270
Hyla versicolor, 498f, 512 Immunity of cancer predisposition, 392
Hylobates genus, 745f active and passive, and immunization, 967–968 chromosomal basis of. See Chromosomal basis of
Hymen, 1024 maternal immune tolerance of embryo and fetus
Hymenoptera, 710f inheritance
Hypercholesterolemia, 139 during pregnancy, 1035 of chromosomes and genes, 255
Hypermastigote, 612f Immunization, 966f Darwinian theory on, 473f, 474
Hyperosmotic solutions, 976f, 989 Immunodeficiency diseases, 969–970 C. Darwin on, 14f–16f
Hyperpolarization, 1070f–1071f Immunoglobulin (Ig), 957f–959f, 964 DNA structure and, 334, 362
Hypersensitive response, plant, 864, 865f Immunological memory, 958, 960, 961f epigenetic, 370
Hypertension, 937 Impala, 212f, 216–217 expression and transmission of genetic
Hypertonic solutions, 134f Imprinting, 1142, 1143f, 1150f–1151f
Hyphae, fungal, 653f–654f, 816 Inactivation, cell-signaling, 229 information in, 7f–8f, 9
Hypoblast cells, 1050f–1051f Inborn errors of metabolism, 336 genetics as study of, 254. See also Genetics
Hypocotyl, 827f–828f Inborn immunodeficiency, 969 genetic variation and, 485
Hypoosmotic solutions, 976f Inclusive fitness, 1155, 1156f–1157f genomic imprinting and, 310f, 311
Hypothalamus, 886, 1005, 1091f Incomplete dominance, 279f Lamarck’s theory on, 468–469
Incomplete flowers, 822 molecular basis of. See Molecular basis of
in homeostasis, 1088 Incomplete metamorphosis, 709, 710f
in human brain, 1091f Independent assortment, law of, 274–275, 276f, inheritance
in human endocrine system, 1002f of organelle genes, 311f
in kidney regulation, 992f–993f 295f, 296, 302 of X-linked genes, 299f, 300
in neuroendocrine signaling, 1005f–1009f Independent assortment of chromosomes, 265f polygenic, 281
in regulation of mammalian reproduction, 1028, Independent variables, 21, 511, F–1–F–3 Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Indeterminate cleavage, 679f, 680
1029f–1030f, 1031 Indeterminate growth, 764f–765f principle, 469
in sex hormone cascades, 1012 Indian corn, 449f Inhibin, 1029f
in stress responses, 1010f Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre, 1166f Inhibiting hormones, 1002f, 1006
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in, 1092–1093 Indian pipe, 817f Inhibition
in thermoregulation, 886, 887f Indian rice, 1261
Hypotheses, 17, F–3. See also Inquiry Figures; Scientific Indoleacetic acid (IAA), 846. See also Auxin allosteric, 160f–161f
Indolebutyric acid (IBA), 847 enzyme inhibitors and, 158, 159f
Skills Exercises Induced fit, 155f, 156 feedback, 161f
forming and testing of, in science, 17, 18f–19f Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, 430f, 431 Inhibitors, 160f
phylogenetic trees as, 562f, 563 Inducers, 366f, 367 Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP), 1077
theories and, 21–22, 481–482 Inducible enzymes, 366f, 367 Initials, cell, 764
Hypothyroidism, 1008 Inducible operons, 366f, 367 Initiation factors, 352f
Hypotonic solutions, 134f Induction, 380f, 381, 1052 Initiation stage
Hyracoidea, 742f–743f Inductive reasoning, 17, F–3 regulation of transcription, 370f–375f
Hyracotherium, 546, 547f Inductive signals, cell fate determination and pattern regulation of translation, 376
transcription, 343f
I formation by, 1059, 1060f–1061f, 1062 translation, 352f
Industrialization, human population growth and, 1205f Inland mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), 2f, 20f–21f
Ibuprofen, 62f, 1011–1012, 1110 Inert elements, 35 Innate behavior, 1141
Ice Infant mortality, 1206–1207, 1281f, 1282 Innate immunity, 951f
Infection antimicrobial peptides and proteins in,
floating of, on liquid water, 47, 48f
on Mars, 50f bacterial, 218f 952f–953f, 954
as solid water, 44 cytotoxic T cell response to, 964f, 965 barrier defenses of, 953
Icosahedral viruses, 398f, 399, 406 fungal, 668 cellular innate defenses of, 953f–954f
Identical DNA sequences, 451f inflammatory response and, 955f evasion of, by pathogens, 956
Identical twins, 1034, 1059, 1160 Infection thread, bacterial, 814f, 815 inflammatory response of, 955f
Idioblasts, 866f Inferences, 1028 invertebrate, 951, 952f
IgE antibodies, 968 Infertility, 1037, 1038f molecular recognition by, 951f
Iguanas, 887, 996 Inflammation, 582f, 935f, 937, 1011–1012, 1109 vertebrate, 953f–955f, 956
Ileum, 907 Inflammatory response, 955f Inner cell mass, 1050, 1051f
Imaging, brain, 1083f, 1084, 1094f Inflorescences, 822 Inner ear, 1111f
Imaging techniques, fetal testing, 289 Influenza viruses Innocence Project, 435f
Imatinib, 433–434 antibody proteins and, 79f Inorganic components, topsoil, 804, 805f
Imbibition, 827 antigenic variation of, 970 Inositol triphosphate (IP3), 225f
Immigration, population dynamics of, 1190f, 1194, in density-dependent population regulation, 1202f Inquiry, scientific, 16, F–3. See also Inquiry Figures;
as emerging viruses, 407–408
1195f, 1204f, 1205, 1231f, 1254f oseltamivir for, 412 Research Method Figures; Scientific inquiry
Immune defenses, plant, 864 structure of, 398f Inquiry Figures
Immune response as zoonotic, 1233f
Information on abiotic synthesis of organic molecules as origin
primary and secondary, 961f alleles and, 293 of life on Earth, 57f
trypanosome evasion of, 598 B and T cells and DNA, 974
Immune systems, 950 biotechnology and, 439 on aquaporin mutations as causes of diabetes
adaptations of pathogens to evade, 970–971, 972f chromosomes and, 268, 313 insipidus, 993f
apoptosis in, 233 DNA structure and inheritance, 334, 362
diseases of, 229 F1 hybrids, 522 on benefits of endophytes to woody plants, 665f
disruptions of, 968f–969f, 970 genetic material as, 7f–8f on bicoid gene and body plan determination in
HIV/AIDS and, 396f, 404. See also AIDS; HIV genome and nervous system, 1104
immune rejection by, 967–968 genomics, 8–9 fruit flies, 385f
immune responses by adaptive immunity in, 961, heritable, 1160 on bryophyte reduction of nitrogen leaching from
life’s processes and, 7f
962f–967f, 968 in mitosis, 252 soil, 625f
immune responses by innate immunity in, 951, phylogeny reconstruction with, 570 on calcium ions in formation of fertilization
as theme of biology, 4
952f–955f, 956 Information processing envelope, 1044f
immunization and, 964 cerebral cortex in, 1094, 1095f on camouflage and predation rates of mice, 21f
leukocytes in, 933 on causes of greater prairie chicken decline, 1265f
lymphatic systems and, 931f on cell cycle regulation by cytoplasmic signals, 245f
maternal immune tolerance of embryo and fetus on cell developmental potential, 1059f
on cell fate and pattern formation by inductive
during pregnancy, 1035
signals from blastopore dorsal lip, 1060f
on changes in gene regulation of stickleback

fish, 544f
on circadian clocks during hibernation, 891f

INDEX I-26

Index Inquiry Figures (continued) gas exchange of, 949 Fertilization, reproductive
on compositions of bacterial communities of herbivory evolution in, 549 International Union for Conservation of Nature and
roots, 812f Hox genes in, 461f–462f
on determining root of eukaryotic phylogenetic importance of, for humans, 711 Natural Resources (IUCN), 1260
tree, 609f insecticide resistance in, 494–495 Internet resources, genome-sequence, 442, 443f, 444
on digger wasp spatial learning, 1143f malaria and, 603f Interneurons, 1067f, 1087f
on discovery of virus causing tobacco mosaic Malpighian tubules of, 983f, 984 Internodes, 759
disease, 397f mechanoreceptors and hearing in, 1110f Interphase, 237f, 238f, 252
on DNA replication models, 322f nervous systems of, 1084f Interphase nucleus transcription factories, 374, 375f
on dominant vs. recessive traits, 271f neuroendocrine coordination in, 1004f, 1005 Interpret the Data questions, 21f, 23, 29t, 33, 47f, 50,
on effects of red light and far-red light on seed nonheritable variation in, 486f
germination, 855f open circulatory systems of, 921f 54, 58, 89, 99, 136, 157, 158f, 179, 186, 194f,
on evolution by natural selection due to food organogenesis in, 1053f 205, 264, 499f, 503, 538f, 560f, 565f, 590,
source changes, 475f parasitic, 1218 633, 683, 715, 771f, 802, 949, 961f, 996, 1016,
on eye color after crosses of wild-type and mutant phylogeny and diversity of, 687f, 707f, 710f 1019f, 1081, 1100f, 1113f, 1136, 1147f, 1169f,
fruit flies, 297f plant defenses against, 865, 866f–867f 1187, 1203f, 1211, 1215f, 1241t, 1244f. See also
on female fruit fly bias in sperm usage, 1022f pollination by, 639f Scientific Skills Exercises
on function of FOXP2 gene in human as pollinators, 520 Intersexual selection, 497f–498f, 1150
genome, 459f sex chromosomes of, 298f Interspecific competition, 1213, 1214f–1215f
on gene-enzyme relationship in protein sex determination of, 298f Interspecific interactions, 1213
synthesis, 337f taste and smell in, 1121 character displacement and, 1235
on gene flow between Neanderthals and thermoregulation in, 885f competition, 1213, 1214f–1215f
humans, 751f tracheal systems for gas exchange in, 939, 940f exploitation, 1215, 1216f–1217f, 1218
on genetic basis of migratory orientation, 1155f wildfires and, 1242f facilitation, 1219f
on Hox genes and arthropod body plan, 705f Insertions (mutations), 358f, 359–360 genomics and proteomics in, 88f
on hypothesis of independent assortment, 276f In situ hybridization, 421, 422f herbivory, 1217f, 1218
on inducing pluripotent stem cells, 430f Instability, free-energy change and, 147, 148f parasitism, 1218
on interspecific competition and niches, 1214f Insulation, animal thermoregulation and, 883 positive interactions, 1218f–1219f
on linkage between genes and inheritance of Insulin, 914 predation, 1215, 1216f–1217f
characters, 301f in diabetes mellitus, 914–915 Interspecific mating, 505f. See also Mating
on mammalian taste detection, 1121f exocytosis and, 139 Interstitial fluid, 873f, 921, 930, 931f, 979, 988–989
on mate choice in tree frogs, 498f in glucose homeostasis, 914f Intertidal zones, 1179f
on membrane protein movement, 128f in glucose metabolism, 10f, 216 Intestinal bacteria, 910, 911f
on most effective light wavelengths for neonatal diabetes and, 359 Intestines, 586, 693f
photosynthesis, 194f pancreas and, 1002f Intracellular digestion, 902
on nitrogen limitation of phytoplankton as polypeptide, 1000f Intracellular receptors, cell-signaling, 220, 221f, 1016
production, 1241f production of, by biotechnology, 434 Intracellular recording, 1070f
on nuclear transplantation of differentiated as protein, 76f Intrasexual selection, 497f, 1150
animal cells, 427f in regulation of appetite and consumption, 915f Intrauterine devices (IUDs), 1036f
on phototropism in grass coleoptiles, 845f rough ER and, 105 Intrinsic (physiological) factors, density-dependent
on polar movement of auxin in plant shoots, 846f stem cells and, 430 population regulation by, 1203f
on pressure-flow hypothesis about phloem sap Insulin-dependent diabetes, 915 Intrinsic rate of increase, 1195
sugar content near sources, 799f Insulin-like growth factor gene (Igf2), 310f, 311 Introduced species, 1262f, 1263, 1284
on protein vs. DNA as genetic material, 316f Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), 1007 Introns, 345f–347f, 346, 447, 485, 486f
on rapid prokaryotic evolution, 576f Integral proteins, 129 Invagination, 1049f
on reproductive isolation from divergence of Integration Invasive species, 816, 1161, 1221, 1272,
allopatric populations, 510f cellular, 121f Inversions, chromosome, 307, 308f
on role of zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) in sensory, 1067f, 1106f, 1107 Invertebrates, 680, 684
vertebrate limb formation, 1061f Integrins, 119f, 129 action potential conduction speed in, 1074
on sea stars as keystone predators, 1224f Integument, 636, 824 chordates, 717f–720f
on sea urchin feeding as limiting seaweed Integumentary systems, 883 cnidarians, 685f, 689f–691f
distributions, 1182f Intelligence, 1104 deuterostomes, echinoderms, and chordates, 687f,
on sexual selection and reproductive isolation, 513f Interactions 711, 712f–713f
on shivering thermogenesis by Burmese Batesian mimicry and, 1235 digestive systems of, 715
pythons, 886f Cambrian explosion and feedback regulation, 683 ecdysozoans and arthropods, 686f–687f, 703f–710f,
on shortening of kinetochore microtubules during climate change and positive feedbacks, 1187 711. See also Arthropods; Ecdysozoans
anaphase, 241f diatoms and, 615 gamete production and delivery in, 1022f
on speciation from hybridization, 519f feedback mechanisms, 395 hydrostatic skeletons of, 1131f
on surfactants in respiratory distress between hormones and environment, 1016 innate immunity in, 951, 952f–953f
syndrome, 942f interspecific. See Interspecific interactions lophotrochozoans, 685f–686f, 692, 693f–702f. See
on survival costs of parental care in kestrels, 1199f across kingdoms and domains, 811f also Lophotrochozoans
on temperature effects on decomposition, 1246f with lycophyte forest, 633 mechanoreceptors in, to sense gravity, 1110
on transfer of genetic trait between bacterial mycorrhizal, 655 nervous systems of, 1084f, 1085
strains, 315f within organisms, 10f neuroendocrine signaling in, 1004f, 1005
on using phylogenetic gene tree to identify species between organisms and physical organogenesis in, 1053
identity of whale meat, 555f osmoregulation in, 978f
on vitamin supplementation and human neural environment, 10f–11f parental care in, 1021f
tube birth defects, 900f oxygen transport, 949 phylogeny and diversity of, 684f–687f
of pancreatic cell, 142 sponges, 685f, 688f, 689
Insecticide resistance, 494–495, 516 physical environment and evolution, 483 In vitro culturing, angiosperm, 834
Insects phytochromes and shoot growth, 869 In vitro fertilization (IVF), 434, 1038f
of plants with other kingdoms, 646, 647f, 683 In vitro mutagenesis, 424
anatomy and features of, 708f–709f prokaryotic ecological, 585f, 586 Iodine, 29
antiviral defense of, 952f as theme of biology, 4, 10 Iodine deficiencies, 1007
axis formation in, 1058 Intercalated disks, 877f, 1129 Ion channel proteins, 1074
body plans of, 543f, 544 Intercellular communication. See Cell signaling Ion channel receptors, 220f
camouflage of, 466f, 474f Intercellular joining function, membrane Ion channels, 135, 1068
cleavage in, 1046–1047 action potentials and gated, 1070f–1075f
CO2 absorption and, 1243 protein, 130f in mechanoreceptors, 1108
compound eyes of, 1115f, 1116 Interdisciplinary research teams, 9 neuron resting potential and, 1068f–1069f, 1070
CRISPR-Cas9 and gene editing of, 424–425f, Interferons, 954 Ionic bonds, 37, 38f
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis, 1226f Ionic compounds (salts), 38f. See also Salts
587–588f Intermediate filaments, 100f–101f, 102, 113t, 117 Ion movements and gradients, in life processes, 991f
defense mechanisms of, 28f Intermembrane space, 110 Ionotropic receptors, 1076–1078
evolution by natural selection in, due to food Internal environments, animal, 872, 873f, 874, Ion pumps, 137, 138f, 1068f–1069f, 1070
Ions, 37, 38f, 932f, 991f, 1068t
source changes, 475f, 476 879f–881f IP3, 225f
exoskeletons of, 1131 Internal factors, cell cycle control system, 246, Iridium, 539
eyes of, 892f Iris, 1116f
flower pollination by, 647f, 820f–823f 247f–248f
gamete production and delivery in, 1022f Internal fertilization, 1020–1021, 1149. See also

I-27 INDEX

Iron structure of, in mammalian excretory systems, Large-scale disturbances, 1227f Index
as limiting nutrient in aquatic biomes, 1241t 984f–985f Large tree finch, 517
plant deficiency in, 808 Larva, 672f, 709f
Killifish, 481 Larval dispersal, 536
Iron overload, 918 Kilocalorie (kcal), 46, 888 Larynx, 904f, 940, 941f
Iron oxide, 532 Kimberella, 692 Late-acting dominant lethal alleles, 293
Irrigation, 142, 806, 819 Kinases, 219f, 220. See also Protein kinases; Receptor Latency, viral, 970
Island ecosystems, 1236f Lateral geniculate nuclei, 1119f
Island equilibrium model, 1230, 1231f–1232f tyrosine kinases Lateral inhibition, 1118
Island species, 481 Kinetic energy, 46, 144, 145f, 163 Lateralization, 1096
Isolated systems, 145, 149f Kinetochore microtubules, 238f, 240f–241f, Lateral line system, 724, 726f, 1114f
Isoleucine, 77f Lateral meristems, 764f
Isoleucine synthesis, 161f 244f, 252 Lateral roots, 757f, 767f
Isomers, 61f–62f Kinetochores, 238f, 240f–241f Latitude
Isomorphic generations, 602 Kinetoplastids, 598f
Isoosmotic solutions, 976 Kinetoplasts, 598f animal size and, 895
Isopods, 707 King, Mary-Claire, 392 sunlight intensity and, 1164f
Isotonic solutions, 134f King, Nicole, 674 Latitudinal gradients, community diversity
Isotopes, 31, 32f, 33, 190, 1250 King, Thomas, 427
Italy, age-structure pyramid for, 1207f Kingdoms, taxonomy, 12f, 552, 553f, 566 and, 1230f
Iteroparity, 1199f King penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus), 738f, 1190f Law of conservation of mass, 1237
Ivanowsky, Dmitri, 397 Kingsley, David, 544f Law of independent assortment, 274–275, 276f, 295f,
Ivory, 1263f Kin selection, 1155, 1156f–1157f
Kissimmee River restoration project, 1252f 296, 302
J Klinefelter syndrome, 309, 1037 Law of segregation, 271f–275f, 272, 295f, 296
Knee-jerk reflex, 1087f Laws of probability, 276, 277f, 278
J. See Joule KNOTTED-1 gene, 776, 777f L-dopa, 1102
Jackson, Rob, 1221f Koalas, 740, 910f Leaching, 804
Jacob, François, 364, 545 Kombu, 601 Leading strand, DNA, 324, 325f
Jacoby, Gordon C., 771f Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), 1040 Leaf area index, 784f, 785
Japan, 1206–1207 Korarchaeota clade, 585 Leaf-cutter ants, 666f, 811f
Krebs, Hans, 172 Leaf primordia, 767f, 768, 769f
restoration projects in, 1252f Krebs cycle. See Citric acid cycle Leaf venation, 789f
Japanese canopy plant (Paris japonica), 446t, 447 Krill, 48f, 708f Leafy liverworts, 624f
Japanese snails, 520 K-selection, 1200 Learned behaviors, 1145
Jasmine, 853 Kudzu, 1262f Learning, 1142
Jasmonates, 844t, 853 Kuru, 410–411
Jawfish, 1149f associative, 1144f
Jawless vertebrates, 721f–723f L cognition, problem solving, and, 1144, 1145f
Jaws development of learned behaviors, 1145
Labeling, GM products, 436–437 neuronal plasticity and, 1098, 1099f
mammalian, 528, 529f Labia majora, 1024, 1025f sleep and, 1092
snake, 497f Labia minora, 1024, 1025f social, 1145, 1146f
vertebrate, 721, 723f, 724 Labor, childbirth and, 1034, 1035f Leaves (leaf), 629, 759
Jefferson, Thomas, 435 Labrador Current, 1166f abscisic acid in abscission of, 850
Jejunum, 907 Lacks, Henrietta, 249 anatomy of, in C4 plants, 204f
Jellies (jellyfish), 685f, 689f–690f, 920f lac operon, 366f, 367 auxin in pattern formation of, 847
Jellyfish gene, 342f Lactase, 70 ecosystem interaction of, 10f–11
Jenner, Edward, 966 Lactate, 180f, 181 effects of transpiration on wilting and
Joints, human, 1132f Lactation, 1035
Joly, John, 792 Lacteals, 907f–908f temperature of, 796
Jones, Lovell, 27f, 75 Lactic acid fermentation, 180f, 181 ethylene in abscission of, 852f
Jost, Alfred, 1028 Lactose, 70, 366f, 367 evolution of, in vascular plants, 629f
Joule (J), 46, 888 Laetoli footprints, 748f green color of, 193f
J-shaped exponential growth curve, 1195f Lagging strand, DNA, 324, 325f Hox genes in formation of, 776, 777f
Jumping genes. See Transposable elements Lagomorpha, 742f–743f leaf area index and arrangements of, 784f, 785
June solstice, 1165f Laguna Salada de Torrevieja, 571f monocot vs. eudicot, 647f
Juniper, 641f Lake Erie water snake (Nerodia sipedon), 494, 495f photosynthesis in, 189f, 190
Junk DNA. See Noncoding DNA Lakes, 1175f–1177f, 1273–1274 structure of, 759f–760f
Juvenile hormone (JH), 1004f, 1005 tissue organization of, 768, 769f
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA), 993, 994f primary production in, 1241 Leber’s congenital amaurosis (LCA), 1120
Juxtamedullary nephrons, 984f, 989 Lake Vesijärvi, 1225f Leber’s hereditary neuropathy, 311
Lake Victoria, 513f, 517f Leeches, 701f, 702, 1084f
K Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 467f, 468–469 Leeuwenhoek, Anton von, 1207
Laminaria, 601f, 602 Left atrium, 924f–925f
Kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriami), 739f, 996 Lampreys, 717f, 721f, 722 Left-right axis, 1058f, 1062f
Kangaroos, 232f, 740, 741f, 1133f, 1151f Lamp shells, 685f, 696f, 697 Left ventricle, 924f–925f
Kaposi’s sarcoma herpesvirus, 972 Lancelets, 713, 717f, 718, 719f–720f Leghemoblobin, 814
Kartagener’s syndrome, 1062f Land Legionnaires’ disease, 582f
Karyogamy, 656f Legionnella bacteria, 582f
Karyotypes, 256f, 288, 289f, 308f, 332f colonization of, 534, 535f Legless lizards, 551f–552f
Katydids, 710f global human use of, 1207 Legumes, 813f–814f, 815
Kaufman, D. W., 22–23 locomotion on, 1133f Lemmings, 1202f
kcal. See Kilocalorie subsidence of, 806f Lemurs, 744f
Kelps, 601, 802, 1187 Land plants. See Plants Length, carbon skeleton, 60f
Keratin, 76f, 338, 733, 918 Landscape ecology, 1163f. See also Ecology Lens, 1116f, 1136
Kestrels, 1199f biodiversity hot spots in, 1270f Lenski, Richard, 576f
Ketone compounds, 63f landscape fragmentation and edges in, Lenticels, 772
Ketoses, 68f Leopards, 552, 553f
Keystone species, 1224, 1268 1268, 1269f Lepidopterans, 466f, 710f
Kidneys, 984 movement corridors in, 1269, 1270f Lepidosaurs, 734, 735f–736f
philosophy of nature reserves in, 1270–1271 Leprosy, 583f
adaptations of vertebrate, to diverse environments, urban ecology and, 1272 Leptin, 915f, 916
739, 989f–991f zoned reserves in, 1271f–1272f Lettuce seed germination, 855f
Landscapes, 1163f Leucine, 77f
evolution of, 996 Land snails, 698f, 700f Leukemia, 309f, 392, 432, 1261f
homeostatic regulation of, 992f–994f Langkilde, Tracy, 1161f, 1216 Leukocytes (white blood cells), 229f, 876f, 932f–933f
hormonal regulation of, 1005f, 1006 Language Lewis, Edward B., 383–384
human cystic kidney disease, 1062 brain function and, 1096f Lewis dot structures, 36, 37f, 65
osmoregulation by, in aquatic animals, 977f, 978 FOXP2 gene and, 459f, 460 Leydig cells, 1029f
processing of blood filtrate in nephrons of, lap alleles, 503 Lichens, 662, 666f–667f, 670, 811f, 1254f–1255f
Larch, 641f bioremediation using, 1251, 1253f
985–986, 987f Large intestine, 908, 909f
solute gradients and water conservation by, 987, Largemouth bass, 879f

