Module 5
Digital Communication
Denphumi/iStock/Thinkstock
By Kathy Sole, Ashford University
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to
• Describe the various options you have in your Ashford online class for communicating with your instructor,
university staff, and fellow students.
• Define and evaluate appropriate methods of communication in academic and professional settings.
• List three do’s and three don’ts when sending an e-mail to your instructor.
• Explain how to appropriately express diverse opinions on a class discussion board.
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Introduction: Communicating Online for School and Work
As we discussed in Module 4, demonstrating online etiquette is an important part of digital
literacy. When you need to communicate with someone, is it better to send a text or e-mail,
use instant messaging, or arrange a video chat? Perhaps a phone call would be best, or a face-
to-face meeting. The wide range of communication options available requires you to choose
wisely, depending on the situation.
One of the most important factors in your decision about how to communicate is whether you
are communicating for school or work or just touching base with a friend. In this module, we
will examine the various communication options available, present information to help you
decide which communication method might be best, and suggest some guidelines for behav-
ing appropriately in each situation.
Monkey Business Images Ltd/Monkey Business/Thinkstock
Digital communication should vary depending on the purpose of the message. Are you writing
for professional, educational, or social purposes?
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©Credit Goes Here
Title Goes
5.1 Choosing the Appropriate Form
Here
of Communication
There are few hard-and-fast rules about how to communicate with another person, but some
general guidelines apply. One golden rule of communication most of us have already learned
is to avoid communicating when angry. Whether face-to-face with another person or writing
thoughts and feelings, most of us have sent a message we wish we could take back. With this in
mind, consider the following information when deciding which communication method to use.
Face-to-Face Communication
When we talk to someone face-to-face, we communicate via facial expressions, tone of voice,
and body language in addition to our words. On the telephone, facial expressions and body
language can’t be seen, so communication becomes a little more difficult to interpret. When
we write, we get only words, without any of the nonverbal clues. If we cannot see the other
person’s facial expression or body language, it is more difficult to know whether they are jok-
ing or being serious. Keep these differences in mind as you decide what form of communica-
tion is appropriate in a given situation.
As a general rule, use face-to-face communication in the following situations, if possible.
• When you deliver bad news you believe will be upsetting to the recipient. It is gener-
ally better to communicate strong emotions (other than anger) in person rather than
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5.1 Choosing the Appropriate Form of Communication
in writing. In the workplace, for example, if you must fire an employee, you should
not do so in a letter or e-mail. Rather, you should meet with him or her face-to-face
in order to prevent misunderstandings and show respect to someone who is about
to receive difficult news.
• When you communicate information that is highly personal or confidential and you
do not want it shared with others or kept in writing.
• When you need to discuss a complex issue that might take a lengthy written note to
explain. In these instances a face-to-face meeting or a phone conversation is usually
your best option.
If a personal meeting cannot be held in these circumstances, a videoconference or a tele-
phone call is your next best option.
Written Communication
Most academic and professional communication is written; and written communication cov-
ers everything from handwritten notes to instant messages, text messages, e-mail messages,
and formal written or typed letters. No matter the medium, written communication typically
has two common features: (a) It can be more easily misunderstood than face-to-face commu-
nication, and (b) it can be permanent, especially if it is online, where it can be retrieved later
and shared with others.
Whenever you put anything in writ-
ing, you may be creating a permanent
record of it. Don’t assume because
you deleted an e-mail or text mes-
sage that it cannot be retrieved. Elec-
tronic communications are typically
backed up in multiple places, such as
servers, databases, and cloud storage,
the owners of which can access your
e-mails. For example, when you send
messages through your work account,
your employer can retrieve them at
any time. Not to mention, the recipient
will have a copy, as well. So a golden UberImages/iStock/Thinkstock
rule in written communication is this: Because digital communications can be permanent,
Don’t put anything in writing that you make sure you are using social media for informal
would not want your boss, significant communication and e-mail for more professional
other, or parents to read. communication.
As a general rule, use instant messages, social media, and text messages only for informal
communication with friends and family. Most academic and professional communication
should take place via written discussion board postings in your online classes, formal written
assignments, documents such as papers or reports, and e-mail. In each class, your instructor
will give you specific instructions for what to include in your written assignments and papers
and how to format them. However, Section 5.2 and Section 5.3 include some guidelines for
e-mail and discussion board postings in academic and professional settings.
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5.2 Writing Academic and
Professional E-mails
E-mail, which means electronic mail, is an easy and convenient way to communicate and a
perfectly appropriate way to communicate in your online classroom or business environ-
ment. Although it is informal in its style, e-mail messages should still be treated as perma-
nent, written documents.
Using an E-mail Account
An e-mail address looks like this: [email protected]. You would say it like this: “name at
example dot com.” The section before the @ symbol is the user name, and the section after the
@ symbol is called the domain.
There are two most common ways of sending and receiving e-mail: You can send e-mail using
an e-mail program on your computer, such as Microsoft Outlook, or by using web mail. Micro-
soft Outlook is a program installed on one computer, and all e-mail is stored on that computer.
With web mail, your e-mails are stored on the web mail program itself, such as Yahoo! or
Gmail. You can access your e-mails on the web through free services. An advantage of web
mail is that you can access all your messages from any computer that has an Internet connec-
tion. There is no one right choice regarding which type of e-mail system to use; in fact, some
people use both types.
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5.2 Writing Academic and Professional E-mails
Personal Versus Professional E-mails
In academic and professional settings, e-mail has
become an essential communication tool. It is an
easy, convenient, and quick form of professional
communication when it is prepared in a profes-
sional manner. In an informal e-mail to a friend, a
quick note like “Luv your pics. See u later. :)” may
be fine. However, when you write an e-mail to an
instructor, staff member, or a fellow classmate at
school or use e-mail for business purposes, the
language and the format of your message must be
Anyaberkut/iStock/Thinkstock
more professional. It does not have to be overly for-
Mastering the art of writing a profes-
mal, but your e-mail is a reflection of you, and you
sional or academic e-mail will make a
should make sure it creates a favorable impression.
favorable impression on your instruc-
tors and colleagues.
Just as the content of your e-mail speaks to your
professionalism, so does your e-mail address. As
an Ashford student, you are assigned an address that you should use when communicating
with professors. Likewise, many employers provide their employees with standard e-mail
addresses for work communications. However, you should also be mindful of your personal
e-mail address and how it reflects you. Addresses like “CoolMom” or “Sparkle24” are very
casual and should only be used when communicating with friends. Consider an employer who
receives an e-mail from an applicant whose e-mail address reads, “[email protected].” What
faulty assumptions might the employer make? How might this hurt the applicant?
To avoid such missteps, keep the following guidelines in mind for your academic and profes-
sional e-mail messages:
Subject line:
• Always create a clear subject line for your message that states exactly what the mes-
sage is about.
Message:
• Avoid launching right into your message; begin with a greeting first. If you are writ-
ing to an instructor or to a business client, use the person’s title (e.g., Dr., Prof., Mr.,
or Ms.). If you are writing to a classmate or have been given permission to use an
instructor’s first name, say, “Dear Elena Maria,” “Hi, Jason,” or simply “Hello.”
• Write your message in complete sentences, with standard capitalization, punctua-
tion, and grammar. Do not type in all capital letters or in all lowercase letters.
• Keep your messages short and readable. Get to the point quickly and break up the
text into short paragraphs to make it easier to read. Click Enter to put a blank line
between each paragraph.
• Save your smiley faces and abbreviations for personal notes; do not use abbrevia-
tions such as u for you or r for are. Spell out terms in school or business e-mails.
• Be polite and careful about using humor; the other person may not get the joke and
may misunderstand your message.
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5.2 Writing Academic and Professional E-mails
Before and after sending:
• Always reread the subject line and your message before sending it to make sure the
tone of your message is professional and correct.
• Double-check the names and e-mail addresses in the “To. . .” and “cc. . .” lines to make
sure your message will be sent to the correct persons.
• Always use the spell-check tool in your e-mail program to make sure your message
is correct. Note that in Microsoft Outlook you can have the spelling and grammar
checked automatically every time you send or reply to an e-mail. Click the Help icon
(?) in Outlook, and search for “spell-check e-mail” to learn how to set your version of
Outlook to perform these automatic checks.
• Insert a signature block that shows your name, contact information, and address (if
necessary), so the recipient of your message can get back to you. Note that in Micro-
soft Outlook, you can click the Help icon (?) and search for “signature” to learn how
to create and automatically insert a signature block in your e-mail messages.
• Allow 48 hours for your recipient to respond before you follow up.
When receiving messages:
• Always check your e-mail regularly for urgent or time-sensitive messages, and
attempt to respond to all e-mail messages within 24 hours. Instead of composing a
new e-mail to reply, you can simply click Reply, and the original message will be
included for clarity. See A Closer Look: E-mail No-No’s for some things to avoid while
writing an e-mail.
A Closer Look: E-mail No-No’s
Now that you know what to do when writing a school or work e-mail, here are the top six things
not to do:
• Don’t send personal e-mail messages or forward jokes, recipes, or chain letters.
• Don’t send offensive, obscene, or embarrassing e-mail.
• Don’t send confidential information such as Social Security numbers or other personal
data.
• Don’t use e-mail to replace formal communications such as academic assignments or
written papers. Always format these documents according to the guidelines provided
by your instructor and submit them as separate documents to the appropriate place in
your online classroom.
• Don’t send formal communications such as policies and procedures or employee
performance reviews by e-mail. Use formal business correspondence and forms for
these purposes.
• Don’t click “Reply All” unless every recipient needs to see your response.
Reflection Question
1. You have likely received e-mail messages or other types of messages from your friends
and acquaintances that you would rather not have gotten. What about them bothered
you? Based on your experiences, add your own bullet points to this list of e-mail no-no’s.
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5.3 Posting on a Class
Discussion Board
In your Ashford University courses, one of the most frequent ways you will communicate
with classmates and your instructor is through the class discussion forums. These discussion
forums will occur weekly in all your classes and are some of the most important aspects of
collaborative learning. They are similar to class discussions in a physical classroom, but in
some ways they are even more beneficial.
When you were in high school, your classes were only so many minutes long. Then the bell
rang and the class was over. Very few students saw or talked with their instructors much out-
side of class. During class discussions, the most vocal students often dominated the conversa-
tions, and if the instructor asked a question, usually only one or two students had a chance to
answer or ask questions before the discussion moved on to another topic.
