Grzimek Animal Life Encyclopedia Volume 11 Birds IV ( PDFDrive )

Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Crows and jays

fruits, nuts, berries, as well as the eggs and young of small nia) pairs “divorced,” with one member of the pair seeking a
birds. The seeds of pinyon (Pinus edulis) and ponderosa pine mate in a better territory.
(Pinus ponderosa) are an important food source for these species
too, but not to the extent shown by the pinyon jay, which feeds Pair bonds are often formed among flocks at a communal
almost exclusively on pine seeds. Its morphological adaptations roost, or in noisy group gatherings just prior to the breeding
include an expandable esophagus that can inflate to hold up season. In most species, a significant part of courtship be-
to 50 seeds at one time; the scrub jay can manage just five. havior involves the male feeding the female—a preliminary
to actual feeding when she is on the nest. The female may re-
Corvids are renown for their intelligence and adaptability spond with begging or submissive quivering of the wings or
in getting food. Examples of optimal foraging include the abil- tail, but this reaction is not found in all species. The male of
ity of northwestern crows to weigh whelks to select the the pair usually shows dominant behavior, such as openly
biggest, and then to drop them on rocks from a height which stealing from the female’s food store.
experiments have shown is ideal for breaking open large whelk
shells. The use of tools was captured on film in the David At- The typical corvid nest begins as a stick platform in the fork
tenborough series The Life of Birds, in which New Caledon- of a tree. Once the heap of strong sticks is firmly wedged in
ian crows (Corvus moneduloides) were shown collecting, place, both birds make a bowl-shaped layer of strips of bark
trimming, and using twigs to probe into the hollows of logs and roots, sometimes bound together with mud or animal dung.
for invertebrate grubs. This is lined with a cup of soft materials such as grass, feath-
ers, fur, and leaves. There are a number of mainly habitat-
The hiding of food for later consumption is a characteris- related adaptations to this basic model. Siberian jays (Perisoreus
tic of corvids. It confers obvious benefits for species that have infaustus), one of several tree-nesting species of northern tem-
a sudden abundance of food and a need to eke out their sup- perate zones, build especially thick nest cups insulated with
plies to cover leaner periods. Studies of spotted nutcrackers lichens and reindeer hair. Pica magpies, which often nest in
in Siberia show that these birds are completely dependent on open habitat, add a domed roof to reduce the vulnerability of
cached pine seeds from the fall until May. Each individual the nest to predators; this is clearly learned behavior, for inex-
hides about 100,000 seeds and needs to find about a quarter perienced birds are more likely to build open nests. Tropical
of these to survive. Research on Eurasian jays indicates that species usually nest in dense vegetation; their light, flimsy nests
these birds memorize the position of trees and other land- show they have no need of extra warmth or added protection.
mark features, so that they are able to retrieve buried acorns
successfully. Although gray jays of boreal forest are unable to Some corvids gain extra security or the ability to nest in a
find food buried on the forest floor during winter when the wider range of habitats by nesting in holes, cavities, ledges,
ground is covered in deep snow, they solve this problem by or on the ground. Garrulus jays nest in tree hollows. West-
gluing insects and pieces of meat onto the bark of trees us- ern jackdaws evolved the habit of nesting in chimneys and
ing their own saliva. other cavities, possibly to reduce predation by larger carrion
crows. Pyrrhocorax choughs generally nest in open habitat with
Birds in temperate zones clearly gain from storing food few trees. For safety, they lay their eggs on cave ledges or
when faced with a glut, but widespread evidence from tropi- deep cracks in cliffs. Even species that nest on the ground
cal species too suggests that most, and possibly all corvids, generally site the nest under a protective shelter, either un-
engage in this behavior. In India, rufous treepies (Dendrocitta der a bush or on a cliff ledge shielded from the wind. Only
vagabunda) have been observed hanging up pieces of meat in the Hume’s ground-jay (Pseudopodoces humilis) digs a burrow
trees. Other largely arboreal species wedge acorns and other in the ground where it lays its eggs.
seeds in cracks of trees. Some ground-feeders occasionally
hide their find under grass or among leaves, but the general Corvids lay between two and seven eggs; these are almost
tendency is to bury the food underground. always incubated by the female, with the male feeding and
guarding her. Hatching is asynchronous; it is common for the
Nevertheless, food storing is a risky strategy, since there youngest and weakest young to die in the nest. The young
is always the possibility that the stored food may be found by are born blind, helpless, and either naked or with a light down.
a conspecific or other species. Observations have shown that The adults are attentive parents, bringing food back to the
northern ravens and Eurasian jays return to caches that they nest in their throats. Smaller species fledge after about 20
have stored in the presence of conspecifics, then rebury them days, but larger corvids may remain in the nest for five to
when the observers are no longer present. Studies of Florida seven weeks. Among solitary nesters, the young may remain
scrub-jays demonstrate that only those birds that have expe- with the parents for up to three months, becoming increas-
rience of stealing the caches of other birds will engage in such ingly independent, before the family group breaks up.
re-caching.
Conservation status
Reproductive biology
Just over one-tenth of all corvids are classified as under
Corvids are largely monogamous. However, the assertion some level of threat according to the IUCN, a reflection of
that corvids “mate for life” is open to question, for there is the opportunism and adaptability of this family. However, the
clear evidence that some pair bonds are broken. One study 13 species at risk and a further 11 Near Threatened species,
estimated that one-third of black-billed magpie (Pica hudso- are almost all in decline due to factors common to most
threatened bird species.
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Family: Crows and jays Vol. 11: Birds IV

Common crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) raid a cornfield. (Photo by Gary R. Zahm. Bruce Coleman Inc. Reproduced by permission.)