988f, 989

INDEX I-28

Index Life. See also Animals; Organisms; Plants primary production in aquatic ecosystems and blood flow through, 907
abiotic synthesis of organic molecules as origin limitations of, 1240 in energy storage, 913, 914f
of, 57f, 58 lowering plasma LDL levels by inactivating
biological molecules of, 66. See also Biological properties of, 192f
molecules sunlight as, 145, 150 enzyme of, 936
biology as scientific study of, 2. See also Biology; Light energy, plant responses to Liver cells, epinephrine in, 1002f
Science biological clocks and circadian rhythms in, 855, Liverworts, 618f–619f, 622, 624f. See also Bryophytes
carbon in organic compounds of, 56, 64 Living fossils, 631, 706f
cell division as fundamental to, 234 856f, 857 Lizards, 551f–552f, 735f, 882f, 887, 1019f, 1152f,
cells as fundamental units of, 5f, 6f–7, 93f. blue-light photoreceptors in, 853, 854f
See also Cells; Eukaryotic cells; de-etiolation signal transduction pathway for, 1214f, 1258f
Prokaryotic cells climate change and, 11f
cellular respiration and energy for, 164, 165. See 841f–842f, 843 Loams, 804
also Cellular respiration germination and, 869 Lobe-fins, 726, 727f, 728
classification of diversity of, 12f–13f, E–2–E–3 photomorphogenesis and action spectrum of, 853 Lobes, brain, 1094, 1095f, 1096
colonization of land by, 534, 535f photoperiodism and seasonal responses in, Lobotomy, 1096
conditions on early Earth and origin of, Lobsters, 705f, 706
523f–525f, 526 857f–858f Local biogeochemical cycles, 1247
diversity of. See Biodiversity phototropism and, 845 Local cell signaling, 215f, 216
domains of, 12f–13f phytochromes as photoreceptors in, 854, 855f Local extinctions, 1260
effects of speciation and extinction on, plant shoot architecture and, 783, 784f, 785 Local inflammatory response, 955
535f–541f, 542 stomatal opening and closing as, 795–796 Local regulators, 998f, 999
as emergent property, 125 Light-harvesting complexes, 196f Lock-and-key specificity, viral, 399
energy conversion for, 143f Light microscope (LM), D–1, 94 Locomotion, 991f, 1131f, 1133f, 1134, 1136
essential elements and trace elements for, 29t Light microscopy (LM), 95f Locus, gene, 255, 272
evolution of, as core theme of biology, 2f, 11. See Light reactions, 191. See also Photosynthesis Locusts, 1211
also Evolution chemiosmosis of, in chloroplasts vs. in Lodgepole pines, 1227f
extension of, 233 Logarithms, natural, 637
fossil record as history of, 526, 527f, 528. See also mitochondria, 199–200f, 201 Loggerhead turtles, 1188f, 1192, 1193f
Fossil record cyclic electron flow in, 198f, 199 Logistic equation in Scientific Skills Exercise, 1198
geologic record and, 530f, 531t determination of absorption spectrum for, 193f Logistic population growth model, 1196t, 1197f
history of, as limitation of natural selection, 502 excitation of chlorophyll by light energy in, 195f Logos, DNA sequence, 351
importance of water for, 44. See also Water linear electron flow in, 197f–198f Log scales in Scientific Skills Exercise, 1134
levels of biological organization of, 4f–5f most effective wavelengths for, 194f Lokiarchaeotes, 585, 596
order as property of, 146f, 147 nature of sunlight and, 192f Long-day plants, 857f
origin of multicellular, 533, 534f photosynthetic pigments as light receptors in, 192, Long-distance cell signaling, 215f, 216
origin of single-celled, 532f–533f Long Island Sound, 503
photosynthesis as process that feeds, 187f–188f. See 193f–194f, 195 Long-night plants, 857f, 858
also Photosynthesis photosystems of, 195, 196f–198f, 199 Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), 378–379
phylogenies as evolutionary history of, 551–552. as stage of photosynthesis, 191f, 192, 206, 207f Long-term memory, 1098, 1099f
See also Phylogenies Light responses, rod cell, 1119f Long-term potentiation (LTP), 1099f
possible evolution of, on planets with water, 50f Lignin, 628, 663, 762f, 781 Looped domains, DNA, 331f, 332
properties of, 3f Likens, Gene, 1250f, 1251 Loop of Henle, 985f–987f, 988
silicon-based, 65 Lily, 648f, 651 Loose connective tissue, 876f
tree of, 15f–16f. See also Tree of life Limbic system, 1093f, 1094 Lophophorates, 696f, 697
unifying biological themes in, 4f–11f Limbs Lophophores, 681f, 692, 696f, 697
unity in diversity of, 13f, 27, 466f, 471 genes for formation of, 543f, 544 Lophotrochozoans, 681f
viruses and characteristics of, 396f, 397, 406 as homologous structures, 477f, 478 annelids, 701f–702f, 703
web of, 568f tetrapod, 728, 729f characteristics of, 692
vertebrate formation of, 1060, 1061f–1062f ectoproct and brachiopod lophophorates,
Life cycles, 256. See also Sexual life cycles Limiting nutrients, 1240, 1241f–1242f, 1241t
of angiosperms, 644f, 645, 651, 824, 825f Limnetic zone, 1177f 696f, 697
of apicomplexan Plasmodium, 603f Limp cells, 788, 789f, 795f flatworms, 692, 693f–695f
of blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni, 694f Limpets, 545f–546f molluscs, 697f–700f, 701
of brown alga Laminaria, 601f, 602 Lin, Haifan, 378 phylogeny of, 685f–686f
of cellular slime mold Dictyostelium, 611f LINE-1 retrotransposons, 450 rotifers, 695f, 696
of ciliate Paramecium caudatum, 604f Lineage-based mechanisms, 776 Loricifera, 686f
developmental events in, 1042f Linear electron flow, 197f–198f Lorises, 744
of Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), 383f Line graphs, F–1 “Lost City” vent field, 525f
of fern as seedless vascular plant, 628f Line graphs in Scientific Skills Exercises, 33, 157, 264, Lovelock, James, 1257
of frog, 1042f Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), 139, 935–936
of fungi, 655, 656f–657f, 660f, 662f, 664f 409, 971, 1047, 1093, 1134, 1184, 1276 Loxodonta africana, 1263f
of green algal chlorophyte Chlamydomonas, 608f Linkage groups, 306f LSD, 1079
of humans, 257f, 258 Linkage maps, 305f–306f Luminal A and Luminal B breast cancer, 391f
of hydrozoan Obelia, 691f Linked genes, 301 Luna moths (Actias luna), 43
of moss, 623f Lung cancer, 445, 949
of pine tree and other gymnosperms, 638f, 639 genetic recombination and, 302, 303f Lung cells, newt, 7f, 238f–239f
of plasmodial slime mold, 610f identifying, 304 Lungfishes, 478f, 717f, 727
reproduction and, 256 inheritance of, 301f–302f Lungs, 726, 940, 941f–944f
mapping of, 305f–306f Lupines, 1253
Life expectancy at birth, 1206–1207, 1281f, 1282 natural selection and genetic variation from Lupus, 969
Life histories, population, 1198, 1199f–1200f Luteal phase, 1031
Life tables, population, 1191t recombination of, 305 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 1002f, 1006f, 1028,
Ligaments, 876f Linker DNA, 330f
Ligand binding, 217 Linnaean classification, 552, 553f 1029f–1030f, 1031
Ligand-gated ion channels, 220f, 1076f, 1077–1078 Linnaeus, Carolus, 468, 552 lux genes, 395
Ligands, 217, 223 Lionfish, 727f Lycophytes, 620, 621t, 629, 630f, 631, 633
Light chains, 956f Lipid bilayers. See Phospholipid bilayers Lyell, Charles, 467f, 468, 470–471
Light-detecting organs, 1115f Lipid rafts, 128 Lyme disease, 583f, 587f, 1233f
Light detector, euglenid, 598f Lipids, 72 Lymph, 931f, 954f
Light energy Lymphatic systems, 908, 931f, 954f
in cellular membranes, 102, 110, 127f, 128 Lymph nodes, 931f
absorption of, determining primary production evolution of differences in cellular membrane Lymphocytes, 932f–933f, 950f, 956. See also
with, 1240f
composition of, 129 B cells; T cells
in energy flow and chemical cycling, 9f, fats as, 72, 73f, 74 Lymphoid stem cells, 933f
164, 165, 1238f phospholipids as, 74f, 75 Lymph vessels, 931f
in plasma membranes, 98f, 99 Lynx, 1203f, 1204
excitation of chlorophyll by, 195f smooth ER synthesis of, 104–105 Lyon, Mary, 300f
global energy budget and, 1239 steroids as, 75f Lysine, 77f
in photosynthesis, 187f, 206, 207f. See also Light Tay-Sachs disease and, 280 Lysogenic cycle, 400, 401f
Lipid-soluble hormones, 1000f–1001f, 1002 Lysosomal storage diseases, 108
reactions Lipopolysaccharides, 572, 974
Litter decomposition, 1246f
I-29 INDEX Litter size, 1198, 1199f–1200f
Littoral zone, 1177f
Liver, 907
bile production by, 907

Lysosomes, 100f, 107f–109f sex chromosomes of, 298f, 299 mass extinctions and, 540 Index
Lysozymes, 49f, 79f, 454, 455f, 951, 952f, 953 sexual competition between, 497f–498f osmoregulation in, 977f
Lytic cycle, 400f, 412 spermatogenesis in human, 1025, 1026f Marine benthic zones, 1180f
Malignant tumors, 249f Marine biomes, 1175f, 1176, 1222f
M Malnutrition, 835, 836f, 899 Marine birds, 980f
Malpighian tubules, 708f, 983f, 984 Marine reserves, 1271, 1272f
Macaques (Macaca fuscata), 895 Malthus, Thomas, 467f, 473 Marine snails, 536
MacArthur, Robert, 1230, 1231f Maltose, 69f Marine worm, 232f, 938f
MacLeod, Colin, 315 Mammals, 738 Mark-recapture method, 1189f
Macroclimate, 1165f–1167f adaptations of kidneys of, 989f, 990 Mars, 50f
Macroevolution, 504, 523. See also Evolution adaptive radiation of, 540, 541f Marshall, Barry, 906
amniotic eggs of, 732, 733f Marshes, 1184
adaptive radiations in, 540, 541f, 542 axis formation in, 1058 Marsh gas, 584
colonization of land in, 534, 535f bats as, 15f Marsupials, 479f, 538, 541f, 740f–741f, 742f–743f
of development, 542f–544f, 545 brains in nervous systems of, 1089f. See also Marsupium, 740f, 741
early Earth conditions for origin of life in, Mass, 29n, 31
Nervous systems conservation of, 1237–1238
524f–525f, 526 breathing in, 943f–944f trophic levels and, 1238f, 1239
fossil evidence for, 523f, 524, 526, 527f–529f cardiovascular systems of. See Cardiovascular Mass extinctions, 538f–540f, 1284
gene flow, genetic drift, and natural current sixth, 700f, 701
systems of dinosaurs, 734
selection in, 549 cellular respiration in hibernating, 178 evolution and, 651
geologic record of key events in, 530f, 531t circadian clocks in hibernating, 891f speciation and, 520
mass extinctions in, 538f–540f comparing genomes of, 452f, 457, 458f–459f, 460 tropical deforestation and potential, 649f, 650
novelties and trends in, 545f–547f control of circadian rhythms in, 1092 Mass number, 31
origin of multicellular organisms in, 533, 534f convergent evolution of, 479f, 741f Mast cells, 955f, 967
origin of single-celled organisms in, 532f–533 derived characters of, 739f Master regulatory genes, 543f–544f, 545. See also
plate tectonics and, 536f–537f, 538 digestive systems of. See Digestive systems
speciation and extinction rates of organisms in, early evolution of, 739f, 740 Homeotic genes; Hox genes
endangered or threatened, 1260f Masting, 867f
535f–541f, 542 eutherians and primates as placental, 741, Mate choice, 497f–498f, 513f, 516, 517f,
speciation as conceptual bridge between
742f–745f, 746 1150f–1151f, 1152
microevolution and, 504–505, 521. See also evolution of, 677 Mate-choice copying, 1151f
Microevolution evolution of melanocyte-stimulating hormone Mate recognition, 506f
Macromolecules, 66f–67f, 524f–525f, 800 Maternal age, Down syndrome and, 308–309
in lysosomes, 107f, 108 in, 1014 Maternal alleles, 370
Macronuclei, ciliate, 604f, 605 extraembryonic membranes of, 1051f Maternal chromosomes, 265
Macronutrients, plant, 808, 809t fertilization in, 1044, 1045f Maternal effect genes, 384
Macrophages, 107f, 121f, 876f, 950f, 953, 955f gas exchange adaptations of, 945f–947f Maternal inheritance, 311
Madagascar orchids, 823f genomic imprinting in, 310f, 311 Maternal mRNAs, 385f
Mad cow disease, 83, 410 glia in brains of, 1067f Mating. See also Reproduction
Madreporite, sea star, 712f hominins and humans as, 747f–752f
MADS-box genes, 543, 776, 778 homologous structures in, 477f animal reproduction and, 1018f
Maggot flies, 506f, 513–514, 901f hormonal regulation of reproduction in, cell signaling in yeast, 213f, 215
Magnesium, 29t, 808 clumped dispersion and, 1190
Magnetic field, Earth’s, 1109f, 1139 1028, 1029f–1030f, 1031. See also Animal earthworm, 702
Magnification, 94 reproduction; Human reproduction external fertilization and, 1021
Magnolia tree, 648f inactivation of X-linked genes in female, 300f genetic disorders from human, 285–286
Magnoliids, 647f–648f ion concentrations inside and outside of neurons Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and random, 490t
Maiden veil fungus, 663f of, 1068t human, 1031–1032, 1036–1037
Maize (corn), 449f, 649, 775f kidneys in excretory systems of, 984f–985f. See also human sexual arousal and, 1080
alleles in, 293 Excretory systems; Kidneys hybrid zones and, 514, 515f
artificial selection of, 834f marsupials, 740f–741f insect, 709
health of transgenic Bt, 837 mechanoreceptors for hearing and equilibrium in, interspecific, and hybrids, 505f
nutrient deficiencies in leaves of, 808– 809f 1110f–1114f of pea plants, 270f, 271
phylogeny of, 555 modeling neurons of, 1069f reproductive barriers to, 505, 506f–507f, 508
precocious germination in, 850f molecular clock for, 565f reproductive cycles and, 1019f
proteins in, 897 monotremes, 740f sexual selection and, 497f–498f
seeds, 827f–828f nitrogenous wastes of, 980, 981f Mating behavior. See also Courtship rituals
Major depressive disorder, 1100 opiate receptors in brains of, 1080 applying game theory to, 1152f
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule, organ systems of, 874t mating systems and parental care in, 1148,
957, 958f, 967 origination of cetaceans as terrestrial, 479f–480f
Make Connections Figures origin of, 528, 529f 1149f, 1150
climate change has effects at all levels of biological osmoregulation in, 978, 979 mating systems and sexual dimorphism in,
organization, 1278f–1279f phylogeny of, 717f, 742f–743f
contributions of genomics and proteomics to reproductive cloning of, 428f, 429 1147–1148, 1149f
biology, 88f respiratory systems of, 940, 941f–944f sexual selection and mate choice in,
genomics, cell-signaling, and cancer, 390f–391f sex chromosomes of, 298f, 299
ion movement and gradients, 991f taste in, 1121f–1122f 1150f–1151f, 1152
levels of plant defenses against herbivores, thermoregulation in, 879f Mating systems, 1149f
866f–867f Mammary glands, 390f, 739, 1003–1004, 1006, Matorral, 1172f
life challenges and solutions in plants and 1014, 1025 Matter, 4, 9, 29–30. See also Energy and Matter
animals, 892f–893f Mammoths, 413f, 419 Maturation-promoting factor (MPF), 245, 246f
maximizing surface area, 693f Manatee, 1217f Maungatautari restoration project, 1252f
mutualism across kingdoms and domains, 811f Mandibles, 707, 708f Maximum likelihood, 561
sickle-cell allele, 500f–501f Mangold, Hilda, 1060f Maximum parsimony, 560, 561f, 562
working cell, 208–209f Mantises, 474f Mayer, Adolf, 397
working ecosystem, 1254f–1255f Mantle, 697f Maze experiments, 1144, 1145f
Malacosoma americanum, 895 Mantle cavity, 697f McCarty, Maclyn, 315
Malaria, 286f, 287, 499, 501f, 595f, 603f, 612, 711 Maple tree leaves, 760 McClintock, Barbara, 449f, 457
Malaysia, 1230, 1231f Mapping M checkpoint, 245f, 246, 247f
Malaysian orchid mantis, 474f of brain activity, 1094f Meadowlarks, 505f
Male gametophytes, angiosperm, 824, 825f linkage, 305f–306f Meadow voles, 1153f
Males Map units, 305f Mean, 588, F–3
competition between, for mates, 1151f, 1152 Maquis, 1172f Measles, 399, 407, 966
female mate choice and, 1150f–1151f, 1152 Maraviroc, 217, 407 Mechanical defense, prey, 1216f
hormonal regulation of reproductive systems Marchantia, 618f–619f, 624f Mechanical isolation, 506f
of, 1029f March equinox, 1165f Mechanical signaling, 119
hormones of, 997f, 1012, 1013f Marine animals Mechanical stimuli, plant responses to, 859, 860f
parental care by, 1149f, 1150 adaptations of kidneys of, 990, 991f Mechanical stress, plant responses to, 851f
reproductive anatomy of human, 1023f, 1024 Mechanical work, 150, 152f

INDEX I-30

Index Mechanoreceptors, 1108f, 1110f–1114f Menopause, 1031 Metazoans (Metazoa), 680, 681f
Mediator proteins, 371, 372f Menstrual cycle, 1029, 1031 Meteorites, 524–525
Medical records, 446 Menstrual flow phase, 1031 Methamphetamine, 62
Medicine. See also Drugs; Pharmaceutical products Menstruation, 1029 Methane
Mercury pollution, 1275
antibodies as tools in, 967f Meristem identity genes, 778f carbon and bonds in, 59f
application of systems biology to, 445, 446f Meristems, 764f–765, 828, 847 combustion of, as redox reaction, 166f
biotechnology in, 431, 432f–434f Meroblastic cleavage, 1046 covalent bonding in, 37f
blocking HIV entry into cells in, 130f Merozoites, 603f molecular shape of, 39f, 40
fungi in, 668 Meselson, Matthew, 322f Methanogens, 584–585
genomics and proteomics in, 88f Mesenchyme cells, 1049f Methanosarcina barkeri, 446t
medical leeches in, 701f, 702 Mesoderm, 678, 1049f Methicillin, 476f, 477
plant-derived medicines in, 649t, 650 Mesoglea, 689f Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),
radioactive tracers in, 31, 32f Mesohyl, 688f
stem cells in, 430–431 Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, 700 214, 476f, 477, 572
treatments of nervous system disorders in, 1100 Mesophyll, 189f, 203, 204f, 206f, 769f Methionine, 77f, 341f
Mediterranean climate, 1166 Mesozoic era, 530f, 531t, 537f, 677 Methods, research. See Research Method Figures
Medulla oblongata, 944f, 1091f Messenger RNA (mRNA), 338. See also RNA Methylated compounds, 63f
Medusa, 689f, 690 Methylation, DNA, 369–370, 389, 428–429
Medusozoans, 690f–691f alteration of ends of, 345f Methyl group, 63f
Megapascal (MPa), 787 in analyzing gene expression, 421, 422f–426f Methyl jasmonate, 853
Megaphylls, 629f bicoid, 385f Methylmercury, 1275
Megasporangia, 636f in breast cancer, 390f Methylsalicylic acid, 865f
Megaspores, 629, 636f, 824, 825f cell fractionation and, 125 Metric system, C–1
Megasporocytes, 824 effects of miRNAs and siRNAs on, 377f, 378 Mexico, 1206
Megasporophyll, 636, 639, 642, 644f, 821, 825f in gene expression, 8f, 84f MHC (major histocompatibility complex) molecule,
Meiosis, 258 genetic code and, 340
in animal cells, 260f–261f maternal, 385f 957, 958f, 967
crossing over and synapsis during, 260f, 262f mutations affecting, 357f–358f, 359–360 Mice. See Mouse
DNA changes of yeast cells in, 264 in plant cells, 208f Microarray analysis, 390f
errors in, 306, 307f–309f polyribosomes and, 355f Microarray chips, human genome, 446f
gamete formation by, in sexual life cycles, 258 regulation of degradation of, 376 Microbial diversity, 1221f
genetic variation from gene alteration during, 487 synthesis of, in cell signaling, 226f Microbiomes, 910, 911f
genome evolution and errors in, 453f–455f synthesis of, in eukaryotic cell nucleus, 102 Microcephaly, 407
human gametogenesis and, 1025 synthesis of, in transcription, 342, 343f–344f Microclimate, 1167
in human life cycle, 257f, 258 in transcription and translation, 338, 339f Microevolution, 485, 504. See also Evolution
microscopy of, 294 in translation, 347f–350f, 352
mitosis vs., 262, 263f, 264 viral, 399f, 400, 403f, 404t adaptive evolution by natural selection in, 495,
production of gametes by, 236–237 Metabolic defects, 336f–337f, 338 496f–501f, 502
stages of, 259f–262f Metabolic pathways, 144. See also Metabolism
in varieties of sexual life cycles, 258f, 259 evolution of, 163 alteration of allele frequencies by natural
Meiosis I, 259f–260f, 262f–263f, 264 metabolic defects in, 336f–337f, 338 selection, genetic drift, and gene flow in,
Meiosis II, 259f, 261f, 263f, 264 regulation of bacterial, 364f 491, 492f–495f
Melanerpes formicivorus, 1160 Metabolic rates, 888f–891f
Melanin, 338 Metabolism, 144. See also Bioenergetics genetic variation and, 485f–486f, 487
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 1002f, ATP energy coupling of exergonic and endergonic populations as smallest units of, 484f–485f
of sickle-cell disease, 501f
1006f, 1014, 1016 reactions in, 150, 151f–153f speciation as conceptual bridge between
Melatonin, 881f, 1002f, 1013 bioenergetics and metabolic rates of animal, 887,
Melitaea cinxia, 1204f, 1205 macroevolution and, 504–505, 521. See also
Membrane attack complex, 964f 888f–891f Macroevolution
Membrane potentials, 137, 138f, 1068f–1069f, 1070. catabolism and, 182f, 183 using Hardy-Weinberg equation to test, 487,
effects of adrenal hormones on, 1010f, 488f–489f, 490t, 491
See also Action potentials, neuron; Resting Microfibrils
potentials, neuron 1011–1012 cellulose, 776f
Membrane proteins, 105, 127f–130f, 152f as energy conversion for life, 143f in plant cell walls, 118
Membranes, amniotic egg extraembryonic, 732, 733f enzymatic catalysis of reactions in. See Enzymatic in structural polysaccharides, 70f
Membranes, cellular. See Cellular membranes Microfilaments, 115
Memory catalysis animal cell, 100f
emotion and, 1094 evolution of hormones regulating, 1014 in animal cytokinesis, 241, 242f
neuronal plasticity and, 1098, 1099f forms of energy for, 144, 145f cytoskeleton structure and function and, 113t
sleep and, 1092 free-energy change, equilibrium, and, 147, in morphogenesis, 1054f
Memory cells, 960 plant cell, 101f
Mendel, Gregor 148f–150f structure and function of, 115, 116f–117f
experimental, quantitative approach of, 270f, 271 graphing reactions of, 157 Microglia, 1085f
genes as hereditary factors of, 294f laws of thermodynamics and, 145f–146f, 147 Micronuclei, ciliate, 604f, 605
law of independent assortment of, 274–275, 276f metabolic pathways of, 144 Micronutrients, plant, 808, 809t
law of segregation of, 271f–275f nitrogenous wastes and, 981 Microphylls, 629f
particulate hypothesis of, on inheritance, 269f, 270 osmoregulation and, 978–979 Micropyles, 645, 824
particulate model of inheritance of, 485 prokaryotic, 579, 580f, 586–587 MicroRNAs (miRNAs), 377f, 379, 389, 676
Mendelian inheritance protocell, 525f, 526 Microscopy, 94f–95f, 96, 294f, 591f, 592
chromosomal basis of, 294f–295f, 296 radioactive tracers in research on, 31–32 Microsporangia, 636f, 824
environmental impacts on phenotypes and, 282f regulation of cellular respiration and, 183f, 184 Microspores, 629, 636f, 824, 825f
evolution of gene concept from, 360 role of enzymes as catalysts in, 75, 76f Microsporocytes, 824
exceptions to, 310f–311f thermogenesis in animal, 885f–886f Microsporophyll, 636, 639, 642, 644f, 821, 825f
extending, for multiple genes, 281f–282f thyroid regulation of, 1007f, 1013f Microtubule-organizing center, 240
extending, for single gene, 278, 279f–280f, 281 Metabotropic receptors, 1078 Microtubules, 114
genetic variation and, 485 Metagenomics, 442, 581 in animal cell, 100f
human patterns of inheritance and, 284f–289f, 290 Metamorphosis, 672 in cell division, 237, 238f–241f, 244f
integrating, with emergent properties, 282–283 amphibian, 730f centrosomes, centrioles, and, 114f
law of independent assortment of, 274–275, 276f frog, 1013f cilia, flagella, and, 114, 115f–116f
law of segregation of, 271f–275f insect, 709f, 1004f, 1005 cytoskeleton structure and function and, 113t
laws of probability governing, 276, 277f, 278 lancelet, 718 phragmoplasts, 617
limitations of, 278 tunicate, 719 in plant cell, 101f
making histograms and analyzing distribution Metanephridia, 983f structure and function of, 114f–116f
patterns for, 283 Metanephridium, 697f, 702f Microvilli, 98, 100f, 116f, 693f, 907f, 908
G. Mendel’s experimental quantitative approach, Metaphase (mitosis), 237, 239f, 243f, 252, 263f Midbrain, 1089f
270f, 271 Metaphase chromosomes, 331f–332f Middle ear, 1111f
G. Mendel’s particulate hypothesis of inheritance Metaphase I, 260f, 263f Middle lamella, 118
as, 269f, 270 Metaphase II, 261f Midrib, 759
Metaphase plate, 239f–240f, 262 Mifepristone (RU486), 1037
I-31 INDEX Metapopulations, 1204f, 1205 Migration, 1138
Metastasis, 249f electromagnetic receptors and, 1109f
as fixed action pattern, 1139f