In the online classroom, however, everyone has the opportunity to share his or her thoughts,
ask questions, and participate in the discussion as easily as the more outgoing students. Here
are some guidelines to keep in mind to use the discussion forums effectively and improve
your discussion grades:
• Your discussion posts are required assignments, and all students are expected to
participate. Most instructors deduct points if your required discussion posts are not
made on time and do not address every item required in the assignment. Make sure
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5.3 Posting on a Class Discussion Board
you keep track of when discussion posts and other assignments are due and that you
post by the due date—or earlier, if possible. Posting before the due date has some
great advantages:
• The instructor usually has more time to give you thoughtful feedback than on the
day the assignment is due, when everyone else posts to make the deadline.
• Your classmates are more likely to give you feedback and engage with you in useful
discussions if your post is made early.
• Making your initial post early gives you time to respond to other students’ posts.
• Make sure you respond to other students’ posts as well as posting your own
response. You must do both to get full credit for an assignment.
• Make sure you go back and read what others have written in response to your initial
post. Respond to questions asked by your instructor and your classmates.
• Use your critical-thinking skills and write a thoughtful and respectful response to
classmates’ posts. Posting only “I agree” or “You make a good point” is not sufficient.
Go a step further and explain why you agree or why a classmate’s point is important.
You might also suggest some other issues your classmate might consider, ask a
question, share similar experiences you have had in the past, or give helpful tips you
think might assist your classmate.
• Remember that your posts are graded on quality as well as on content, so make sure
your posts are professionally written and presented. It is usually best to type your
post first on a blank page in your word processing program—not in the discussion
assignment area. Save the file, revise it, run the spell-checker, and ensure that the
post is appropriate for a professional environment. Then copy and paste it into the
discussion forum. For help in this area, don’t hesitate to submit your discussions to
the Ashford Writing Center for feedback prior to posting.
• Recall from our plagiarism discussion in Module 4 that it is never appropriate to
copy information from other sources like other posts, the web, books, or other docu-
ments. When you include ideas in your post that are not your own, paraphrase—or
put those ideas into your own words—and be sure to give credit to the author of
the original ideas. Check with your course instructor for the right information to
include and the proper way to
format these sources. Ashford
University uses the style of
the American Psychological
Association (APA) for format-
ting formal written papers and
giving credit to your sources,
which you will learn in a
future class. The Ashford Writ-
ing Center contains resources
to help you with APA style,
as well as many tutorials and
other assistance with your
college writing. When you log DragonImages/iStock/Thinkstock
in to your Student Portal, click The online classroom is a tool with which you can
“Learning Tools” on the left share thoughts or questions, provide feedback on
navigation menu for the link course assignments, and interact with classmates
to the writing center. easily and conveniently.
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5.3 Posting on a Class Discussion Board
• If you want to include information in your post from an online source rather than
paraphrase, it is usually best to briefly summarize it and then provide the URL
(web address) or other source information so others can read it for themselves. For
example, you might write something like this: “I found a great website that provides
tips for new college students about how to write academic papers. You might want
to check it out at https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/683/01.”
For more tips for effective discussion posts, check out Strategies for Success: Sharing Diverse
Viewpoints and Disagreeing With Others.
Strategies for Success: Sharing Diverse Viewpoints
and Disagreeing With Others
A class discussion is just that: a discussion. Everyone is expected to share his or her point of
view, which is certainly not expected to be the same as everyone else’s opinions. In fact, if your
entire class had the same opinion about everything, the discussion could be relatively short and
boring. You shouldn’t be afraid to disagree with someone else’s post, but it is very important
that you do so respectfully.
When Chantal and her classmates review one another’s work and make comments, Chantal
always chooses her words carefully and tries to imagine what it would feel like to be on the
receiving end of the feedback she is about to give. Though she might be tempted to make
comments like “You’re wrong about this” or “Fix this,” she realizes that these comments are curt
and may not be received well. Instead, she revises them to be more considerate and might say,
“I encountered a situation like this in the past myself. I learned, though, that this statement may
not always be accurate. Consider rewording this sentence in this way.. . .”
Here are some other tips for writing respectful posts during class discussions:
• Most of the discussion topics are designed to help you explore issues from different
perspectives. Your task is to state what you believe to be the best answer and then
to support your answer using information you learned in the weekly reading and
other assignments. The best answer is the one you can best support. It is okay to have
opinions that are different from others, but you must support your opinions with clear
explanations of why you believe as you do and include information from your reading,
research, or past experiences to back up those opinions. This is a key component of
critical thinking.
• You can challenge another person’s idea, but never attack the person. When you
challenge an idea, be sure to disagree, respectfully, about the argument the person has
made.
• Most of us hold strong religious and political views. In professional forums, the
discussions are not an appropriate place to share these views and beliefs, unless they
directly relate to the topic being discussed.
Reflection Question
1. Have you ever written a post online or even made a comment to someone in person
and received a response you felt was inappropriate or tactless? Try to identify what
was offensive about these comments and posts. How would you revise them to say the
same thing, but in a more respectful way?
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Summary & Resources
Summary & Resources
Module Summary
As we discussed in Module 4, online etiquette plays an important role in good digital citi-
zenship. That is why we devoted two modules to discussing guidelines for communicating
appropriately with your fellow students, instructors, professional contacts, and others online.
Choosing the appropriate form of communication is the first step in demonstrating online eti-
quette. Once you have decided whether to communicate via phone, e-mail, text, social media,
or discussion forum post, your choice of words, formatting, and attitude will play an impor-
tant part in how your message is perceived by others. A casual, off-the-cuff post to a fellow
student may seem harmless to you but may be offensive to someone else.
Online etiquette is an art that requires thoughtful reflection of one’s own choices for self-
expression. Be sure to proofread everything you write and always imagine what it would be
like to be on the receiving end of the message you are about to send.
Critical-Thinking Questions
1. How does your communication style differ when you are chatting with friends
online or via text versus when you are contacting your professor about an
assignment?
2. In the discussion forum, what is your approach when you want to express a view-
point that is different from that of a classmate?
3. Imagine yourself with a year of classes under your belt. A friend has just enrolled in
an Ashford online degree program and wants to know how you usually communi-
cate with your professors and fellow classmates. How would you answer? Describe a
typical week of communications for class and explain the best method for each type
of communication.
Key Terms
APA style Developed by the American Psy- paraphrase The act of writing someone
chological Association, the rules and guide- else’s ideas in one’s own words.
lines for writing used by Ashford University.
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Module 6
Digital Privacy and Security
Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock
By Kathy Sole, Ashford University
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to
• Describe three ways you leave an electronic trail when you go online with your computer or other device.
• Name four types of websites of which you should be especially cautious online and explain at least four
ways you can minimize your risks on them.
• Explain the primary types of security software you should have installed on your computer to protect your-
self and your data.
• Identify steps you can take to protect your privacy, safety, and security when using a shared computer and
receiving spam.
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Introduction: Understanding Online Benefits and Risks
Computer technology allows us to instantaneously touch base with family and friends, hear
their voices, and even see their faces when they are hundreds or thousands of miles away.
We have the entire world’s library of information at our fingertips, and we can earn a college
degree without moving away from home or spending hours traveling to and from a class-
room. Unfortunately, there is a dark side to this technology, as well. The Internet has been
used to spew hate speech, display horrific images of death and terror, and allow criminals
opportunities to take advantage of well-meaning people.
At 24, Maddie is one of the younger students at Ashford. She grew up with computers and has
used them all her life. From the LeapPad educational toys her parents bought her when she
was a toddler, to the DVD player she and her siblings used to watch movies in the backseat of
the car, to the iPod she used as a teenager to listen to music, Maddie has always used elec-
tronic devices for entertainment. She does not think much about the computers she has
around her; they are an everyday part of her life. However, because she takes them for granted,
she is not always aware of online dangers. Without realizing it, she sometimes behaves in
ways that make her vulnerable to having her personal information captured and perhaps hav-
ing her identity stolen, her bank account emptied, and her credit ruined.
While you may not be able to protect
yourself from every crime, you don’t
have to make it easy for thieves to take
advantage of you. It’s similar to how you
can’t be 100% sure your car will not be
stolen, but you should avoid leaving the
car unlocked with keys in the ignition
and shopping bags on the front seat.
Don’t make it easy for thieves to steal
information from your computer or
your other digital devices, either. In this Patrick Lux/Stringer/Getty Images News
module, we discuss how you leave infor- Ill-intentioned computer hackers work to steal
mation about yourself online. We will others’ personal, account, and credit card informa-
also give you some simple precautions tion, so it’s important to protect yourself by taking
you can take to help ensure you are not the simple precautions outlined in this module.
the next cybercrime victim.
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©Credit Goes Here
Title Goes
6.1 Leaving a Trail on the Web
Here
When you shop online, connect with friends on social media, log in to a sports website to catch
up on the latest scores, or search for information on the web, you leave an electronic trail that
others may be able to follow to discover where you have been and what you did there. This
trail constitutes your digital footprint; it is digital data that you leave behind, and it is often
permanent. Even if you think you erased or deleted files or turned off your computer, the
data remains and can often be retrieved. Like fingerprints, digital footprints are unique to
every device, so it is possible to trace computer, tablet, and cell phone activity. Therefore, you
should act as though everything you share online is permanent.
How do you leave this trail, and how do others follow it? How can they use what they learn
to harm you? We examine these issues in this section, along with privacy, safety, and security
issues to keep in mind when you go on online. We will also share with you some steps you can
take to protect yourself and your data.
When you use electronic technology, digital footprints are created in two ways: (a) by your
computer itself, through its IP address, and (b) by the websites you choose to visit, which
generate a browser history and what are called cookies. Let’s look at these two methods and
examine the pros and cons of digital footprints.
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6.1 Leaving a Trail on the Web
Your Trail of IP Addresses and Domain Names
Every computer has an Internet protocol address or IP address. The IP address is a series of
numbers such as 192.168.0.1 that is assigned by an Internet service provider or private
network administrator. The IP address does not indicate who is using the device, but when
you open a browser and enter the web, the IP address and location of your computer are sent
to every website you visit. In this way your movements on the web can be tracked. This
tracking may offer you some benefits. For example, websites may recognize you if you have
visited before and stream-line your online shopping experience. Or your IP address may
help investigators find your electronic device if it is lost or stolen.
Every website is also assigned an IP address, which specifies where on the web the site is
located. For example, the Ashford University website has the IP address of 199.73.44.51.
