Anesthesia Potpourri: Problem‐Based Learning ‐
A Comparison of Common Antiemetics, Neuroleptic
Malignant Syndrome, & Rare Diseases in
Nurse Anesthesia Practice
Thomas Corey Davis, PhD, CRNA
A Comparison of Common Antiemetics
History of Antiemetics
• 1958 – 1st solid tumor cured w/ chemotherapy
– Methotrexate – not highly emetogenic, prophylactic antiemetic tx not
required
• 1963 – 1st clinical trial of 5 agents vs. 5‐fluourouracil‐induced
emesis
• Increased interest in antiemetic tx in 1978 w/ approval of
Cisplatin
– ALL will vomit w/in 24 hours after infusion, most w/in 2‐4 hours
– High dose Metoclopramide (Reglan) first effective agent
Classes
• Dopamine (D2)‐Receptor antagonists (D2‐RAs)
• Corticosteroids
• Serotonin (5‐HT)3‐receptor antagonists (5‐HT3‐RAs)
• Neurokinin1‐receptor antagonists (NK1‐RAs)
• Cannabinoids are a 5th class, but may be illegal!
D2‐RAs
• First antiemetics
• Primarily used today as rescue, not recommended as
first line treatment d/t frequent development of
extrapyramidal side effects, esp. in younger patients
• Domperidone & Metopimazine do not have EP s/e,
but are not distributed worldwide
– Metopimazine is especially effective against nausea
5‐HT3 RAs
• First class of drugs specifically developed for
antiemesis
• Ondansetron, granisetron, tropisetron, dolasetron,
palanosetron
– More effective vs. vomiting than nausea
– Very effective vs. acute emesis
Corticosteroids
• Used as antiemetics for 30 years
• Knowledge of MOA & optimal dose schedule still
limited
• Improve effects of almost all other antiemetics, and
have some effect vs. nausea alone, well‐tolerated for
1‐5 days as purely antiemetics
NK1‐RAs
• Aprepitant approved in 2003 (1st drug in class)
• Casopitant (still in trials)
• Improve effects of 5‐HT3‐RAs + dexamethasone, even vs.
Cisplatin
– Most significant effect vs. vomiting
– Nausea relief more limited to cisplatin‐induced nausea only
– More effective vs. delayed emesis compared to 5‐HT3‐RAs
PONV
• 2 of the most common & unpleasant s/e
• Overall incidence
– Decreased from 60% w/ ether & cyclopropane
– Approximately 30% at present
– In certain high risk populations, could be as high as 70%
• 1 episode of N/V prolongs PACU stay by 25 min
Vomiting Center
• Ill‐defined region
• Areas contain histamine, serotonin, cholinergic,
neurokinin‐1, and D2 receptors
• Vomiting reflex
– Different stimulation of glossopharyngeal, hypoglossal, and
vagal nerves reaching vomiting center
At risk Patients:
• Female Gender
– Increased risk during menses and preovulatory phase d/t
sensitization of CTZ & vomiting center to FSH & estrogen
– Not noticed after age 60
• Non‐smokers
– Chronic exposure to smoke induces cytochrome P450
enzymes, increasing metabolism of drugs and decreases
their ability to cause PONV
At risk Patients:
• H/o PONV, motion sickness, or migraine
• Age
– Pediatrics – incidence up to 34% in 6‐10 years, lower in
younger, and after onset of puberty
– Adults – incidence decreases w/ age
• Obesity
– BMI > 30 ‐ ? d/t increased intra‐abdominal pressure,
prolonged duration of lipophilic anesthetics?
Anesthesia related predictors of PONV
• Postop Opioids – 2x risk
– Dose > type
– Opioids given to patients in pain did not increase risk
• Inhalation Anesthetics
– No difference in incidence of PONV among agents
– Volatile alone < “Balanced” w/ opioid
– Volatile agents are main cause of PONV w/in 1st 2 postop
hours
Anesthesia related predictors of PONV
• Nitrous Oxide
– Emetogenic effects of nitrous and inhalation agents are
additive, and not synergistic
– Substituting propofol reduced risk by 19%
– Overall reduction in PONV of 20% by avoiding Nitrous, but
absolute difference between groups is small
• 33% w/ nitrous / 27% w/o nitrous
Anesthesia related predictors of PONV
• Duration of anesthesia
– Increasing duration by 30 min = Increased risk by 60%
– Increased when inhalation agents used, decreased w/
propofol
• Surgery‐related risks
– Controversial
– Intrabdominal, laparoscopic, orthopedic, major gyn, ENT,
thyroid, breast, plastics, neurosurgery
Risk assessment
• Female, nonsmoker, h/o PONV, Post‐op opioids – 1
point each (linear increase in risk)
• Peds
– Surgery > 30 min, age 3 yrs, strabismus surgery, h/o
PONV in relatives (linear increase in risk after 1 risk factor)
5HT3 Agents
• Ondansetron, granisetron, dolasetron, tropisetron
• Effective treatment & prophylaxis of PONV
• Associated w/ low incidence of side effects
• S/E include:
– H/A, lightheadedness, dizziness, constipation (rare
incidence of myoclonus)
Metoclopramide
• Both central dopamine & serotonin receptors
• Both prokinetic and antiemetic effects
• Increases GI motility, increases gastric emptying time
and decreases gastric volume, increases LES tone
– Extrapryamidal effects & dystonia more often seen in Peds
Dexamethasone
• Corticosteroid – MOA unclear
– Peripheral prostaglandin inhibition?