genetic variation in patterns of, 1154, 1155f Caenorhabditis elegans, 703 Monarch butterflies, 837, 1144f Index
movement corridors and, 1269, 1270f in developmental biology, 1042 Monera kingdom, 566
Milk, mammalian, 1003–1004, 1006, 1014 for DNA research, 316f, 317. See also Escherichia coli Monilophytes, 620, 621t
Milk duct, 390f Monkey flowers, 520f, 832
Milkweed, 643f bacteria Monkeys, 56f, 87, 89, 744, 745f, 746, 1120. See also
Miller, Stanley, 57f, 58, 524f mouse (Mus musculus), 22. See also Mouse
Millipedes, 706, 707f Neurospora crassa, 662f, 663t Chimpanzees
Mimic octopus, 1217f scientific cooperation and, 22–23 Monocilia, 1062
Mimicry for T. Morgan’s experiments, 296f–297f. See also Monoclonal antibodies, 967
endorphin, 1079–1080 Monocots, 647f–648f, 759, 767f–768f, 827f–828f
molecular, 40f, 78 Drosophila melanogaster Monocytes, 932f–933f
as prey defensive adaptation, 866f, 1215, 1216f–1217f Models, F–3 Monod, Jacques, 364
Mimivirus, 406 Monogamous mating, 1022, 1147–1148, 1149f
Mimosa pudica, 800, 860f atomic, 30f Monoglycerides, 909f
Mimulus species, 520f community disturbance, 1226f–1227f Monohybrid crosses, 274
Mineralized dental elements, 722f of covalent bonds, 36, 37f Monohybrids, 274
Mineralocorticoids, 1002f, 1010f, 1012 electron orbital, 35f Monomers, 67f
Minerals exponential population growth, 1194, 1195f Monophyletic groups, 558f
deficiencies in plants, 808, 809f island equilibrium, 1230, 1231f–1232f Monosaccharides, 68f–69f
mineralocorticoids and metabolism of, 1012 logistic population growth, 1196t, 1197f Monosodium glutamate, 1121
mycorrhizae and plant deficiencies of, 816 molecular-shape, 39f Monosomic cells, 307
root architecture and acquisition of, 785 process of science, 19f Monosomy X, 309
roots interaction with, 10f–11 testing hypotheses with quantitative in Scientific Monotremes, 541f, 740f, 742f–743f
transpiration of, from roots to shoots via xylem, Monozygotic twins, 1034, 1059
Skills Exercise, 1148 Monterey County, California, 612f
790, 791f–793f, 794 Modified leaves, 760f Montmorillonite clay, 525f, 526
vascular plant transport of, 785, 786f–789f Modified roots, 758f Montreal Protocol, 1280
Minerals, essential, 898, 899t Modified stems, 759f Moon jelly, 920f
Mines, restoration of, 1251f Molarity, 50 Moose, 1202f, 1203
Miniaturization, gametophyte, 635f Molar mass, 50 Moran, Nancy, 550f, 567
Minimal medium, 336f–337f Molar ratios in Scientific Skills Exercise, 58 Moray eel (Gymnothorax dovii), 727f, 1212f
Minimum viable population (MVP), 1266 Mold as model organism. See Neurospora crassa Morels, 661f, 668
Minnows, 1141f, 1275 Molds, 656f–657f, 659f, 660f, 661 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 296f–297f, 301f–303f,
Mirounga angustirostris, 997f, 1265 Molecular basis of inheritance
Miscarriages, 306, 1037 314–315
Misfolding, protein, 83 chromatin packing of DNA and proteins in Mormon tea, 640f
Mismatch repairs, 327 eukaryotic chromosomes, 330f–332f “Morning-after” birth control pills, 1036f, 1037
Missense mutations, 357, 358f Morning sickness, 65, 1034
Mistletoe, 817f discovery of double helix structure of DNA in, 314f, Morphine, 40f, 78
Mitchell, Peter, 177 317, 318f–320f Morphogenesis, 380, 1047. See also Embryonic
Mites, 706f
Mitochondria, 109 DNA as life’s operating system in, 314f development; Pattern formation
animal cell, 100f DNA replication and repair in. See DNA replication apoptosis in, 1055
animal hibernation and, 178 evidence for DNA as genetic material in, cytoskeletons in, 1053, 1054f–1055f
in apoptosis, 230f, 231 developmental adaptations of amniotes
ATP synthase and, 186 315f–317f, 318
chemical energy conversion by, 109–110, 111f evolution of gene concept from, 360 in, 1051
chemiosmosis in, 175, 176f, 177 Molecular biology gastrulation in, 1047, 1049f–1051f
chemiosmosis in chloroplasts vs. chemiosmosis in, Arabidopsis thaliana as model organism for, mechanisms of, 1054f–1055f
organogenesis in, 1052f–1053f
199f–200f, 201 772–773, 774f plant development and, 773, 776, 777f
dinitrophenol and, 186 importance of viruses to, 397 Morphogen gradients, 384
electron transport chains in, 168–169 measures of evolution in, 87, 89 Morphogens, 384f–385f
endosymbiotic origin of, 532, 533f molecular systematics and, 563f, 564 Morphological homologies, 556
enzymes in, 161f mutants in, 843 Morphological isolation, 506f
evolutionary origins of, 109, 110f of plant development, 773f–779f Morphological species concept, 508
fungal cell, 100f Molecular clocks, 564, 565f–566f, 657f, 658 Morphology
inheritance of genes of, 311 Molecular formulas, 36, 37f, 59f animal phylogeny and, 680, 681f
origin of, in endosymbiosis, 593, 596f–597f Molecular genetics, in ecological forensics, 1263f fungal, 653f–654f
plant cell, 101f, 209f Molecular genetic variation, 485, 486f macroevolution of, 542f–544f, 545
protist, 592 Molecular homologies, 478, 556, 557f species concepts and, 505
pyruvate in, 171f Molecular homoplasies, 557f Mortality rates. See Deaths
using cell fractionation to study, 97 Molecular identification tags, 107 Morton, Michael, 24f
Mitochondria DNA (mtDNA) Molecular-level herbivore defenses, plant, 866f Mosaicism, 300f
evolutionary rate of, 563 Molecular mass, 50 Mosquitoes, 407, 410, 483, 494–495, 501f, 516, 603f,
species identity in, 555f Molecular recognition, immune system, 951
Mitochondrial matrix, 110 Molecular systematics, 561f, 563f, 564, 581, 680, 710f, 711, 901f
Mitochondrial myopathy, 311 Mosquitofish (Gambusia hubbsi), 509f, 510
Mitosis, 236. See also Cell cycle; Cell division 681f, 682. See also Cladistics; Systematics; Mosses, 619f, 622, 623f–626f, 633, 635f. See also
in animal cells, 238f–239f Taxonomy
in chromatin packing, 332f Molecular tags, 332f Bryophytes
evolution of, 243, 244f Molecules, 5f, 36. See also Compounds Mossy leaf-tailed gecko, 27
in human life cycle, 257f, 258 biological. See Biological molecules Moths, 466f, 549, 710f, 715, 822f, 1004f, 1005
information in, 252 chemical bonds and formation of. See Motile cilia, 1062
meiosis vs., 262, 263f, 264 Chemical bonds Motility, prokaryotic, 574f, 575
microscopy of, 294f as level of biological organization, 5f Motor, flagellum, 574f, 575
nuclear envelope during, 252 organic. See Organic compounds Motor areas, cerebral cortex, 1094
origin of term for, 237 origin of self-replicating, 524f–525f, 526 Motor cortex, 1095f, 1096
in plant cells, 243f regulation of interactions of, 10f Motor neurons, 1067f, 1087f, 1126, 1127f–1128f
in spermatogenesis, 1040 shape and function of, 39f–40f, 59f Motor output stage, 1067f
in varieties of sexual life cycles, 258f, 259 structure of DNA and RNA, 7f–8f Motor proteins, 76f, 113f, 115, 116f, 152f, 241f, 252
Mitosomes, 597 Moles (animal), 556f, 557, 1105f Motor systems, 1087
Mitotic (M) phase, 237f Moles (mol), 50, 58
Mitotic spindles, 237, 240f–241f in Scientific Skills Exercise, 58 cardiac and smooth muscle in, 1129–1130
Mixotrophs, 592 Molluscs, 686f muscle function in, 1123, 1124f–1129f, 1130
Mobile genetic elements, evolution of viruses and, 406 bivalves, 699f sensory systems and, 1105f–1106f. See also Sensory
Model organisms, 22, 1042 body plan of, 697f
Arabidopsis thaliana, 772–773, 774f, 781 cephalopods, 699f, 700 systems
bread mold. See Neurospora crassa chitons, 697f skeletal muscle contraction in, 1125f–1129f
eye complexity in, 545f–546f skeletal systems and locomotion in,
gastropods, 697f, 698
nervous systems of, 1084f 1130f–1133f, 1134
protecting freshwater and terrestrial, from Motor unit, 1128f
extinction, 700f, 701 Mountain lions, 1147
Moloch horridus, 735f Mountain pine beetles (Dendroctonus ponderosae),
Molothrus ater, 1269, 1284
Molting (ecdysis), 681, 703, 705, 892f 1242f, 1243, 1278f

INDEX I-32

Index Mountains, 1166, 1167f in duplication of entire chromosome sets, 452 Nasal glands, marine bird, 980f
Mount Kilimanjaro, 1187 effects of, during cell division, 387f–388f Nash, John, 1152
Mount St. Helens, 634f as embryonic lethals, 384 National Cancer Institute, 445
Mouse (mice), 22 as errors in proofreading, 327 National Center for Biotechnology Information
evolution and rate of, 334
appetite regulation in, 916 evolution of enzymes by, 159f (NCBI), 442, 443f
brains of, 1086f in exon duplication and exon shuffling, 454, 455f National Institutes of Health (NIH), 442, 445
comparing human genome with genome of, 452f, in flowering, 778f–779f National Library of Medicine, 442
genetic variation from, 305, 306f National Medal of Science, 942
453, 458, 459f, 460 genome evolution and, 452f–455f, 456 Native Americans, 563
complete genome sequence for, 452, 453f Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and, 490t Natural family planning, 1036f
energy budgets of, 890 of ion channel protein genes, 1074 Natural killer (NK) cells, 954
FOXP2 gene evolution in, 459f, 460 in mitochondrial DNA, 311 Natural logarithms in Scientific Skills Exercise, 637
genomic imprinting of insulin-like growth factor molecular clock speed and, 565 Natural plastics, 588f
mutagens as cause of, 360 Natural range expansions, 1181, 1182f
gene of, 310f, 311 natural selection and, 328 Natural selection, 14, 471. See also Adaptations;
homeotic genes in, 461f nucleotide-pair substitutions, insertions, and
as model organisms. See Mus musculus Evolution
modes of natural selection in, 496f deletions, 357, 358f, 359–360 adaptations and, 470, 471f
osmotic homeostasis in desert, 979 phenotypes and, 296f–297f, 306f adaptive evolution and, 492
paw development of, 231f point mutations, 357f–358f, 359–360 Darwinian theory of descent with modification
transfer of genetic trait between bacterial strains in prokaryotes, 576–577
as source of alleles, 265 by, 14f–16f, 470, 471f, 481–482
in, 315f as sources of genetic variation, 486–487 of developmental genes, 543
Mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), camouflage case studies transposable elements and, 457 directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection
of viruses, 412
with, 2f, 20f–21f, 23 Mutualism, 586, 1218, 1254f–1255f in, 496f
Mouse as model organism, 22 bacterial, 586 of ecological niches, 1213, 1214f
Mouth formation, 1050 in flower pollination, 820–821, 823f evolution of drug resistance by, 476f, 477
Movement, prokaryotic, 574f, 575 fungal, 653, 665f–667f. See also Mycorrhizae evolution of enzymes by, 159f
Movement corridors, 1269, 1270f as interspecific interaction, 1218f, 1219 in evolution of life history traits, 1198,
MPF (maturation-promoting factor), 245, 246f across kingdoms and domains, 811f
mPGES-1 gene, 373 mycorrhizae as plant-fungi, 785, 815, 816f 1199f–1200f
MRSA, 214, 476f, 477 nutrient limitations and, 1242 in evolution of populations, 1188–1189
Mucous cells, 905f plant-bacteria, 811f–814f, 815 genetic variation for, from genetic recombination,
Mucus, 904, 905f, 953 in vertebrate digestive systems, 910, 911f–912f
Mucus escalator, 941 Myasthenia gravis, 1127 305
Mueller, Ken, 1121f Mycelium (mycelia), 653f–657f, 654 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and, 490t
Mule deer, 869, 1147 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 587 insect evolution by, due to food source changes,
Mules, 507f Mycoplasmas, 583f
Muller, Hermann, 360 Mycorrhizae, 654, 785, 814 475f, 476
Müllerian mimicry, 1216f, 1217 basidiomycetes in, 663 key role of, in adaptive evolution, 497f
Multicellular asexual reproduction, 255f biological augmentation using, 1253 limitations of, in creating perfect organisms,
Multicellular organisms, 5f, 93, 533, 534f, 673f–674f in colonization of land by plants, 534, 535f
Multienzyme complexes, 161 evolution of, 658 499, 502
Multifactorial characters, 282 genomic analysis of interactions of, 655 in macroevolution, 549
Multifactorial disorders, human, 287–288 as mutualism, 1218 mutations and, 328
Multigene families, 450, 451f nutrient limitations and, 1242 predator role in, 27
Multiple fruits, 829f plant nutrition and, 815, 816f relative fitness and, 495–496
Multiple myeloma, 65 plant roots and, 758 of ribozymes, 526
Multiple sclerosis, 969 as root-fungi mutualism, 785 sexual reproduction, genetic variation, and,
Multiplication rule, 277f, 278 specialized hyphae in, 654f, 655
Multiprotein complexes, 174f, 175 strigolactones and, 853 266, 267f
Mumps, 407 terrestrial plants and, 620 species selection as, 546–547
Murchison meteorite, 524–525 Mycorrhizal associations, 758 Natural vs. supernatural explanations, 18
Muscle Mycosis, 668 Nature reserves
Myelination, 1074f–1075f philosophy of, 1270–1271
cardiac and smooth, 1129–1130 Myelin sheath, 1074f–1075f zoned reserves and, 1271f–1272f
contraction of, 1124, 1125f, 1126 Myeloid stem cells, 933f Nature vs. nurture, 282f, 760
regulation of contraction of, 1126, 1127f–1128f Myllokunmingia fengjiaoa, 716f, 722 Navigation, migration and, 1139f
skeletal. See Skeletal muscle Myoblasts, 381, 382f ncRNAs, 377f–378f, 379
Muscle cells, 93f, 117f, 381, 382f, 913, 1002f Myocardial infarctions, 935f Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), 33, 88f, 413,
Muscle fibers, 877f, 1128, 1129t MyoD activator, 371f
Muscle tissue, 877f myoD gene, 381, 382f 440, 460, 750f–751f
Muscular dystrophy, 299, 431 Myofibrils, 1124f Near vision, 1120f
Mushrooms, 652f, 653, 659f, 661f, 663f–665f, 668. Myoglobin, 947, 1128, 1129t Nectarine, 643f
Myopathy, 311 Negative and positive correlations, 832
See also Fungi Myosin, 76f, 117, 241, 382f, 877f Negative feedback, 880, 1004
Mus musculus (mouse), 22. See also Mouse Myosin filaments, 1123, 1124f–1125f
Mussel (Mytilus edulis), 503 Myotonia, 1031–1032, 1074 in density-dependent population growth,
Mussels, 699f, 700f, 701, 1262 Myriapods, 706, 707f 1201–1202
Mustard plant as model organism. See Myrmecocystus, 483
Mytilus edulis, 503 in endocrine system feedback regulation, 1004
Arabidopsis thaliana Myxini (hagfishes), 717f, 721f in feedback regulation, 10f
Mutagens, 360 Myxobacteria, 213f, 582f in homeostasis, 880
Mutant phenotypes, 296f–297f Myxococcus xanthus, 213f Negative gene regulation, bacterial, 367
Mutants Negative gravitropism, 859
N Negative pressure breathing, 943f, 944
designing experiments using genetic, 1093 Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 574, 582f
interpreting data from experiments with NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), Nematocysts, 690f
167f–168f, 172f–173f, 178, 180f, 181 Nematode as model organism. See
genetic, 916
in molecular biology, 843 NADH, 167f–173f, 178, 180f, 181 Caenorhabditis elegans
nutritional, in gene-enzyme relationship NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Nematodes, 687f, 703f, 704, 1056f–1057f, 1131f
Nemertea, 686f
experiment, 336f–337f, 338 phosphate), 191f, 192, 206, 207f Nemoria arizonaria, 486f
Mutations, 357f NADPH, 191f, 192, 197f–198f, 206, 207f Neodenticula seminae (diatom), 1168
Naked mole rats, 1155f, 1157 Neonatal diabetes, 359
in alterations of chromosome structure, 452f, 453 Naloxone, 1080 Neoproterozoic era, 674f–675f
in aquaporins causing diabetes insipidus, 993f Nanoarchaeota clade, 585 Neornithes, 737
in cancer development, 389f Nanopores, 414 NEP. See Net ecosystem production
cancer genes and, 386f, 387 Nephrons, 984f
cellular slime mold, 610
creating plant, in molecular biology, 774 Bowman’s capsule in, 985
CRISPR-Cas9 and gene editing for, 424–425f, 433, evolution adaptations of, 989f–990f
processing of blood filtrate to urine by, 986, 987f
587–588f structure of mammalian kidneys and, 984f–985f
of developmental genes, 543f–544f Neritic zones, 1180f
in duplication and divergence of gene-sized Nernst equation, 1069
Nerodia sipedon, 494, 495f
regions, 453f–455f Nerve cells, 93f

I-33 INDEX

Nerve cord, 708f, 718f, 720f as chemical messengers of neurons, 1066 Nodules, 814f, 815 Index
Nerve gas, 1079 exocytosis and, 139 Nomarski microscopy, 95f
Nerve nets, 1084f major, 1079t Nonbreeding adults, territoriality and, 1203f
Nerves, 1084 mechanisms of terminating, 1078f Noncoding DNA, 447, 448f–449f, 450
Nervous systems, 878, 998 nitric oxide, 999 Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), 377f–378f, 379
properties of types of, 1078–1080 Noncompetitive inhibitors, 158, 159f
cerebral cortex control of voluntary synaptic signaling by, 1075, 1076f, 1078 Nondisjunction, 307f, 309
movement and cognitive functions in, Neurulation, 1052f, 1053 Nonequilibrium model, community, 1226
1094, 1095f–1097f Neutralization, 963f Nonheritable variation, 486f
Neutral mutations, 565 Nonidentical DNA sequences, 451f
disorders of, 1100f–1102f Neutral variation, 486 Non-insulin-dependent diabetes, 915
faulty apoptosis in diseases of human, 231 Neutrons, 30f, 31 Nonkinetochore microtubules, 238f, 240f, 241, 252
genome and, 1104 Neutrophils, 932f–933f, 953, 955f Non-native species, 1262f, 1263
Huntington’s disease and, 287 Newborn screening, 289–290 Nonpolar covalent bonds, 37
long-distance cell signaling in, 215f, 216 New Guinea, 740 Nonpolar side chains, 76, 77f
memory, learning, and changes of synaptic Newton, Isaac, 22 Nonrenewable resources, human population size and,
Newts, 7f, 238f–239f
connections in, 1097, 1098f–1099f New World monkeys, 745f 1208f, 1209
neurons and cell signaling in, 878f. See also New York City, Catskill Mountain purchase by, 1261 Nonsense mutations, 358f
New Zealand, restoration projects in, 1252f Nonshivering thermogenesis, 885f
Neurons Next-generation DNA sequencing, 413f–415f, 416, 442 Nonsister chromatids, 257f, 262, 264, 266f
regulation of blood pressure by, 929 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, 167f–168f, Nonspontaneous processes, 146
regulation of digestion by, 913 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),
regulation of heart rhythm by, 926f 172f–173f, 178, 180f, 181
regulation of human breathing by, 944f Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, 191f, 1011–1012
regulation of skeletal muscle contraction by, 1126, Nonsteroid hormones, 374
192, 206, 207f Nontemplate DNA strand, 340
1127f, 1128 Nicotine, 1079, 1101f, 1218 Nonvascular plants. See Bryophytes
research methods for studying brains and, Night length, flowering and, 857f, 858 Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), 1002f,
Nirenberg, Marshall, 341
1083f, 1084 Nitrates, 1273f, 1274 1010f–1011f, 1079t
synaptic and neuroendocrine signaling of, 998f, Nori, 606, 607f
deforestation effects on, 1250f North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre, 1166f
999. See also Neuroendocrine signaling in nitrogen cycle, 1249f Northern coniferous forests, 1173f
vertebrate brain in, 1089f–1094f Nitric oxide (NO), 220, 929, 999, 1024, 1079t, 1080 Northern red maple tree leaves, 760
Nervous tissue, 877f Nitrification, 813 North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, 1166f
Nests Nitrifying bacteria, 813, 1249f Notation system, gene, 296
of birds and dinosaurs, 562f, 563 Nitrite, in nitrogen cycle, 1249f No-till agriculture, 807
red-cockaded woodpecker, 1267f, 1268 Nitrogen Notochords, 718f, 1052f, 1053
Net ecosystem production (NEP), 1240 algal blooms and, 1240, 1241f Novelties, evolutionary, 545, 546f
climate change effects on, 1243 bacteria in plant acquisition of, 812f–814f, 815 NPP. See Net primary production
Net primary production (NPP), 1239, 1240f bryophyte reduction of leaching of, from N-terminus, 78f, 330f, 352, 369f
climate change effects on, 1242f, 1243 Nuclear envelopes, 100f–101f, 102, 103f, 109f, 252,
in terrestrial ecosystems, 1241, 1242f, 1243 soil, 625f
Neural crest, 720, 721f, 1052f, 1053 as essential element, 29t, 56, 64 332, 339f, 355
Neural pathways, 1119f as limiting nutrient, 1240, 1241f–1242f Nucleariids, 611, 657
Neural plate, 1052 nutrient enrichment and pollution by, 1273f, 1274 Nuclear lamina, 102, 103f, 117, 332
Neural tube birth defects, human, 900f in organic compounds, 59f Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, 83
Neural tubes, 1052f, 1053 prokaryotic chemical recycling of, 582f, 585f Nuclear matrix, 102, 326f–327f, 332
Neuraminidase, 408, 412 soil, in ecological succession, 1229f Nuclear responses, cell-signaling, 226f
Neurodegenerative diseases, 411 soil fertilization and, 806 Nuclear transplantation, animal cloning and,
Neuroendocrine signaling. See also Endocrine systems; Nitrogen cycle, 813, 819, 1249f, 1255f
Nitrogen fixation, 580, 585, 813 427f–428f, 429
Nervous systems bacterial, 812f–814f, 815, 819, 1242 Nucleases, 327
endocrine glands and hormones for, 1002f biological augmentation using, 1253 Nucleic acid hybridization, 414
feedback regulation in pathways of, 1004 bryophyte, 624f, 625 Nucleic acid probes, 421, 431
hormone cascade pathway of thyroid regulation forest floor moss and, 633 Nucleic acids, 84. See also DNA; RNA
lichens and, 666–667
as, 1007f in nitrogen cycle, 1249f components of, 84, 85f
invertebrate, 1004f, 1005 prokaryotic, 580, 583f digestion of, 906f
neurohormones in, 998f, 999 Nitrogenous bases, 84, 85f, 317f, 318. See also genes, nucleotides, and, 84f. See also Genes
regulation of growth by, 1007–1008, 1009f as genetic material, 315. See also DNA
vertebrate hypothalamus and pituitary gland in, Nucleotides as macromolecules, 66
Nitrogenous wastes, 976, 980, 981f as nucleotide polymers, 85
1005f–1006f Nitrogen oxide emissions, 1264 roles of, in gene expression, 84f. See also Gene
Neurofibrillary tangles, 1102f Nitrosomonas bacteria, 582f
Neurohormones, 999, 1005f, 1006 NMDA receptors, 1099f expression
Neuromuscular junctions, 1078 NO, 220, 929, 999, 1024, 1079t, 1080 separating, with gel electrophoresis, 418f
Neuronal plasticity, 1098f Nobel Prize winners structures of molecules of, 86f
Neurons, 877f, 1065 viral, 398, 399f–405f, 404t
B. Marshall and R. Warren, 906 Nucleoids, 97f, 575
action potentials of, as signals conducted by B. McClintock, 449 Nucleolus, 100f–101f, 102, 103f
axons, 1070f–1075f C. Nüsslein-Volhard, E. Wieschaus, and Nucleomorphs, 597f
Nucleosides, 84, 85f
in cell signaling by animal nervous systems, 878f E. Lewis, 384 Nucleoside triphosphates, 324
chemical and electrical signals of, 1065f, 1066 for discovery of ncRNAs, 377 Nucleosomes, 330f
communication between cells and, at synapses, for discovery of Toll receptor in insects, 952 Nucleotide excision repairs, 327, 328f
E. Sutherland, 216 Nucleotide-pair insertions and deletions, 358f
1075, 1076f–1078f, 1079t, 1080 F. Jacob, 545 Nucleotide-pair substitutions, 357, 358f
exocytosis and, 139 F. Sanger, 414 Nucleotides, 85. See also Nucleic acids
in human eye, 1116f G. Beadle and E. Tatum, 338 coding and noncoding, 345f–347f
ion pumps, ion channels, and resting potential of, H. zur Hausen, 972 as components of nucleic acids, 84, 85f
J. Gurdon and S. Yamanaka, 428, 430 in DNA sequencing techniques, 413f–415f, 416
1068f–1069f, 1070 J. Watson, F. Crick, and M. Wilkins, 320 DNA vs. RNA, 338
in nervous systems, 1083f, 1084, 1087f, 1088. See M. Capecchi, M. Evans, and O. Smithies, 424 evolutionary significance of altered DNA, 328
N. Tinbergen, 1138 in genetic code, 7f–8f
also Nervous systems P. Mitchell, 177 genetic code as triplet code of, 340f
as nervous tissue, 877f R. Axel and L. Buck, 1122 genomics and proteomics in study of, 86–87f
in neuroendocrine signaling, 999, 1003f, 1004 S. Brenner, R. Horvitz, and J. Sulston, 1056–1057 mutations as base-pair substitutions, insertions,
neurotransmitters, neurohormones, and, 999 S. Prusiner, 411
olfactory, 1122, 1123f Nociceptors, 1109, 1110 and deletions of, 357, 358f, 359–360
plasticity of, in memory and learning, 1097, Nodes, lymph, 931f ratios of, 317f, 318
Nodes, plant stem, 759 in telomeres, 328, 329f
1098f–1099f Nodes of Ranvier, 1074f–1075f variability of, in genetic variation, 485, 486f
in sensory reception, 1106f–1107f Nucleus, atomic, 30f, 31
structure and function of, in information transfer,

1066f–1067f
Neuropathy, 311
Neuropeptides, 1079t, 1080
Neurosecretory cells, 1004f–1007f
Neurospora crassa (bread mold), 336f–337f, 338,