Because it is easier to remember names than a series of numbers, the website is also given a
domain name (also called the host),
and the IP address is linked to that
domain name. To find out what your
IP address is, follow the instructions
in A Closer Look: What Is Your Com-
puter IP Address?.
Domain names have two parts: the
web extension and the web page name.
The web extension indicates the type
of organization or institution the web-
site represents or the country desig-
nation, such as .us (United States). For
example, the domain name for Ash-
ford’s website is www.ashford.edu. In Bloomberg/Contributor/Getty Images
this domain name, the web page Every website you visit becomes part of your
name is “w w w.ashford” and the web digital footprint.
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6.1 Leaving a Trail on the Web
extension is “.edu” (see Table 6.1). When you use a web browser to find a website, you can
locate that website by using either the domain name or the IP address. Like snowflakes, no
two domain names or IP addresses are the same, so every website has a record of every com-
puter that has visited.
Table 6.1: Common web extensions
Web extension Meaning
.com Commercial website; commonly used to show a business on the web
.edu An educational organization, usually a college or university
.gov Government entities in the United States
.mil Used by U.S. military units
.org Organization; often used by nonprofit organizations or trade groups
.biz Used by many small businesses on the web
.info A resource site on the web
.net Usually an Internet service provider or other company involved in the web; also used
by some businesses
A Closer Look: What Is Your Computer IP Address?
Retrieve the IP address of the computer you are using (and the domain name server or ISP
associated with that IP address) by logging on to http://www.ip-tracker.org. When the web
page opens, your computer IP address will appear in the box above the red box labeled “Lookup
IP Address With IP Lookup.” Click the red box, and a new page should appear that displays two
smaller red boxes that display IP lookup location information for your IP Address and extra IP
lookup finder information. Scroll down to view how much information is on the Internet about
the computer you are using. You can also look up a website and obtain its IP address at http://
www.ip-tracker.org/locator/ip-lookup.php.
Reflection Questions
1. What new information did you learn from this exercise about electronic tracking? What
surprised you most about the information you found?
2. What types of information have you shared on the Internet that might be harmful to
you if it was tracked back to your computer IP address and shared publicly?
The Trail of URLs in Your Computer History
In addition to an IP address, every website also has a web address. This web address, also
called a uniform resource locator (URL), indicates the path someone would follow to locate
a specific page on a website. Like your home address, the web address is necessary for some-
one to locate information on the World Wide Web.
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6.1 Leaving a Trail on the Web
When you visit a website, its URL is recorded in your computer browser history files. You
can see some of this historical record yourself by clicking the down arrow at the end of the
address bar at the top of any page of your web browser. Law enforcement officials and investi-
gators often obtain court orders to search the computers of crime suspects for evidence. They
can often retrieve the entire history file on the computer and determine what websites users
of that computer have visited.
Let’s look at some examples of the way a URL is structured. Figure 6.1 is an example of the
URL for a page on the Ashford University website that discusses transfer credits.
Figure 6.1: The structure of a URL
While it might look like a random assortment of letters, a URL is really a detailed path to a specific file or
web page.
URLs can sometimes be quite long, but the five main elements of the URL for web documents
are the same as the Ashford example. For instance, if someone wanted to learn how to become
an elementary school teacher in California, the California Commission on Teacher Creden-
tialing has posted that information at this URL: http://www.ctc.ca.gov/credentials/teach
-elementary.html. The elements of this URL are explained in Table 6.2. Note: A URL is not case
sensitive, which means you can type it either in all caps or in lowercase letters. For consis-
tency, however, we suggest you always type it in lowercase letters.
Table 6.2: The elements of the web address or URL for
http://www.ctc.ca.gov/credentials/teach-elementary.html
Element Description
http:// Indicates the protocol to be used to access a file, usually hypertext transfer
protocol (http). This protocol (or https:// for secure sites) tells you that this
information is on the World Wide Web.
www. A reference to the World Wide Web. Note: This abbreviation is optional;
sometimes domain names do not include it.
.ctc California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (a division of the domain).
.ca State of California domain/host name.
.gov/ Web extension for a government website.
credentials/teach The path to the specific page where the elementary school credentialing
-elementary.html information is located.
Adapted from Digital Literacy Standard Curriculum Version 4. (2015). Retrieved June 02, 2016,
from https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/DigitalLiteracy/curriculum4.aspx#interenetwww
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6.1 Leaving a Trail on the Web
The Trail of Browser Cookies
When your computer browser accesses a website for the first time, the website sends back
its IP address and other information to help the browser navigate the site and perform cer-
tain functions. The browser creates a small text file, called a browser cookie or a tracking
cookie, that contains information such as your computer IP address, which website pages
you viewed, and how long you stayed on each page.
Cookies can often be very helpful to you. They make using the web easier in many ways. Some
cookies, for example, store information so that if you leave a web page and return later, you
can pick up where you left off browsing the site, without having to start over. If you are on a
secure website (https://), however, the site will create another type of cookie so that when
you close your browser or the website is inactive for a certain period of time, the site will be
closed to protect your data. You must then log in and enter your password again to continue.
Cookies come in several different forms. Some are temporary and usually are deleted when
you leave the website. Examples of these and other temporary Internet files are shown in Fig-
ure 6.2. Temporary cookies are used for situations such as helping you with online shopping.
For example, when you select an item from a website to purchase and add it to your shopping
cart, a cookie allows you to save the item while you continue shopping the site for additional
products. That way, you do not have to go through a separate checkout process for each item
(WiseGEEK, 2015). Temporary cookies are also used by some websites to display items you
have previously viewed, so you can find them again if you wish. Although these cookies may be
temporary, they still leave an elec-
tronic trail. If you do not purchase Figure 6.2: Computer temporary Internet files
an item you viewed, you might get
an e-mail from the retailer the next Accessing this window (on Microsoft computers) allows you
to delete cookies from your computer hard drive, which can
day asking if you would consider
help maintain privacy online.
purchasing the item and perhaps
even offering you a discount.
Most cookies, however, are not tem-
porary; they are permanently stored
on your computer hard drive. If you
delete them, they will be created
again if you go back to that website
in the future. This type of cookie is
typically stored on your computer
hard drive, with a matching file kept
on the website computer system.
Permanent cookies allow a website
to remember your name and pass-
word the next time you log in or to
store your credit card information
and retain your billing and shipping
address for purchases. Permanent
cookies also allow retailers to cre-
ate an account for you and show
you a history of all items you have From Microsoft.
purchased from them.
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6.1 Leaving a Trail on the Web
By themselves, cookies are not harmful. As we have seen, they can make it easier for you to
use the web. However, be cautious about cookies because you may not know what informa-
tion is being collected and how it may be used. For example, some websites do not stop col-
lecting information about you, even when you sign out of your account. They use a technique
called cookie profiling to “follow you around” and gather information wherever you go on
the web. They may sell this information to a third party, called a data aggregator, which
makes money by collecting and compiling data and information about people from the web
and selling it to others. Aggregators can create a profile of you and your buying habits over
months or even years. The profile may include information about your age, income, and even
your sexual orientation, with amazing accuracy. Marketers then use the profile to create pop-
up ads on your browser to display products that may be of interest to you (“Cookie Profiling,”
2013). As discussed in A Closer Look: See Your Electronic Trail, you might find clear evidence
of this once you start looking for it.
Cybercriminals can also steal cookies to acquire your credit card information, Social Security
number, user names, passwords, and bank information. Permanent cookies also can accu-
mulate on your hard drive and slow down your computer system. If your computer does not
seem to be responding as fast as it used to, you might try clearing temporary Internet files. For
instructions, refer to the Solving Computer Technical Problems section in Module 3.
Remember that if you delete permanent cookies, your actions may clear your stored pass-
words, credit card information, or the options you previously chose for specific websites. You
will then have to reenter this information when you visit these websites again. It is always
important to save your log-ins and passwords somewhere, such as in a hard-copy printout or
a specialized password management software program.
A Closer Look: See Your Electronic Trail
Want to see your cookies in action? Try this experiment: Just for fun, browse for a hotel in a
vacation spot you would like to visit. Try a couple of websites such as Travelocity and Expedia
and compare prices for a few different hotels. Then, if you have one, open your Facebook
account. Do you notice any hotel advertisements?
As an alternative, go online and search two or three websites for an automobile or major
appliance such as a washer or dryer, refrigerator, or stove. Spend a few minutes comparing the
features of two or three models you like. Then wait a day and go online again. Do you notice ads
on your browser for the item you shopped or one similar to it? These activities demonstrate
that, from following your online trail, marketers have learned you are interested in a particular
locale or product. They then usually try to encourage you to book the lodging or buy the
product with their advertisements.
Reflection Questions
1. Do you find these ads useful, or do they bother you? Explain your reasoning.
2. Some browsers and security software allow you to block pop-up ads. What might be
some advantages and disadvantages of doing so?
3. Do you think dynamic pricing strategies are fair or unfair to consumers? Explain
your answer. Share an example of an instance in which you noticed a dynamic pricing
strategy or have been encouraged to purchase because of it.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
When online, your safety and security can be put at risk both by what you do and what you
fail to do. In this section, we discuss actions you can take to protect your personal safety and
security on the Internet, and we recommend some software we believe is an essential invest-
ment for your safety, security, and peace of mind. Let’s begin by looking at specific types of
websites where you should be especially careful.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
Websites to Approach Cautiously
People who are looking to perpetrate a scam—a
way to get money from another person by deceiving
them—or to inappropriately access someone’s per-
sonal information or engage in another illegal activ-
ity tend to be attracted to websites that have large
numbers of users and where personal information
is readily available. For this reason, you need to be
especially cautious when you access the following
types of sites, which are some of the most common
targets for fraud and criminal activity.
Caia Images/SuperStock
When you are researching, working,
or perusing websites, approach cer-
Dating Websites tain sites cautiously to avoid being
Online dating sites are extremely popular today, scammed.
and many people have successfully found a roman-
tic partner online. However, users should be cautious about how much personal information
they disclose about themselves on these sites. The Privacy Rights Clearinghouse (http://www
.privacyrights.org), a nationally recognized consumer education group that advocates for
online privacy, warns that users have no right to privacy or confidentiality for any informa-
tion or photos they have posted and that the dating sites may sell this information to others
for advertising or marketing purposes. User information can also be subpoenaed and used in
insurance claims, lawsuits, and divorce and child custody proceedings. Make sure you read the
privacy policies, terms, and conditions carefully (Privacy Rights Clearinghouse, 2015).