More than any other family, crows are cast as villains of Habitat loss for development brings additional problems.
bird conservation, directly accused of causing the declines of The case of the Florida scrub-jay is a classic example. Between
other species. Such criticism is, at the very least, simplistic. 1960 and 1980, the human population doubled as housing and
Generally, crow predation or competition exacerbates a de- the planting of citrus groves destroyed large areas of the bird’s
teriorating situation caused by habitat alteration. Numbers of scrub habitat. Birds living in the remaining habitat, closer to
the endangered Cuban palm crow (Corvus minutus) have prob- human habitation, face extra pressure. Human disturbance,
ably fallen because it is being outcompeted by the Cuban crow predation by feral cats, mortality on roads, and overgrowing
(Corvus nasicus). Yet such interspecific competition has almost of scrub because of fire prevention measures, added to the
certainly only happened because habitat destruction has re- difficulties. Conservationists are working to ameliorate these
sulted in overlapping ranges. The most serious threat to the problems by establishing controlled, rotational burning of
Amami jay (Garrulus lidthi) is predation by other crows and scrub, and setting up a network of protected sites for the birds.
mammals. However, numbers of large-billed crows (Corvus
macrorhynchos) have recently increased, probably because of It is hard to see how some problems facing island endemics
increased garbage disposal on the island. can be overcome. Added to habitat loss and other pressures
are the threats facing small, geographically restricted popula-
The biggest threat facing endangered corvids, affecting 18 tions of corvids from invasive species. The BirdLife Interna-
out of the 24 species at risk, is timber extraction, which is of- tional statement that “invasive species have entirely or partially
ten followed by conversion of cleared ground to agriculture caused the majority of all bird extinctions since 1800” appears
or development. When forest habitat is lost, and populations prophetic for the Hawaiian crow (Corvus hawaiiensis) and Mar-
fall as a result, other factors take on greater significance. Frag- iana crow (Corvus kubaryi). Both species have seen their pop-
mentation of habitat has severely depleted populations of the ulations eroded by habitat loss, disturbance, and persecution,
Sri Lanka magpie (Urocissa ornata) and the Flores crow (Corvus among other factors. The introduction of the predatory brown
florensis) to the extent that brood-parasitism by the Asian koel tree snake (Boiga irregularis) on Guam will probably cause the
(Eudynamys scolopacea) has a disproportionately large impact. Mariana crow to disappear from that island, and the popula-
Similarly, depredations caused by hunting for food by the tion on neighboring Rota is at risk from introduced rats. The
white-necked crow (Corvus leucognaphalus) and Hispaniolan position of the Critically Endangered Hawaiian crow is even
palm crow (Corvus palmarum) are now critical factors in their worse due to predation of nests by introduced rats and the
survival. Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus).

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Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Crows and jays

Significance to humans Crows appear in the Koran and in the Bible, most mem-
orably in the latter when a raven is sent by Noah to find land.
Perhaps more than any other bird, the raven has from an- An illustrated Bible from the early twelfth century shows a
cient times held a notable place in the minds of people in the raven pecking at a drowned corpse. From Shakespeare—who
Northern Hemisphere. This family has been linked inextrica- mentioned crows 50 times within his plays—to Edgar Allen
bly with the lives, religions, and mythology of humans, prob- Poe, crows have fascinated humans.
ably even before ravens appeared on prehistoric cave paintings.
Humans discovered early on that these intelligent birds
The omnipresence of corvids around human settlements, could be tamed. The Roman philosopher Pliny gives in-
with crows and ravens often treated synonymously, has un- struction on teaching crows to speak. The diminutives in
doubtedly been a major factor in their pre-eminence in hu- Mag-pie and Jack-daw reveal the familiarity that pet birds
man mythology. In India, villagers believed the house crow would command. Even today, the green magpie (Cissa chi-
was immortal, for although people died, the crows remained. nensis) is commonly hunted for the cage bird trade.
Attributes given to corvids are legion; the common thread is
the magical powers that are invested in these birds. The In- Some corvid species have been persecuted because of eco-
nuit and ancient Chinese among others, associated crows with nomic damage to farm crops, livestock, poultry, game birds,
creation. Early Europeans believed that a crow flying around and waterfowl. In 1938, following recommendations by the
a house calling foretold a death. Viking mythology gives the U.S. Biological Survey, American crow roosts in Oklahoma
god Odin two prophetic raven messengers, Hugin (thought) were bombed systematically. Seven years earlier, a contest to
and Munin (memory), and in ancient Greece, the god Apollo exterminate the black-billed magpie from British Columbia
had a prophetic raven. The gift of prophecy for both good resulted in 1,033 being killed by just 12 hunters in one sea-
and evil is powerfully realized among North and Central son. Persecution dates back much further; bounty hunters in
American aboriginal tribes, where the crow is totemic. Such England were given a farthing a crow in the reign of Henry
was the power of crow medicine that the Cheyenne used crow VIII. The English poet William Wordsworth declared of the
rather than eagle feathers on their warbonnets. raven that “this carnivorous fowl is a great enemy to the lambs
of these solitudes.”
Associations are often linked to observations of bird be-
havior. As a carrion-feeder, the northern raven waited around Although the indiscriminate persecution of corvids has
battlefields for a feast of human carcasses. On the Welsh and now lessened—the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in North
Scottish borderlands, it was named the Corby messenger, America was amended in 1972 to include protection for
foretelling death and slaughter. This author testifies to the corvids for example—licensed control of a number of
power of suggestion. Trapped by a blizzard in the mountains species is still accepted. Federal regulations in North Amer-
of Glencoe, Scotland, my fate on a cliff ledge appeared set- ica and national laws throughout Europe allow for killing
tled when, from the silent valley below, came the harsh “krok” corvids.
of an apparently expectant raven.

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 509

1
3

4 2 6
7 5

9 8
10

1. Pinyon jay (Gymnorthinus cyanocephalus); 2. Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis); 3. Azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cyana); 4. Green magpie
(Cissa chinensis); 5. Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius); 6. Rufous treepie (Dendrocitta vagabunda); 7. Western scrub-jay (Aphelocoma california);
8. Hume’s ground-jay (Pseudopooces humilis); 9. Eurasian magpie (Pica pica); 10. Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata). (Illustration by Gillian Harris)

510 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

1 2
4 3

6 5
7

9
8

1. American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos); 2. Spotted nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes); 3. Red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax);
4. Western jackdaw (Corvus monedula); 5. Northern raven (Corvus corax); 6. House crow (Corvus splendens); 7. Torresian crow (Corvus orru);
8. Rook (Corvus frugilegus); 9. Carrion crow (Corvus corone). (Illustration by Gillian Harris)

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Family: Crows and jays Vol. 11: Birds IV

Species accounts

Pinyon jay FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus Heavily dependent on conifer seeds. Will forage widely for
invertebrates and other seeds, often visiting backyards.
SUBFAMILY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Corvinae
Cooperative breeder with young adults feeding chicks both be-
TAXONOMY fore and after fledging. Colonial, well-spaced nests consisting
of sticks and vegetation, cup lined with fine plants and wool.
Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus Wied, 1841, Montana. Monotypic. Generally three to four eggs laid February through May. Incu-
bation 16 days; fledging 21 days.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
CONSERVATION STATUS
French: Geai des pinèdes; German: Nacktschnabelhäher;
Spanish: Chara piñonera. Not threatened. Locally common throughout its range.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS

9.75–10.92 in (25–28 cm); 3.6 oz (103 g). Uniform dull blue Known by the Hopi as the bird of war because of its habit of
plumage is darkest on head, brightest on breast, crown, and mobbing predators. ◆
forehead, and palest on rump. Throat is whitish. Relatively
fine, sharply pointed bill is blackish, as are the legs and feet. Blue jay

DISTRIBUTION Cyanocitta cristata

West-central United States. Central Oregon east to South SUBFAMILY
Dakota; may be found as far south as Baja, California, to west-
ern Oklahoma. Corvinae

HABITAT TAXONOMY

Dry mountain slopes of pinyon, juniper, and yellow pine. Cyanocitta cristata Linnaeus, 1758, South Carolina. Four sub-
species.
BEHAVIOR

Highly gregarious, usually in large flocks, numbering up to 250
individuals. Flight is direct, accompanied by mewing calls.

Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus Cyanocitta cristata

Resident Resident Breeding

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Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Crows and jays

OTHER COMMON NAMES Aphelocoma californica

French: Geai bleu; German: Blauhäher; Spanish: Chara azul. Resident

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS HABITAT

9.36–11.7 in (24–30 cm); 2.27–3.8 oz (65–109 g). Upperparts Mixed shrubs with trees.
and jaunty crest are purplish blue. Wings and tail are brighter
blue and have prominent black barring; wings also have white BEHAVIOR
spots. Chin, face, throat and underparts are grayish white.
Long bill, legs, and feet are black. Ground-feeder never far from cover, usually in pairs or family
groups. Frequent loud, chattering calls. Pairs are strongly
DISTRIBUTION territorial.

Eastern and central North America, with Rocky Mountains FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
forming broad western limit.
Primarily acorns and pine seeds, often stored for later use. Also
HABITAT invertebrates, eggs and nestlings, small amphibians, reptiles,
and mammals.
Woodland, parks, and suburbs.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
BEHAVIOR
Solitary breeder. Lays two to six eggs late March through early
Noisy and bold visitor to many backyards. Generally forages May in twig nest lined with plant matter. Incubation 16–19
alone or in pairs. days; fledging about 18 days.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET CONSERVATION STATUS

Highly opportunistic feeder, supplementing a seed and nut diet Not threatened; locally common.
with birds, mammals, invertebrates, and human garbage.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Important, if inadvertent role as a planter of trees. ◆
Solitary tree nester. Uses mud to hold its twig, root, and
feather nest together. Generally lays four to five eggs late Eurasian jay
March through early June. Incubation 16–18 days; fledging
18–21 days. Frequently double brooded. Garrulus glandarius

CONSERVATION STATUS SUBFAMILY

Not threatened. Very common, with range expanding north- Corvinae
westward.
TAXONOMY
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Garrulus glandarius Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. About 33 sub-
Iconic status, with the Toronto Blue Jays baseball team, a species.
record label, and a Beatles song all named after this bird. ◆
513
Western scrub-jay

Aphelocoma californica

SUBFAMILY

Corvinae

TAXONOMY

Aphelocoma californica Vigors, 1839, California. Fifteen sub-
species. Isolated Florida scrub-jay in peninsular Florida and the
island scrub-jay (Aphelocoma insularis) on Santa Cruz considered
separate species.

OTHER COMMON NAMES

English: California jay; French: Geai buissonnier; German:
Buschhäher; Spanish: Chara Pecho Rayado.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

10.53–12.09 in (27–31 cm); 2.8 oz (80 g). Upperparts, head,
wings, and tail are dark blue; mantle and back are grayish
brown. Head features a white “eyebrow” over a dark eye patch.
Underparts are variable whitish, buff, and grayish. White
throat is outlined with a blue necklace and there is a blue band
on the chest. Bill, legs, and feet are blackish.

DISTRIBUTION

Western United States and northwest Mexico.

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Family: Crows and jays Vol. 11: Birds IV

Garrulus glandarius Gray jay

Resident Perisoreus canadensis

OTHER COMMON NAMES SUBFAMILY

English: Red-crowned jay (in India); French: Geai des chênes; Corvinae
German: Eichelhaher; Spanish: Arrendejo Común.
TAXONOMY
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Perisoreus canadensis Linnaeus, 1766, Canada. Eight subspecies.
12.48–14.04 in (32–36 cm); 4.9–6.55 oz (140–187 g). Subspecies
vary significantly in plumage color and pattern, but generally OTHER COMMON NAMES
this bird has a pinkish brown body, white wing patches, blue
shoulders, and a black tail. The head features a black moustache English: Canada jay, whiskey-jack, venison-hawk; French:
and crown feathers that appear ruffled when erect. Bill is dark Mésangeai du Canada; German: Meisenhäher; Spanish: Chara
brownish horn, and legs and feet are fleshy-brown. gris.

DISTRIBUTION PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Most widespread of all jays, found in all but northernmost 9.75–10.92 in (25–28 cm); 2.17–2.5 oz (62–73 g). Upperparts,
parts of Europe, north Africa, Middle East, central and South- wings, and tail are dark gray; underparts are lighter gray. Head
east Asia. is pale gray with a black patch on crown and nape; throat is
white. Subspecies vary most noticeable in the extent of the
HABITAT black head patch.

Both deciduous and coniferous woodland. DISTRIBUTION

BEHAVIOR Conifer forests of Canada, Alaska, and northern and western
United States.
Normally shy and solitary. Presence given away by loud,
screeching call. HABITAT

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET Coniferous forests away from human habitation.

Eats and stores enormous quantities of acorns. Also feeds on BEHAVIOR
other seeds, invertebrates, eggs, and nestlings.
Usually forages unobtrusively in pairs or family groups.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Solitary nester, building platform twig nest in fork of tree.
Lays three to seven eggs April through May. Incubation 16–19 Invertebrates, small mammals, and birds. Also berries which
days; fledging 18–23 days. are “glued” to trees for future consumption, using sticky
saliva.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Perisoreus canadensis
Not threatened. Common to abundant in most of its range.
Resident
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Thought to be primarily responsible for planting of Old
World oak forests. Individuals bury thousands of acorns in fall
for later consumption. ◆

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Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Crows and jays

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY BEHAVIOR

Solitary nester. Lays two to five eggs March through April in Shy bird that gives whistling call from dense undergrowth.
twig nest which is well insulated with mosses, lichens, fur, and Small groups move through forest outside breeding season in
feathers. Incubation 16–18 days; fledging about 15 days. company with other bird species.

CONSERVATION STATUS FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

Not threatened. Locally common over a wide range. Hunts low in undergrowth for insects. Also small birds, rep-
tiles, amphibians, fruit, and berries.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Bold scavenging from humans has earned it the name “camp
robber.” ◆ Solitary nester on platform nest often built in bamboo or vines.
Lays three to seven eggs January through April. No informa-
Green magpie tion known about incubation or fledging.