662f, 663t
Neurotransmitters, 999, 1066

INDEX I-34

Index Nucleus, cell, 102 Olfactory receptor genes, human, 487, 564 of animal stem cells, 426–427, 429f–430f, 431
animal cell, 100f Oligochaetes, 701 of plants, 427
cell division of, 236, 243, 244f. See also Cell cycle; Oligodendrocytes, 1074f–1075f, 1085f Organismal ecology, 1163f. See also Ecology;
Cell division Oligotropic lakes, 1177f
cell-signaling responses in, 226f Omasum, 912f Organisms
ciliate types of, 604f, 605 Ommatidia, 1115f Organismal-level herbivore defenses, plant, 867f
DNA in eukaryotic cell, 97, 102, 103f Omnivores, 896, 909f, 910 Organisms, 4f. See also Animals; Fungi; Life; Plants
fungal cell, 100f Oncogenes, 386f, 387, 389f
hormone receptors in, 1000f–1001f Oncorhynchus keta, 89 acidic and basic conditions affecting, 51,
plant cell, 101f Oncorhynchus kisutch, 89, 1198 52f–53f, 54
regulation of gene expression and architecture of, Oncorhynchus nerka, 976f
374, 375f One gene–one enzyme hypothesis, 336, 337f, adaptations of, to environments, 466f. See also
reproductive cloning by transplantation of Adaptations
eukaryotic, 427f–428f, 429 338, 663
One gene–one polypeptide hypothesis, 338 Cambrian explosion in numbers of, 534f
Nucleus accumbens, 1094f, 1101f One gene–one protein hypothesis, 338 carbon in organic compounds of, 56, 64
Nudibranchs, 698f, 1018f One-shot reproduction, 1198 cells as fundamental units of, 6f–7, 93f. See also Cells
Number, offspring, 1198, 1199f–1200f Onion, 252 cloning of. See Organismal cloning
Nursing, 1003–1004 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection differential gene expression in multicellular. See
Nurture vs. nature, 282f, 760
Nüsslein-Volhard, Chistiane, 384, 385f (Darwin), 14f, 467, 471, 481–482, 485 Differential gene expression
Nutrient cycling, 1248f–1251f. See also Energy flow and Onychophorans, 687f DNA in development of, 7f–8f
Oocytes, 1024, 1025f, 1027f ecology as interactions between environment and,
chemical cycling Oogenesis, 1025, 1027f
decomposition effects on rates of, 1246f, 1247 Oogonia, 1027f 1162f. See also Ecology
in ecosystems, 1246f–1250f, 1251 Oparin, A. I., 524 ecosystem interactions of, 10f–11f
in Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 1250f, 1251 Oparin-Haldane hypothesis, 524 effects of continental drift on, 537–538
Nutrient enrichment, global, 1273f, 1274 Open circulatory systems, 697f, 705, 921f, 922 effects of sickle-cell disease on, 501f
Nutrients Open systems, 145, 150f effects of speciation and extinctions on diversity
cycling of. See Energy flow and chemical cycling Operant conditioning, 1144
enrichment experiments with, 1240, 1241f Operators, 364, 365f of, 535f
limiting, 1240, 1241f–1242f, 1241t Operculum, 726f elemental ratio in, 43
plant and animal absorption of, 893f Operon model, 364 genes shared between, 27
prokaryotic recycling of, 585f Operons, 365 genomics, bioinformatics, and proteomics in
small intestine and, 125
Nutrition. See also Animal nutrition; Plant nutrition basic concept of, 364, 365f study of genomes of, 9
essential elements and trace elements for, 29t inducible, 366f, 367 geographic distributions of, 537–538
Eukarya kingdoms and, 12 positive gene regulation and, 367f imperfection of, and evolution, 503
fungal, 652f, 653–654 repressible, 365f, 366–367 importance of water for, 44
prokaryotic, 579, 580f, 587 Ophisaurus apodus, 551f–552f inherited DNA and development of, 7f–8f
protist, 592 Ophiuroidea, 712f, 713 interactions of, as theme in biology, 10f–11f
Nymphs, 709 Opiates, 40f, 78, 1079–1080 as level of biological organization, 4f
Opisthokonts, 611, 657 model. See Model organisms
O Opium, 1101f multicellular, 5f
Opium poppy, 866f as open systems, 145
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, bioremediation Opossums, 740 origin of mammalian, 528, 529f
of, 1253f Opposable thumb, 744 origin of multicellular, 533, 534f
Opposite phyllotaxy, 784 origin of single-celled, 532f–533f
Oak trees, 612f, 648f Opsin, 1117f, 1120 possible effects of transgenic crops on nontarget, 837
Obelia, 690f–691f Opsonization, 963f regulation of molecular interactions within, 10f
Obesity, 915f, 916, 1016 Optic chiasm, 1119f single-celled, 5f
ob gene, 916 Optic disk, 1116f in topsoil, 805
Obligate aerobes, 579 Optic nerves, 1119f transgenic. See Transgenic animals;
Obligate anaerobes, 181, 579 Optimal conditions, enzymatic catalysis, 157, 158f
Observations Optimal foraging model, 1147f Transgenic plants
Oral cavity, 903, 904f Organization
of evolutionary change, 475f–476f, 477 Orangutans, 745f, 748
scientific, 17f, 19f Orbitals, electron, 35f, 36, 39f, 40 amino acid structures and, 91
in Scientific Skills Exercise, 810 Orchids, 648f, 823f apoptosis in, 233
Occam’s razor, 560 Order, as property of life, 3f, 146f, 147 of cell, 6f–7
Occipital lobe, 1095f Orders, taxonomy, 552, 553f chemical waste and, 43
Ocean acidification, 53f, 54–55 Ordovician Period global climate change, 627 digestive tracts of invertebrates, 715
Ocean currents, climate and, 1166f–1167f Organelles, 5f, 94 emergent properties of, 6
Oceanic pelagic zone, 1179f, 1180f as enzyme locations, 161f enantiomer effectiveness and, 65
Oceans of eukaryotic cells, 97f–101f flowers as emergent property, 839
acidification of, 53f, 54 inheritance of genes in, 311f functionality of forms, 549
climate and currents of, 1166f–1167f as level of biological organization, 5f of fungi relationships, 670
marine benthic zones of, 1180f lysosomal digestion of, 107f, 108 gastrula emergent properties, 1064
as marine biome, 1175f, 1176 plastids in plant cells, 111 of hair and keratin, 918
moderation of climate by, 47f of prokaryotic cells, 97f, 98 of lens of eye, 1136
net ecosystem production for, 1240f–1241f, 1241t using electron microscopy to study, 94 levels of biological, 4f–5f
pelagic zones of, 1179f Organic acid, 63f life as emergent property, 125
tides of, 1179f Organic chemistry, 57f, 58 lignin evolution, 781
trawling of, as community disturbance, 1229f Organic compounds. See also Biological molecules in loop of Henle, 996
Ocelli, 1115f abiotic synthesis of, 524f–525f of neurons, 1082
Ochotona princeps, 1278f abiotic synthesis of, as origin of life on oxidative phosphorylation and, 186
Ocotillo, 797f photosynthesis and shoot architecture, 802
Octopus, 697, 699f, 700, 1217f Earth, 57f, 58 in plant life cycle, 651
Odocoileus virginianus, 1269 ATP as, 64 sickle cell disease and, 503
Odorant receptors (ORs), 1122, 1123f bonding of carbon atoms in, 58, 59f, 60 structure and function in, 6
Odorants, 1121–1122, 1123f carbon in, as backbone of life, 56, 64 as theme of biology, 4
Offspring chemical functional groups and, 62f–63f viral structure and function, 412
ensuring survival of, 1021f diversity of, 60f–62f of walking and breathing, 754
life history traits in survival of, 1198, 1199f–1200f organic chemistry as study of, 57f, 58 water as versatile solvent and, 55
Oil. See also Fossil fuels in plant cells, 209f Organizer, Spemann’s, 1060f
conodonts and, 723 working with moles and molar ratios of, 58 Organ-level herbivore defenses, plant, 866f
Oil spills, 589f. See also Fossil fuels Organic fertilizers, 806, 981 Organ of Corti, 1111f
Okazaki fragments, 324, 325f Organic phosphate, 63f Organogenesis, 1034f, 1042, 1047, 1052f–1053f
Old World monkeys, 745f Organ identity genes, 778f–779f Organs, 5f, 757, 874t
Oleander, 797f Organismal cloning digestive. See Digestive systems
Olfaction, 1121–1122, 1123f of animals, 427f–428f, 429 embryonic germ layers and, 1049f
Olfactory bulb, 1089f, 1122, 1123f endocrine system, 1002f. See also Endocrine

I-35 INDEX glands
excretory, 984f–985f
eyes and light-detecting, 1115f–1117f
floral, 821f–822f
human reproductive, 1023f–1025f

immune system rejection of transplanted, 967 development of photosynthesis and apicomplexans, 602, 603f Index
as level of biological organization, 5f atmospheric, 532f arachnids, 706f
organogenesis of, 1042, 1049f, 1052f–1053f cercozoans, 606
plant roots, stems, and leaves as, 757f–760f diffusion of, across capillary walls, 930 entamoebas, 611
reverse positioning of human, in situs in double circulation, 922f, 923 flatworms, 694f–695f
in ecosystem interaction, 10f–11 fungi as, 653, 658, 663, 667f–668f
inversus, 1062f electronegativity of, 37, 45 lampreys as, 721f, 722
smooth muscle in vertebrate, 1129–1130 as essential element, 29t, 56, 64 nematodes, 703f, 704
Organ systems, 874 in gas exchange, 937t, 938 plants as, 816, 817f, 818
internal exchange surfaces of, 873f in human breathing, 944 protist, 594f, 597f, 612
as level of biological organization, 5f in mammalian circulation, 924 in zoonotic diseases, 1233
mammalian, 874t metabolic rate and, 888f Parasitism, 586, 1218
Orgasm, 1032 in net ecosystem production, 1240 Parasitoid wasps, 867f
Orientation in organic compounds, 59f Parasympathetic division, peripheral nervous system,
leaf, 785 in oxidation, 166
plant cell expansion, 776f Permian mass extinction and low levels of, 538–539 926f, 1087f–1088f
Orienting, 1140f in photosynthesis, 41f Parathion, 158
Origin-of-life studies, 57f, 58, 465, 524–526 in plant cells, 209f Parathyroid glands, 1002f, 1009f
Origin of Species, The (Darwin), 14f, 467, 471, 481–482, in plant composition, 807 Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 1002f, 1009f
plant production of, 616 Parenchyma cells, 762f, 767f, 768
485 as product of photosynthesis, 188, 206, 207f Parental alleles, genomic imprinting and, 310f, 311
Origins of replication, 242, 243f, 322, 323f role in prokaryotic metabolism, 579 Parental care, 1021f, 1148, 1149f, 1150, 1200f
Ornithine, 337f species distributions and availability of, 1183 Parental types, 302
Orthologous genes, 563f, 564 thyroid hormone and consumption of, 179 Parietal cells, 905f
Orthoptera, 710f transport of, 949 Parietal lobe, 1095f
Oryza sativa, 1261 Oxytenis modestia, 466f Paris japonica, 446t, 447
Osculum, 688f Oxytocin, 1002f–1003f, 1004, 1005f, 1006, 1035f Parkinson’s disease, 65, 83, 231, 411, 430–431, 669,
Oseltamivir (Tamiflu), 412 Oystercatcher, 1159
Osmoconformers, 976 Oyster drills, 540 1079, 1102
Osmolarity, 976f, 987, 988f, 989, 996 Oysters, 697, 699f, 1018 Parsimony, 560, 561f, 562
Osmoreceptors, 1108 Ozone depletion, 1280f, 1281 Parthenogenesis, 695–696, 1018, 1019f
Osmoregulation, 134, 975 Partial pressure, 937
P Particulate hypothesis on inheritance, 269f, 270
challenges and mechanisms of, for aquatic and Particulate model of inheritance, 485
terrestrial animals, 976f–978f, 979 p21 gene, 388 Parus major, 738f
p53 gene, 387, 388f–389f Passeriformes, 738f
energetics of, 978–979 P680 chlorophyll a, 196, 197f, 198 Passive immunity, 966
excretion and, 976. See also Excretory systems P700 chlorophyll a, 196, 197f, 198 Passive transport, 133
homeostasis by, 975f, 976 Pacemaker, heart, 926f
ion movement and gradients and, 991f Pacific Island land snails, 700f, 701 active transport vs., 137f
osmosis and, 134f–135f Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus species), 89 diffusion as, 132, 133f
osmosis and osmolarity in, 976f Pac-man mechanism, 241f facilitated diffusion as, 135f, 136
salinity and, 1183 Paedomorphosis, 543f interpreting scatter plots on glucose uptake as
transport epithelia in, 979, 980f Paine, Robert, 1224f
Osmoregulators, 976f Pain receptors, 1109, 1110 facilitated, 136
Osmosis, 134, 786 Pair bonding, 1153f in plant cells, 209f
diffusion of water by, across plant plasma Pakicetus, 480f of water across plant plasma membranes, 786,
Paleoanthropology, 746
membranes, 786, 787f–789f Paleogene period, 536 787f–789f
effects of, on water balance, 133f–135f Paleontology, 13f, 88f, 468f water balance and osmosis as, 133f–135f
osmolarity and, 976f Paleozoic era, 530f, 531t, 537f, 675f, 676 Patella vulgata, 545f–546f
Osmotic pressure, blood, 931 Palisade mesophyll, 769f Paternal alleles, 370
Osteichthyans, 726f–727f, 728. See also Fishes Pallium, avian, 1097f Paternal chromosomes, 265
Osteoblasts, 876f, 1132 Palumbi, S. R., 555f Paternity
Osteoclasts, 1132 Pampas, 1173f certainty of, 1149f
Osteons, 876f PAMP-triggered immunity, 864 tests for, 435
Ostriches, 990f Pancreas, 907, 1002f Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
Otoliths, 1113f
Otters, 896f, 1187 cellular interactions of, 142 (PAMPs), 864
Ouabain, 1082 in digestion, 907 Pathogenicity trait, bacterial, 315f
Outer ear, 1111f exocytosis and, 139 Pathogens, 586, 950f, 1232
Outgroups, 559, 570 in glucose homeostasis, 914f
Ovalbumin, 76f rough ER and, 105 adaptations of, in immune system evasion,
Oval window, 1111f Pancrustaceans, 706, 707f 970–971, 972f
Ovarian cancer, 445 Pandemics, 407–408
Ovarian cycle, 1029, 1030f, 1031 Pandoravirus, 406 alteration of community structure by, 1232, 1233f
Ovaries, angiosperm, 642f–644f, 645, 821f–822f, Pangaea, 480–481, 537f, 549 bacterial, 315f, 581f–583f, 584, 586, 587f
Pan genus, 745f. See also Chimpanzees B cells and antibodies as responses to extracellular,
828–829. See also Fruits Panthera tigris altaica, 1284
Ovaries, human, 257f, 258, 1002f, 1012, 1013f, Panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis), 733f 962, 963f
Paper, 649 cytotoxic T cell response to cells infected by,
1024, 1025f Paper wasps, 710f
Overgrazing, 1229 Papillae, 1122f 964f, 965
Overharvesting, 700f, 701, 726, 1263f Papillomaviruses, 392 evasion of innate immunity by, 956
Overnourishment, 915–916 Pappochelys, 735 fungi as, 653, 662–663, 667f–668f
Overproduction, offspring, 473f, 474 Papua New Guinea, 1162f immune system recognition and response to,
Oviducts, 1024, 1025f Parabasalids, 597f
Oviparous organisms, 725 Parabronchi, 942, 943f 950f–951f
Oviraptor dinosaurs, 562f, 563 Parachutes, seed and fruit, 830f plant defenses against, 864, 865f
Ovoviviparous organisms, 725 Paracrine signaling, 215f, 998f, 999 prokaryotic, 586, 587f
Ovulate cones, 638f, 639 Parahippus, 546, 547f viruses as, 398f, 399, 406, 407f–411f
Ovulation, 1019, 1032f Parakeets, 1134 Pathways, sensory, 1106f–1107f
Ovules, 636f, 821 Paralogous genes, 563f, 564 Pattern
Owl-mouse predation study, 23 Paramecium, 13f, 93, 134, 135f, 604f, 615, 1197f, 1213 evolutionary, 467, 481, 551
Oxidation, 112, 165, 166f Paraphyletic groups, 558f taxonomy based on, 468
Oxidative fibers, 1128–1129 Parapodia, 701 Pattern formation, 382, 383f–385f, 386, 776, 777f,
Oxidative phosphorylation, 168, 169f, Parasites, 583f, 586, 1218
acanthocephalans, 696 847, 1060f–1062f. See also Morphogenesis
174f–177f, 186 animals as, 671 Paulinella chromatophora, 606f
Oxidizing agents, 166f antigenic variation and, 971 Pauling, Linus, 317–318
Oxygen Pavlov, Ivan, 1144
Pax-6 gene, 421
atmospheric, in animal evolution, 675 Pc, 198f, 199
catabolic pathways and, 165 PCSK9 enzyme, 936
in circulation and gas exchange, 945f–947f PDGF, 247, 248f
covalent bonding and, 36f–37f Pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum), 568
Peacocks, 497f
Pea fruit, 829f
Pea plants, G. Mendel’s experiments with, 269f–276f

INDEX I-36

Index Pearl mussels, 700f, 701 cellular integration of, 121f Photosynthesis, 187
Peat, 626f, 631–632, 1247, 1257 as endocytosis, 139, 140f alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation in, 203,
Pectin, 118 immune systems and, 953f, 954, 963f 204f–206f
Pedigrees, 284f, 285 lysosomes and, 107f in aquatic ecosystems, 1240
Pedipalps, 706 Phalacrocorax harrisi, 504f, 509 biofuels from, 188f
Pelagic zone, 1175f Phanerozoic eon, 530f, 531t, 537f Calvin cycle of, 201, 202f
Pellicle, 598f Pharmaceutical products cellular respiration vs., 191. See also Cellular
Peltigera, 811f biotechnology in production of, 433, 434f. See also respiration
Penguins, 14f, 737, 738f, 872f, 890, 1190f cercozoan, 606
Penicillin, 159, 476, 572–573, 668 Drugs; Medicine chemical reactions in, 41f
Penicillium, 656f as environmental toxins, 1274, 1275f chloroplasts in, 5f, 109–110, 111f
Penis, 999, 1023f, 1024, 1031–1032, 1080 fungal, 668 climate change and, 211
Pentoses, 68f species and genetic diversity and, 1261f conversion of light energy to chemical energy of
PEP carboxylase, 203, 204f Pharygolepis, 723f food by, 189f–191f
Pepsin, 158f, 905f Pharyngeal clefts, 718f cyanobacteria and, 583f
Pepsinogen, 905f Pharyngeal slits, 718f–719f determining rate of, with satellites, 1240f
Peptide bonds, 78f, 353f Pharynx, 694f, 904f development of, and atmospheric oxygen, 532f
Peptides, antimicrobial, 952f–953f, 954 Phase changes, plant development, 777f, 778 energy and matter and, 211
Peptidoglycan, 572, 573f Phase-contrast microscopy, 95f in energy flow and chemical cycling, 9f,
Per capita birth rate, 1194–1196 Phenobarbital, 104 164–165, 1238f
Per capita death rate, 1194–1196 Phenolics, 866f evolution of adaptations for resource acquisition
Per capita rate of increase, 1194–1196 Phenotypes, 274 and, 782f–784f, 785
Perception, 1107, 1119f DNA transformation and, 315 as gas exchange, 893f
Perch, 977f dominant alleles and, 279–280 importance of, 206, 207f
Perennials, 764 gene concept and, 360 lichens in, 666f–667f
Pericarp, 828–829 gene expression as link between genotypes and, 336 light reactions of. See Light reactions
Pericycle, 766, 767f genetic mapping and, 305f maximizing surface area for, 693f
Periderm, 761, 772 genetic variation and, 485f–486f as plant nutritional mode, 892f
Perilymph, 1113f genotypes vs., 274f, 282f, 283 principles of, 163
Periodic table of elements, 34f, B–1 impact of environment on, 282f as process that feeds biosphere, 187f–188f
Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 1067, making histograms and analyzing distribution prokaryotic, 575f
protist, 592, 595f–597f, 612, 613f
1079–1080, 1084 patterns of, 283 red and green algae, 606, 607f–608f
central nervous system and, 1084–1085, mutant, 296f–297f, 328 scatter plots with regression lines on atmospheric
relative fitness and, 496 carbon dioxide and, 205
1086f, 1088f Phenylalanine, 77f, 289–290, 341, 490–491 shoot architecture and, 802
structure and function of vertebrate, 1087f–1088f Phenylketonuria (PKU), 289–290, 490–491 stramenopile, 600
Peripheral proteins, 129 Pheromones, 656, 668, 999f, 1021, 1141f sunlight availability and, 1183–1184
Peripheral vision, 1120f, 1121 Philadelphia chromosome, 309f two stages of, 191f, 192
Perissodactyla, 742f–743f Philippine eagle, 1260f in vascular plants, 629
Perissodus microlepis, 498, 499f Phloem, 628, 761, 783 water loss compromise with, 785
Peristalsis, 904f, 1131f, 1133 primary growth and, 767f in working plant cells, 209f
Peristome, 625 resource acquisition and, 783f zonation of aquatic biomes and, 1175
Peritubular capillaries, 985f sugar-conducting cells of, 763f
Periwinkles, 1261f sugar transport from sources to sinks via, 797, Photosystem I (PS I), 196, 197f–198f
Permafrost, 1174f Photosystem II (PS II), 196, 197f–198f
Permease, 366f 798f–799f Photosystems, 195, 196f–198f, 199
Permian mass extinction, 538f, 539 symplastic communication through, 800 Phototrophs, 579, 580t
Peromyscus polionotus, 2f, 20f–21f, 23 vascular plant, 628 Phototropin, 854
Peroxisomes, 100f–101f, 112f in vascular tissue systems, 761 Phototropism, 845f–846f
Personalized medicine, 88f, 432 Phloem sap, 797, 798f–799f Phragmoplasts, 617
Pertussis, 218f Phoenicopterus ruber, 738f pH scale, 51, 52f
Pesticides Phosphatases, 223 Phycoerythrin, 606
DDT, 158, 1274f Phosphate group, 63f, 84, 85f Phyla, taxonomy and, 552, 553f
transgenic, 835–836 Phosphates, in phosphorus cycle, 1249f
Pest resistance, plant, 416f, 436 Phosphodiesterase, 229, 233 angiosperm, 646f
Petals, 642f, 821 Phosphofructokinase, 183f, 184, 186 bryophyte, 624f
Petioles, 759 Phospholipid bilayers, 74f, 75, 98f, 99, 102, gymnosperm, 640f–641f
Petromyzon marinus, 722 plant, 621t
Petromyzontida (lampreys), 717f, 721f, 722 110, 127f, 132 Phyllotaxy, 784f, 847
PET scanners, 31, 32f Phospholipids, 74 Phylogenetic bracketing, 562f, 570
Pévet, Paul, 891f Phylogenetic trees, 553. See also Evolutionary trees;
Pfu polymerase, 419 in cellular membranes, 102, 110, 127f, 132
P (parental) generations, 271 Golgi apparatus and, 106 Phylogenies
P granules, 1057f movement of, in cellular membranes, 128f, 129 analyzing sequence-based, to understand viral
pH, 52 in plasma membranes, 98f, 99
acid precipitation and, 1264f structure of, 74f, 75 evolution, 409
adjusting soil, 806–807 Phosphorus of animals, 681f
buffers and, 52–53 as essential element, 29t, 56, 64 applying, 555f
enzymatic catalysis and, 157, 158f as limiting nutrient, 1240, 1241f–1242f of bilaterians, 715
and hemoglobin dissociation, 946f plant deficiency in, 816 of chordates, 717f
of human cerebrospinal fluid, 944 soil fertilization and, 806 cladistics in construction of, 557, 558f–559f
pH scale and, 51, 52f Phosphorus cycle, 1249f of eukaryotes, 609f
prokaryotes and, 571 Phosphorylated intermediates, 151, 152f as hypotheses, 562f, 563
protein denaturation and, 82f, 83 Phosphorylation linking classification and phylogeny with,
species distributions and soil, 1184 in cell-signal responses, 226f
sucrose uptake by plant cells and, 142 in cell-signal transduction, 222f, 223 553f–554f
PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate), 588f in light reactions of photosynthesis, 191f of mammals, 742f–743f
Phage l, 401, 402f Phosphorylation cascade, 222f, 226f maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood
Phages, 315, 398 Photic zone, 1175f
capsids of, 398f, 399 Photoautotrophs, 187f–188f, 580t, 592 in, 560, 561f, 562
defense against, 401, 402f Photoheterotrophs, 580t of primates, 744f
in DNA research, 315f–316f, 317 Photomorphogenesis, 853 of prokaryotes, 581f
prophages and temperate, 400, 401f Photons, 192f, 195f proportional branch lengths in, 560, 561f
replicative cycles of, 400f–402f Photoperiodism, 857f–858f of protists, 594f
in transduction, 577f Photophosphorylation, 191 of tetrapods, 729f
virulent, 400f Photoprotection, 195, 199 tree of life and, 15f–16f
Phagocytic cells, 953f, 954 Photopsins, 1120 visualizing, 554f
Phagocytosis, 107, 140f, 951, 952f Photoreceptors, 1115f–1117f Phylogenies, 551
Photorespiration, 203, 211 of amniotes, 732f
I-37 INDEX Photosynthates, 757 of angiosperms, 646f–648f, 651
in carbon cycle, 1248f of animals, 680, 681f, 682
of chordates, 717f

constructing phylogenetic trees for, 557, 558f– Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), 378–379 to environmental stresses, 860–861, 862f, 863 Index
562f, 563. See also Phylogenetic trees Placenta, 740, 1033f to gravity, 859f
Placental mammals. See Eutherians (placental to light, 853, 854f–858f
documentation of, in genomes, 563f, 564 to mechanical stimuli, 859, 860f
of eukaryotes, 609f mammals) of parasitic dodder plant, 840f, 841
of fungi, 658, 659f–665f Placental transfer cells, 618f plant hormones and, 844t, 845f–852f, 853
gymnosperm, 639, 640f–641f Placoderm fossil, 527f signal-transduction pathways linking signal
as hypotheses, 562f, 563 Placoderms, 724f
inferring, from morphological and molecular Placozoans, 685f reception to, 841f–842f, 843
Plains, 1173f Plants. See also Angiosperms; Plant development; Plant
data, 556f–557f Planarians, 692, 693f–694f. See also Flatworms
investigating tree of life with, 551f–552f, 566, Planes, plant cell division, 774, 775f–776f growth; Plant hormones; Plant nutrition;
Planets, possible evolution of life on other, 50f Plant responses; Plant structure; Seed plants
567f, 568f Plankton, 600, 602, 605, 708f. See also Phytoplankton adaptations of, that reduce terrestrial nutrient
of maize, 555 Plantae kingdom, 12f, 566, 567f, 595f, 606, 617f limitations, 1242
of mammals, 742f–743f Plant cells. See also Eukaryotic cells adaptations of, to toxic elements, 30f
molecular clocks and evolutionary time in, 564, adaptive radiations of, 541f, 542
cell fate in pattern formation, 776, 777f alternation of generations in life cycles of,
565f–566f cell signaling in, 215f 258f, 618f
of plants, 621f cellular activities of, 208f–209f in Archaeplastida supergroup, 595f, 606
practical applications of, 555f cell walls of, 118f biofuels from, 188f
of primates, 744f chloroplasts in, 109, 110f–111f bioremediation using, 1251, 1253f
of prokaryotes, 581f common types of, 761, 762f–763f carbon in organic compounds of, 56
of protists, 592–593, 594f–595f cytoplasmic streaming in, 117f cells of, 6f–7, 208f–209f. See also Plant cells
systematics and, 552 division and expansion of, in growth, 774, cellulose as structural polysaccharide for,
taxonomy and evolutionary relationships in, 552, 70f–71f, 72
775f–776f climate change and, 11
553f–554f, 566, 567f as eukaryotic cells, 101f cloning of, 427
of tetrapods, 729f gene expression and control of differentiation of, community stability and diversity of, 1221f
Physical reconstruction, ecosystem, 1251f–1252f crop. See Crop plants
Physiological thermostats, 886, 887f 776, 777f derived traits of, 617, 618f–619f, 620
Physiology, 871–872 mitosis and cytokinesis in, 241, 242f–243f diseases of. See Diseases, plant
Phytoalexins, 864 molecules in, 122–123f in domain Eukarya, 12f
Phytochemicals, 195 photosynthesis in. See Photosynthesis in ecosystem interaction, 10f–11
Phytochromes, 853 plant cloning from single, 427. See also elements in composition of, 807
in circadian rhythms, 856 endangered or threatened, 1260
in plant signal transduction pathways, 842f Transgenic plants essential elements and trace elements for, 29
in seed germination, 854, 855f plasmodesmata as cell junctions in, 119f, 120 evolutionary mystery of flowering,
in shade avoidance in plants, 855 scale of molecules in, 122–123f for C. Darwin, 475
Phytophthora species, 612f, 1232 sucrose uptake by, 142 evolution from green algae, 615–617f, 621f
Phytoplankton, 583f. See also Plankton Plant development extant phyla, 621t
in biomass pyramids, 1245f, 1246 adaptations of, 892f facilitation in, 1219f
in carbon cycle, 1248f auxin in, 847 fungal mutualisms with, 663, 665f–666f, 811f. See
climate change and, 44 cell division and cell expansion in growth and, also Mycorrhizae
dinoflagellate, 602f fungal pathogens of, 662–663, 667f
green algae, 607 774, 775f–776f gametophyte-sporophyte relationships in, 635f
nitrogen pollution and blooms of, gene expression and control of cell differentiation genetic engineering of transgenic, 416f,
436, 809, 810f
1273f, 1274 in, 776, 777f genomics and proteomics in study of, 88f
primary production by, 1240, 1241f, 1241t genetic control of flowering in, 778f–779f global climate change and species distributions of,
seasonality and, 1165 growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation 1167, 1168f
Phytoremediation, 807 habitat loss and, 1262
Picoides borealis, 1267f, 1268 in, 773f immune response in, 864, 865f
Picrophilus oshimae, 571 model organisms in the study of, 772–773, 774f importance of insects to, 711
Pie charts in Scientific Skills Exercise, 890 morphogenesis and pattern formation in, inheritance of organelle genes in, 311f
Pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca), 516, 517f invasive, 816
Pig, 342f 776, 777f kingdom and domain mutualisms with, 811f
Pigmentation phase changes in, 777f, 778 land colonization by, 534, 535f
gene expression and, 335f, 336 Plant growth life challenges and solutions for, 892f–893f
plant, 311f adaptations of, 892f nematode parasites of, 703
of Siamese cats, 362 cell division and cell expansion in, 774, 775f–776f nonvascular, 622, 623f–626f
skin, 281, 282f meristem generation of cells for, 764f–765f nutrition of, 12
Pigments plant development and, 773 origin, diversification, and phylogeny of, 617f,
as photosynthetic light receptors, 192, primary, 766f–769f 620f–621f
regulators of. See Plant hormones pathogens of, 1232
193f–194f, 195 secondary, 770f–773f as photoautotrophs, 187f–188f
in photosystems, 196f–200f, 201 Plant hormones, 844t. See also Hormones photosynthesis in. See Photosynthesis
respiratory, 945f–946f abscisic acid, 844t, 850f polyploidy in, 307
visual, 1120 animal hormones vs., 216, 892f prey defensive adaptations against, 1217
Pikas, 1278f auxin, 844t, 845f–847f producing transgenic, using Ti plasmid, 774f
Pili, 574, 578f, 579 brassinosteroids, 844t, 853 prokaryotic protection against diseases for, 588
Pill bugs, 707 cytokinins, 844t, 847, 848f protists as pathogens of, 612f
Pilobolus, 661f in de-etiolation (greening) responses, 843 reproduction of. See Angiosperm reproduction
Pimephales promelas, 1275 ethylene, 844t, 850, 851f–852f resource acquisition for vascular, 782f–784f, 785
Pineal gland, 1002f, 1005f, 1013, 1091f florigen, 858f rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels
Pineapple, 206f, 829f gibberellins, 844t, 848, 849f and, 1277
Pine trees, 638f, 641f, 1242f, 1243, 1278f jasmonates, 844t, 853 salinity and species distributions of, 1184
Pin flower, 833f in long-distance cell signaling, 216 seedless vascular, 626, 627f–631f, 632
Pinocytosis, 140f overview of, 844t seed plants as. See Seed plants
Pinworms, 703 as plant growth regulators, 844–845 starch as storage polysaccharide for, 70f, 71
Pistils, 642f, 821f strigolactones, 844t, 853 sympatric speciation in, 512f–513f
Pitch, 1112 Plant nutrition terrestrial adaptations of, 617f
Pitcher plants, 817f essential elements for, 807, 808f, 809t terrestrial adaptations of fungi and, 658
Pitch pine canker, 667 mutualisms for, 810, 811f, 813f–814f, 815, 816f transgenic, 588
Pith, 761, 768f, 781 nutritional modes in, 892f vascular. See Transport in vascular plants;
Pithovirus sibericum, 406 photosynthesis and modes of, 187, 188f Vascular plants
Pituitary dwarfism, 1008 soil as complex ecosystem for, 803f–807f water balance of cells of, 134f, 135
Pituitary gland, 1005, 1028, 1091f unusual adaptations for, 803f, 804, 816, 817f, 818 water transport in, 45, 46f
in human endocrine system, 1002f vascular plant acquisition of water and
in kidney regulation, 992f–993f
in neuroendocrine signaling, 1005f–1009f minerals, 785
Pit vipers, 735f, 1108, 1109f vascular plant transport of water and minerals,
Pivot joints, 1132f
785, 786f–789f, 790
Plant responses