Dating websites are also very attractive to sexual predators, felons, and stalkers, who use
them to search for potential victims. The U.S. Department of State receives thousands of com-
plaints per year from people who have been scammed out of money online—some by poten-
tial romantic partners. Someone, for example, can create a false identity, spend time gaining
your trust or “falling in love with you” online, and then ask for money for some type of emer-
gency. Many of these scammers are in countries outside of the United States, so recovering
lost money is almost impossible. Always trust your instincts if you are uncomfortable meet-
ing someone or do not think they are being entirely honest with you. Don’t provide your full
name, address, or phone number until you feel safe about your prospective date, and always
make sure you arrange to meet people in a public place during the day, not in the evening
(Privacy Rights Clearinghouse, 2015).
Visit http://www.onlinedatingsafetytips.com/Top10Scams.cfm for more information about
common Internet dating scams.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
Classified Advertising Websites
For decades, people have sold unwanted items through
classified ads. For the most part, these transactions are
an excellent way to connect buyers and sellers. Whether
the advertisement has been placed in a newspaper or
online through a website such as Craigslist, you are
meeting strangers, in person, in your home. So
you must be especially careful. Scams as a result of
fake job postings and sale of stolen or counterfeit
goods and crimes ranging from threats to assaults,
property dam-age, and theft have all resulted from
such situations. Problems with these websites
often result because these are private transactions
between individuals and do not have the same
protection from fraud and loss as do transactions
through commercial stores and reputa-ble retail
websites. They also do not have the protection from
secure online payment websites and credit card Gary A. Conner/age fotostock/SuperStock
companies. Online classified ad sites such as
In February 2015 Fox News in Connecticut (FOX CT) Craigslist are great tools for find-
reported the Better Business Bureau guidelines shown ing jobs, housing opportunities,
in Table 6.3 to protect consumers from the dangers or goods and services. However,
associated with classified ads (Schwartz, 2015). these sites can also be full of scam-
mers who post fake ads. Be aware
You can learn more about classified ad fraud at http:// of what to look out for when using
www.craigslist.org/about/scams. these sites.
Table 6.3: Do’s and don’ts for online classified ads
Do Don’t
Talk with the person first on the phone before Don’t agree to offers that involve shipping; criminals
meeting with him or her. It is a red flag if the other often send or receive stolen or counterfeit merchan-
person refuses to speak with you by phone before dise or illegal materials in this manner.
the transaction.
Meet in a public place, if possible, and trust your Don’t go alone. Take someone else with you if you
instincts if something seems suspicious. can.
Accept payment in cash only. Don’t accept cashier’s checks, certified checks,
or money orders. They may be counterfeit, and
wire transfer or preloaded debit cards may not be
legitimate.
Always check a company’s website or call to confirm Don’t assume that all job opening notices are legiti-
a job opening before meeting with someone for a mate. They may be fake notices that are fronts for
potential job interview. other purposes.
Always drive by and view any property you are Don’t buy or rent property sight unseen. Criminals
interested in buying or renting before you agree to have been known to post photos of property that
the transaction. belongs to someone else.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
Strategies for Success: Tips for Creating Strong Passwords
Computer hackers who learn your password can access your bank accounts, medical records, and
Gaming Websites other personal information. You can never completely guarantee that your information will be
secure, and most likely you will not use all the information shown in Table 6.4 to protect yourself.
Many people enjoy playing interactive games such as Words With Friends or popular games
However, the more mistakes in the “Don’ts” column that you avoid and the more suggestions
produced by companies such as PopCap, Y8, Pogo, or Zynga. These games can be played
under the “Instead” column you use, the greater password security you will have (Lemos, 2015).
against people you know or whom you have never met who just happen to be online when
you want to play. Some of these games include gambling—with real money changing hands; Table 6.4: Do’s and don’ts for creating strong passwords
others are just for fun. In a massively multiplayer online game (MMO or MMOG) and a mas-
Don’ts Instead. . .
sively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG), you may play against a large online
community of anonymous strangers and have unmoderated discussions, which pose a danger
Don’t use short, 3- to 5-letter passwords. The longer the password the better. Use from 6 to 12
of inadvertently giving away personal information about yourself (Get Safe Online, 2015). characters in your passwords.
Some of the hidden dangers of such sites are outlined here.
Don’t use common words or phrases such Avoid real words, if possible. If you use an actual word,
as password or iloveyou as your password. make it unusual or one that is unique to you.
• Until they download a particular game, many people are unaware that a game con-
tains violent or sexual content. If you have children who can access your computer, Don’t use all letters. Use a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols
you can set parental controls on your Windows or Mac OS X operating system to and special characters such as & or %.
prevent access to sites that have such games. Don’t use consecutive, easy-to-guess letter Make your passwords random; mix up letters, num-
• Most of these websites allow you to assume a false identity. So you never know if you or number combinations such as abcdef, bers, and symbols into a random sequence.
are online with a sexual predator or other person who is interested in more than just 123456, or abc123.
playing games.
Don’t use the same password for multiple Have different passwords for different websites.
• Do not download “cheats” (offers to buy programs or files that claim to give you an websites. If you duplicate passwords, you
advantage over other players). They may contain malware or computer viruses. run the risk of having more of your per-
• Play only authorized versions of a game, which you have purchased from a repu- sonal information stolen.
table source and for which you have a software license. Do not use pirated copies of
Don’t use a personal password at work. Use different personal and work passwords. It is bad
games, which are illegal, can incur criminal penalties, and may contain malware. enough if someone steals your personal information,
• Play online games only when you have updated antispyware and antivirus software but don’t run the risk that the thief could access your
running and an effective firewall—which is a network security software system that employer’s computer system as well.
protects the computer network from harmful information from other computers or
Don’t use words related to yourself such as After trying easy-to-guess passwords, hackers often
the Internet—on your computer. your address, phone number, or birthday. use public information about you for clues to your
• Choose a user name that does not reveal any personal information, and don’t put any passwords. Use the tips in this table instead.
revealing personal information on your game profile.
Don’t use simple passwords so you can If you keep passwords simple to easily remember
• Use strong passwords that make it difficult for hackers to figure out. Use the tips in
memorize them. them, you also make them easy to hack. Instead, use a
Strategies for Success: Tips for Creating Strong Passwords to create your passwords. variety of complex passwords, create a list of them, and
• Watch out for scams and cons that can occur when online game players try to sell or keep the list in a secure place at home or online on a
buy items outside the computer game, in the real world (Get Safe Online, 2015). secure password management program such as Norton
Identity Safe, Dashlane, LastPass, or RoboForm.
Don’t use the same password for financial Develop a three-tier password system: (a) longer, more
information that you use for social media, complex passwords for financial data, (b) a different
games, and shopping. set of long, complex passwords for social media and
games, and (c) a third set of somewhat easier pass-
words for other websites.
Don’t use names of family members or Use a line from a song you like, and make your
pets as passwords. password the first letter of each word, substituting
numbers for some of the words. Thus, the Beatles’ song
“Yellow Submarine” might become waliays25ys.
Don’t use the same passwords forever. Change your passwords every few months.
Reflection Questions
1. Have you used any of the strategies listed? If so, which ones worked best for you?
2. What strategies have you developed that have worked for you, other than those listed?
108
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Strategies for Success: Tips for Creating Strong Passwords
Computer hackers who learn your password can access your bank accounts, medical records, and
Gaming Websites other personal information. You can never completely guarantee that your information will be
secure, and most likely you will not use all the information shown in Table 6.4 to protect yourself.
Many people enjoy playing interactive games such as Words With Friends or popular games
However, the more mistakes in the “Don’ts” column that you avoid and the more suggestions
produced by companies such as PopCap, Y8, Pogo, or Zynga. These games can be played
under the “Instead” column you use, the greater password security you will have (Lemos, 2015).
against people you know or whom you have never met who just happen to be online when
you want to play. Some of these games include gambling—with real money changing hands; Table 6.4: Do’s and don’ts for creating strong passwords
others are just for fun. In a massively multiplayer online game (MMO or MMOG) and a mas-
Don’ts Instead. . .
sively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG), you may play against a large online
community of anonymous strangers and have unmoderated discussions, which pose a danger
Don’t use short, 3- to 5-letter passwords. The longer the password the better. Use from 6 to 12
of inadvertently giving away personal information about yourself (Get Safe Online, 2015). characters in your passwords.
Some of the hidden dangers of such sites are outlined here.
Don’t use common words or phrases such Avoid real words, if possible. If you use an actual word,
as password or iloveyou as your password. make it unusual or one that is unique to you.
• Until they download a particular game, many people are unaware that a game con-
tains violent or sexual content. If you have children who can access your computer, Don’t use all letters. Use a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols
you can set parental controls on your Windows or Mac OS X operating system to and special characters such as & or %.
prevent access to sites that have such games. Don’t use consecutive, easy-to-guess letter Make your passwords random; mix up letters, num-
• Most of these websites allow you to assume a false identity. So you never know if you or number combinations such as abcdef, bers, and symbols into a random sequence.
are online with a sexual predator or other person who is interested in more than just 123456, or abc123.
playing games.
Don’t use the same password for multiple Have different passwords for different websites.
• Do not download “cheats” (offers to buy programs or files that claim to give you an websites. If you duplicate passwords, you
advantage over other players). They may contain malware or computer viruses. run the risk of having more of your per-
• Play only authorized versions of a game, which you have purchased from a repu- sonal information stolen.
table source and for which you have a software license. Do not use pirated copies of
Don’t use a personal password at work. Use different personal and work passwords. It is bad
games, which are illegal, can incur criminal penalties, and may contain malware. enough if someone steals your personal information,
• Play online games only when you have updated antispyware and antivirus software but don’t run the risk that the thief could access your
running and an effective firewall—which is a network security software system that employer’s computer system as well.
protects the computer network from harmful information from other computers or
Don’t use words related to yourself such as After trying easy-to-guess passwords, hackers often
the Internet—on your computer. your address, phone number, or birthday. use public information about you for clues to your
• Choose a user name that does not reveal any personal information, and don’t put any passwords. Use the tips in this table instead.
revealing personal information on your game profile.
Don’t use simple passwords so you can If you keep passwords simple to easily remember
• Use strong passwords that make it difficult for hackers to figure out. Use the tips in
memorize them. them, you also make them easy to hack. Instead, use a
Strategies for Success: Tips for Creating Strong Passwords to create your passwords. variety of complex passwords, create a list of them, and
• Watch out for scams and cons that can occur when online game players try to sell or keep the list in a secure place at home or online on a
buy items outside the computer game, in the real world (Get Safe Online, 2015). secure password management program such as Norton
Identity Safe, Dashlane, LastPass, or RoboForm.