Cissa chinensis CONSERVATION STATUS

SUBFAMILY Not threatened, but uncommon throughout its range.

Corvinae SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS

TAXONOMY Commonly trapped for the cage bird trade, where it is known
as a cissa. ◆
Cissa chinensis Boddaert, 1783, Mergui, Tenasserim, Myanmar.
Five subspecies. Azure-winged magpie

OTHER COMMON NAMES Cyanopica cyana

English: Green hunting crow, hunting cissa; French: Pirolle SUBFAMILY
verte; German: Jagdelster; Spanish: Urraca Verde.
Corvinae
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
TAXONOMY
14.43–15.21 in (37–39 cm); male 4.55–4.65 oz (130–133 g), fe-
male 4.2–4.34 oz (120–124 g). A bulky-bodied bright green Cyanopica cyana Pallas, 1776, Dauria. Nine subspecies.
bird with a wide black mask, chestnut wings, and long, gradu-
ated tail. Bill, legs, and feet are bright red. OTHER COMMON NAMES

DISTRIBUTION French: Pie bleue; German: Blauelster; Spanish: Urraca de
Rabo Largo.
Mainland tropical Southeast Asia, also Borneo and Sumatra.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
HABITAT
13.26 in (34 cm); 2.17–2.87 oz (62–82 g). A distinctive bird
Lowland and hill forest. with gray to pinkish buff upperparts, black hood, white throat,
pale blue wings, and long, graduated pale blue tail. Bill, legs,
and feet are black.

Cissa chinensis Cyanopica cyana

Resident Resident

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Family: Crows and jays Vol. 11: Birds IV

DISTRIBUTION Dendrocitta vagabunda

Two separate populations. Western distribution limited to Resident
Spain and Portugal. May once have been linked with eastern
population, which is distributed widely from Mongolia and BEHAVIOR
eastern Russia through most of China and Korea to Japan.
Moves in pairs or family parties, uttering loud calls. Largely
HABITAT arboreal, most often seen flying between trees, or perching
high in canopy.
Woodland and forest edge. Iberian form found in open country.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
BEHAVIOR
Very wide diet, including invertebrates, small birds, mammals,
Highly gregarious magpie, with parties numbering up to 100 reptiles, and amphibians, nuts, berries, carrion.
outside breeding season. Stays close to cover in most parts of
its range, although a bold scavenger in Chinese and Japanese REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
towns and cities.
Solitary nester usually on lone tree. Generally lays four to five
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET eggs February through May in stick nest. Incubation and fledg-
ing periods unknown.
Insects, fruit, seeds, and berries.
CONSERVATION STATUS
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Not threatened. Very common in western part of range, com-
Nests in colonies, with each pair selecting its own tree to mon elsewhere.
build a stick and twig nest, held together with mud. Generally
lays five to seven eggs March through June; double-brooded SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
in Far East. Incubation 15 days; fledging about 16 days.
Young adults from previous year’s brood act as helpers feed- None known. ◆
ing young.
Eurasian magpie
CONSERVATION STATUS
Pica pica
Not threatened. Common and increasing in number over most
of its range. SUBFAMILY

SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS Corvinae

None known. ◆ TAXONOMY

Rufous treepie Pica pica Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Twelve subspecies. Until
2000, the black-billed magpie of northwest North America was
Dendrocitta vagabunda considered a subspecies.

SUBFAMILY OTHER COMMON NAMES

Corvinae English: Common magpie; French: Pie bavarde; German: Elster;
Spanish: Urraca de Pico Negro.
TAXONOMY
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Dendrocitta vagabunda Latham, 1790, India. Nine subspecies.
16.77–19.5 in (43–50 cm); 6.3–9.63 oz (180–275 g). Plumage is
OTHER COMMON NAMES mostly black with white belly, sides, and scapulars. The black
head, neck, mantle, and breast have a weak green and purple
English: Indian treepie; French: Témia vagabonde; German:
Wanderelster; Spanish: Urraca vagabunda. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

17.94–19.5 in (46–50 cm); 3.15–4.55 oz (90–130 g). Upper-
parts are rusty-orange; underparts are paler and buffy. Head,
neck, breast, and upper mantle are blackish. Wing coverts
and tertials are pale, silvery gray; the rest of the wing is
brownish black. Central tail feathers are pale gray ending in
a wide, black terminal band; outer tail feathers have more
black. Bill is dark gray or blackish; legs and feet are brown-
ish black.

DISTRIBUTION

Widely distributed through Pakistan, India, Burma, and west-
ern Thailand. Patchier in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

HABITAT

Light woodland, open fields with trees, villages, towns, and
cities.

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Pica pica Pseudopodoces humilis

Resident Resident

sheen; the black wings and tail are highly glossed with OTHER COMMON NAMES
green/blue/purple iridescence. Bill, legs, and feet are black.
English: Little ground-jay, Tibetan ground-jay, Hume’s
DISTRIBUTION groundpecker; French: Podoce de Hume; German: Höhlen-
häher; Spanish: Arrandejo Terrestre de Hume.
One of the most widespread of corvids, found throughout
Europe and much of Asia, and northwest Africa. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

HABITAT 7.4 in (19 cm); 1.47–1.61 oz (42–46 g). The soft, slightly fluffy
body plumage is dull brownish above and off-white below.
Generally found wherever there are trees, although avoids Wings are darker brown and the tail is white with dark brown
dense forest. central feathers. The black bill is short, thin, and distinctly
curved. Legs and feet also are black.
BEHAVIOR
DISTRIBUTION
Presence often betrayed by raucous “chacking” call. Groups of
magpies often harass gulls or kites to make them drop food. Tibetan Plateau of China, Nepal, and India.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET HABITAT

Omnivorous diet includes invertebrates, fruit and berries, birds, Grassy, boulder-strewn mountain slopes.
mammals, carrion including road kills; scavenges human garbage.
BEHAVIOR
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Hops and perches between boulders, flicking wings and tail on
Solitary nester. Lays between two to 13, but generally eight to landing.
nine eggs March through May in dome-shaped twig nest. In-
cubation 14–23 days; fledging 10 days; young stay with parents FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
for a short time after leaving nest. Other nonbreeding adults
allowed in breeding territory. Probes on ground using long bill in search of invertebrates.

CONSERVATION STATUS REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

Not threatened; common to abundant. Digs long tunnel in bank, wall or building to build grass and
moss nest at end. Lays four to six eggs May through June.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS Incubation and fledging periods unknown.