to attacks by pathogens and herbivores, 864,
865f–867f

INDEX I-38

Index Plant structure Pollen tubes, 823f, 824, 825f Population dynamics, 1190f, 1202f–1204f, 1205,
cells in, 761, 762f–763f Pollination, 636, 823 1254f. See also Population growth
diversity in, 756f, 757
hierarchy of organs, tissues, and cells in, angiosperm cross-pollination, 644f, 645 Population ecology, 1163f, 1188. See also Ecology
756f–763f asexual reproduction vs., 831 demography of population vital statistics in, 1191t,
meristem generation of cells for growth of, coevolution of flowers and pollinators in, 823f 1192f–1193f
764f–765f cross-pollination in breeding plants, 835 determining population size using mark-recapture
plant development and, 773f–779f flowers and angiosperm, 642f method in, 1189f
primary growth of roots and shoots of, 766f–769f flower shape and insect, 647f human population in, 1205f–1208f, 1209
secondary growth of stems and roots in woody genetic engineering of flowers to force self- population density and dispersion in, 1189f–1191f
plants, 770f–773f population dynamics in, 1202f–1204f, 1205
pollination, 838 population growth models in, 1194, 1195f–1197f,
Plaque, arterial, 935f, 937 by insects, 639f 1198. See also Population growth
Plasma, 932f, 933 insects in, 711 population growth regulation in, 1201f–1203f
Plasma cells, 960, 968f mechanisms for preventing self-, 832, 833f as study of populations in environments, 1188f,
Plasma membranes, 98, 109f. See also Cellular mechanisms of, 822f–823f 1189. See also Populations
G. Mendel’s techniques of, 270f–271f
membranes mutualistic relationships in, 820–821 Population growth. See also Populations
animal cell, 100f seed plant, 636f density-dependent regulation of, 1201f–1203f
chemiosmosis in prokaryotic, 175, 176f, 177 Pollinators ecological impact of, 1211
electron transport chains in prokaryotic, 168 coevolution of flowers and, 823f exponential model of, 1194, 1195f
of eukaryotic cells, 98f, 99 reproductive isolation and choice of, 520f of human population, 1205f–1208f, 1209
hormone receptors in, 1001f Pollution logistic model of, 1196t, 1197f
ion gradients and transport of ions across, 991f biomanipulation and, 1225f population dynamics and, 1190f,
microfilaments in, 116f coral reefs and, 691 1202f–1204f, 1205
movement across plant cell, 209f molluscs and water, 700–701 using logistic equation to model, 1198
nuclear envelopes as, 102 nutrient, 1273f, 1274
plant cell, 101f ocean acidification and, 53f, 54 Population-level herbivore defenses, plant, 867f
of prokaryotic cell, 97f prokaryotes and bioremediation of, 589f Populations, 4f, 488, 1163f, 1189
receptor proteins in, 217f–220f toxins, 1274f–1275f
short-distance and long-distance transport across, Polyadenylation signal sequence, 345f climate change effects on, 1279f
Polyandry, 1148, 1149f C. Darwin on natural selection and, 14f–16f
785, 786f–789f Poly-A tail, 345f density and dispersion of, 1189f–1191f, 1254f
Plasmids, 416, 575 Polychaetes, 701 determining size of, using mark-recapture
Polychaos dubium, 447
in antibiotic resistance of bacteria, 579 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 1274f method, 1189f
in bacterial conjugation, 578f, 579 Polydactyly, 280, 292 diffusion of, of molecules, 132
evolution of viruses and, 406 Polygamous mating, 1148, 1149f dynamics of, 1190f, 1202f–1204f, 1205, 1254f
producing transgenic plants using Ti, 436 Polygenic inheritance, 281, 282f, 287 effective size for, 1266
prokaryotic, 575f Polygyny, 1148, 1149f evolution of genetic variation in, 266, 267f
as recombinant DNA, 416f, 417–418 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 418 gene pools of, 488f
Plasmodesmata, 119 amplification of DNA using, 418, 419f genetic diversity of, 1259F
as cell junctions in plants, 119f, 120 bacteria for, 587 growth of. See Population growth
in plant cells, 101f diagnosing diseases with, 431–432 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and size of, 490t
plant cell walls and, 118 in estimating reproductive rates, 1192, 1193f human, 1205f–1208f, 1209
in plant local cell signaling, 215f extreme thermophile archaea in, 584, 1261 as level of biological organization, 4f
in symplastic communication, 800f in forensic science, 434, 435f life histories of, 1198, 1199f–1200f
Plasmodial slime molds, 610f in genomic analysis of fetuses, 1037 minimum viable size for, 1266
Plasmodium (protist), 595f, 603f, 612, 711, 952 in prokaryotic analysis, 581 natural selection and evolution of, 473f, 474
Plasmogamy, 656f in RT-PCR analysis, 422, 423f population ecology as study of, 1188f, 1189. See also
Plasmolysis, 135, 788 in sequencing human digestive system
Plasticity, neuronal, 1098f Population ecology
Plastics, natural, 588f microbiome, 910, 911f using Hardy-Weinberg principle to test
Plastids, 111 in vitro amplification of DNA using, 420f
endosymbiontic origin of, 532, 533f Polymerases, 399 microevolution in, 488, 489f, 490–491
eukaryotic endosymbiosis and evolution of, Polymerization, protein, 240 vital statistics of, 1191t, 1192f–1193f
Polymers, 67f Populus tremuloides, 782f, 831f
596f–597f Polymorphisms, 426, 431 Porcupine, 1216f
Plastocyanin (Pc), 198f, 199 Polynucleotides, 84, 85f Pore complexes, 102, 103f
Plastoquinone (Pq), 198f Polypeptides, 75, 1000f Pores, nuclear, 102, 103f
Plateau phase, sexual, 1032 amino acid monomers of, 75, 76f–77f Pores, plasmodesmatal, 800f
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), 247, 248f as amino acid polymers, 78f Porifera (sponges). See Sponges
Platelets, 10, 876f, 932f–933f analyzing sequence data of, in Scientific Skills Porphyra, 606, 607f
Plate tectonics, 536f–537f, 538 Porphyrin ring, 194f
Platyhelminthes (flatworms). See Flatworms Exercise, 89 Porpoises, 479f–480f
Platypus, 740, 1108 mutations affecting, 357f–358f, 359–360 Portal vessels, 1006f
Pleasure, brain activity and, 1101f one gene–one polypeptide hypothesis on, 338 Positional information, 382, 1060f–1061f
Pleiotropy, 280–281 proteins as composed of, 78f Position-based mechanisms, plant, 776
Plesiosaur fossil, 527f synthesis of, in translation, 338, 339f Positive and negative correlations, 832
Pleurozium schreberi, 633 synthesizing multiple, with polyribosomes in Positive feedback, 880, 1004
Plumule, 827f in climate change, 1187
Pluripotent cells, 430 translation, 355f in endocrine system feedback regulation, 1004
Pneumatophores, 758f targeting, to specific locations, 354f, 355 in feedback regulation, 10
Pneumonia, 315f, 577 translation stages in synthesis of, 350f–353f in homeostasis, 880
Poaching, elephant, 1263f Polyphyletic groups, 558f Positive gene regulation, bacterial, 367f
Podium, sea star, 712f Polyplacophora (chitons), 697f Positive gravitropism, 859f
Poecile species, 515 Polyploidy, 307, 512f–513f Positive interactions, 1218f–1219f
Poecilia reticulata (guppies), 481 Polyps, 389f, 689f, 1017f Positive pressure breathing, 942
Poikilotherms, 882 Polyribosomes (polysomes), 355f Positron-emission tomography (PET), 31, 32f, 1094
Point mutations, 357f–358f, 359–360, 386f, Polysaccharides, 70f–72f, 106 Possum, 740f
Polyspermy, 1042 Posterior end, 677
387, 486–487 Polytomies, 567f Posterior pituitary gland, 1002f, 1005f, 1006
Poison dart frog, 1216f Polytrichum, 624f–625f Postganglionic neurons, 1088
Pokeweed, 828f Pongo species, 745 Postsynaptic cells, 1066
Polar bears (Ursus maritimus), 11, 508f Pons, 944, 1091f Postsynaptic neurons, 1077f, 1099f
Polar covalent bonds, 37f, 45 Poplar trees, 772, 836 Postsynaptic potentials, 1076, 1077f
Polarity, 775, 875f Population conservation Post-translational protein modifications, 354
Polar molecules, 45 declining-population approach to, 1267f, 1268 Postzygotic barriers, 507f, 508
Polar side chains, 76, 77f small-population approach to, 1264, Potassium, 29t, 806
Polar transport, auxin, 846f Potassium ions, 795f, 1068t, 1069f, 1070
Polio, 406, 974 1265f–1266f, 1267 Potato blight, 865
Pollen cones, 638f, 639 weighing conflicting demands in, 1268 Potatoes, 649, 841f–842f
Pollen grains, 636f, 644f, 645, 647f, 824, 825f, 839 Population cycles, 1203f, 1204 Potential, cell developmental, 1058, 1059f
Potential energy, 32, 144, 145f, 163
I-39 INDEX

Potential evapotranspiration, 1230f gross and net, 1239, 1240f structure of, 97f Index
Potential range, 1182 in terrestrial ecosystems, 1241, 1242f, 1243 transcription and translation in, 338, 339f, 355f
Pq, 198f Primary roots, 757 transcription in, 342, 343f–344f
Prairie chickens, 493f, 494 Primary somatosensory cortex, 1095f translation in. See Translation
Prairies, 1173f, 1262 Primary structure, protein, 80f Prolactin, 1002f, 1006f, 1014
Prairie voles, 1153f Primary succession, 1227, 1228f–1229f Prolactin-releasing hormone, 1006
Precapillary sphincters, 930f Primary transcripts, 339 Proliferative phase, 1031
Precipitation Primary visual cortex, 1119f Proline, 77f, 341f
Primases, 323f, 324, 326f, 327t Prometaphase, 237, 238f, 243f
climate change and, 11 Primates. See also Humans Promiscuous mating, 1147
climographs of, 1169f cloning of, 429 Promoters, 342, 343f, 810
evaporation and, 47 derived characters of, 741, 744 Proof, hypotheses and, 18
global patterns of, 1164f HIV in, 565 Proofreading, DNA, 327, 328f
mountains, rain shadow, and, 1167f living, 744f–745f, 746 Propanal, 63f
primary production in terrestrial biomes and, in mammalian phylogeny, 742f–743f Properties, chemical, 34f, 35
phylogenetic tree of, 744f Properties, emergent. See Emergent properties
1241, 1242f Primers, 323f, 324 Prophages, 401
in water cycle, 1248f Primitive streak, 1050f Prophase (mitosis), 237, 238f, 243f, 252, 263f
Precocious germination, 850f Primordial germ cells, 1027f Prophase I, 260f, 262f–263f, 266f
Predation, 1215, 1254f Principle of conservation of energy, 145f, 146 Prophase II, 261f
allopatric speciation and, 509f, 510 Printing press, 24 Propithecus verreauxi, 744f
camouflage and, 466f Prions, 410, 411f Prop roots, 758f
camouflage case studies and, 20f–21f, 23 Probability Prostaglandins, 999, 1035f, 1109
density-dependent population regulation laws of, 276, 277f, 278 Prostate cancer, 395
principle of maximum likelihood and, 561 Prostate cells, 395
by, 1202f Problem solving, 1145 Prostate glands, 1023f, 1024
genetic variation in, 1153, 1154f Problem-Solving Exercises Prosthetic groups, 175
as interspecific interaction, 1215, 1216f–1217f climate change and crop productivity, 861 Proteases, 905
population cycles and, 1203f, 1204 fish fraud, 89 Proteasomes, 376
as risk, 1147 insect effects on forest CO2 absorption, 1243 Protected areas, 1270f–1272f
top-down model of trophic control and, 1225f insulin mutations and neonatal diabetes, 359 Protein Data Bank, 443
Predators mosquito hybridization and insecticide Protein interaction networks, 444, 445f
adaptations of native, to introduced prey, 1215 Protein kinase A, 223, 224f
animals as, 671f, 672 resistance, 516 Protein kinases, 222f–224f, 228f, 229
as biotic factors limiting species distributions, quorum-sensing, 214 Protein phosphatases, 223
thyroid regulation, 1008 Proteins, 75. See also Amino acids
1182f vaccine for amphibian populations, 731 amino acids of, 67, 75, 76f–77f. See also
cephalopods as, 699f, 700 Proboscidea, 742f–743f
evolution of animal, 675f Proboscis, 686f, 710f, 823 Amino acids
insects as, 711 Procambium, 764 antibiotics and prokaryotic synthesis of, 575
mass extinctions and, 540 Process, evolutionary, 467, 481, 551 antifreeze, 886
natural selection and role of, 27 Producers, 9, 187f–188f, 612, 613f in bacterial binary fission, 242, 243f
plant recruitment of, as herbivore defense, 867f Production efficiency, 1244f biotechnology in production of, 434f
Predictions, scientific, 17–18f, 19f, 491, F–3 Products, 41, 649 blood plasma, 932f, 933
Predisposition, cancer and inherited, 392 Progesterone, 1012, 1013f, 1028 cadherin in choanoflagellates and animals, 674f
Preganglionic neurons, 1088 Progesterone receptor (PR), 390f–391f in cell-signaling nuclear responses, 226f
Pregnancy, human, 1033 Progestins, 1002f, 1012, 1013f, 1036f, 1037 cell-signaling receptor, 217f–220f
conception and trimesters of, 1032f–1035f Proglottids, 695f in cellular membranes, 127f–130f
detecting disorders during, 1037 Programmed cell death. See Apoptosis cellulose-synthesizing, 617
detecting human, 967 Projections, body surface area and, 693f as composed of polypeptides, 78f. See also
endocrine disruptors and, 1013 Prokaryotes
prevention of, 1036f, 1037 adaptive abilities of, 571f, 572 Polypeptides
Pre-mRNA, 339f, 345f–346f, 370f archaea as, 584f, 585 Conserved Domain Database (CDD) of structures
Preprophase band, 774, 775f bacteria as, 581, 582f–583f, 584
Prepuce, 1023f, 1024 beneficial and harmful impacts of, on humans, of, 443f
Pressure denaturation and renaturation of, 82f, 83
hearing and, 1112 586, 587f–589f digestion of, 906f
receptors for, 1108f bioremediation using, 1253f DNA-binding, 91
root, 791, 792f cell signaling in, 213f, 215 in DNA replication, 326f, 327t
water potential and, 786–788 cells of. See Prokaryotic cells DNA vs., as genetic material, 315, 316f, 317
Pressure-flow hypothesis, 798, 799f chemiosmosis in, 175, 176f, 177 domains of, 347f
Pressure potential, 787 as decomposers, 188 in egg yolks, 91
Presynaptic cells, 1066 ecological roles of, in biosphere, 585f–586f in electron transport chains, 174f, 175
Presynaptic neurons, 1077f–1078f, 1099f electron transport chains in, 168 enzymes as, 75, 76f, 153, 159f
Prey as endosymbionts, 532, 533f essential amino acids in, 897
adaptations of native predators to evolution of glycolysis in, 181–182 evolution and divergence of, 91
fossils of, 527f evolution of genes for, with novel functions,
introduced, 1215 genetic diversity in, 576, 577f–578f, 579
defensive adaptations of, 1215, 1216f–1217f genome sizes and number of genes for, 446t, 447 454, 455f
genetic variation in selection of, 1153, 1154f horizontal gene transfer in genomes of, 567 expressing cloned genes for, 421
Prezygotic barriers, 506f–507f, 508 hydrothermal vents, energy, and, 590 facilitated diffusion and, 135f, 136
Priapula, 686f land colonization by, 534 florigen as, 858
Primary cell walls, 118 nutritional and metabolic adaptations folding and post-translational modifications
Primary cilium, 114
Primary consumers, 1238f of, 579, 580f of, 354
trophic efficiency of, 1244, 1245f, 1246 origin of, 530, 532f folding of, in cells, 83
Primary electron acceptors, 196 photosynthesis in, 187, 188f four levels of structure of, 79, 80f–81f
Primary growth, plant, 764 phylogeny of, 581f as fuel for catabolism, 182f
meristem generation of cells for, 764f–765f in protection of plants from diseases, 588 functions of types of, 66f, 76f
of roots, 766f–767f structural and functional adaptations of, gene expression and, 7f–8f, 9
of woody stems, 770f human dietary deficiencies in, 900
Primary immune response, 961f 572f–575f, 576 identifying genes coding for, 443f, 444
Primary meristems, 764 taxonomy of, 566, 567f innate immune response and, 954
Primary motor cortex, 1095f Prokaryotic cells, 7, 97. See also Cells as macromolecules, 66
Primary oocytes, 1027f cell-surface structures of, 572, 573f–574f as measures of evolution, 87, 89
Primary producers, 1238f, 1255f DNA replication in, 322f–327f mediator, 371, 372f
climate change effects on, 1242f, 1243 eukaryotic cells vs., 6f, 7, 97f–98f, 99. See also motor. See Motor proteins
Primary production, 1239 nonenzyme, 338
in aquatic ecosystems, 1240f–1241f, 1241t Eukaryotic cells nucleic acids in gene expression and synthesis
in Arctic tundra ecosystem, 1254f–1255f evolution of cell division of, 243, 244f
determining, with satellites, 1240f programming of, by viral DNA, 315f–316f, 317 of, 84f
ecosystem energy budgets in, 1239, 1240f regulation of transcription in, 364f–367f packing of DNA and, into chromosomes,

330f–332f

INDEX I-40

Index Proteins (continued) Proviruses, 404, 405f Radioactive isotopes, 31–33, 316f, 317, 528f, 1250
phosphorylation of, in cell-signal transduction, Proximal control elements, 371 Radioactive tracers, 31, 32f
222f, 223 Proximal tubule, 985f–987f Radiolarians, 605f
in photosystems, 196f–200f, 201 Proximate causation, 1138 Radiometric dating, 32–33, 528f
plant antifreeze, 863 Prozac, 1079, 1101 Radula, 697f
plant heat-shock, 863 Prusiner, Stanley, 411 Rain, acidic, 55
post-translational modification of, in plant Pseudocoelom, 695 Rain shadow, 1167f
responses, 843 Pseudocoelomates, 678f, 679 Random dispersion, 1190f, 1191
prions as infectious, 410, 411f Pseudogenes, 448, 478 Random fertilization, 266, 305
producing, with gene cloning, 416f, 417 Pseudopodia, 117, 140f, 595f, 605–606 Random mating, 490t
in prokaryotic flagella, 574f, 575 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, 875f Random mutations. See Mutations
protein interactions with, 221 Psilotum, 630f, 631 Randomness, entropy and, 146
proteomics in study of, 9, 86–87f, 444 P site (peptidyl-tRNA binding site), 350f, 352f–353f Range expansions, species, 1181, 1182f
regulation of eukaryotic processing and Psychedelic rock gecko (Cnemaspis psychedelica), 1258f Ranges, actual and potential, 1182
degradation of, 376 Psychoactive drugs, 1079 Rangifer tarandus, 1254f–1255f, 1279f
regulatory, 376, 381, 382f Pteraspis, 723f Rapetosaurus krausei, 13f
in replication of DNA telomeres, 328 Pterois volitans, 727f Raphides, 866f
repressor, 365f Pteropus mariannus, 1260f Rapid eye movements (REMs), 1092
scaffolding, 228f, 229 Pterosaurs, 734, 1133 ras gene, 387f–389f
separating, with gel electrophoresis, 418f Puberty, human, 1028 Raspberry fruit, 829f
structures of, 78, 79f PubMed, 27 Ras protein, 387f, 388
synthesis of. See Protein synthesis Puffballs, 663f Rates, speciation, 518f–519f
synthesis of, in plant cells, 208f Puffer fish, 811f Ratfish, 725f
systems biology in studying networks of, 444, 445f Puffins, 164f Ratites, 737f
transcription factors, 343f, 344 Pulmocutaneous circuit, 922f, 923 Rat kangaroo, 232f
translation elongation factors, 352, 353f Pulmonary circuit, 922f, 923 Rattlesnakes, 1082, 1108, 1109f
translation initiation factors, 352f Pulp, fruit, 829 Ray-finned fishes, 717f, 726f–727f
translation release factors, 353f Pulse, 928 Rays, 717f, 724, 725f
transport. See Transport proteins Punctuated equilibria, 518f Reabsorption, 982f
in transport and mechanical work, 152f Puncture vine, 830f Reactants, 41
using data on, to test hypotheses on horizontal Pundamilia species, 513f, 517f Reaction-center complexes, 196f
gene transfer, 568 Punnett squares, 273f, 274, 281f–282f, 292–293 Reading frame, 341, 358f
viral movement, 800f Pupa, 709f Realized niches, 1213, 1214f
viruses and, 398f, 400f–401f Pupil, 1116f Reasoning
visualizing, 79f Pure elements, 37
water-soluble, 49f Purines, 84, 85f, 320f deductive, 18
Purple sulfur bacteria, 188f inductive, 17
Protein sequences, 442, 443f, 444 Pus, 955 Receptacle, flower, 821f
in Scientific Skills Exercise, 568 Puszta, 1173f Reception, sensory, 1106f, 1107
Pygmy date palm, 648f Reception stage, cell-signaling, 216
Protein synthesis. See also Gene expression Pyramids, age-structure, 1207f cell-surface transmembrane receptors in, 217f–220f
evidence for, in study of metabolic defects, Pyrenean oak, 648f intracellular receptors in, 220, 221f
336f–337f, 338 Pyrimidines, 84, 85f, 320f ligands, ligand binding, and receptor proteins in, 217
gene concept and, 360 Pyrococcus furiosus, 419, 587 overview of, 216f
genetic code in, 339, 340f–341f, 342 Pyruvate in plant signal transduction pathways, 842f
mutations during, 357f–358f, 359–360 plasma membrane proteins as receptors in,
by ribosomes, 102, 103f, 104 ATP yield in oxidation of, 177f
summary of, 356f in fermentation, 181f 217f–220f
via transcription, RNA processing, and translation, oxidation of, as stage of cellular respiration, Receptive fields, 1118–1119
338, 339f. See also RNA processing; Receptor-mediated endocytosis, 140f
Transcription; Translation 168, 169f Receptor potential, 1107
oxidation of, to acetyl CoA, 171f–172f Receptor proteins, 76f
Proteobacteria, 582f oxidation of glucose to, by glycolysis, 170f–171f Receptors
Proteoglycans, 118, 119f Pythons, 886f, 890
Proteomes, 9, 444 PYY hormone, 915f cellular innate immunity and, 953f–954f
Proteomics, 9, 86, 87f, 444 dendrites as, 1066
Proterozoic eon, 530f, 531t Q glutamate, 1099f, 1100
Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), 1004f, 1005 hormone, 998f, 1000f–1001f, 1002
Prothrombin, 934f Q, 175 opiate, 1080
Protista, kingdom, 566, 591 Qinling golden snub-nosed monkeys, 56f sensory, 1106f–1109f, 1110
Protists, 12f, 591 Qualitative data, 17f somatosensory, 1095f, 1096
Quantitative approach, G. Mendel’s, 270f, 271 Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), 219f, 220, 222, 250
cells of, 101f Quantitative characters, 281, 282f Recessive alleles, 272, 273f, 280, 285f–286f, 287, 293,
contractile vacuoles of, 108 Quantitative data, 17f. See also Scientific
in domain Eukarya, 12f, 13 498. See also Alleles
ecological roles of symbiotic and photosynthetic, Skills Exercises Recessively inherited human disorders, 285f–286f, 287
Quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), 423 Recessive traits, 271f, 272t, 285f, 299f, 300
612f–613f Quaternary structure, protein, 81f Reciprocal altruism, 1157
endosymbiosis in evolution of, 593, 596f–597f, 606f Quillworts, 629, 630f, 631 Reciprocal eco-evolutionary effects, 1185f
excavates, 594f, 597f–598f, 599 Quorum sensing, 213–215 Recombinant bacteria, 416f, 417
microscopy in study of, 591f, 592 Recombinant chromosomes, 266f
origin of fungi in, 657f, 658 R Recombinant DNA, 416
photosynthesis in, 187, 188f
phylogeny of, 592–593, 594f–595f RAAS (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system), in DNA cloning and gene cloning, 416f, 417
and relationship to plants, 595f, 606. 993, 994f ethical issues on, 436–437
red and green algae, 595f, 606, 607f–608f hirudin from leeches and, 702
SAR clade, 595f, 599f–606f Rabbits, 912 producing transgenic plants using, 774f
sexual life cycles of, 258f, 259 Raccoon, 335f using restriction enzymes to make, 417f–418f
as single-celled eukaryotes, 592 Radial canal, sea star, 712f Recombinants (recombinant types), 302
structural and functional diversity of, 592 Radial cleavage, 679f Recombinase, 959f
unikonts, 595f, 608, 609f–611f Radial glia, 1085 Recombination. See also Recombinant DNA
Protocell, 465, 524, 525f, 526 Radial symmetry, 642f, 647, 677f, 678 linkage maps based on frequency of, 305f–306f
Protoderm, 764 Radiation of linked genes, 302, 303f
Protonema, 622, 623f natural selection and genetic variation from, 305
Protonephridia, 692, 982f, 983 alterations of chromosome structure by, 307 of unlinked genes, 302f
Proton gradients, 176f, 177 animal heat exchange and, 883f Recombination frequencies, 305f–306f, 313
Proton-motive force, 176f, 177 cancer and, 386 Reconstruction, ecosystem physical, 1251f–1252f
Proton pumps, 138f, 786, 787f, 846 as cancer treatment, 249 Recovery, seed plants and, 634f
Protons, 30f, 31 DNA damage from, 328 Recruitment, motor neuron, 1128
Proto-oncogenes, 386f, 387, 389f mutagenic, 360 Recruitment of predatory animals, plant, 867f
Protoplasts, 787 prokaryotes and, 571 Rectum, 909
Protostome development, 679f, 680, 683 Radicle, 827f Red algae, 595f–597f, 606, 607f
Radioactive isotope decay curve in Scientific Skills
I-41 INDEX
Exercise, 33