Don’t use the same password for financial Develop a three-tier password system: (a) longer, more
information that you use for social media, complex passwords for financial data, (b) a different
games, and shopping. set of long, complex passwords for social media and
games, and (c) a third set of somewhat easier pass-
words for other websites.
Don’t use names of family members or Use a line from a song you like, and make your
pets as passwords. password the first letter of each word, substituting
numbers for some of the words. Thus, the Beatles’ song
“Yellow Submarine” might become waliays25ys.
Don’t use the same passwords forever. Change your passwords every few months.
Reflection Questions
1. Have you used any of the strategies listed? If so, which ones worked best for you?
2. What strategies have you developed that have worked for you, other than those listed?
109
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
Also, be especially cautious of financial loss or theft when purchasing game elements using
real cash. The cost of buying “extras” with online games can add up quickly and substantially.
Last, but certainly not least, be careful of developing an online gaming addiction. One of the
biggest dangers of these games is that you can waste many hours playing and actually become
addicted to them and avoid other important aspects of your life (Get Safe Online, 2015).
Pornographic Websites
Pornography can be defined as visual or printed materials that contain explicit displays
or descriptions of sexual organs or activities intended to stimulate erotic feelings or sexual
excitement. Because the Internet is international, no one set of laws applies everywhere to
the publication, distribution, purchase, or possession of Internet pornography. In the United
States, the public, lawmakers, and the courts have battled for decades over clearly defining
what is pornographic and whether pornography is protected by the First Amendment to the
U.S. Constitution as free speech or is obscene and not protected.
Child pornography, however, is treated severely under both federal and state laws and is not
protected under First Amendment rights. Federal laws consider child pornography to be a
J.r. Bale/Hemera/Thinkstock
form of child sexual exploitation and define it as any visual depiction of sexually explicit con-
Installing security software isn’t enough to protect
duct involving a minor (someone younger than 18 years old). Federal law prohibits any per-
your computer. You have to take the time to update
son from producing, distributing, importing, receiving, or possessing any image of child por-
the software and scan it regularly.
nography. Violation of these laws is punishable by fines and a prison sentence that can range
from a minimum of 5 years to life imprisonment (U.S. Department of Justice, 2015).
To control access to pornographic material on your computer, you can purchase software
applications called antipornography filters. Examples include NetDogSoft’s Anti-Porn Filter,
which attempts to block sites of this nature from appearing on your computer. Some safety
and security software also allow you to set parental controls on your computers and phone
to control access to certain material, and computer operating systems have privacy settings
and parental control features that can help. However, it is important to realize that no filter is
100% effective in blocking pornography.
Computer Threats
As a public space, the web can be a very useful way to find information, shop, find enter-
tainment, and stay connected with family and friends. However, it can also be a minefield
with hidden dangers you must be aware of and protect yourself against. In addition to pri-
vacy issues and the dangers of identity theft, other safety and security threats are common
in today’s electronic world. In this section, we discuss other types of threats that exist when
you use digital devices and actions you can take to protect yourself and your data to minimize
your chances of becoming a victim.
Some of the hazards you encounter might simply result in inconvenience or temporarily crash
your computer or mobile device. Others, however, can permanently damage your computing
devices or seriously harm you, your family, your reputation, or your finances. The best
defenses are knowledge and preventive action.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
Also, be especially cautious of financial loss or theft when purchasing game elements using Maddie knew about the possibility of
real cash. The cost of buying “extras” with online games can add up quickly and substantially. some of the threats we discuss here. So
Last, but certainly not least, be careful of developing an online gaming addiction. One of the she purchased security software when
biggest dangers of these games is that you can waste many hours playing and actually become she bought her computer. However, the
addicted to them and avoid other important aspects of your life (Get Safe Online, 2015). software recommended that she regu-
larly install updates and scan her com-
puter to ensure that she was protected
Pornographic Websites from new, recently discovered threats.
These tasks were time-consuming, so
Pornography can be defined as visual or printed materials that contain explicit displays
Maddie put them off. The night before
or descriptions of sexual organs or activities intended to stimulate erotic feelings or sexual
a paper was due in one of her online
excitement. Because the Internet is international, no one set of laws applies everywhere to
classes, she downloaded information
the publication, distribution, purchase, or possession of Internet pornography. In the United
from the web that contained a nasty
States, the public, lawmakers, and the courts have battled for decades over clearly defining
computer virus. The virus infected
what is pornographic and whether pornography is protected by the First Amendment to the
her computer system, and her word
U.S. Constitution as free speech or is obscene and not protected.
processing software would not work.
Luckily, Maddie had made a backup
Child pornography, however, is treated severely under both federal and state laws and is not
version of her paper a few days before,
protected under First Amendment rights. Federal laws consider child pornography to be a
and a friend let her borrow a com- J.r. Bale/Hemera/Thinkstock
form of child sexual exploitation and define it as any visual depiction of sexually explicit con-
puter for the evening. However, Mad- Installing security software isn’t enough to protect
duct involving a minor (someone younger than 18 years old). Federal law prohibits any per-
die pulled an all-nighter to re-create your computer. You have to take the time to update
son from producing, distributing, importing, receiving, or possessing any image of child por-
3 days’ worth of work she had done the software and scan it regularly.
nography. Violation of these laws is punishable by fines and a prison sentence that can range
on the paper so she could submit it on
from a minimum of 5 years to life imprisonment (U.S. Department of Justice, 2015).
time. Maddie learned the hard way about the importance of performing regular maintenance
on her computer to reduce her vulnerability to threats.
To control access to pornographic material on your computer, you can purchase software
applications called antipornography filters. Examples include NetDogSoft’s Anti-Porn Filter,
Luckily, as fast as clever computer hackers and other malicious people devise ways to threaten
which attempts to block sites of this nature from appearing on your computer. Some safety
your online safety and security, equally clever people find ways to combat these threats. Let’s
and security software also allow you to set parental controls on your computers and phone
examine the types of electronic threats that exist and ways you can prevent them or mini-
to control access to certain material, and computer operating systems have privacy settings
mize your risk of exposure to them. In this section we refer primarily to computers, but it is
and parental control features that can help. However, it is important to realize that no filter is
important to remember that you are vulnerable to the same threats we discuss here when
100% effective in blocking pornography.
you download applications, or apps, for any of your mobile electronic devices.
Computer Threats Malware/Spyware
As a public space, the web can be a very useful way to find information, shop, find enter- Malware, also called spyware, is a secret program that runs in the background when you
tainment, and stay connected with family and friends. However, it can also be a minefield are on your computer. It gathers information about you and then shares it with others with-
with hidden dangers you must be aware of and protect yourself against. In addition to pri- out your permission. Tracking cookies, which we discussed earlier in this module, might be
vacy issues and the dangers of identity theft, other safety and security threats are common considered a type of spyware because they monitor your activity. The information spyware
in today’s electronic world. In this section, we discuss other types of threats that exist when collects about you might be used to track your movements on the web and then used later to
you use digital devices and actions you can take to protect yourself and your data to minimize decide what type of pop-up ads to send to you. However, it can go beyond simple monitoring
your chances of becoming a victim. and be dangerous to your personal and computer safety and security. Some spyware or mal-
ware can change your computer settings, interfere with your ability to control your computer,
Some of the hazards you encounter might simply result in inconvenience or temporarily crash or install new software on your computer that you have not authorized. Spyware can also
your computer or mobile device. Others, however, can permanently damage your computing redirect your browser’s home page and adjust the settings so it is difficult for you to change it
devices or seriously harm you, your family, your reputation, or your finances. The best back. It can also cause computer crashes.
defenses are knowledge and preventive action.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
You can protect yourself from most malware/spyware by making sure you have a firewall on
your network router that protects your computer from others trying to get in and by install-
ing a comprehensive security program on your computer. Some popular security software
packages are programs such as Norton Security, McAfee Internet Security, and Kaspersky
Total Security. These packages often include protection against multiple threats to your com-
puter, including various types of malware/spyware and computer viruses discussed in the
next section. Once you have installed this software, make sure to set the program to automati-
cally install updates at least weekly, and perform a full computer system scan every month
to make sure you continue to be protected. You can learn more about malware/spyware and
how to protect your computer from the Microsoft Safety & Security Center at https://www
.microsoft.com/en-us/safety/pc-security/spyware-whatis.aspx.
Computer Virus
We all know what a human virus is, which is why we cringe when someone sneezes too close
to us. A computer virus can be equally damaging, and you should take precautions to protect
your computer. Hundreds of thousands of viruses exist, and your computer can become
infected when you download software, open e-mail, or copy an infected file to your computer.
A computer virus can corrupt or delete data on your computer, use your e-mail program to
send messages containing a virus to people on your e-mail contact list, or even erase all the
files on your computer hard drive. You can often recognize you have a computer virus when
your computer does not operate normally and performs strange, unwanted actions such as
typing rows of the same letter or opening web pages or programs on its own.
Computer viruses are often spread
through attachments or links in e-mail
messages or through instant messag-
ing. Never open an attachment on an
e-mail from someone you do not know
or an attachment you do not expect,
and do not click on a message or a
link in an e-mail from someone who
is unfamiliar to you. Viruses can also
be disguised as funny images, greet-
ing cards, or audio and video files and
can be hidden in free software or other
files you download from the Internet.
Ullstein bild/Getty Images
Computer viruses can spread through links or
If you accidentally open a file or a link
attachments in e-mail or instant messages, so do
containing a virus, you will usually
not click on anything that looks unfamiliar or that is
be protected if you have up-to-date
received from someone you don’t know.
antivirus software installed on your
computer. McAfee, Kaspersky, Avira,
Norton, Bitdefender, Webroot, and ESET are some highly regarded antivirus software pro-
grams that are available for both the Mac OS X and the Windows computer operating systems.
They may also be bundled together with malware/spyware protection software. Be sure to
research any software you use or purchase beforehand to determine how well it is rated and
whether it is recommended by websites or people you trust.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
Having a virus on your computer is not an acceptable excuse for turning your assignments in
late. So make sure you install a strong antivirus software program to protect your computer if
you accidentally open a file that contains a virus.
Trojan Horse
A Trojan horse is a type of malware that disguises itself as one type of program but is actually
a different type of program. For example, the software may claim to be a game, but when you
install it on your computer it does damage, such as erasing your hard drive. Trojan horses can
infect other files throughout your computer and even send important information over the
Internet and allow the creator of the Trojan horse to control your computer, slow its activity,
or crash the machine.