Numbers controlled where perceived as a threat to game birds CONSERVATION STATUS
in Europe. ◆
Not threatened; common.
Hume’s ground-jay
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Pseudopodoces humilis
None known. ◆
SUBFAMILY
517
Corvinae

TAXONOMY

Pseudopodoces humilis Hume, 1871, Sinkiang. Probably monotypic.

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Family: Crows and jays Vol. 11: Birds IV

Spotted nutcracker Cup lined with moss and grass. Incubation 16–18 days; fledging
about 23 days. Young remain with parents for rest of summer.
Nucifraga caryocatactes
CONSERVATION STATUS
SUBFAMILY
Not threatened. Abundant throughout its range.
Corvinae
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
TAXONOMY
A significant planter of conifers thanks to its habit of storing
Nucifraga caryocatactes Linnaeus 1758, Sweden. Eight sub- pine seed underground. ◆
species.
Red-billed chough
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax
English: Nutcracker, Eurasian nutcracker, spotted nutcracker;
French: Cassenoix moucheté; German: Tannenhäher; Spanish: SUBFAMILY
Cascanueces Moteado.
Corvinae
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
TAXONOMY
12.48–13.26 in (32–34 cm); 4.34–7 oz (124–200 g). Body
plumage is dark brown profusely spotted with white; lower Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax Linnaeus, 1758, England. Eight sub-
belly and undertail-coverts are white. Wings are glossy black species.
with white-tipped coverts. Tail is also glossy black with white
feather tips, increasing in extent toward the outermost. Bill, OTHER COMMON NAMES
legs, and feet are black.
English: Chough; French: Crave à bec rouge; German:
DISTRIBUTION Alpenkrähe; Spanish: Chova piquirroja.

Coniferous forests of Europe and Asia. North American equiv- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
alent is Clark’s nutcracker.
14.04–15.6 in (36–40 cm); 9.97–13.3 oz (285–380 g). Plumage
HABITAT is velvet-black with a slight bluish purple to greenish gloss on
the body; wings and tail are glossier. Slender, curved bill is red,
Coniferous forests. Widely dispersed during irruptions follow- as are legs and feet.
ing failure of seed harvest.
DISTRIBUTION
BEHAVIOR
Widespread in mountainous areas of central and western Asia.
Wary, but perches on conspicuous treetops. Holds year-round Patchy distribution in Europe and northwest Africa.
territory, keeping several stores of nuts and seeds.
HABITAT
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Rocky, mountainous areas with adjacent animal pasture. West-
Heavily reliant on conifer seeds and hazel nuts, which are ern European populations use sea cliffs.
stored as winter supply. Insects and berries eaten seasonally.
BEHAVIOR
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Territorial during breeding season, but allows third adult in
Solitary nester. Generally lays three to four eggs March territory. Highly gregarious at other times and roosts colo-
through May in stick nest woven together with plant stems. nially in caves or rock crevices.

Nucifraga caryocatactes Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax

Resident Nonbreeding Resident

518 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Crows and jays

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET BEHAVIOR

Soil feeder on ants, beetles, worms, and other invertebrates. Sociable groups frequently engage in agile, tumbling flight
Often finds food in animal dung. display, giving loud calls.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

Solitary nester, constructing stick and animal hair nest at back Mainly granivorous, except during breeding season when it
of cave. Generally lays three to four eggs March through April. takes moth caterpillars from tree foliage.
Incubation 17–21 days; fledging 36–41 days.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
CONSERVATION STATUS
Semicolonial. Stick nests built in tree holes, cliff faces, or arti-
Not threatened. Common in Asia, populations declining in Eu- ficial structures. Generally four eggs April through May. Incu-
rope following changes in land use. bation 17–19 days; fledging about 30 days.

SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS CONSERVATION STATUS

None known. ◆ Not threatened. Abundant; appears to be spreading broadly
north and eastward.
Western jackdaw
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Corvus monedula
Regularly nests in chimneys of inhabited buildings. ◆
SUBFAMILY
House crow
Corvinae
Corvus splendens
TAXONOMY
SUBFAMILY
Corvus monedula Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Four subspecies usu-
ally recognized. Corvinae

OTHER COMMON NAMES TAXONOMY

French: Choucas des tours; German: Dohle; Spanish: Grajilla Corvus splendens Vieillot, 1817, Bengal. Four or five subspecies
Común. recognized.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OTHER COMMON NAMES

13.26–15.21 in (34–39 cm); 4.86–9.27 oz (139–265 g). Upper- French: Corbeau familier; German: Glanzkrähe; Spanish:
parts are grayish black with a slight bluish gloss. Head has a Corneja India.
black forecrown and dark gray rear crown, nape, and sides.
Wings and tail are black and glossy. Underparts are grayish PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
black. The short bill is black, as are the legs and feet.
15.6 in (40 cm); 8.57–12.07 oz (245–371 g). Plumage is black
DISTRIBUTION except for the nape, sides of the head, and breast, which are
gray. Bill, legs, and feet also black.
Europe, western Asia, North Africa.
DISTRIBUTION
HABITAT
Iran to India, Pakistan and Burma, self-introduced to East
Wide variety of open country with trees, including areas of Africa, Indian Ocean islands, Malaysia, and South Africa.
human habitation.

Corvus monedula Corvus splendens

Resident Breeding Nonbreeding Resident

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 519

Family: Crows and jays Vol. 11: Birds IV

HABITAT PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Wholly dependent on human habitation; consequently found 18.33 in (47 cm); 11.8–18.58 oz (337–531 g). Entire plumage is
in villages, towns, and cities throughout its range. black and highly glossed with metallic blue, green, and purple.
Base of the bill, chin, and loral region are bare, giving the
BEHAVIOR forecrown a slightly peaked appearance. Bill is whitish at the
base shading to dusky over the terminal half. Legs and feet are
Highly vocal, gregarious birds, seemingly unafraid of humans. black.
Will attack and chase off any large bird of prey.
DISTRIBUTION
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
In all but the most mountainous areas of Europe and Asia.
Omnivorous. Diet includes seeds, fruit, grain, nectar, berries,
bird’s eggs, nestlings, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, in- HABITAT
sects, wide range of carrion.
Farmland with scattered trees and wooded steppe.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
BEHAVIOR
Solitary nester except in areas of high population density. Will
use trees, buildings, or other artificial structures for rough stick Significant fall migrant, flying by day from northern Europe
nest. Three to four eggs March through July. Incubation and Asia, to western Europe, the Middle East, and southern
16–17 days; fledging 21–28 days. Asia. In the Seine-et-Marne district of France, the breeding
population was estimated at 10,000; the winter population
CONSERVATION STATUS 500,000.