Red blood cells. See Erythrocytes Reproduction. See also Life cycles; Mating; testcrosses, 275f Index
Red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis), Sexual life cycles using dendrochronology to study climate, 771f
X-ray crystallography, 83f
1267f, 1268 bacterial rate of, 590 Reservoirs
Red light, plant responses to, 854, 855f, 858f as cell division function, 234, 235f carbon, 1248f
Red lionfish (Pterois volitans), 727f crustacean, 707 nitrogen, 1249f
Red mangrove, 850f C. Darwin on natural selection and, 14f–16f nutrient, 1247f
Red maple tree leaves, 760 delayed human, in population growth, 1206 phosphorus, 1249f
Red-necked phalaropes, 1149f density-dependent population regulation by water, 1248f
Redox (oxidation-reduction) reactions, 165, Residual volume, 943
rates of, 1203f Resistance genes, 579
166f–168f, 191 effective population size and, 1266f, 1267 Resolution, 94
Red tide, 602f evolution and differential success in, 266, 267f Resolution phase, sexual, 1032
Reduced hybrid fertility, 507f fungal, 655, 656f–657f Resource acquisition, vascular plant, 782f–784f, 785.
Reduced hybrid viability, 507f genetic disorders from human, 285–286
Reducing agents, 166f heterochrony and differential reproductive See also Transport in vascular plants; Vascular
Reduction, 165, 166f, 201, 202f plants
Reductionism, 5–6 development, 542–543f Resource competition, density-dependent population
Redundancy, genetic code, 341, 357, 486–487 insect, 709 regulation by, 1202f
Redwood trees, 255f iteroparity vs. semelparity in, 1199f Resource partitioning, 1213, 1214f
Reefs, ectoproct, 696 life history traits in, 1198, 1199f–1200f Respiration, cellular. See Cellular respiration
Reflexes, 904f, 913, 1086f–1087f overproduction of offspring and natural selection, Respiration, plant and animal, 893f
Refractory period, 1073 Respiratory diseases, human, 1202f
Regeneration, 703, 712, 1018 473f, 474 Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), 942f
Regenerative medicine, 431 plant and animal, 893f. See also Angiosperm Respiratory media, 937t, 938
Regional adaptive radiations, 541f, 542 Respiratory pigments, 945f–946f
Regional human population patterns, 1206 reproduction; Animal reproduction Respiratory surfaces, 938
Regression line, F–2 prokaryotic binary fission, 575–576 Respiratory systems. See also Gas exchange
Regression lines in Scientific Skills Exercises, 54, as property of life, 3f breathing to ventilate lungs in, 942, 943f–944f
protist, 592 effects of adrenal hormones on, 1010
205, 749 protocell, 525f, 526 internal exchange surfaces and, 873f
Regulation. See also Osmoregulation rapid, as source of genetic variation in viruses, 487 lungs and components of, 940, 941f
rapid prokaryotic, and mutation, 576f, 577 respiratory distress syndrome of, 942f
of animal digestion, energy storage, and appetite, rates of, 1192, 1193f, 1203f, 1206, 1211 Response, homeostatic, 880
912, 913f–915f, 916 sexual, as source of genetic variation, 487 Response pathways, hormone, 1000f–1003f
sexual vs. asexual, 255f Response stage, cell-signaling, 217
by animal endocrine and nervous systems, 878f of triploid organisms, 268 cell-signaling specificity and coordination of
of biological clocks, 1092–1093 Reproduction, plant. See Angiosperm reproduction responses in, 227, 228f
of biological rhythms, 1013 Reproductive barriers increasing signaling efficiency in, 228f, 229
of blood pressure, 929 in hybrid zones, 516, 517f nuclear and cytoplasmic responses in, 226f–227f
of cell-signaling responses, 226–227, 228f, 229 reproductive isolation and types of, 505, overview of, 216f, 217
of cellular respiration via feedback mechanisms, regulation of responses in, 226–227, 228f, 229
506f–507f, 508 signal amplification in, 226–227
183f, 184 Reproductive cloning, 428f, 429 signal termination in, 229
of cleavage, 1047 Reproductive cycles, animal, 1019f Response to environment, 3f, 892f. See also
by endocrine glands, 1009f–1013f Reproductive cycles, human, 1029, 1030f, 1031 Environment
of enzymatic catalysis, 159, 160f–161f Reproductive isolation, 505 Rest-and-digest responses, 1088
extracellular matrix role in, 119 Resting potentials, neuron, 1068
feedback, of endocrine systems, 1003f, 1004 allopatric speciation and, 509f–510f, 511 formation of, 1068f, 1069
feedback in, of molecular interactions, 10f hybrid zones and, 514, 515f–517f modeling of, 1069f, 1070
of gene expression. See Gene regulation pollinator choice and, 520f Resting potential state, action potential, 1072f, 1073
of growth, 1002f, 1006f–1009f reproductive barriers in, 505, 506f–507f, 508 Restoration ecology
of heart rhythm, 925, 926f sexual selection and, 513f biological augmentation in, 1253
homeostatic feedback, 879f–881f Reproductive leaves, 760f biomanipulation of trophic levels in, 1225f
hormonal, of mammalian sexual reproduction, Reproductive organs, human bioremediation in, 1251, 1253f
female, 1024, 1025f Guichon Creek project, 1272f
1028, 1029f–1030f, 1031 gametogenesis in, 1025, 1026f–1027f physical reconstruction of ecosystems, 1251f–1252f
of human breathing, 944f male, 1023f, 1024 worldwide projects of, 1252f
of muscle contraction, 1126, 1127f, 1128 Reproductive rates, 1192, 1193f, 1203f, 1206 Restriction enzymes, 402, 417
of neurons in sensory reception, 1106f Reproductive success, 1022f making recombinant DNA plasmids using,
plant and animal, 892f Reptiles, 717f, 733 417f–418f
of population growth, 1200, 1201f–1204f, 1205 adaptations of kidneys of, 990 polymerase chain reaction and, in gene cloning,
as property of life, 3f amniotic eggs of, 732, 733f 419, 420f
Regulator animals, 879f birds, 736f–738f Restriction fragments, 418
Regulatory genes, 365f characteristics of, 733f, 734 Restriction sites, 417f, 418
Regulatory proteins, 376, 381, 382f, 1126, crocodilians, 735f, 736 Reticular fibers, 876f
evolution of, 677 Reticular formation, 1092f
1127f, 1128 extraembryonic membranes of, 1051f Reticulum, 912f
Reinforcement, hybrid zone, 516, 517 hearing and equilibrium in, 1114 Retina, 1116f, 1120, 1136
Rejection, immune system, 967–968 lepidosaurs, 735f–736f Retinal, 1117f–1118f
Relatedness, altruism and, 1156f–1157f in Mesozoic era, 530 Retinitis pigmentosa, 493
Relative abundance, species, 1220. See also nitrogenous wastes of, 980, 981f Retrotransposons, 449f
origin and evolutionary radiation of, 734 Retroviral vectors, gene therapy using, 432f
Species diversity thermoregulation in, 886f Retroviruses, 404, 405f
Relative fitness, 495–496 turtles, 735f, 736 Reverse transcriptase, 404, 405f, 423f
Relay molecules, 216f, 217 Research Method Figures Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction
Relay proteins, 228f, 229 absorption spectrum determination, 193f (RT-PCR), 422
Release factors, 353f applying parsimony in molecular systematics, 561f in analyzing single-gene expression,
Release stage, phage lytic cycle, 400f cell fractionation, 96f 422, 423f
Releasing hormones, 1002f, 1006 constructing linkage maps, 305f diagnosing diseases with, 431–432
Renal cortex, 984f crossing pea plants, 270f Reward system, brain, 1101f
Renal medulla, 984f determining population size using mark-recapture Reward vs. risk, foraging behavior and, 1147
Renal pelvis, 984f R groups, amino acid, 75, 76f–77f
Renaturation, protein, 82f, 83 method, 1189f Rhabditophora, 692, 693f–695f
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), hydroponic culture, 808f Rhagoletis pomonella, 506f, 513–514
intracellular recording, 1070f Rhesus monkeys, 87, 89
993, 994f G. Mendel’s, 269f–276f Rheumatoid arthritis, 969f
Repair, DNA, 327, 328f molecular tools for determining microbial Rhinoceros, 1197f
Repetitive DNA, 448f Rhizanthes lowii, 820f
Replication fork, DNA, 323f diversity, 1221f
Replicative cycles, viral next-generation DNA sequencing, 415f
polymerase chain reaction, 419f
of animal viruses, 402, 403f, 404t, 405f preparing karyotypes of chromosomes, 256f
general features of, 399f, 400 producing transgenic plants using Ti plasmid, 774f
of phages, 400f–402f RT-PCR (reverse transcriptase-polymerase
Repolarization, 1073
Repressible enzymes, 366f, 367 chain reaction) analysis of single-gene
Repressible operons, 365f, 366–367 expression, 423f
Repressors, 365f

INDEX I-42

Index Rhizarians, 595f, 605f–606f in gene expression and protein synthesis, 338, S
Rhizobacteria, 812f–814f, 815 339f–340f
Rhizobium bacteria, 582f, 590, 812f–814f, 815 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)
Rhizoids, 622 regulation of eukaryotic, 375f, 376 budding of, 657f
Rhizomes, 759f ribozymes in, 346 cell signaling in, 213f, 215
Rhizopus stolonifer, 660f, 661 split genes and RNA splicing in, 345f–346f DNA changes in cells of, in meiosis, 264
Rhizosphere, 812f summary of eukaryotic, 356f genome size and number of genes of, 446t, 447
Rhodopsin, 1117f–1119f RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), 424f, 446 human uses of, 668–669
Rhomaleosaurus victor, 527f RNA splicing, 345f–347f, 375f, 376 protein interaction network of, 444, 445f
Ribbon model, 79f RNA transcript, 343f–344f toxic wastes of, in winemaking, 1203f
Ribbon worms, 686f RNA viruses
Ribonucleic acid. See RNA classes of, 404t Saccule, 1113f
Ribose, 85 HIV as, 404, 405f. See also HIV Sac fungi, 659f, 661f–662f, 663t
pandemics of, 408 Safety issues
in ATP, 150, 151f replicative cycles of, 399f, 400, 402, 403f
as monosaccharide, 68f retroviruses as, 403, 404f on biotechnology, 436–437
in nucleic acids, 85f structure of, 398f, 399 on plant biotechnology and genetic engineering,
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 349, 350f Roadmap Epigenomics Project, 444
in eukaryotic cell nucleus, 102 Robin, European, 14f 837–838
evolutionary rate of, 563 Rock python, 901f Saguaro cactus, 1176, 1181f
gene family of, 451f Rocks Sahara Desert, 523f, 871f
interpreting comparisons of sequences of, 593 dating of, 528f Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 746, 747f
in molecular systematics, 581 nonvascular plants and weathering of, in Salamanders, 507f, 511, 543f, 717f, 729, 730f, 919f,
self-splicing in production of, 346
Ribosomes, 102, 339 Ordovician Period climate change, 627 1064, 1084f
animal cell, 100f species distributions and, 1184 Salicylic acid, 865
identifying binding sites on, with sequence weathering of, in phosphorus cycle, 1249f Salinity
Rod, ATP synthase, 175f
logos, 351 Rodents, 742f–743f, 912 aquatic biome, 1175
plant cell, 101f Rods (photoreceptor), 1117f–1119f, 1120–1121, 1136 extreme halophiles and, 571f, 584
in plant cells, 208f Rod-shaped prokaryotes, 97f, 572f lap alleles and, 503
polyribosomes and, 355f Rolling circle replication, 578f osmosis, water balance, and, 134
prokaryotic, 575 Romanesco, 756f, 757 plant responses to, 142, 436, 863
in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, 97f Root caps, 766f soil salinization and, 806
in protein synthesis, 102, 103f, 104 Rooted phylogenetic trees, 555f species distributions and, 1183–1184
protein synthesis in, 84 Root hairs, 757f–758f, 790 Saliva, 904f
in RNA virus replicative cycle, 403f Root pressure, 791–792 Salivary glands, 903, 904f
rough ER and, 105 Roots, 629, 757 Salmon, 89, 436, 976f, 978, 1183, 1198
structure of, 103f, 349, 350f apical meristems of plant, 619f Salmonella species, 582f, 587
in translation, 338, 339f, 349, 350f, 352f–353f architecture of, and acquisition of water and Salmo salar, 89
Ribozymes, 153, 346, 465, 526 Saltatory conduction, 1075f
Ribulose, 68f minerals, 785 Salt marshes, 1184, 1219f, 1245
Rice, 507f, 649, 815, 836, 849, 1261 bacterial mutualism with, 590 Salt marsh hay, 1184
Rieseberg, Loren, 519f compositions of bacterial communities of, 812f Salts (ionic compounds), 38f
Right atrium, 924f–925f drought responses of, 861–862 in blood plasma, 932f
Right-left axis, 1058f, 1062f evolution of, in vascular plants, 629 diffusion of, across capillary walls, 930, 931f
Right ventricle, 924f–925f fungal mycorrhizae and, 785 ion gradients and transport of, 991f
Ring structures gravitropism in, 859f osmoregulation of, 976f–980f
of carbon skeletons, 60f monocot vs. eudicot, 647f Salt stress, plant responses to, 863
of cellulose-synthesizing proteins, 617 mycorrhizae and plant, 654f, 655 Saltwater, 975f, 977f, 980f
of glucose, 69f nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legume, Salty tastes, 233, 1121f–1122f
Ringworm, 668 Sampling techniques, population, 1189f
Rising phase, action potential, 1072f, 1073 813f–814f, 815 San Andreas fault, 537
Risk factors, cardiovascular disease, 936 primary growth of, 766f–767f Sand dollars, 235f, 713
Risk vs. reward, foraging behavior and, 1147 rhizoids vs., 622 Sand eels, 164f
Riverine wetlands, 1177f secondary growth of, 770f–772f Sanger, Frederick, 414
River otters, 879f seedling, 828f Sapwood, 772f
Rivers, 1178f, 1183 soil texture and, 804 SAR clade, 595f, 599f–606f
RNA (ribonucleic acid), 84. See also Messenger RNA; structure of, 757f–758f Sarcomeres, 877f, 1124f
transport of water and minerals from, to shoots via Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), 1126f–1127f
Nucleic acids; RNA processing; Transfer RNA Sarcopterygii (lobe-fins), 726, 727f, 728
ATP and, 151 xylem, 790, 791f–793f, 794 Sargasso Sea, 1240–1241, 1241t
in circadian clock genes during hibernation, 891f Root systems, 757f–758f Sarin, 158, 1079
components of, 84, 85f Rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), 1261f Satellites, determining primary production with,
development of self-replicating, 526 Rotifers, 685f, 695f, 696
in DNA replication, 323f, 324 Rotor, ATP synthase, 175f 1240f
elongation of strands of, 344f Rough ER, 100f–101f, 104, 105f, 109f Satiety center, 915f
in eukaryotic cells, 102 Round dance, honeybee, 1140f Saturated enzymes, 156
gene density in genomes and, 447 Round window, 1112, 1113f Saturated fats, 73f, 74, 128f
in gene expression, 8f Roundworms, 687f, 703f, 704, 1056f–1057f, 1131f Saturated fatty acids, 73f, 74
in insect infection, 952f Rous, Peyton, 392 Savannas, 748, 1172f
interpreting sequences of, 593 Rozella, 658 Savory tastes, 1121f–1122f
noncoding, in gene regulation, 377f–378f, 379 R plasmids, 579 Scaffolding proteins, 228f, 229
in plant cells, 208f r-selection, 1200 Scala naturae (scale of nature), Aristotle’s, 468
post-transcriptional modification of, 345f–347f RTKs, 219f, 220, 222, 250 Scale bar in Scientific Skills Exercise, 99
in regulation of cleavage, 1047 RU486 (mifepristone), 1037 Scale-eating fish (Perissodus microlepis), 498, 499f
ribosomal RNA gene family, 451f Rubella, 407 Scales
roles of, in gene expression, 84f Rubisco (RuBP carboxylase), 201, 202f
sequencing of, 424f RuBP carboxylase, 201, 202f fish, 726
structure of, 86f Rubrivivax, 582f reptile, 733
synthesis of, in transcription, 338, 339f, 342, Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), 1269 Scallops, 699f
Rule of multiplication, 489 Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 94, 95f, 96
343f–344f Rumen, 912f Scarlet fever, 401
viral. See RNA viruses Ruminants, 912f Scatter plot graphs, F–1–F–2
RNA enzymes. See Ribozymes Running, 1133–1134 Scatter plots in Scientific Skills Exercises, 54, 136, 205,
RNA interference (RNAi), 377–378, 425–426 Runoff
RNA polymerases, 342, 343f–344f, 370f, 371 511, 749, 1215
RNA processing, 345 experimental, and nutrient cycling, 1250f Sceloporus species, climate change and, 11f
alteration of mRNA ends in, 345f in nitrogen cycle, 1249f Schindleria brevipinguis, 717
eukaryotic transcription and, 370f, 371 in water cycle, 1248f Schistosoma mansoni, 694f
evolutionary importance of introns in, 346, 347f Russula, 652f Schistosomiasis, 694f
Rusts, 663 Schizophrenia, 1100f
I-43 INDEX Ryther, John, 1241f Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut, 1134
Schwann cells, 1074f–1075f, 1085f
Science, 16

biology as study of life by, 2. See also Biology

cooperative approach and model organisms in, scatter plots with regression lines, making, 205 Sedentarians, 701f Index
22–23, 24f. See also Model organisms scatter plots with two sets of data, interpreting, 136 Sedimentary strata, 468f
scientific notation, interpreting data values Seed coat, 826f–827f
diverse viewpoints in, 24 Seed germination, 854, 855f
inquiry process of, 17, 18f–21f, 22. See also Case expressed in, 1080 Seedless vascular plants, 621
sequence-based phylogenetic trees, analysis of, 409
studies; Inquiry Figures sequence logos, interpreting, 351 gametophyte-sporophyte relationships in, 635f
medical. See Medicine slope, interpreting changes in, 1047 importance of, 631f, 632
methods. See Research Method Figures tables, working with data in, 58, 89, 157, 179, 205, life cycles of, 628f
skills. See Scientific Skills Exercises origin and traits of, 626, 627f–629f
society, technology, and, 23, 24f 264, 304, 318, 456, 491, 511, 568, 588, 593, phylogeny of, 621t, 629, 630f, 631
Scientific inquiry, 16–17. See also Case studies; Inquiry 627, 637, 655, 676, 749, 760, 788, 832, 916, Seedling development, 827, 828f
936, 971, 979, 1012, 1028, 1047, 1080, 1184, Seed plants. See also Angiosperms; Gymnosperms;
Figures; Research Method Figures; Scientific 1215, 1245, 1276
Skills Exercises temperature coefficients, calculating and Plants
case study in, 20f–21f interpreting, 788 adaptations of, 651
deductive reasoning in, 18 Scientific skills review, F-1 angiosperms, 635f, 642f–648f. See also
experimental variables and controls for, 20–21 Scion, 833
exploration and observation, 17f Sclera, 1116f Angiosperms
flexibility in, 18, 19f Sclereids, 762f gymnosperms, 635f–641f
hypotheses in, 17, 18f Sclerenchyma cells, 762f, 768 importance in Earth’s ecosystems, 634f
predator role in natural selection, 27 Sclerenchyma tissue, 866f importance to human welfare, 649f, 650
theories in, 21–22 Scolex, 695f phylogeny of, 621f
Scientific method, 17, 18f–21f, 22. See also Case studies; Scorpions, 687f, 706f seeds and pollen grains as terrestrial adaptations
Inquiry Figures; Research Method Figures; Scrapie, 410
Scientific Skills Exercises Scr gene, 543 of, 635f–636f, 637
Scientific notation in Scientific Skills Exercise, 1080 Scrotum, 1023f threats to biodiversity of, 649f, 650
Scientific Skills Exercises Scrub jays, 1160 Seeds, 621, 634, 826
amino acid sequence identity tables, reading, 456 Scutellum, 827f abscisic acid in dormancy of, 850
bar graphs, interpreting, 23, 373, 481, 760, 862 Scyphozoans, 690f development of, 824–826
bar graphs, making and interpreting, 179, 588, 627 Sea anemones, 690f–691f dispersal of, 830f
bar graphs and line graphs, making and Seabirds, 1236f dormancy of, 637
interpreting, 1184 Sea cucumbers, 713f evolutionary advantage of, 636–637
bar graphs and scatter plots, making and Sea daisies, 712f fruits and angiosperm, 643f
interpreting, 1215 Sea grasses, 616 gibberellins in germination of, 849f
chi-square (x2) test, using, 304 Sea horse, 727f glyoxysomes in, 112
controlled experiment, designing, 1012 Sea lampreys, 721f, 722 phytochromes in germination of, 854, 855f
correlation coefficients, calculating and Sea lettuce, 607f plant seedlings development from, 826f–828f
interpreting, 676 Sea lilies, 713 strigolactones in germination of, 853
correlations, positive and negative, using to Seals, 872f, 947f Segmentation, 1064
interpret data, 832 Sea otters, 1187 Segmented worms, 686f
cyclic data, graphing, 1276 Sea slugs, 698f, 1018f Segregation, law of, 271f–275f, 295f, 296
DNA deletion experiments, analysis of, 373 Seasonality, 1165f, 1166 Seizures, 1074
experimental design, understanding, and Seasonal turnover, lake, 1175, 1176f Selective breeding, 472, 473f, 839
interpreting data, 698 Sea squirts, 719f Selective permeability, 126, 131–132, 1069f
genetic mutants, designing experiments Sea stars, 711, 712f, 938f, 1084f, 1190f, 1224f Self-assembly, protocell, 525f, 526
using, 1093 Sea urchins, 507f, 687f, 713f, 1043f, 1182f–1183f, Self-assembly stage, phage lytic cycle, 400f
genetic mutants, interpreting data from 1187, 1279f Self-fertilization, 832, 833f, 838–839, 1040
experiments with, 916 Sea wasps, 690f–691f Self-incompatibility, 832, 833f, 838–839
genetic sequences, interpreting comparisons of, 593 Seawater, 975f, 977f, 980f Selfing, 832, 833f, 838–839
genomic data, interpreting and generating Seaweed, 595f, 600f–601f, 602, 606, 607f, 1182f Self-pollination, 271f
hypotheses, 655 Secondary cell walls, 118 Self-pruning, 784
Hardy-Weinberg equation, using to interpret data Secondary consumers, 1238f Self-replicating molecules, 524, 525f, 526
and make predictions, 491 trophic efficiency of, 1244, 1245f, 1246 Self-splicing, 346
histograms, interpreting, 250 Secondary endosymbiosis, 596f–597f Self-thinning, 799
histograms, making and interpreting, 283, 936 Secondary growth, plant, 764 Self-tolerance, 959–960
hypotheses with quantitative models, testing, 1148 cork cambium and periderm production in, 772 Semelparity, 1198, 1199f
inferences, making, and designing evolution of, 772 Semen, 1024, 1032
experiments, 1028 meristem generation of cells for, 764f–765f Semicircular canals, 1111f, 1113f, 1114
line graphs, comparing two variables on a vascular cambium and secondary vascular tissue Semiconservative model, DNA replication,
common x-axis, 971 for, 770f–772f
line graphs, making, and calculating slopes, 157 Secondary immune response, 961f 321f–322f
line graphs, making, and converting between units Secondary oocytes, 1027f Semilunar valves, 925f–926f
of data, 264 Secondary production, 1244 Seminal vesicles, 1023f, 1024
line graphs and bar graphs, making and in Arctic tundra ecosystem, 1254f–1255f Seminiferous tubules, 1023f, 1026f
interpreting, 1184 production efficiency in, 1244f Senescence, 851–852
logistic equation, using to model population in salt marsh ecosystem, 1245 Senile dementia, 83
growth, 1198 trophic efficiency and ecological pyramids in, Sensitive period, 1142, 1143f
log scales, interpreting graphs with, 1134 1244, 1245f, 1246 Sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), 800, 860f
moles and molar ratios of organic compounds, Secondary structure, protein, 80f Sensors, homeostatic, 880
working with, 58 Secondary succession, 1228–1229 Sensory adaptation, 1107–1108
natural logarithms, using to interpret data, 637 Secondary vascular tissue, 770f–772f Sensory areas, cerebral cortex, 1094
observations, making, 810 Second law of thermodynamics, 145f, 146, 1237 Sensory input, 1067f, 1094, 1095f–1096f
pie charts, interpreting, 890 Second messengers, 223, 842 Sensory neurons, 1067f, 1087f
polypeptide sequence data, analysis of, 89 calcium ions, inositol trisphosphate, and Sensory pathways, 1106f–1107f
protein sequence data, using to test evolutionary diacylglycerol as, 224, 225f Sensory reception, 1106f, 1107
hypotheses, 568 cyclic AMP as, 223f–224f Sensory receptors, 1106f–1109f, 1110
quantitative data, describing and interpreting, 979 in hormone pathways, 1001f Sensory systems
quantitative data, estimating from graphs and in plant signal transduction, 842f, 843
developing hypotheses, 536 Secretin, 913f, 1003f animal and plant, 892f
radioactive isotope decay curve, calibrating, 33 Secretion, excretory system, 982f arthropod, 705f
regression line, determining equation of, 749 Secretions mechanoreceptors for hearing and equilibrium in,
regression line, interpreting, 54 cell signaling and, 998f–999f. See also Animal
regression line, making, 205 hormones; Neurohormones 1110f–1114f
scale bar, using to calculate cell volume and surface digestive, 905f, 906–908 motor systems and, 1105f–1106f. See also Motor
area, 99 Secretory phase, 1031
scatter plots, making, and interpreting data, 511 Secretory proteins, 105 systems
scatter plots and bar graphs, making and Secretory systems, prokaryotic, 575 muscle function and, 1123, 1124f–1129f, 1130
interpreting, 1215 Secretory tubules, marine bird, 980f sensory receptors in, 1106f–1109f, 1110
scatter plots with regression lines, interpreting, 54 shark, 725
skeletal systems, locomotion, and, 1130f–1133f, 1134
snake, 735
taste and smell receptors in, 1121f–1123f
visual receptors in, 1115f–1120f, 1121
Sensory transduction, 1107, 1118f