Unlike a virus, a Trojan horse does not reproduce itself on its own. The creator of the Trojan
horse must convince you to download and consciously or unconsciously install the program.
This is usually done when you open an e-mail attachment that contains the malware or down-
load a file that is unsafe. A good malware software security program installed on your com-
puter will protect against most Trojan horses. However, remember to open e-mails or e-mail
attachments and download files only from trusted sources.
Computer Worm
A computer worm is another type of
malware that scans your computer for
security holes. These security holes can
be created when a new threat appears
and you have not updated your secu-
rity software. The worm enters the
computer through one of these holes
and reproduces itself, infecting other
programs on your computer. A worm
has the ability to copy itself from
machine to machine. It uses up com-
puter processing time and often carries
payloads of other malware that dam-
age your computer or your files. It can Stuart Jenner/iStock/Thinkstock
go throughout a computer network, Computer worms are another type of threat to your
including the Internet, and infect hun- computer. What is at least one step you can take to
dreds of thousands of computers. avoid getting a computer worm?
In 2001 a worm called Code Red was predicted to do so much damage that it was feared the
Internet would grind to a halt (Brain & Fenlon, 2015). Luckily, this did not occur, but imagine
if a worm attacked a cell phone network today. The danger of this is real, and you should be
sure to protect all your electronic devices, including your cell phone, from malicious attacks.
Discuss security software options with your Internet service provider or cell phone provider.
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6.2 Remaining Safe and Secure Online
Phishing Scheme
Earlier in this module, we discussed phishing as one of the top five social media scams. Phish-
ing schemes can take place through e-mail, as well. For example, someone may e-mail you and
offer to send you money if you send them a “good faith” deposit first. Or someone may claim to
be from the fraud department of your credit card company and ask you to reply to the e-mail
with some personal information. E-mail antispam filters (discussed later in this module) may
catch e-mail messages coming from phishers. But the U.S. Computer Emergency Readiness
Team says the best way for you to beat phishers at their own game is to be wary and never
give out your personal or financial information online (Brain & Fenlon, 2015).
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6.3 Other Actions You Can Take
to Protect Your Privacy
If you want to use all the wonderful opportunities on the Internet to learn, shop, connect with
family and friends, and share your ideas with people around the world, you must accept some
loss of privacy. For example, if you want to make an online purchase, you must enter your
credit card information into a website.
Millions of people purchase goods and services online, do their banking online, post photos of
their family, and do a multitude of other things on the web every day with no problems. How
do they use the Internet and still protect their privacy and their most sensitive personal infor-
mation—such as their Social Security number, bank account and credit card numbers, log-in
identifications, and passwords—from unauthorized people and organizations? The answer is
by taking simple, basic precautions, some of which are listed here.
• On the home page of the browsers you use, search the settings or menu for “Safety,”
“Privacy,” or “Preferences” to locate instructions to modify the degree of privacy you
want for Internet browsing or the type of content you will accept from a website.
• Download programs only from websites you trust. If you are not sure, search the
name of the program on the web to see if anyone has reported it contains spyware
or is a scam.
• Always read all the security warnings, license agreements, and privacy statements
included with any software you download; make sure you can accept all conditions.
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6.3 Other Actions You Can Take to Protect Your Privacy
• When you purchase anything online or use
a website that requires you to enter any
financial information, make sure that web-
site has a URL that begins with ht t ps : //
(a secure website). Such websites may also
have a padlock icon at the bottom of the
page.
• Never click “Agree” or “OK” to close a
window. Instead, click the “X” in the corner
of the window or press Alt+F4 on your
keyboard.
• Be careful of “free” music and file-sharing
programs. Make sure you understand
Britt/iStock/Thinkstock
what conditions or additional software are
With two thirds of all e-mail being spam, it’s nec-
included with the free program.
essary to find ways to avoid these unsolicited and
potentially dangerous messages.
Privacy on Shared Computers
When you use a computer at work or at a public
library, make sure you have permission to use it Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Thinkstock
for your intended purpose and remember that the Despite the possible threats online, the
computer owner has the right to access all data and Internet is a great place to learn, shop,
information on that computer. To ensure privacy, and connect with people around the
even on your own personal computer, two good world.
rules of thumb are to never share personal identifi-
cation information or financial information in an e-mail and never write anything you would
be embarrassed to have someone find and read later. As the old saying goes, “It’s better to be
safe than sorry.”
Dealing With Spam
E-mail is the most popular form of online communication, but not all electronic messages
involve subjects you want to read about. The computer security software company Kaspersky
recently reported that 66.76% of all e-mail messages in 2014 were spam (Vergelis, Shcherba-
kova, & Demidova, 2015). Spam is an unsolicited and undesired or illegal e-mail message.
Not all spam is a computer threat. Many of the e-mails categorized as spam are legitimate and
legal advertisements for products and services. However, they are e-mail messages that you
did not request or are for products or services you may not want, and they intrude on your
privacy. Their biggest threats are that they fill up your e-mail inbox and take a great deal of
your time to review each time you check your e-mail. These spam e-mail messages arrive
daily often because marketers have sold your e-mail address to third parties, who use these
addresses to search for new customers.
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6.3 Other Actions You Can Take to Protect Your Privacy
• When you purchase anything online or use Some spam might appear to be from a
a website that requires you to enter any legitimate company but was actually
financial information, make sure that web- sent by someone else; it may contain
site has a URL that begins with ht t ps : // destructive malware/spyware or a
(a secure website). Such websites may also computer virus. A new form of these
have a padlock icon at the bottom of the destructive e-mail messages appear
page. to be sent from smartphones or from
• Never click “Agree” or “OK” to close a your cell phone company but are actu-
window. Instead, click the “X” in the corner ally fake cellular company messages
of the window or press Alt+F4 on your and may carry malware or viruses.
keyboard.
• Be careful of “free” music and file-sharing The following are some tips to help
programs. Make sure you understand you avoid getting malware/spyware or
Britt/iStock/Thinkstock
what conditions or additional software are computer viruses through your e-mail
With two thirds of all e-mail being spam, it’s nec-
included with the free program. and to minimize the unwanted and
essary to find ways to avoid these unsolicited and
intrusive e-mail messages that clog
potentially dangerous messages.
your inbox.
Privacy on Shared Computers
• Go to the Help menu on your e-mail program and search using the word “privacy” to
When you use a computer at work or at a public find your e-mail privacy options. Review these options and determine the degree of
library, make sure you have permission to use it privacy you want to set for your e-mail program.
for your intended purpose and remember that the • Go back to the Help menu on your e-mail program and search using the term “junk
computer owner has the right to access all data and e-mail” to learn how to change the program’s filters to recognize potential spam
information on that computer. To ensure privacy, and download it to your junk mail folder instead of your e-mail inbox. Make sure to
even on your own personal computer, two good check this folder frequently for any mail that should not have been sent to the junk
rules of thumb are to never share personal identifi- folder. Right-click such messages, select “junk e-mail,” and add the sender to your
cation information or financial information in an e-mail and never write anything you would “safe sender” list so the message will go to your inbox in the future.
be embarrassed to have someone find and read later. As the old saying goes, “It’s better to be • Do not try to unsubscribe from spam or junk mail. These messages are often sent
safe than sorry.” randomly. By unsubscribing, you confirm to the sender that yours is a legitimate
e-mail account. This can create more spam for you, or your address may be sent to
third parties and you may receive e-mail from them.
Dealing With Spam • Do not click on attachments in unsolicited e-mails unless you are sure they are safe.
• Do not click on links inside e-mails. Instead, type the URL directly into your browser.
If the link is not safe, your browser should alert you to that fact.
E-mail is the most popular form of online communication, but not all electronic messages
• Consider having a free, disposable e-mail address you can use for surfing the Inter-
involve subjects you want to read about. The computer security software company Kaspersky
net without having messages sent back to your home e-mail address. You can obtain
recently reported that 66.76% of all e-mail messages in 2014 were spam (Vergelis, Shcherba-
free e-mail accounts on Yahoo! and Gmail for this purpose.
kova, & Demidova, 2015). Spam is an unsolicited and undesired or illegal e-mail message.
Not all spam is a computer threat. Many of the e-mails categorized as spam are legitimate and
legal advertisements for products and services. However, they are e-mail messages that you
did not request or are for products or services you may not want, and they intrude on your
privacy. Their biggest threats are that they fill up your e-mail inbox and take a great deal of
your time to review each time you check your e-mail. These spam e-mail messages arrive
daily often because marketers have sold your e-mail address to third parties, who use these
addresses to search for new customers.
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Summary & Resources
Summary & Resources
Module Summary
Computer technology and the Internet offer tremendous benefits in your personal and pro-
fessional lives. With only a few keystrokes, you can shop online, pay your bills, make restau-
rant reservations, or chat with friends. You can work from home, earn a degree without ever
setting foot on a college campus, and have entire libraries of information at your fingertips.
But these benefits also come with some risks. Fortunately, by understanding how online tech-
nology works and taking some simple precautions, you can enjoy the benefits without worry-
ing about your personal safety or the safety of the information you create and store on your
digital devices.
One of the best ways you can protect yourself is to remember that the data and information
you create could be permanent, and it may be retrieved from your digital devices years after it
was created. Whenever you go online, you leave an electronic trail of where you have been—
a digital footprint that enables others to retrace the steps you took and learn a great deal of
information about you. This trail is created by the unique IP address of your computer, the IP
addresses of websites you visit, and small text files called browser cookies that record addi-
tional personal information about you.
It pays to be cautious when you receive messages, via e-mail or social media websites, from
people you do not know. You should avoid responding to these messages or clicking on attach-
ments or links in the messages unless you know they are safe. Dating websites, classified
advertising sites, media-sharing sites, gaming sites, and pornographic sites require extra cau-
tion to make sure you protect your personal identity and privacy.
You must also make sure to protect your digital equipment from unwanted intrusions and
threats such as malware/spyware, computer viruses, computer worms, and phishing schemes
by installing security software and updating it regularly. With these few cautions in mind and
these few protections in place, you can rest easily and feel free to explore the vast resources
available to you in this exciting digital age.
Critical-Thinking Questions
1. What are the most important benefits electronic technology has provided in your
life?
2. What do you like most about online tracking, and what is the most annoying or both-
ersome aspect of this type of tracking?
3. Have you used any classified advertising websites to buy or sell merchandise? What
do you think of such websites, and how well did they work for you?