– Serotonergic antagonism?
– Endorphin release?
• Long duration and low cost = attractive choice!
Droperidol
• Competitive central D2 antagonist
• Associated w/ sedation, lethargy, agitation, and
extrapyramidal effects
• “Black Box” warning d/t prolonged QTc interval
– Risk of Torsades
– Reduced use to that of rescue agent
– ECG monitoring mandatory for 2‐3 hours after use
Other Agents
• D2 antagonists: Promethazine, prochlorperazine,
chlorpromazine
– Most effective vs. opioid‐induced PONV
– Sedation limits use
• Scopolamine – anticholinergic
– Muscarinic & histamine receptor
– Effective for Opioid‐induced PONV and motion sickness
• Dry mouth, sedation limit use
Recommendations
• Risk stratification
– Low risk – no prophylaxis (except when indicated)
– Mod – high risk:
• Consider regional
• Combo therapy or multimodal w/ two+ interventions
• Rescue
– No prophylaxis or only Decadron – small dose 5HT3 RA
– If 5HT3 RA fails – don’t redose w/in 6 hours, choose different
agent
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
• Uncommon, serious side effect of neuroleptic drugs
– 1st reported case 1956, after introduction of
Chlorpromaine (thorazine)
– 1960 French study gave the syndrome its name
• Associated w/ adverse effects of Haloperidol (Haldol)
• Incidence – 0.2‐ 3.2% (1966‐1997)
– Declined to 0.01 – 0.02% w/ advent of newer neuroleptic
agents and awareness of the syndrome more prevalent
Presentation
• Develops w/in hours/days after exposure to a
causative drug
– Most w/in 2 weeks, all w/in 30 days
• Triad of fever, muscle rigidity, and altered mental
status
– May be varied in presentation
– Muscle rigidity leads to fever, then to altered LOC – mild
drowsiness, agitation, confusion, severe delirium to coma
Signs/Symptoms
• ANS instability
– Labile BP, tachypnea, tachycardia, sialorrhea, diaphoresis,
flushing, skin pallor, incontinence
• Once S/Sx appear, progression may be rapid, reaching
peak intensity w/in 3 days
• Motor rigidity is most frequent motor sign
– Extrapyramidal sx such as tremor, chorea, akinesia, and
dystonic movements
Diagnosis
• Severe muscle rigidity and elevated temperature
associated w/ use of neuroleptic medications and 2
or more of the following:
– Diaphoresis, dysphagia, Tremor, Incontinence, Changes in
LOC (confusion to coma), Mutism, Tachycardia, Elevated or
Labile BP, Leukocytosis, Lab evidence of muscle injury (e.g.
elevated CPK)
Triggering Agents
• Primarily dopamine receptor blockade, standard
causative agent is an antipsychotic
• Typical agents include:
– Haloperidol, Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), Prochlorperazine
(Compazine)
• Atypical:
– Clozapine, risperidone
Triggering Agents
• Nonneuroleptics w/ antidopaminergic activity
– Metoclopromide (Reglan), Reserpine, Droperidol,
Promethazine
• Dopaminergics (withdrawal)
– Levodopa, Dopamine agonists, Amantadine
• Others:
– Lithium
Differential Diagnosis
• Heat stroke, CNS infections, toxic encephalopathies,
agitated delirium, status epilepticus, drug induced
extrapyramidal symptoms
– Heat stroke – more abrupt onset, dry skin, hypotension,
limb flaccidity rather than extrapyramidal signs
• Many drug‐induced syndromes also have motor and
cognitive features
Differential Diagnosis
• Malignant Hyperthermia
– Usually distinguished by history alone (presence/absence
of triggering agents)
Pathophysiolgy
• Complex and controversial
– Marked and sudden reduction in central dopaminergic
activity resulting from D2 dopamine receptor blockade
• Explains the rigidity, hyperthermia, and altered mental status
• DOESN’T explain ALL the presenting signs/symptoms
– Abnomalities in the sympathoadrenal system?