INDEX I-44

Index Sepals, 642f, 821 Sexual response, human, 1031–1032 Silk, 80f, 706–707, 949
Separase, 240 Sexual selection, 497f–498f, 513f, 1150f–1151f, 1152 Silk moth, 1004f, 1005
Separate electron orbitals model, 35f S-genes, 833 Silkworm moths, 1108, 1109f
Septa, 654f Shade avoidance, plant, 855 Silverfish, 710f
September equinox, 1165f Shaffer, Mark, 1266 Silversword plants, 541f, 556, 1182
Septic shock, 955 Shannon diversity, 1220, 1221f Simberloff, Dan, 1231f–1232f
Sequence-based phylogenetic tree in Scientific Skills Shapes Simple columnar epithelium, 875f
Simple endocrine pathway, 1003f
Exercise, 409 cell, 116–117 Simple fruits, 829f
Sequence logo in Scientific Skills Exercise, 351 enzyme, 155f, 156, 160f–161f Simple leaves, 759f
Sequencing by synthesis, 413f–415f, 416. See also DNA insect pollinators and flower, 647f Simple neuroendocrine pathway, 1003f, 1004
molecular, 39f–40f Simple sequence DNA, 450
sequencing morphogenesis and cell, 1054f–1055f Simple squamous epithelium, 875f
Sequoiadendron giganteum, 772f of organic compounds, 59f Single bonds, 36, 37f
Sequoia trees, 641f, 772f prokaryotic, 572f Single-celled organisms, 5f, 93, 532f–533f, 592.
Serial endosymbiosis, 532, 533f Shapiro, Michael, 544f
Serine, 77f, 222 Shared ancestral characters, 559, 560f See also Protists
Serotonin, 1079t Shared derived characters, 559, 560f Single circulation, 922f
Serpentine plant communities, 30f Sharks, 440, 717f, 724, 725f, 977 Single-lens eyes, 1116f–1117
Serrano, Elba, 92f, 135 Shelf fungi, 663f Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 426f,
Sertoli cells, 1029f Shell drilling adaptation, 540
Serum, 932 Shells, electron, 32f, 34, 35f, 36 431–432, 439, 460, 464
Seta, 625 Shewanella oneidensis, 1253f Single-strand binding proteins, 323f, 327t
Set point, homeostatic, 880 Shigella bacteria, 579 Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses, 404t
Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), 432f, 969 Shivering thermogenesis, 886f Single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses, 403f, 404t
Sewage treatment, 589 Shoots, 846f Sinoatrial (SA) node, 926f
Sex apical meristems of plant, 619f Sirenia, 742f–743f
light capture and architecture of, 783, 784f, 785 Sister cells, 235
chromosomal basis of, 298f, 299 photosynthesis and architecture of, 802 Sister chromatid cohesion, 236, 259
genomic imprinting and, 310f, 311 phytochromes and, 869 Sister chromatids, 236f, 237, 257f, 260f–263f, 264, 266f
Sex attractant, 43 primary growth of, 767f–769f Sister species, 510
Sex chromosomes, 257 transport of water and minerals from roots to, via Sister taxa, 553, 554f
aneuploidy of, 309 Situs inversus, 1062f
human, 256f–257f, 258 xylem, 790, 791f–793f, 794 Sixth mass extinction, 539f, 540
patterns of inheritance of, 298f–300f Shoot systems, 757f Size
Sex determination, 1028 Short-day plants, 857f
Sex hormones Short tandem repeats (STRs), 434–435, 450, 460 brain, 754, 1089f
endocrine disruptors and, 1013 Short-term memory, 1098–1099 carrying capacity and population, 1196t, 1197f
as environmental toxins, 1275 Shrimp, 462f, 510f, 511, 706 determining population, using mark-recapture
functional groups and, 62f Siamese cats, 362
in regulation of mammalian reproduction, 1028, Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica), 1284 method, 1189f
Sickle-cell disease, 82, 286, 933 ecosystem, 1236, 1237f
1029f–1030f, 1031 evolution of axon, 1074f–1075f
in sex determination, 1028 abnormal hemoglobin in, 933 of genomes, 446t, 447
smooth ER synthesis of, 104–105 emergent properties of, 503 of global human population, 1205f–1208f, 1209
as steroids, 75f, 1012, 1013f evolution of, 501f Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and population, 490t
Sex-linked genes, 298f–300f, 299 genetic diagnosis of, 431 of Homo floresiensis, 752
Sex pili, 574, 578f, 579 heterozygote advantage in, 499 of hormones, 216
Sex reversal, 1018 inheritance of, 293 individual survival and population, 1198
Sexual dimorphism, 497f, 1148, 1149f pleiotropy and, 280–281 of insects, 949
Sexual intercourse, human, 1031–1032, point mutations and, 357f, 486, 500f latitude and animal, 895
protein primary structure changes and, 82f locomotion costs and, 1134
1036–1037, 1080 as recessively inherited, 286f, 287 metabolic rate and animal body, 889f
Sexual life cycles. See also Life cycles scientific cooperation and, 22–23 of offspring litter or clutch as life history trait,
Sickle-cell trait, 286
alternation of fertilization and meiosis in, Side-blotched lizards, 1152f 1198, 1199f–1200f
256f–258f, 259 Side chains, amino acid, 75, 76f–77f of plasmodesmatal pores, 800
Sidedness, cellular membrane, 131f prokaryotic cell, 572
angiosperm, 824, 825f Sieve plates, 763f, 797–798 of prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells, 6f–7, 98
asexual reproduction vs., 255f Sieve-tube elements, 763f protist, 591
chromosomal basis of Mendelian inheritance in, Sieve tubes, 797–798, 799f of skeletons, 1132
Signaling molecules, 215f, 216, 998f–999f. See also Skeletal muscle, 877f, 1124f. See also Muscle
294f–295f, 296. See also Chromosomal basis in human breathing, 943f–944f
of inheritance Animal hormones; Neurohormones; locomotion from contraction of, in skeletal
evolution from genetic variation produced in, Neurotransmitters
265f–267f Signal peptides, 354f systems, 1130f–1133f, 1134
genetics of heredity and genetic variation in, 254f Signal-recognition particles (SRPs), 354f muscle fibers of, 1128, 1129t
graphing DNA changes in meiosis of, 264 Signals, animal, 1139f–1141f regulation of contraction of, 1126f–1128f
human chromosome sets in, 256f–257f, 258 Signal transduction, 1001 sliding-filament model of contraction of, 1124,
inheritance of chromosomes and genes in, 255 in hormone pathways, 1001f
karyotypes of chromosomes in, 256f membrane proteins and, 130f 1125f, 1126
mitosis vs. meiosis in, 262, 263f, 264 Signal transduction pathways, 217 structure of, 1123, 1124f
protist, 592 cancer and interference with normal, 387f–388f, 389 Skeletal systems
stages of meiosis in, 259f–262f in cell signaling, 212, 216f, 217, 221–222 bones and joints of human, 1132f
varieties of, 258f, 259 coordinate control of, 374 cartilage, 722, 724
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 583f, 597f, 1033, differential gene expression and induction in, energy costs of locomotion by, 1134
1036f, 1038. See also AIDS; HIV 380f, 381 locomotion from interaction of muscles and
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 1036 evolution of, 213
Sexual reproduction, 255. See also Sexual life cycles linking signal reception to plant responses, skeletons in, 1130f, 1133f, 1134
in angiosperms. See Angiosperm reproduction 841f–842f, 843–844 origins of, 723
in animals, 672f, 673. See also Animal reproduction neurotransmitters and, 1078 types of, 1130, 1131f–1132f
asexual reproduction vs., 255f, 831–832 second messengers in, 223f–225f Skeletons, carbon, 60f–61f
in bryophytes, 622, 623f–625 in sensory amplification, 1107–1108 Skills, scientific. See Scientific Skills Exercises
flowers and angiosperm, 642f in visual sensory transduction, 1118f Skin
in fungi, 656f Sign language, 1104 cancer of, 328, 1280
microevolution from sexual selection in, 497f–498f Sign stimulus, 1138f coloration, 1014, 1016
as source of genetic variation, 487 Silencing, gene expression, 425, 426f heat exchange and, in animals, 883
switch to, 268 Silencing, transcription, 372 mechanoreceptors in human, 1108f
Sexual reproduction, animal, 1018. See also Animal Silent mutations, 357, 358f pigmentation of human, 281, 282f
reproduction; Human reproduction Silent Spring (Carson), 1274 Skinner, B. F., 1144
asexual reproduction vs., 1019, 1020f Silicon-based life, 65 Skulls, human vs. chimpanzee, 542f, 556
as evolutionary enigma, 1019, 1020f Skunks, 506f, 1216f
fertilization mechanisms in, 1020f–1022f, 1023 Sleep, ACTH secretion during, 1012
reproductive cycles in, 1019f Sleep, brain functions and, 1092f
variations in patterns of, 1018 Sleeping sickness, 65, 598f, 711, 971

I-45 INDEX

Sleep movements, plant, 855, 856f in photosynthesis, 41f, 187f homologous genes in, 563f, 564 Index
Sliding-filament model, 1124, 1125f, 1126 primary production in aquatic ecosystems and interactions between. See Interspecific
Slime, hagfish, 721
Slime bacteria, 213f limitations of, 1240 interactions
Slime layer, 573 Solute potential, 787, 802 introduced, 1262f, 1263, 1284
Slime molds, 609, 610f–611f Solute potential equation, 802 keystone, 1268
Slope in Scientific Skills Exercises, 157, 1047 Solutes, 49 loss of amphibian, 731
Slow block to polyspermy, 1043 metagenomics and genome sequencing of
Slow-twitch fibers, 1129 animal osmoregulation of, 979, 980f
Slugs, 697 diffusion of, 132, 133f groups of, 442
Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), 377, 378f, 379 diffusion of, across capillary walls, 930, 931f morphological and ecological concepts of, 508
Small intestine, 693f, 906 effects of, on water potential, 787–788 morphology and concepts of, 505
ion gradients and transport of, 991f number of named, 1258
absorption in, 907f–908f osmoregulation of, 976f–978f phylogenies as history of, for species, 551–552. See
adaptations of, 910f short-distance transport of, across plant plasma
cells of, 125 also Phylogenies
digestion in, 906f, 907 membranes, 786, 787f populations of. See Populations
Small-population approach, population conservation, solvents and, 49f, 50 sequenced genomes of, 414, 416
transport of, from roots to shoots via xylem, 790, in tree of life, 15f–16f
1264, 1265f–1266f, 1267 tropical deforestation and extinctions of, 649f, 650
Smallpox, 407, 966 791f–793f, 794 using phylogenetic gene trees to identify, of whale
Smart plants, 810f transport of, from sources to sinks via phloem, 797,
Smithells, Richard, 900f meat, 555f
Smithies, Oliver, 424 798f–799f Species-area curve, 1230, 1231f
Smooth ER, 100f, 101f, 104, 105f, 109f two-solute model of kidney water conservation, Species distributions
Smooth muscle, 877f, 1129–1130
Smuts, 663 987, 988f, 989 abiotic factors in, 1182, 1183f–1184f
Snails, 506f, 520, 536, 697, 700f, 701, 1065f, 1067f Solutions, 49f, 50 in aquatic biomes, 1176
Snakes, 497f, 717f, 735f, 966, 1108, 1109f, 1153, Solvents, 49f, 50 biotic factors in, 1182f
Somatic cells, 235, 255 combined biotic and abiotic factors in, 1176, 1181f
1154f, 1262 Somatosensory cortex, 1095f, 1096 dispersal factors in, 1182f
gene flow in Lake Erie water snake, 494, 495f Somites, 718, 1052f, 1053 evolution and, 1187
Snapdragons, 279f Songs, bird learning of, 1145 global climate change and, 1167, 1168f
Snapping shrimp, 510f, 511 Sonic hedgehog growth factor, 1061–1062 natural range expansion, 1181, 1182f
Snook, Rhonda, 1022f Soredia, 666, 667f Species diversity, 1220
Snow geese, 1254f–1255f Sori, 629 benefits of, to humans, 1260, 1261f
Snow pea, 648f Soufriere Hills volcano, 549 biodiversity crisis and, 1258f–1259f
Snowshoe hares, 1203f, 1204 Sound receptors, 1108, 1109f–1114f biogeographical factors affecting, 1229,
Snowy owls, 1202f Sour tastes, 1121f–1122f
Soapberry bugs, 475f, 476, 1185 South Africa, restoration projects in, 1252f 1230f–1232f
Social behavior, 1157f, 1158 South African flower-eyed mantis, 474f climate change effects on, 1277
Social learning, 1145, 1146f, 1151 South American vampire bats, 989f, 990 community stability and, 1221f
Society South Atlantic Subtropical Gyre, 1166f disturbances influencing, 1226f–1229f
plant biotechnology and, 838 Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans), 515 human impacts on, 1229f
population age structure and, 1206 Southern stingray (Dasyatis americana), 725f as level of biodiversity, 1259f–1260f
science and, 19f, 23, 24f South Pacific Subtropical Gyre, 1166f species richness and relative abundance in, 1220f
Sociobiology, 1157–1158 Soybeans, 211, 491, 813f–814f, 815, 1013 threats to, 1260f
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (book), 1158 Space-filling models, 36, 37f, 39f, 59f, 74f, 79f, 212f, 319f trophic structure and, 1221, 1222f–1225f. See also
Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka), 976f Spain, 571f
Sodium, 29t Spanish flu pandemic, 408 Trophic structure
Sodium chloride Spatial learning, 1143, 1144f Species richness, 1220
elimination of excess, by marine birds, 980f Spatial summation, 1077f
human diets and, 899 Spawning, 1020–1021 biogeographic factors affecting,
kidney processing of, 987, 988f, 989 Speciation, 504 1230f–1231f, 1232
nephron processing of, 986, 987f
osmoregulation of, 990, 991f allopatric, 509f–510f, 511 species-area curves of, 1230, 1231f
plant responses to excessive, 863 allopatric vs. sympatric, 509f, 514 in species diversity, 1220. See also Species diversity
as table salt, 29f, 38f, 49f as conceptual bridge between microevolution and Species selection, 546–547
in treating diarrhea, 139 Species transplants, 1182
Sodium ions, 1068t, 1069f, 1070 macroevolution, 504–505, 521 Specific heat, 46, 47f
Sodium-potassium pump, 137, 1068 Darwinian theory of, 471, 472f–474f Specificity
as active transport, 136, 137f genetics of, 520f cell-signaling, 227, 228f
neuron resting potential and, 1068f–1069f, 1070 of humans, 522 enzyme substrate, 155f, 156
ouabain and, 1082 hybrid zones and reproductive isolation in, 514, polymerase chain reaction, 419, 420f
Software, bioinformatics, 442, 443f–446f viral, 399
Soil 515f–517f Specific transcription factors, 371f–372f, 843
acid precipitation and, 819 as origin of species in Darwinian evolution, 504f Spectrophotometer, 193f
bacteria in, 582f, 585f, 812f–814f, 815 orthologous genes and, 564 Speech
bryophyte reduction of nitrogen leaching reproductive isolation and biological species brain function and, 1096f
FOXP2 gene and, 459f, 460
from, 625f concept in, 505f–508f Spemann, Hans, 1058, 1059f–1060f
determining diversity of bacteria in, 1221f species selection and differential, 546–547 Spemann’s organizer, 1060f
fungi in, 654f sympatric, 511, 512f–513f, 514 Sperm, 1017–1018
limiting nutrients in, 1242 time course of, 518f–519f, 520 biased usage of, in female fruit flies, 1022f
plant resource acquisition from, 785 Species, 505 chromosomes in human, 236–237
plant response to excessive salt in, 142, 863 biological concept of, 505f–508f conception and, 1032f
prokaryotes in, as protection against plant classification of, 12f–13f, 468, 552, 553f, E–2–E–3 in fertilization, 1042, 1043f, 1044
communities and, 4f. See also Communities flagellated, in plants, 617
diseases, 588 comparing developmental processes of, 461f–462f human spermatogenesis and, 1025, 1026f
species distributions and, 1184 comparing genomes of, 457, 458f–459f, 460 as male gametes, 1018, 1020f–1022f, 1023
sustainable agriculture and conservation of, complete genome sequences for, 440–441, 446t mammalian sex determination and, 298f
cross-species gene expression in evolution of, 421 seed plant. See Pollen grains
805f–807f C. Darwin’s theory of origin and evolution of, Spermathecae, 709, 1022f
texture and composition of, 804f–805f Spermatids, 1026f
Soil conservation, 805f–807f 14f–16f, 471, 472f–474f. See also Evolution; Spermatocytes, 1026f
Soil horizons, 804f Speciation Spermatogenesis, 1025, 1026f, 1029f, 1040
Soil worm as model organism. See discovery of new, 1162f, 1258f Spermatogonia, 1026f
distributions of. See Species distributions Spermicidal foam or jelly, 1036f
Caenorhabditis elegans diversity of. See Species diversity Spermophilus parryii, 891
Solar energy dominant, keystone, and foundation, 1224f Sphagnum moss, 626f
edge, 1269 S phase, 237f
absorption of, determining primary production endangered or threatened, 1260f, 1270f Sphenodon punctatus, 734f
with, 1240f endemic, 481 Spherical prokaryotes, 572f
extinction of mollusc, 700f, 701 Sphincters, 904f–905f
in energy flow and chemical cycling, 9f, 1238f fusion of, 517f precapillary, 930f
global energy budget and, 1239 genome size, number of genes, gene density, and Sphygmomanometer, 929f
noncoding DNA for, 446t, 447
geographic distribution of, 480–481

INDEX I-46

Index Spiders, 706f Stationary cilia, 1062 Stramenopiles, 595f, 599f–601f, 602
Spike mosses, 629, 630f, 631 Statistics, 17 Strangling aerial roots, 758f
Spilogale species, 506f Statocysts, 1110f Strasburger, Eduard, 792
Spina bifida, 1053 Statoliths, 859f, 1110f Strata, 468f, 526, 527f
Spinal cord, 1084f–1086f Stator, ATP synthase, 175f Stratified squamous epithelium, 875f
Spines, 760f Stechmann, Alexandra, 609f Strawberry poison dart frogs, 522
Spines, sea star, 712f Steinbeck, John, 805f Streams, 1178f, 1272
Spinnerets, 706 Stele, 761, 767f Streptococcus, 573f, 583f, 956
Spiny-headed worms, 685f Stem cells, 426, 933 Streptococcus pneumoniae, 315f, 577
Spiny mouse, 1214 Streptococcus pyogenes, 402f
Spiral cleavage, 679f animal embryonic and adult, 429f, 430 Stress
Spiral phyllotaxy, 784 animal induced pluripotent, 430f, 431
Spiral prokaryotes, 572f generation of differentiated cells from, 429f adrenal gland response to, 1001f, 1010f–1011f, 1012
Spiral valve, shark, 725 glia as, 1085, 1086f ethylene in plant responses to, 851f
Spirobranchus giganteus, 701f plant, 764 immune systems and, 969
Spirochetes, 583f potential of, 427 Stretch receptors, 1108
Spirodela oligorrhiza, 101f in replacement of blood components, 933f, 934 Striated muscle, 877f, 1124. See also Skeletal muscle
Spliceosomes, 346f in spermatogenesis, 1040 Striga, 853
Split-brain effect, 1096 Stems, 759 Strigolactones, 844t, 848, 853
Sponges, 673, 680, 681f, 685f, 688f, 689 ethylene in triple response of, to mechanical Strobili, 629
Spongocoel, 688f Strokes, 935f, 937
Spongy mesophyll, 769f stress, 851f Stroke volume, 925
Spontaneous abortions, 306, 1037 gibberellins in elongation of, 849f Stroma, 110, 111f, 189f, 191f, 192, 200f, 201
Spontaneous change, 148f monocot vs. eudicot, 647f Stromatolites, 527f, 532
Spontaneous mutations, 360, 386 primary and secondary growth of, 764f–765f, 770f Structural formulas, 36, 37f, 59f, 74f
Spontaneous processes, 146 primary growth of, 767f–769f Structural isomers, 61f
Sporangia, 619f, 625, 629, 638f, 639, 661f secondary growth of, 770f–772f Structural polysaccharides, 70f–72f
Spores, 618f, 655 structure of, 759f Structural proteins, 76f
Stenohaline animals, 977 Structure, function and, 6
in alternation of generations, 258f Stentor coeruleus, 591 Strychnine, 1218
brown algae, 601f, 602 Stents, 935f Studies. See Inquiry Figures
cell signaling and bacterial, 213f Steppes, 1173f Sturnella magna, 505f
fossilized plant, 620f Sterility Sturnella neglecta, 505f
fungal, 653f, 655, 656f–657f hybrid, 507f, 520 Sturtevant, Alfred H., 305f–306f
of plants, 618f–619f transgenic plant, 838 Styles, flower, 642f, 821
meiosis and production of, 271n Sterilization, human, 1037 Subatomic particles, 30f, 31
seeds vs., 636–637 Steroid hormones, 75 Suberin, 772
variations of, in vascular plants, 629 coordinate control of genes by, 374 Subsidence, land, 806f
Sporocytes, 619f functional groups and, 62f Substance P, 1079
Sporophylls, 629 as intracellular chemical signals, 220, 221f Substrate feeders, 901f
Sporophytes, 618f, 821 as lipids, 75f Substrate-level phosphorylation, 168, 169f
in alternation of generations, 258f smooth ER synthesis of, 104–105 Substrates, 155f, 156, 160f–161f
brown algae, 601f, 602 Steroids, 75 Succulent Karoo restoration project, 1252f
of bryophytes, 624f, 625 adrenal gland and, 1010f, 1011 Succulent plants, 205, 206f
gametophyte relationships with, in plants, 635f brassinosteroids as, 853 Suckling, 1035
in pine tree life cycle, 638f, 639 as environmental toxins, 1275 Sucrase, 153, 155
of plants, 618f–619f in human endocrine system, 1002f Sucrose
of seedless vascular plants, 627f–628f as lipid-soluble hormones, 1000f as disaccharide, 69f
Sporopollenin, 617, 619f, 636 receptors for, 1001f enzymatic catalysis and, 153, 155
Sporozoites, 602, 603f sex hormones as, 1012, 1013f molecular mass of, 50
Spotted ratfish (Hydrolagus colliei), 725f Steward, F. C., 427 plant cell uptake of, 142
Spotted skunks (Spilogale species), 506f Stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus), 479, 544f, as product of photosynthesis, 206, 207f
Spruce, 1228f transport of, in vascular plants, 797, 798f–799f
Squamates, 735f 545, 1138f Sudden oak death (SOD), 612f, 1232
Squamous epithelium, 875f Sticky end, DNA, 418 Sugarcane, 206f
Squids, 697, 699f, 700, 1084f Stigma, 642f Sugar gliders, 479f
Squirrel monkeys, 1120f Stigma, angiosperm, 821 Sugar-phosphate backbone, DNA, 85f–86f, 317f–320f,
Squirrels, 830f Stimulus, 880
Srb, Adrian, 336, 337f 325f–326f
S-shaped logistic growth curve, 1196f environmental, 1138f–1139f Sugars. See also Carbohydrates
Stability, community, 1221f, 1226 homeostatic, 880
Stability, equilibrium as, 147, 148f sensory, 1106f, 1107f blood regulation, 10f
Stability, hybrid zone, 517f, 518 in stimulus-response chains, 1139f, 1140 as components of nucleic acids, 84, 85f
Stability, population, 1202f, 1203, 1206 Stingrays, 724, 725f conduction of, in plant cells, 763f
Stabilizing selection, 496f Stink bugs, 710f monosaccharides and disaccharides, 68f–69f
Stable isotopes, 31 Stipes, 600f polysaccharides, 70f–72f
Staghorn coral, 1232 Stock, 833 as products of photosynthesis, 191f, 192, 201, 202f,
Staghorn fern, 817f Stolons, 759f
Stahl, Franklin, 322f Stomach, 905 206, 207f
Stalk-eyed flies, 1150f adaptations of, 910f translocation of, from sources to sinks via phloem,
Stamens, 270f, 271, 642f, 821 chemical digestion in, 905f–906f
Staminate flowers, 832 dynamics of, 906 797, 798f–799f
Standard deviation, F–3 Stomach ulcers, 582f Sugar sinks, 798
Standard error, 588 Stomata, 189, 620, 769f, 775f Sugar sources, 798
Standard metabolic rate (SMR), 889f, 890 of CAM plants, 205, 206f Suicide genes, 388
Stanley, Wendell, 397 of horsetail, 633 Sulfhydryl group, 63f
Staphylococcus aureus, 214f, 476f, 477, 583f ion gradients and, 991f Sulfur, 29t, 56, 64
Star anise, 648f, 651 in photosynthesis, 189f Sulfur bacteria, 582f
Starches, 70 photosynthesis–water loss compromise, 785 Sulfur dioxide emissions, 1264f
as fuel for catabolism, 182f plant, 620 Sulston, John, 1056–1057
as product of photosynthesis, 206, 207f regulation of transpiration by opening and closing Summation, 1077
as storage polysaccharides, 70f, 71 Sumner, Francis Bertody, 20
Starfish. See Sea stars of, 794, 795f–797f Sundews, 817f
Starling, European, 1262 sporophyte, 625 Sunflowers, 519f, 892f
Star-nosed moles, 1105f transpiration and, 203 Sunlight
Start codons, 341f Stop codons, 341f, 353f
Start point, transcription, 343f Storage leaves, 760f absorption of, determining primary production
Statins, 936 Storage polysaccharides, 70f, 71 with, 1240f
Storage proteins, 76f
I-47 INDEX Storage roots, 758f aquatic biomes and, 1175
Storms, 1170, 1226 cancer and, 392
climate change and, 11 DNA damage from, 328
in energy flow and chemical cycling, 9f, 164–165,