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Summary & Resources
Key Terms
browser cookie A computer file containing firewall A network security software
a small piece of data that is stored in a web system that monitors incoming and outgo-
browser while (and sometimes after) a user ing information and protects the computer
is browsing the website. It records informa- network from harmful information from
tion about the user and the user’s activity on other computers or other networks such as
the site. Also known as a tracking cookie. the Internet.
computer virus A software program that, host See domain name.
when installed on a computer, creates copies
of itself and often modifies other computer IP address Internet protocol address; a
programs or files or performs harmful activi- series of numbers assigned to every digital
ties such as destroying data or damaging device when it is manufactured and to every
computer hardware. When such a program site on the World Wide Web. These numbers
is installed, it is said to “infect” the computer. are recorded on the device and on the site
when the two are connected. Thus, every
computer worm A type of malware that website has a record of the devices that have
scans your computer for holes or openings visited, and every device has a record of
in your security system. The worm enters every website it has visited.
through one of these holes and, on a com-
puter network, can copy itself from machine malware Harmful software programs that
to machine. are intended to interfere with other com-
puter systems and disrupt their operations,
cookie profiling The use of browser cook- gather sensitive information, or cause other
ies to track personal information about a types of damage to the system. Also known
user who visits a website and to create a as spyware.
record of that user’s activity online; this
record is commonly used by marketers, so pop-up ads A form of online advertising
they can market products and services to the on the World Wide Web designed to attract
user more effectively the next time he or she readers by displaying specific ads to them
visits the website. when they browse pages on the web.
data aggregator An individual or company pornography Printed or visual mate-
that makes money by collecting and compil- rial that contains explicit descriptions or
ing data and information about people from displays of sexual organs or activity that is
the web and selling it to others. intended to create sexual excitement.
digital footprint The electronic trail of scam A dishonest plan, especially one to get
digital data about you and your computer money from other people by misleading or
that you leave on the web as you browse tricking them.
from one website to another.
spam E-mails that are sent, usually to large
domain name A name assigned to a web- numbers of people on the Internet, that are
site and linked to the website’s IP address not requested and often not wanted.
that has two parts: a web page name and a
web extension. Also known as host. spyware See malware.
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Summary & Resources
tracking cookie See browser cookie. web extension The part of the domain
name that indicates the type of organization
Trojan horse A type of malware that or institution the website represents or the
disguises itself as one type of program but country designation for that website.
is actually a different type of program. The
Trojan horse is usually spread when a com- web page name The name or title of any
puter user opens an e-mail attachment or page on the World Wide Web that is given
downloads a file that contains the malware. to it to make it easier to find than having to
type in the web address/URL.
uniform resource locator (URL) See web
address.
web address A standardized address
or path to locate documents and other
resources on the World Wide Web. Also
known as uniform resource locater (URL).
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Module 7
Tools for Assessing Your Skills
Kitzcorner/iStock/Thinkstock
By Kathy Sole, Ashford University
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to
• Compare and contrast the typical career path of Americans today versus 50 years ago.
• Identify the seven steps of the career development process.
• Outline several resources that can help you match your personality traits to various career options.
• Describe your interests, talents, and work preferences.
• Distinguish different types of skill sets and explain their value in the workplace.
• Identify your personal skill set inventory.
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Introduction: Finding Your Career Path Through Self-Exploration
The first six modules in this text covered important issues in digital literacy, computer hard-
ware and software, and digital citizenship. Here, in Module 7, you will find useful resources
and tools to help you explore your personal interests, identify your skills, and prepare you for
your career search.
Joe, who has a wife and three children, lives in Ohio and was recently laid off from his long-
time factory job. He came to Ashford University to resume his education and prepare for a
new career. Before reentering the work world, he recognized the importance of doing some
self-exploration to figure out what he really wanted to do for a living and how he could lever-
age his education to get him there. He used the resources in this module to create a career
profile of himself and identify his personal strengths, weaknesses, and skill sets.
Like Joe, we hope you will find some useful ideas and tools here in Module 7 that will make
your life easier and enhance your career opportunities. New websites are being created daily,
and the links in this module will change over time. Change is inevitable in the fast-moving
world in which we live today. But consider this module a guide to the valuable, interesting,
and fun resources available to you today—most of them free—to help you meet your goals.
Stanislav_Moroz/iStock/Thinkstock
Finding your career path can be a journey of self-discovery. This module is intended to serve
as a guide.
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©Credit Goes Here
Title Goes
7.1 Career Options: Past and Present
Here
“What do I want to do with the rest of my life?” At
some point (and perhaps at several points) in your
life, you have most likely asked yourself this ques-
tion. In the United States we often have a myriad of
choices about how we live our lives and earn our
livelihoods. These choices are complex and difficult,
and many people struggle to determine what job
they may be qualified to perform and what career
fields they might enjoy that will also satisfy them
and provide an adequate income for themselves
and their families.
Some people are fortunate enough to know exactly
what they want to do. Perhaps they have a musi-
cal or artistic talent that was identified when they Nastia11/iStock/Thinkstock
were very young, and they have always known they There is a wide variety of career
wanted to devote their life to developing that talent. choices in the United States. Discover-
Maybe at some point they were exposed to a voca- ing your career path can take time and
tion or craft, such as carpentry, and discovered they is often a process of trial and error.
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7.1 Career Options: Past and Present
derived great satisfaction from that type of work. Or maybe they have always had a passion
for animal welfare or environmental conservation and decided early on that they wanted to
work in that field later in life. If you have a clear goal or purpose in your life, the information
in this module can help you define career opportunities that will utilize your talents, traits,
interests, or passions and help you mold a career you might enjoy.
However, discovering a career path that matches your personality, strengths, and abilities—
and one that is in balance with the other important aspects of your life—can be a process of
trial and error. As recently as 50 years ago in the United States, young adults would make a
career choice and stay in the same field, the same job, or even the same company until age 65,
when they retired. What used to be commonplace, however, is now the exception. In March
2015 the Bureau of Labor Statistics published the results of its study of people born from
1957 to 1964 and the number of jobs they held from age 18 to age 48. The study showed these
individuals held an average of 11.7 jobs during these years (defined as an uninterrupted
period of work with the same employer). Twenty-seven percent held 15 jobs or more, while
10% held zero to four jobs (see Figure 7.1; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). Young adults
today seem to be following a similar pattern and may even change jobs more frequently. A
study of individuals born from 1980 to 1984 shows that they held an average of 6.2 jobs while
ages 18 to 26 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). In comparison, those born from 1957 to
1964 held an average of 5.5 jobs while ages 18 to 24 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). People
change jobs for a variety of reasons, but many people just aren’t sure what they want to do
and move from job to job hoping to find one that is a good fit for them.
Figure 7.1: Number of jobs held by young baby boomers
It has become the norm to change jobs throughout one’s career. Data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics
show that more than half of young baby boomers (those born from 1957 to 1964) held at least 11 jobs while
ages 18 to 48. Almost three quarters of this population held at least 8 jobs during the same time period.
Data from “Number of Jobs Held by Individuals From Age 18 to Age 48 in 1978 to 2012 by Educational Attainment, Sex, Race, and Hispanic
or Latino Ethnicity” [table], by Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015 (http://www.bls.gov/nls/79r25jobsbyedu.xlsx).
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7.1 Career Options: Past and Present
It is more difficult to track the number of careers people have than the number of specific
jobs they have held. We might occasionally hear of an actor who became a politician (former
president Ronald Reagan) or a person who was a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River, a
gold miner, an investor, a public speaker, a journalist, and then a writer (Samuel Clemons,
aka Mark Twain). Most career changes are not as dramatic as these examples, though, and
researchers do not have a clear set of criteria about what defines a career or a career change.
For example, is a person who works as a laborer on a construction crew and then later forms
a home remodeling company making a career change? What about a newspaper reporter who
becomes a television news anchor? Because we may disagree on an answer to these ques-
tions, measuring the number of career changes people might have in their lifetime is difficult.
The good news is that you have options and do not have to stay with the first job you choose.
If you are not satisfied with that choice, you can change careers, gain additional education if
necessary, and move in a different direction. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if you did not have to
waste time and money in dead-end jobs that are not right for you or will not lead to a satisfy-
ing career? You can often take a shortcut to a fulfilling career by learning more about yourself
and exploring the many career resources available to help you find the perfect fit. By now, we
hope you are asking, “Where do I start?” We suggest that you take a step-by-step approach
and explore the exercises, ideas, and resources presented in the other sections.
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7.2 The Career Development Process
In multiple surveys, when people are asked how they found their current careers, they often
report that they “fell into” (Ryan, 2007, para. 2) them. While some career choices may be due
to luck or being at the right place at the right time, if many of these people looked back on
their lives, they would likely discover clues along the way to the type of work they might like
or be best suited to do. Many times, though, people do not recognize these clues or appreci-
ate the fact that some talents or traits they possess can be extremely useful and desirable in
specific career fields. As a result, many may struggle for years in a career they do not enjoy
or that is not a good fit for them. Each job provides an opportunity to learn new skills and
abilities that you can take on to other roles (for example, how to provide customer services
or how to work effectively on a team). You may not love the job you are in, but you are, no
doubt, gaining valuable transferable skills—skills that will be useful in another workplace
or situation.
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7.2 The Career Development Process
Finding the right career, however, often does not happen overnight. Achieving this goal is a
process that requires focused efforts in several important areas. The Ashford University
Career Services department suggests that these efforts can be categorized into seven specific
steps outlined in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Career development process
To understand the career development process, refer to this flow chart from the Ashford University
Career Services department.
From “The Process,” by Ashford University, n.d. (http://www.ashford.edu/student_services/process.htm).
As you can see, the steps of the career development process are circular in nature. This is not
a linear progression where once you’ve checked all the steps off the list, you’re guaranteed
a great new lifelong career. Rather, it is a continuous process of personal development and
self-improvement that will help you discover and take advantage of opportunities throughout
your lifetime. By engaging in this process, you will learn a great deal about yourself, your
career options, and the evolving professional landscape. As you move through your career,
you can use this process to assess where you are in the present, where you want to be in the
years that follow, and how to get there.
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7.2 The Career Development Process
You can learn more about the career development process by watching the following video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qzz_ZxJCd9Y. Section 7.3 describes step 1 of the pro-
cess: performing initial self-assessments.