Not threatened. Abundant throughout range. FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS Soil feeder on invertebrates, seed, grain.

Regarded as a major agricultural and human health pest in REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
self-introduced areas. In South Africa, birds have been re-
ported taking food from school children, killing chicks of do- Nests colonially in rookeries; there are generally at least 20
mestic fowls, and repeatedly dive-bombing any person near nests densely clustered around the tops of several trees. Nests
the nest. ◆ used repeatedly in successive years. Lays two to seven eggs in
grass and leaf cup within bulky stick nest. Incubation 16–18
Rook days; fledging 32–33 days.

Corvus frugilegus CONSERVATION STATUS

SUBFAMILY Not threatened. Abundant to localized in Europe. Evidence of
decline in eastern Asia.
Corvinae
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
TAXONOMY
Often persecuted because of its tendency to feed on cereal
Corvus frugilegus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Two subspecies. seed. ◆

OTHER COMMON NAMES American crow

French: Corbeau freux; German: Saatkrähe; Spanish: Graja Corvus brachyrhynchos
Común.
SUBFAMILY
Corvus frugilegus
Corvinae
Resident Breeding Nonbreeding
TAXONOMY
520
Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm, 1822, Boston, Massachusetts.
Four subspecies.

OTHER COMMON NAMES

English: Common crow; French: Corneille d’Amérique; German:
Amerikanerkrähe; Spanish: Cuervo Americano.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

15.21–19.11 in (39–49 cm); male 1 lb (458 g), female 15.33 oz
(438 g). Plumage is entirely black with a light violet-blue gloss.
Wings have a more greenish blue gloss. Prominent bristles
cover the basal third of the upper mandible. Bill, legs, and feet
are black.

DISTRIBUTION

Widespread throughout North America. Canadian birds mi-
grate to central United States and Atlantic seaboard.

HABITAT

Adapted to most habitats with the exception of arid areas and
dense forest.

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Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Crows and jays

Corvus corone Breeding Nonbreeding

Resident

Corvus brachyrhynchos

Resident Breeding PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

BEHAVIOR 18.72–21.84 in (48–56 cm); male 1–1.4 lb (465–650 g), female
1–1.3 lb (450–600 g). Plumage is entirely black with a bluish
Gathers in huge communal roosts in winter, sometimes con- to purplish sheen. Conspicuous bristles cover base of culmen
taining tens of thousands of birds. Individuals will fly up to 50 and basal third of upper mandible. Bill, legs, and feet are
mi (80 km) to the roost. black.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET DISTRIBUTION

Omnivorous. Main food items include insects, bird nestlings Widely distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The black
and eggs, and carrion. nominate form is replaced in central Europe and western Asia
by the gray and black race known as the hooded crow.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
HABITAT
Solitary nester. Builds stick nest in fork of tree, bush, or occa-
sionally artificial structure. Generally lays four to five eggs in Huge diversity of habitats, ranging from the centers of cities
cup made of roots, grass, and animal hair February through to sea cliffs.
June. Incubation 18 days; fledging 28–35 days.
BEHAVIOR
CONSERVATION STATUS
Some territories held year-round. Most defended only during
Not threatened. Abundant throughout its range. breeding season, especially aggressively when nest-building.
Considerable territorial rivalry between corvids; crows and
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS black-billed magpies will destroy each other’s nests and predate
eggs and chicks.
Heavily persecuted as an agricultural pest, largely because its
diet includes grain, game birds, and poultry. ◆ FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

Carrion crow Mainly carnivorous. Diet includes invertebrates, mollusks,
amphibians, fish, birds, and mammals. Also carrion and hu-
Corvus corone man garbage.

SUBFAMILY REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

Corvinae Solitary nester. Stick nest in tree or bush, cliff ledges, or build-
ings. Generally lays four to five eggs April through May in cup
TAXONOMY made of moss, wool, animal hair, and roots. Incubation 17–19
days; fledging 32–36 days.
Corvus corone Linnaeus, 1758, England. Two subspecies.
CONSERVATION STATUS
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Not threatened. Common throughout its range.
English: Eurasian crow; French: Corneille noire; German:
Aaskrähe; Spanish: Corneja Cenicienta. SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia Perceived as a threat to livestock and game birds throughout
its range and heavily persecuted. ◆

521

Family: Crows and jays Vol. 11: Birds IV

Torresian crow REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

Corvus orru Solitary tree nester. Lays two to five eggs. Incubation is 16–20
days; fledging is 34–38 days.
SUBFAMILY
CONSERVATION STATUS
Corvinae
Listed as Near Threatened in the Action Plan for Australian
TAXONOMY Birds 2000.

Corvus orru Bonaparte, 1851, New Guinea. Four subspecies. SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS

OTHER COMMON NAMES Considered an agricultural pest, as it feeds on grain, peanuts,
and fruit. ◆
English: Australian crow; French: Corbeau de Torres; German:
Salvadorikrähe; Spanish: Cuervo Australiano. Northern raven

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Corvus corax

19.5–21.45 in (50–55 cm); 15.05–23.45 oz (430–670 g). SUBFAMILY
Plumage is entirely black with a strong purple or bluish purple
gloss. Bill, legs, and feet are also black. Corvinae

DISTRIBUTION TAXONOMY

Australia, New Guinea, and neighboring islands of Indonesia. Corvus corax Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Eight subspecies may be
recognized.
HABITAT
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Edges of rainforest, open forest, woodlands and tall scrub, coastal
margins, ranges and gorges of arid areas, human settlements. French: Grand corbeau; German: Kolkrabe; Spanish: Cuervo
Común.
BEHAVIOR
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The only one of five very similar Australian crow species to
adopt a curious post-alighting behavior. The Torresian crow 22.62–26.91 in (58–69 cm); 2.02–3.43 lb (92–156 g). Plumage
lands, then promptly begins shuffling its wings up and down. is glossy black. Prominent nasal bristles cover basal third of
upper mandible. Long, heavy bill is black and the distal part
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET of the culmen is strongly decurved. Legs and feet are also
black.
Omnivorous, feeding mainly on insects, fruit, seeds, and carrion.
DISTRIBUTION
Corvus orru
Most widespread corvid found in most of the Northern Hemi-
Resident sphere.

HABITAT

A wide variety of habitats, generally open and away from human
habitation, including treeless tundra.

BEHAVIOR

Established pairs remain on large, usually well-spaced territo-
ries. The familiar guttural “krok” call is the most recognizable
of a highly varied vocal repertoire.

FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET

Mainly carrion feeder, but also eats live prey and plant material.
Powerful beak used to tear carrion apart and kill live animals.
Often robs other predators of food. Seeds and berries seasonally
important.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

Solitary nester, constructing enormous stick nest in tree or bush,
on cliff ledge, or rarely on the ground. Lays three to seven eggs
early spring. Incubation 18–21 days; fledging 35–42 days.

CONSERVATION STATUS

Thinly distributed throughout range, but not at risk, despite
often heavy persecution.

SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS

Mistakenly thought to kill healthy young livestock and conse-
quently persecuted. ◆

522 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Crows and jays

Corvus corax

Resident

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524 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

•••••

For further reading

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. Handbook of the Birds of India and Chantler, P., and G. Driessens. Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and
Pakistan. 2nd edition. 10 Vols. New York: Oxford Treeswifts of the World. Sussex: Pica Press, 1995.
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Cheke, R. A., and C. Mann. Sunbirds: A Guide to the Sunbirds,
American Ornithologists’ Union. Check-list of North American Flowerpeckers, Spiderhunters and Sugarbirds of the World.
Birds: the Species of Birds of North America from the Arctic Christopher Helm, 2001.
through Panama, including the West Indies and Hawaiian
Islands. 7th ed. Washington, DC: The American Cleere, N., and D. Nurney. Nightjars: A Guide to the Nightjars
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Bennett, Peter M. and I. P. F. Owens. Evolutionary Ecology of Clement, P. Finches and Sparrows: An Identification Guide.
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and Ecology. 2nd edition. London: Peter Lowe, 1992. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford: Oxford University Press, .

Byers, Clive, Jon Curson, and Urban Olsson. Sparrows and Cramp, S., ed. Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East
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For further reading Erritzoe, J. Pittas of the World: a Monograph on the Pitta Family.
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Warblers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Princeton University Press, 1999.

Cramp, S., ed. Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East Feduccia, A. The Origin and Evolution of Birds. 2nd edition.
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Flycatchers to Shrikes. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1993. Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie. Raptors of the World.
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Diamond, J., and A. B. Bond. Kea, Bird of Paradox: The Including Wood-shrikes, Helmet-shrikes, Flycatcher-shrikes,
Evolution and Behavior of a New Zealand Parrot. Berkeley: Philentomas, Batises and Wattle-eyes. London: Christopher
University of California Press, 1999. Helm, 2000.

526 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Harrap, S., and D. Quinn. Chickadees, Tits, Nuthatches, and For further reading FOR FURTHER READING
Treecreepers. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.
Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar. The
Heinrich, B. Ravens in Winter. New York: Summit Books, 1989. Megapodes. Bird Families of the World, no. 3. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1995.
Higgins, P. J., and S. J. J. F. Davies, eds. The Handbook of
Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 3, Snipe to Juniper, Tony, and Mike Parr. Parrots: A Guide to the Parrots of
Pigeons. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1996. the World. Sussex: Pica Press, 1998.

Higgins, P. J., ed. The Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Kear, J., and N. Düplaix-Hall, eds. Flamingos. Berkhamsted: T.
Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4, Parrots to Dollarbirds. Melbourne: & A. D. Poyser, 1975.
Oxford University Press, 1999.
Keith, S., E. K. Urban, and C. H. Fry, eds. The Birds of Africa.
Hilty, S. L., and W. L. Brown. A Guide to the Birds of Colombia. Vol. 4, Broadbills to Chats. London: Academic Press, 1992.
Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.
Kemp, A. The Hornbills. Bird Families of the World, no. 1.
Holyoak, D.T. Nightjars and Their Allies: The Caprimulgiformes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Bird Families of the World, no. 7. Oxford: Oxford University
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Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Howard, R., and A. Moore. A Complete Checklist of the Birds of
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Sussex: Pica Press, 1996.
Howell, S. N. G., and S. Webb. A Guide to the Birds of Mexico
and Northern Central America. Oxford: Oxford University Lefranc, Norbert, and Tim Worfolk. Shrikes: A Guide to the
Press, 1995. Shrikes of the World. Robertsbridge: Pica Press, 1997.

Howell, S. N. G. Hummingbirds of North America: The Lenz, Norbert. Evolutionary Ecology of the Regent Bowerbird
Photographic Guide. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002. Sericulus chrysocephalus. Special Issue of Ecology of Birds, Vol.
22, Supplement. Ludwigsburg, 1999.
Isler, M. L., and P. R. Isler. The Tanagers: Natural History,
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Jaramillo, A., and P. Burke. New World Blackbirds: The Icterids.
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Jehl, Joseph R., Jr. Biology of the Eared Grebe and Wilson’s
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Johnsgard, Paul A. Cranes of the World. Bloomington: Indiana New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2, Raptors to Lapwings.
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Johnsgard, Paul A. Trogons and Quetzals of the World. Matthysen, E. The Nuthatches. London: T. A. & D. Poyser,
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Johnsgard, Paul A., and Montserrat Carbonell. Ruddy Ducks and Mayfield, H. The Kirtland’s Warbler. Bloomfield Hills,
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Compiled by Janet Hinshaw, Bird Division Collection
Manager, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 529

•••••

Organizations

African Bird Club Australian National Wildlife Collection
Wellbrook Court, Girton Road GPO Box 284
Cambridge, Cambridgeshire CB3 0NA Canberra, ACT 2601
United Kingdom Australia
Phone: +44 1 223 277 318 Phone: +61 2 6242 1600
Fax: +44-1-223-277-200 Fax: +61-2-6242-1688
<http://www.africanbirdclub.org>
The Bird Conservation Society of Thailand
African Gamebird Research, Education and Development 69/12 Rarm Intra 24
(AGRED) Jarakhebua Lat Phrao, Bangkok 10230
Thailand
P.O. Box 1191 Phone: 943-5965
Hilton, KwaZulu-Natal 3245 <http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/Harbor/7503/
South Africa ruang_nok/princess_bird.html>
Phone: +27-33-343-3784
BirdLife International
African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) Wellbrook Court, Girton Road
UN Premises in Bonn, Martin Luther-King St. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire CB3 0NA
Bonn D-53175 Germany United Kingdom
<http://www.wcmc.org.uk/AEWA> Phone: +44 1 223 277 318
Fax: +44-1-223-277-200
American Ornithologists’ Union <http://www.birdlife.net>
Suite 402, 1313 Dolley Madison Blvd
McLean, VA 22101 BirdLife International Indonesia Programme
USA P. O. Box 310/Boo
<http://www.aou.org> Bogor
Indonesia
American Zoo and Aquarium Association Phone: +62 251 357222
8403 Colesville Road Fax: +62 251 357961
Suite 710 <http://www.birdlife-indonesia.org>
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910
<http://www.aza.org> BirdLife International, Panamerican Office
Casilla 17-17-717
Association for BioDiversity Information Quito
1101 Wilson Blvd., 15th Floor Ecuador
Arlington, VA 22209 Phone: +593 2 244 3261
USA Fax: +593 2 244 3261
<http://www.infonatura.org/> <http://www.latinsynergy.org/birdlife.html>