1238f

as energy for life, 145, 150 Syndromes, 308 Technology, 23, 24f Index
global energy budget and, 1239 Synthesis stage, phage lytic cycle, 400f DNA. See Biotechnology; DNA technology
latitudinal variation in intensity of, 1164f Synthetases, 349f global carrying capacity and, 1209
in photosynthesis, 187f, 206, 207f Syphilis, 583f prokaryotes in research and, 587, 588f–589f
primary production in aquatic ecosystems and Systematics, 552, 680, 681f, 682. See also Cladistics;
Tectonic plates, 536f–537f
limitations of, 1240 Molecular systematics; Taxonomy Teeth
properties of, 192f Systemic acquired resistance, 864, 865f
species distributions and availability of, 1184f Systemic circuit, 922f, 923 conodont mineralized dental elements, 722f
Supercontinent, 536, 537f Systemic inflammatory response, 955 diet and adaptations of, 909f, 910
Supergroups, protist, 592–593, 594f–595f Systemic lupus erythematosus, 969 mammalian, 528, 529f, 739
Superimposed electron orbitals model, 35f Systemic mycoses, 668 origins of, 723
Supernatural vs. natural explanations, 18 Systems Teixobactin, 476
Super-resolution microscopy, 95f, 96 Telomerase, 329
Super weeds, 436–437 systems biology and biological, 5–6 Telomeres, 328, 329f, 450
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 891f, 1013, thermodynamics and isolated vs. open, 145, Telomeric DNA, 450
Telophase (mitosis), 237, 239f, 243f, 252, 263f
1092–1093 149f–150f Telophase I, 260f, 263f
Surface area Systems biology, 6, 444, 445f–446f Telophase II, 261f
Systole phase, 925f Temperate broadleaf forests, 1174f
calculating cell volume and, 99 Systolic pressure, 928, 929f Temperate forests, decomposition in, 1246
leaf, 629f Szostak, Jack, 465f, 526 Temperate grasslands, 1173f
maximizing, by animals, 693f Temperate phages, 400, 401f
Surface area-volume relationships, 98f T Temperature, 46
Surface tension, 45, 46f aquatic biomes and, 1175, 1176f
Surfactants, 941 T2 phage, 316f, 317 climographs of, 1169f
Surroundings, systems and, 145 Table salt. See Sodium chloride coefficients in Scientific Skills Exercise, 788
Survival Tables in Scientific Skills Exercises, 58, 89, 157, 179, correlation of atmospheric carbon dioxide with
adaptations, natural selection, and, 473f, 474
gecko appearance and, 27 205, 264, 304, 318, 456, 491, 511, 568, 588, global, 1275f–1279f
life histories and, 1198, 1199f–1200f 593, 627, 637, 655, 676, 749, 760, 788, 832, decomposition rates and, 1246f
Survivorship curves, 1191, 1192f 916, 936, 971, 979, 1012, 1028, 1047, 1080, effects of transpiration on leaf, 796
Suspension feeding, 719f, 725, 901f 1184, 1215, 1245, 1276 enzymatic catalysis and, 157, 158f
Suspensor cells, 826f TACK supergroup, 585 global, and extinction rates, 539f, 540
Sustainability, 1281 Tactile communication, 1139f heat vs., 46
Sustainable agriculture, 806 Tadpoles, 379f, 730f membrane proteins and, 128f
in Costa Rica zoned reserves, 1271 Taiga, 1173f moderation by water, 46, 47f
soil conservation in, 805f–807f Tail, muscular post-anal, 718f plant response to stress of, 863
Sustainable development, 1281f–1282f Tails, histone, 330f, 369f primary production in terrestrial biomes and,
Sutherland, Earl W., 216f, 217, 223 Takahe bird, 1252f
Sutton, Walter S., 294 TAL protein, 334 1241, 1242f, 1243
Swallowing reflex, 904f Tamiflu, 412 protein denaturation and, 82f, 83
Sweden, 1206 Tamoxifen, 250, 391f regulation of body. See Thermoregulation
Sweet potatoes, 649 tangled-1 mutant, 774 species distributions and, 1183f
Sweet tastes, 1121f–1122f Tannins, 1218 Templates, viral DNA and RNA, 403f, 404t
Swim bladders, 726 Tansley, A. G., 1226 Template strands, DNA, 320, 321f–322f, 324f–327f, 340
Swimming, 1133 Tapeworms, 685f, 694, 695f Tempo, speciation, 518f–519f
Swine flu, 408, 1232–1233 Tappania fossil, 527f Temporal fenestra, 529f, 739
Switchgrass, 836 Tapping, in fruit fly courtship, 1139f, 1140 Temporal isolation, 506f
Symbionts, 586 Taproots, 757f–758f Temporal lobe, 1095f
Symbiosis, 586, 1254f. See also Commensalism; Taq polymerase, 419, 1261 Temporal summation, 1077f
Tardigrades, 687f, 978f Tendons, 876f, 1136
Mutualism; Parasitism Target cells, hormone, 998, 1000f–1001f, 1002 Tendrils, 760f
in flower pollination, 820–821 Tarsiers, 744 Tentacles, invertebrate, 684, 689f, 699, 701f
fungal, 659f, 660, 665f–667f Tar spot fungus, 667f Terminal cells, 826f
protist, 612f Tasmania, 1183f Termination, neurotransmission, 1078f
sym genes, 658 Tastants, 1121f–1122f Termination codons, 341f
Symmetry Taste, 233, 1121f–1122f Termination stage
animal body, 677f, 678 Taste buds, 1122f transcription, 343f, 344
body, 1057–1058, 1062f TATA boxes, 343f, 344, 371 translation, 353f
flower, 642f, 647f Tatum, Edward, 336f–337f, 338 Terminators, 342, 343f
plant cell division, 774, 775f–776f Tau protein, 1102 Termites, 612f, 653
Sympathetic division, peripheral nervous system, Taxis, 574 Terns, 1236f
Taxol, 249 Terpenoids, 866f
926f, 1087f–1088f Taxon, 552, 553f–554f, 558 Terrestrial adaptations
Sympatric populations, character displacement in, Taxonomy, 552, E–2–E–3. See also Cladistics; mycorrhizae as plant, 815
Phylogenies; Systematics seed plant, 635f–636f, 637
1214, 1215f early schemes of, 468 Terrestrial biomes
Sympatric speciation, 511, 512f–513f, 514 grouping of species in, 12f–13f animal osmoregulation in, 978–979
Symplast, 785, 786f mammalian, 742f–743f biodiversity hot spots in, 1270f
Symplastic communication, 799, 800f phyla of extant plants, 621t biomass pyramids in, 1245f
Symplastic domains, 800 phylogenies and, 552, 553f–554f chaparral, 1172f
Symplastic route, 786f, 791f possible plant kingdoms, 617f climate and, 1168, 1169f
Synapses, 1066 three-domain system of, 12f, 13, 566, 567f climate change effects on, 1242f, 1243
tree of life of, 15f–16f decomposition in, 1246
electrical and chemical, 1075, 1076f Tay-Sachs disease, 280 deserts, 1171f
generation of postsynaptic potentials and, allele dominance and, 280 disturbance in, 1170
fetal testing for, 288, 289f food chains in, 1222f
1076–1077 as lysosomal storage disease, 108 general features of, 1169, 1170f
in memory and learning, 1097, 1098f–1099f recessive alleles in, 285 global distribution of, 1169f
modulated signaling at, 1078 T cells, 956 habitat loss in, 1262
neurotransmitters and, 1075, 1076f, 1078f, antigen recognition by, 957f–958f locomotion in, 1133f
cell-mediated immune response and, 961 northern coniferous forests, 1173f
1079t, 1080 clonal selection of, 960, 961f nutrient cycling in, 1248f–1249f
in regulation of muscle contraction, 1126, development of, 958, 959f–961f plant adaptations to, 203
diversity of, 958, 959f primary production in, 1241, 1242f, 1243
1127f, 1128 DNA of, 974 savannas, 1172f
scaffolding proteins and, 228f, 229 immunological memory, 960, 961f temperate broadleaf forests, 1174f
summation of postsynaptic potentials and, 1077f proliferation of, 960f temperate grasslands, 1173f
Synapsids, 529f, 739f, 740 regulatory, 969 tropical forests, 1171f
Synapsis, 262f Tea, 649 tundra, 1174f, 1254f–1255f
Synaptic cleft, 1076 Teal, John, 1245
Synaptic signaling, 215f, 216, 998f, 999
Synaptic terminals, 1066
Synaptic vesicles, 1075
Synaptonemal complex, 262f
Syndermata, 685f

INDEX I-48

Index Territoriality, 1190f, 1191, 1203f Thyroid gland, 1002f, 1007f, 1008 Trade-offs, life history, 1199f–1200f
Tertiary consumers, 1238f Thyroid hormone (T3 and T4), 1002f, 1007f, 1013f Tragopogon species, 512, 513f
Thyroid hormones, 179, 220 Traits, 270. See also Alleles
trophic efficiency of, 1244, 1245f, 1246 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 1002f,
Tertiary structure, protein, 81f characters and, 270–271
Testcrosses, 274, 275f, 301f–302f 1006f–1007f C. Darwin on natural selection and, 14f–16f
Testes, 257f, 258, 1002f, 1012, 1013f, 1023f, 1029f Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), 1007f dominant vs. recessive, 271f, 272t, 285f
Testicles, 1023f Thyroxine (T4), 1000f, 1007, 1013f inheritance of, in Darwinian evolution, 473f, 474
Testing, genetic. See Genetic testing Tiburon Mariposa lily (Calochortus tiburonensis), 30f inheritance of X-linked genes and recessive,
Testing, hypothesis, 17, 18f–19f Ticks, 587f, 706, 1233f
Testosterone, 62f, 395, 1012, 1013f, 1028, 1029f Tidal volume, 943 299f, 300
Tests, foraminiferan, 605 Tiger moths, 715 plant derived, 617, 618f–619f, 620
Test-tube cloning, 834f Tigers, 293, 1284 life history, 1198, 1199f–1200f
Tetanus, 1128 Tiger swallowtail, 313 noninheritance of acquired, 469f
Tetrahymena, 346 Tight junctions, 120f seedless vascular plant, 626, 627f–629f
Tetraploids, 512 Tiktaalik fossil, 527f, 728f, 729 Transacetylase, 366f
Tetraploidy, 307 Tilghman, Shirley, 253f, 311 Transcription, 338
Tetrapods, 728 Time effects of ncRNAs on, 378f, 379
eukaryotic gene regulation after, 375f, 376
amniotes, 732f–733f phylogenetic tree branch lengths and, 559, 560f in gene expression and protein synthesis, 7f–8f, 9,
amphibians, 730f–731f required for human cell division, 237
derived characters of, 728 Tinbergen, Niko, 1138, 1143f 336, 338, 339f
evolution of, 676 Ti plasmid, 436, 774f gene expression as, 369
homologous characteristics of, 478f, 479 Tissue culture, plant, 834f molecular components and stages of, 342, 343f
land colonization by, 535 Tissue-level herbivore defenses, plant, 866f regulation of, in plant responses, 843
as lobe-fins, 728 Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA), 434, 455f regulation of bacterial, 364f–367f
origin and phylogeny of, 728f–729f Tissues, 5f, 672, 757, 874 regulation of eukaryotic initiation of, 370f–375f
origin of, 528, 529f animal, 672, 874, 875f–877f RNA processing after, 345f–347f
Tetrodotoxin, 811f animal body plan and, 678 summary of eukaryotic, 356f
Texture, soil, 804f culturing plant, 834f synthesis of RNA transcript during, 343f–344f
Thalamus, 1091f, 1093f, 1095 of human endocrine system, 1002f template strands in, 340
Thalidomide, 65 immune system rejection of transplanted, 967 Transcription factories, 375f
Thalloid liverworts, 624f as level of biological organization, 5f Transcription factors, 343f, 344
Thaumarchaeota clade, 585 plant, 757, 760, 761f in cell signaling, 221f, 226f
Themes of biology, 4f–16f proteins specific to, in cell differentiation, 381 in eukaryotic gene regulation, 371f–374f
Theobroma cacao, 665f, 666 renewal of, as cell division function, 234, 235f Transcription initiation complex, 343f, 344, 370f–372f
Theories, 21–22, 481–482, F–3 substitutes for, 895 Transcription units, 342
Therapeutic cloning, 430 Tissue-specific proteins, 381 Transduction, genetic, 577f
Therapsids, 529f Tissue systems, plant, 760 Transduction, sensory, 1107, 1112, 1113f, 1118f
Thermal energy, 46, 132, 144 in leaves, 768, 769f Transduction stage, cell-signaling, 217
Thermocline, 1175, 1176f in primary growth of roots, 766f–767f multistep pathways and signal amplification
Thermodynamics, laws of, 145f–146, 1237 in primary growth of shoots, 767f–769f
Thermogenesis, 885f–886f types of, 760, 761f in, 221
Thermophiles, 439, 584f, 585 Tit-for-tat strategy, 1157 overview of, 216f, 217
Thermoreceptors, 1109f Tmesipteris, 630f, 631 in plant signal transduction pathways, 842f, 843
Thermoregulation, 882 Toadfish, 1129f protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation
acclimatization in, 886 Toads, 514, 515f, 517, 730
aquatic animal feedback regulation in, 879f Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), 397f, 398f, 410 in, 222f, 223
balancing heat loss and gain in, 883f–886f Tobacco plant, 342f signal transduction pathways and, 221–222
circadian rhythms in human, 880, 881f Toll-like receptors (TLRs), 953f, 974 small molecules and ions as second messengers in,
desert ant form and function for, 871f, 872 Tollund man, 626f
in endothermic and ectothermic animals, 882f Tomatoes, 643f, 847 223f–225f
physiological thermostats and fever in, 886, 887f Tongue, 904f, 1122f in yeast-cell mating, 213
variation in animal body temperatures and, Tonicity, 134f–135f trans face, Golgi apparatus, 106f, 107
Tools, hominin use of, 748–749 Trans fats, 61, 74, 936
882–883 Tooth cavities, 215 Transfer RNA (tRNA), 348. See also RNA
Thermostatic thermoregulation, 886, 887f Top-down model, trophic control, 1225
Thermus aquaticus, 419, 439 Topoisomerases, 323f, 327t, 331f (ribonucleic acid)
Theropods, 734 Topsoil, 804, 805f structure of, 86f, 348f
Thick filaments, 1123, 1124f–1125f, 1129–1130 Torpor, 890, 891f in translation, 347f–350f, 352, 353f
Thigmomorphogenesis, 859, 860f Tortoiseshell cats, 300f Transformation, cancer and cellular, 249f
Thigmotropism, 860f Total biomass accumulation, 1240 Transformation, energy, 143f–146f, 147, 209f. See also
Thin filaments, 1123, 1124f–1125f, 1129–1130 Totipotent amoebocytes, 689
Thiol compounds, 63f Totipotent cells, 427, 1058, 1059f Metabolism
Thiomargarita namibiensis, 572, 582f Totipotent plants, 833 Transformation, genetic, 315f, 577, 774
Thirst, 1108 Touch, plant response to, 859, 860f Transfusions, blood, 968
Thlaspi caerulescens, 807 Touch receptors, 1108f Transgene escape issue, 837–838
Thompson seedless grapes, 849f Tourism, zoned reserves and, 1271, 1272f Transgenes, 434f, 774, 839
Thoracic cavity, 940, 943 Toxic waste Transgenic animals, 434
Thorax, insect, 708f bioremediation of, 1251, 1253f Transgenic plants, 835. See also Genetically modified
Threatened species, 1260f, 1270f biotechnology in cleanup of, 416f, 435–436
Threonine, 77f, 222 density-dependent population regulation organisms
Threshold, 1071 biotechnology and genetic engineering of,
Thrombin, 934f by, 1203f
Thrombus, 935, 937 Toxins 835, 836f
Thrum flower, 833f improving plant nutrition with, 809, 810f
Thucydides, 960 acetylcholine and, 1079 issues about agricultural crops as, 436–437, 836–838
Thumbs, opposable, 744 detoxification and, 104–105, 112 producing, using Ti plasmid, 774f
Thunnus albacares, 727f dinoflagellate, 602 prokaryotes in genetic engineering of, 588
Thylakoid membranes, 189f, 190, 196f–200f, 201 environmental, 1274f–1275f trans isomers, 61f
Thylakoids, 110, 189 enzymatic catalysis and, 158–159 Transitional ER, 105f
evolution of tolerance to, 30f Transition state, 154
ATP production and, 211 fungal, 667f Translation, 338
in chloroplasts, 110, 111f as prey defensive adaptations, 1215 basic concept of, 347f
light reactions in, 191f, 192 soil, 807, 809 building polypeptides in, 350f–353f
as sites of photosynthesis in chloroplasts, 189f, 190 T phages, 398f–400f completing and targeting functional proteins in,
Thylakoid space, 189f Trace elements, 29t
Thymidylate synthase (TS), 609f Tracers, radioactive, 31, 32f, 190 354f, 355
Thymine, 84, 85f, 86, 317f, 318, 338, 340f Trachea, 904f, 940, 941f in eukaryotic cells, 356f
Thymine dimers, 328 Tracheal systems, insect, 706, 708f, 939, 940f in gene expression and protein synthesis, 336,
Thymus, 956 Tracheids, 628, 763f
338, 339f
I-49 INDEX identifying ribosome binding sites with sequence

logos in, 351
molecular components of, 347f–349f, 350
post-translational protein modification in plant

responses, 843
regulation of eukaryotic initiation of, 376
ribosomes in, 349, 350f

summary of eukaryotic, 356f Trichomonas vaginalis, 597f Turner syndrome, 309 Index
synthesizing multiple polypeptides with Triglycerides, 72, 73f, 74, 909f Turnover, 1175, 1176f
Triiodothyronine (T3), 1007 Turtles, 717f, 735f, 736, 1064, 1188f, 1192, 1193f
polyribosomes in, 355f Trilobites, 704f Tutu, Desmond, 460
transfer RNA in, 347f–349f Trimesters, human pregnancy, 1033f–1035f Twins, 1034, 1059, 1160
Translation initiation complex, 352f Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), 977 Twin studies, 1142
Translation initiation factors, 376 Trioses, 68f Tympanic membrane, 1110f–1111f
Translocation, 352, 353f, 354–355 Triple response, plant, 851f Tympanuchus cupido, 493f, 494, 1265f
Translocation, cancer gene, 386f, 387 Triplet code, 340f. See also Genetic code Type 1 diabetes, 915
Translocation, plant transport, 797, 798f–799f Triploblastic animals, 678 Type 2 diabetes, 915
Translocations, chromosome, 307, 308f, 309f Triploidy, 268, 307 Typhoid fever, 587
Transmembrane proteins, 129f–130f, 217f–220f Trisomic cells, 307 Tyrannosaurus rex, 734
Transmembrane route, 786f, 791f Trisomy 21. See Down syndrome Tyrosinase, 338
Transmission, sensory, 1107f Trisomy X, 309 Tyrosine, 77f, 222, 1007, 1079
Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 95f, 96 Tristan da Cunha, 493 Tyrosinemia, 433
Transmission rate, disease, 1202f Triticum species, 512–513, 522
Transpiration, 791 Trochophore larva, 681f, 683, 692 U
effects of, on plant wilting and leaf Trophic cascade model, 1225
Trophic efficiency, 1244, 1245f, 1246 Ubiquinone (Q), 175
temperature, 796 Trophic level, 1222 Ubiquitin, 376
plant adaptations for reducing evaporative water Trophic levels, 1255f Ubx gene, 543f, 544, 705f
Ulcers, 582f, 906, 910, 911f
loss by, 796, 797f in ecosystem energy flow and chemical cycling, Ultimate causation, 1138
regulation of, by opening and closing stomata, 1238f, 1239 Ultrasonic sound, 715
Ultrasound fetal testing, 289
794, 795f–797f energy transfer between, 1244, 1245f, 1246 Ultrasound imaging, 1037
in water and mineral transport from roots to Trophic structure, 1221 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

shoots via xylem, 790, 791f–793f, 794 bottom-up and top-down controls on, and cancer and, 392
in water cycle, 1248f biomanipulation of, 1225f Chlamydomonas nivalis and, 211
Transpirational pull, 792f–793f DNA damage from, 328
Transplants energetic hypothesis on restriction of food chain elevation and, affecting species distributions, 1184f
immune system rejection of organ, 967 length, 1223f in insect vision, 1115–1116
species, 1182 mutations from, 360
Transport, plant and animal, 893f. See also Circulatory food webs of food chains in, 1222f–1223f ozone depletion and, 1280f, 1281
species with large impacts on, 1223, 1224f Ulva, 607f
systems; Transport in vascular plants Trophoblasts, 1033, 1050, 1051f Umami taste, 233, 1121f–1122f
Transport epithelia, 979, 980f, 986, 987f Tropical cone snails, 1065f, 1067f Undershoot phase, action potential, 1072f, 1073
Transport function, membrane protein, 130f Tropical dry forests, 1171f Unger, Franz, 270
Transport in vascular plants, 628. See also Vascular plants Tropical rain forests, 1171f Ungulates, 479f–480f
climate change and photosynthesis of, 211 Unicellular organisms, 532f–533f
regulation of transpiration rate by stomata in, 794, decomposition in, 1246 Uniform dispersion, 1190f, 1191
795f–797f deforestation of, as threat to biodiversity, 649f, Unikonts, 595f, 608, 609f–611f
Unisexual flowers, 822
resource acquisition adaptations and, 650, 1258f–1259f, 1262 United States, age-structure pyramid for, 1207f
782f–784f, 785 fragmentation of, 1269f Unity
primary production in, 1241 in biodiversity, 13f–14f, 27
short-distance and long-distance mechanisms of, Tropic hormones, 1006f cellular structures and, 125
785, 786f–789f, 790 Tropic of Cancer, 1164f evolution and, 466f, 471
Tropic of Capricorn, 1164f in universality of genetic code, 341, 342f
sugar transport from sources to sinks via phloem Tropics, 1164f, 1230 Unlinked genes
in, 797, 798f–799f Tropidolaemus wagleri, 735f identifying, 304
Tropisms, 845 mapping, 305f–306f
symplastic communication in, 799, 800f Tropomyosin, 1126f–1127f recombination of, 302f
of water and minerals from roots to shoots via Troponin complex, 1126f Unpaired electrons, 36
Troponin T, 375f Unsaturated fats, 73f, 74, 128f
xylem, 790, 791f–793f, 794 Trout, 726f, 1264 Unsaturated fatty acids, 73f, 74
xylem and phloem in, 763f trp operator, 365f Unselfish behavior, 1154f–1155f
Transport proteins, 76f, 132 trp operon, 365f, 366–367 Untranslated regions (UTRs), 345f, 376
in active transport, 136, 137f TRP (transient receptor potential) proteins, 1109, 1122 Upright posture, hominin, 746
aquaporins, 788–789 trp repressor, 365f Upwelling, 1241
cellular membrane selective permeability and, 132 True-breeding organisms, 271 Uracil, 84, 85f, 86, 338, 340f–341f
as cotransporters, 138f, 139 True bugs, 710f Uranium
facilitated diffusion and, 135f, 136 Truffles, 661f, 668 bioremediation of, 1253f
ion pumps and, 138 Trypanosoma, 598f, 711, 971 half-life of, 32
plant solute transport and, 786, 787f Trypsin, 158f Uranium-238, 528f
water diffusion and, 788–789 Tryptophan, 77f, 364f–365f, 1079 Urban ecology, 1272
Transport vesicles, 105, 106f, 107, 109f, 139, 140f Tsetse flies, 711 Urea, 57, 60–61, 977, 980, 981f, 987, 988f, 989
Transport work, 150, 152f Tuataras (Sphenodon punctatus), 734f Ureter, 984f
Transposable elements, 448f–449f, 450, 457 Tubal ligation, 1036f, 1037 Urethra, 984f, 1023f, 1024
Transposase, 449f Tubal pregnancies, 1033 Urey, Harold, 57, 524
Transposition process, 448f–449f, 450, 457 Tube cells, 644f, 824 Uric acid, 981f
Transposons, 378, 406, 449f Tube feet, 711, 712f Urinary bladder, 984f
Transthyretin protein, 80f–81f Tuberculosis, 583f, 587, 956, 1202f Urine
Transverse (T) tubules, 1126f–1127f Tubers, 759f hyperosmotic, 989
Tree frogs, 498f Tubeworms, 912f nephron processing of blood filtrate to, 986, 987f
Treehopper, 464 Tubules, kidney, 984f two-solute model of concentration of, 987, 988f, 989
Tree of life Tubulidentata, 742f–743f Urochordata (tunicates), 717f, 719f, 720
Darwinian evolution and, 15f–16f, 472f. See also Tubulin, 114, 240–241 Urodela, 730f
Tubulinids, 610–611 Ursus arctos, 508f, 1266f, 1267, 1271
Evolutionary trees Tumbleweeds, 830f Ursus maritimus, 11, 508f
phylogenies in investigation of, 551f–552f, 566, Tumors, 433 Urticularia gibba, 446t, 447
Tumors, cancer, 249f, 250 USA300 bacteria, 476f
567f–568f Tumor-suppressor genes, 387, 389f, 392 Use and disuse principle, Lamarck’s, 469
three-domain taxonomy of, 566, 567f Tumor viruses, 392 Uterine cycle, 1029, 1031
Tree rings, 771f Tuna, 727f, 872f, 1263f Uterus, 100f, 1024, 1025f
Trees Tundra, 1174f, 1236f, 1254f–1255f Utricle, 1113f
climate change effects on CO2 absorption by, 1243 Tunicates, 713, 717f, 719f, 720, 1056f
ecosystem interaction with, 10f–11 Turgid cells, 134f, 135, 788, 789f, 795f
photosynthesis in, 187f Turgor movements, plant, 860f
Tree trunks, 772f Turgor pressure, 134f, 135, 787
Trematodes, 694f
Trends, evolutionary, 546, 547f
Triacylglycerols, 72, 73f, 74
Trial-and-error learning, 1144f
Tricarboxylic acid cycle. See Citric acid cycle
Trichechus manatus, 570
Trichinosis, 703f, 704
Trichomes, 761f, 797f, 866f

INDEX I-50