Modules 7 and 8 will provide you with a solid foundation for starting the career development
process. As an Ashford student and after graduation, as an Ashford alumnus, you also have
free access to a wealth of resources and personal assistance with your career process through
Ashford University Career Services, including videos and webinars available on the Ashford
University YouTube channel: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL7THdAwmjsLiKEm
VL0zL8UDKrXEzWFLxo.
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7.3 Performing Initial
Self-Assessments
One of the most important ways to avoid job-hopping (frequently moving from job to job
within a year or so after being hired) until you find a career you truly enjoy is to spend
some time examining what you most enjoy doing and your personal preferences for when
and how you work. You may have heard the popular saying, “Do what you love and you will
never work a day in your life.” A similar thought was expressed by author Marsha Sinetar
in her book titled Do What You Love, the Money Will Follow. There is a certain truth to these
sayings. While your work will probably still require
effort and long hours and at times be frustrating,
if you truly love what you are doing, time flies by
more quickly and does not seem like an exhausting
struggle or a boring attempt to get through the day.
Many people have succeeded in making a good
living from a hobby they were passionate about or
turning personal interests into lifelong occupations.
In the self-assessments described in this section, try
to identify what gives you joy and satisfaction and
what your desires and preferences are about the Todd Warnock/Photodisc/Thinkstock
work you do. Take good notes as you go through the Identifying work preferences and what
exercises in this module and in your course work, activities or experiences bring you sat-
because the insights you gain will help you develop isfaction can lead to a career that you
your own career profile. Let’s get started! will truly enjoy.
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7.3 Performing Initial Self-Assessments
How Does Your Personality Influence Your Career Choices?
How do you see yourself? If someone were to describe you, what would they say about you?
In the 1950s, John L. Holland, an American psychologist and Professor Emeritus of Sociol-
ogy at Johns Hopkins University, developed a theory of career and vocational choices based
on a person’s personality. The theory, called the Holland codes or the Holland occupational
themes, suggests that people do well in careers that are well suited to their personalities
(“Award for Distinguished,” 2008). The theory groups people on the basis of how well suited
they are for six different categories or personality families and lists the occupations that cor-
respond to each code or personality type: R = realistic, I = investigative, A = artistic, S = social,
E = enterprising, and C = conventional. These six types result in the abbreviation RIASEC, a
name by which the theory also is commonly known.
Holland’s six different personality codes are shown in Figure 7.3. To get a good idea of your
personality type, read through each of the six codes and decide which description and related
occupations appeal to you the most. Then choose the second category you are most drawn to,
and then the third. These choices will give you a good guess at your three-letter Holland per-
sonality code.
Figure 7.3: The Holland codes
The Holland codes describe six different personality types. John Holland’s theory suggests that people
will thrive in careers to which they are well suited.
Adapted from “Take the Quiz,” by M. Askew, 2016 (http://www.roguecc.edu/counseling/hollandcodes/); and “Holland Code Career
Models,” by M. Askew, n.d. (http://www.hollandcodes.com/holland_code_career.html).
In the 1920s Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist Carl Jung proposed an influential theory
of psychological types. Jung’s work was later refined by a mother and daughter team of
researchers, Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers, who developed a ques-
tionnaire to make Jung’s theory of psychological types useful in people’s lives. That question-
naire, called the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality inventory, allows people to
identify their preferences in the way they function in four basic areas. It is widely used by
psychologists, career counselors, leadership coaches, and personal development trainers,
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7.3 Performing Initial Self-Assessments
and is professionally administered and scored. The combinations of choices people make on
the questionnaire result in 16 distinctive personality types (Myers & Briggs Foundation,
2010). To learn more about your own personality and its application in your personal life and
in your career, consider taking some of the self-assessments outlined in A Closer Look: Career
Self-Assessments.
A Closer Look: Career Self-Assessments
It’s time to learn more about your personality! The following assessments will help you gain
a better sense of what career options might be most suitable for you. Keep in mind that these
tests are not professional psychological assessments and are intended only for your personal
use and professional growth.
We will begin with Ashford University’s TypeFocus, offered through the Career Services
department. Based on the Jungian/Myers–Briggs typology and the Holland codes, this free
online assessment is designed to assess your personality type, interests, and values to assist
you in making effective decisions about your career goals. TypeFocus also provides valuable
information about careers that may be a good fit for you. Based on your results, a Career
Services specialist will guide you through the process of identifying career goals that fit your
interests and personality type.
• TypeFocus: Offered through Ashford University Career Services Department
To access TypeFocus, follow the instructions in this link:
http://nebula.wsimg.com/183ad44df5e26d6b9b6c2ae072a66d03?
AccessKeyId=096AA3380C0E315FE2E4&disposition=0&alloworigin=1
Then learn how to navigate the TypeFocus assessment here: https://ashford
.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/TypeFocus%2BIntroduction/0_mtzyi1lk
Once you have explored your personal qualities and strengths with TypeFocus, you
can use other assessments to enhance your understanding of yourself. Here are some
others you might like to try:
• Big Five Personality Test: http://psychologytoday.tests.psychtests.com/take_test
.php?idRegTest=1297
This test requires some self-reflection on your personality. It is based on what some
psychologists consider the five fundamental personality traits. The test is offered by the
publishers of Psychology Today magazine and consists of 25 to 50 questions, based on
the consistency of your responses. The test should take most people about 10 minutes to
complete. Upon completion you will receive a Snapshot Report with an introduction, a
graph, and a personalized interpretation for one of your test scores. You then have the
option to purchase the full results.
• The following Ashford University Career Services link offers a few additional assessments
at no charge: http://www.ashfordcareerresources.com/self-assessment.html
Reflection Questions
1. Do you agree with the results of the assessments you completed?
2. If so, what are the most important things you learned about yourself or confirmed
about your personality? If not, what results do you disagree with and why?
3. Do you think these assessments will have any value in helping you make career
choices? Why or why not?
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7.3 Performing Initial Self-Assessments
What Beliefs, Interests, and Talents Best Describe You?
When you take the TypeFocus assessment described in A Closer Look: Career Self-Assessments,
you will explore your personal beliefs, interests, and talents. This is an excellent way for you
to learn more about yourself and how others see you. You can continue this exploration by
compiling a list of your answers to the following questions. Then review the list and record
what you learned from conducting this exercise.
• What did parents, guardians, teachers, or
friends praise you for in your past? Often,
other people in our lives recognized our
particular qualities early in our lives. When
you were younger, what types of activities
did others say you did particularly well?
Were you told you were a good listener or
able to draw well, make friends easily, learn
math quickly, or sing well?
• What lifelong interests or hobbies have you
had? For example, have you always enjoyed
caring for others or been fascinated with
puzzles or numbers?
• What did you do that earned you gold stars,
ribbons, or other awards at school or that TongRo Images/TongRo Images/Thinkstock
caused you to be criticized, punished, or Skills for which you received praise
penalized in ways such as sitting in a time- when young can serve you well in a
out or staying after school? Your teachers professional environment, too.
probably encouraged and rewarded you
for certain behaviors and penalized you for
others; both positive and negative feedback about your behaviors can give you clues
to your past tendencies and how you react to certain situations. Over time, you may
have changed some of the behaviors for which you were criticized or punished in the
past, but they still may be habits that you fall back on in times of stress. Reflecting on
these situations, did you learn anything about yourself from these positive and nega-
tive experiences?
• What particular positive characteristics about you did your parents or guardians cite
when they talked about you to others? Were you the quiet one, the smart one, the
comedian, the serious one, or the clever one in your family?
• What were you criticized for by parents, guardians, teachers, or friends in your past?
Just as other people point out traits about you they admire, they also comment on
traits they think could be improved. As a child, you may have been told that you
were overly detailed about issues. So you may have grown to think this was a fault
of yours when, in fact, it may make you an excellent investigator or technical writer.
What traits do you see as your faults? Can you think of ways these traits could be
beneficial to you in your work, or are they just bad habits you need to break? If they
can be beneficial, how can you use the criticism to your advantage and motivate
yourself?
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7.3 Performing Initial Self-Assessments
• What types of experiences have you had or work you have done that have taught you
what you don’t like to do? These experiences may have occurred at work or in your
personal life.
• What are your top 10 favorite subjects? Think about subjects you learned in school
and in previous jobs, and topics you learned about at camp, workshops, training
sessions, or special events. Also, consider any subjects you may have read about or
explored on your own through books, movies, video games, or hobbies.
• What motivates you or gives you energy? What will cause you to get up and get going,
even when you don’t feel your best? What reenergizes you when you are dragging?
What Work Environment Will You Enjoy Most?
Besides your personality, beliefs, interests, and talents, it is important to remember that you
may be comfortable in some situations more than others. For example, when you go to par-
ties, do you like gatherings with large groups of people, loud music, and flashing lights? Or are
you more comfortable at parties in which small groups of people gather in different areas of
a home chatting with one another quietly? Your answer will ultimately determine what type
of work environment you will enjoy most.
Jacob Ammentorp Lund/iStock/Thinkstock
Work preferences vary depending on a person’s skills, weaknesses, and personality. Ask your-
self several key questions to determine what work environment will fit you best.
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7.3 Performing Initial Self-Assessments
Answer the following questions about the types of work environments in which you are most
comfortable. Make sure you record your responses to these questions so you can use this
information later in developing your Personal Career Profile.
• What do you do especially well (your strengths)? What do you struggle with (your
weaknesses)?
• Do you like to work outdoors or indoors?
• Are you most alert and do your best work in the early morning, from 8:00 a.m. to
5:00 p.m., or at night? Are you flexible about the hours you work?
• Do you prefer to work alone or as part of a team?
• Are you an idea or “big-picture” person, or do you usually focus on the details?
• Do you prefer to work with people and data or physical objects and equipment?
• What is most important to you in a work environment? Name three things your
ideal work environment must have. Name three things your ideal work environment
would not have. Consider issues such as the type of work, the amount of travel, your
schedule, your interactions with other people, and so on.
• Are you a multitasker who likes to have a multitude of tasks and duties going at the
same time, or do you prefer to focus on one task for long periods of time?
• Are you a sprinter or a marathoner? Do you work better in short blocks of time with
frequent breaks or when you have larger blocks of uninterrupted time?
• What type of organization do you think you would most enjoy working for: a small,
family-owned firm; a medium-sized organization where every position feels criti-
cal to the company’s operation; a large for-profit corporation with opportunities to
move to different functional areas of the company and to climb the corporate ladder;
a charitable or nonprofit service organization; or your own business?
• What type of work tasks do you dislike the most, procrastinate about, or struggle
with whenever you have to do them?
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