• Peripheral skeletal muscle system
– Release of Calcium from SR is increased, leading to increased muscle
contraction, rigidity, & breakdown of muscle and hyperthermia
Risk Factors
• Initiation and/or increase in dose of triggering agent
• High‐dose, high‐potency, long‐acting, or
intramuscular depot forms of neuroleptics
• Rapid increase in doseage
• Concurrent use of multiple neuroleptics
• Concomitant use of other predisposing drugs such as
Lithium
Treatment
• Neurologic emergency
– Likely prudent to treat even if there is doubt in Dx
• 1st – stop suspected triggering agent
– Restart medications if w/d symptoms are suspected
• Supportive therapy
– Aggressive hydration, esp. w/ elevated CPK (kidney
damage)
– Treatment of Hyperthermia
Treatment
• Consider at risk for:
– Renal Failure
– DIC secondary to rhabdomyolysis
– DVT and/or PE from dehydration & immobilization
– Aspiration pneumonia d/t dysphagia, Altered LOC
– Cardiopulmonary failure, seizures, arrhythmias, MI, and
sepsis
Treatment
• In extreme cases, pharmacologic tx:
– Bromocriptine mesylate
– Dantrolene
• Anecdotal reports that these medications shorten
the course of the syndrome and may reduce
mortality
Prognosis
• Initially – mortality >30%
– Currently – 10%
• Not typically lethal when recognized early and
treated aggressively
• Majority recover w/in 2‐14 days
Rare Diseases in Nurse Anesthesia
Practice
Acoustic Neuroma
• A rare, benign tumor of the 8th Cranial Nerve
(Vestibulochochlear)
– A misnomer – the tumor does not originate from the
Acoustic nerve, nor is it a neuroma.
– A benign tumor of the Schwann cells of the vestibular
nerve, more appropriately called a Vestibular Schwannoma
• Incidence: 1/100,000 per year (about 2000 – 3000
persons annually)
Symptoms
• Most common: unilateral hearing loss and/or tinnitus
– May also have dizziness or disequilbrium*
• Most AN occur in the medial portion of the internal
auditory canal
– Although this is a disorder of the vestibular system,
vestibular symptoms may not be reported prior to
diagnosis
4 stages of growth
• Intracanalicular
– Worst vestibular symptoms seen here
• Vestibular nerve progressively destroyed – patients may be
asymptomatic or experience episodic vertigo – with further
growth, symptoms usually subside (d/t central compensation)
• Cisternal (cerebellopontine angle cistern)
• Brainstem compressive
• Hydrocephalic
Diagnosis
• Often triggered by symptoms
– Ear examination & hearing test
• If vestibular symptoms:
– Lack of specificity
– Tumor must be large enough to compromise either blood
supply or the nerve itself (risk of false‐negative tests)
• CT scan/MRI
Vestibular testing
• Electronystagmography (ENG)
– Records nystagmus (spontaneous nystagmus frequently
accompanies AN)
– 3 parts
• Oculomotor evaluation
• Positioning & positional testing
• Caloric stimulation (bithermal caloric test)
Intraoperative
• Requires skull fixation (pins) with head turned to
access occiput of affected side
• Craniotomy made w/ drill – may or may not involve a
removal of a bone flap
– Dura open at level of cerebellum, cerebellum gently
retracted
Intraoperative
• Tumor removal involves
careful & meticulous
dissection of tumor from
vestibular/cochlear nerve
and any attachments to
facial nerve
– Evoked potentials used
extensively
Intraoperative
• Internal Auditory Canal (IAC) sealed w/ bone wax,
small piece of muscle covers opening to prevent CSF
leaking into middle ear.
• Dura closed, bone flap replaced, muscles/skin closed
Postop
• High likelihood of PONV
• Vestibular function is virtually always altered postop
d/t surgical distruption of vestibular nerve
– Loss of function is sudden, with no time for central
compensation
– In large tumors that have fully (or nearly) destroyed the
nerve, there may be no noticeable change in function
• Those with large tumors typically have much LESS vertigo than
those w/ small tumors
Anesthetic Implications
• Mayfield pins + NO muscle relaxation = DEEP
anesthetic technique
• HIGH likelihood of PONV
– TIVA? Multimodal techniques? Multimodal PONV
prophylaxis?
• VERY long, meticulous dissection near major cranial
nerves/structures