Association for Parrot Conservation BirdLife South Africa
Centro de Calidad Ambiental ITESM Sucursal de Correos P. O. Box 515
J., C.P. 64849 Randburg 2125
Monterrey, N.L. South Africa
Mexico Phone: +27-11-7895188
<http://www.birdlife.org.za>
Australasian Raptor Association
415 Riversdale Road Birds Australia
Hawthorn East, Victoria 3123 415 Riversdale Road
Australia Hawthorn East, Victoria 3123
Phone: +61 3 9882 2622 Australia
Fax: +61 3 9882 2677 Phone: +61 3 9882 2622
<http://www.tasweb.com.au/ara/index.htm> Fax: +61 3 9882 2677
<http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au>
530
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Birds Australia Parrot Association, Birds Australia Organizations ORGANIZATIONS
415 Riversdale Road
Hawthorn East, Victoria 3123 Phone: (800) 453-8257
Australia Fax: (901) 758-3850
Phone: +61 3 9882 2622 <http://www.ducks.org>
Fax: +61 3 9882 2677
<http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au> Emu Farmers Federation of Australia
P.O Box 57
The Bishop Museum Wagin, Western Australia 6315
1525 Bernice Street Australia
Honolulu, HI 96817-0916 Phone: +61 8 9861 1136
Phone: (808) 847-3511
<http://www.bishopmuseum.org> Game Conservancy Trust
Fordingbridge, Hampshire SP6 1EF
British Trust for Ornithology United Kingdom
The Nunnery Phone: +44 1425 652381
Thetford, Norfolk IP24 2PU Fax: +44 1425 651026
United Kingdom <http://www.gct.org.uk>
Phone: +44 (0) 1842 750050
Fax: +44 (0) 1842 750030 Gamebird Research Programme, Percy FitzPatrick Institute,
<http://www.bto.org> University of Cape Town

Center for Biological Diversity Private Bag
P.O. Box 710 Rondebosch, Western Cape 7701
Tucson, AZ 85702-0701 South Africa
USA Phone: +27 21 6503290
Phone: (520) 623-5252 Fax: +27 21 6503295
Fax: (520) 623-9797 <http://www.uct.ac.za/depts/fitzpatrick>
<http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/swcbd/index.html>
Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources
Coraciiformes Taxon Advisory Group 9A Malingap Cot, Malumanay Streets, Teachers’ Village,
<http://www.coraciiformestag.com> 1101 Diliman
Quezon City
The Cracid Specialist Group Philippines
PO Box 132038 Phone: +63 2 9253332
Houston, TX 77219-2038 <http://www.haribon.org.ph>
USA
Phone: (713) 639-4776 The Hawk and Owl Trust
<http://www.angelfire.com/ca6/cracid> 11 St Marys Close
Newton Abbot, Abbotskerswell, Devon TQ12 5QF
Department of Ecology and Environmental Biology, Cornell United Kingdom
University Phone: +44 (0)1626 334864
Fax: +44 (0)1626 334864
E145 Corson Hall <http://www.hawkandowltrust.org>
Ithaca, NY 14853-2701
USA Herons Specialist Group
Phone: (607) 254-4201 Station Biologique de la Tour du Valat
<http://www.es.cornell.edu/winkler/botw/fringillidae.html> Le Sambuc, Arles 13200
France
Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane Phone: +33-4-90-97-20-13
University Fax: 33-4-90-97-29-19
<http://www.tour-du-valat.com>
310 Dinwiddie Hall
New Orleans, LA 70118-5698 Hornbill Research Foundation
USA c/o Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science,
Phone: (504) 865-5191 Mahidol University, Rama 6 Rd
<http://www.tulane.edu/ Bangkok 10400
eeob/Courses/Heins/Evolution/lecture17.html> Thailand
Phone: +66 22 460 063, ext. 4006
Department of Zoology, University of Toronto
25 Harbord Street International Crane Foundation
Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G5 P.O. Box 447
Canada Baraboo, WI 53913-0447
Phone: (416) 978-3482 USA
Fax: (416) 978-8532 Phone: (608) 356-9462
<http://www.zoo.utoronto.ca> Fax: (608) 356-9465
<http://www.savingcranes.org>
Ducks Unlimited, Inc
One Waterfowl Way International Shrike Working Group
Memphis, TN 38120 “Het Speihuis,” Speistraat, 17
USA Sint-Lievens-Esse (Herzele), B-9550

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 531

Organizations Phone: (212) 979-3000
Fax: (212) 978-3188
Belgium <http://www.Audubon.org>
Phone: +32 54 503 789
National Audubon Society Population & Habitat Program
International Species Inventory System 1901 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Suite 1100
<http://www.isis.org> Washington, DC 20006
USA
International Touraco Society Phone: (202) 861-2242
Brackenhurst, Grange Wood <http://www.audubonpopulation.org>
Netherseal, Nr Swadlincote, Derbyshire DE12 8BE
United Kingdom Neotropical Bird Club
Phone: +44 (0)1283 760541 c/o The Lodge
Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL
International Waterbird Census United Kingdom
<http://www.wetlands.org>
Oriental Bird Club, American Office
IUCN Species Survival Commission 4 Vestal Street
219c Huntingdon Road Nantucket, MA 02554
Cambridge, Cambridgeshire CB3 0DL USA
United Kingdom Phone: (508) 228-1782
<http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc> <http://www.orientalbirdclub.org>

IUCN–The World Conservation Union Ornithological Society of New Zealand
Rue Mauverney 28 P.O. Box 12397
Gland 1196 Wellington, North Island
Switzerland New Zealand
Phone: +41-22-999-0001 <http://osnz.org.nz>
Fax: +41-22-999-0025
<http://www.iucn.org> Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center
3190 Maile Way, St. John Hall, Room 408
IUCN–World Conservation Union, USA Multilateral Office Honolulu, HI 96822
1630 Connecticut Avenue USA
Washington, DC 20009 Phone: (808) 956-5691
USA Fax: (808) 956-5687
Phone: (202) 387-4826 <http://biology.usgs.gov/pierc/piercwebsite.htm>
<http://www.iucn.org/places/usa/inter.html>
ProAves Peru
IUCN/SSC Grebes Specialist Group P.O. Box 07
Copenhagen DK 2100 Piura
Denmark Peru
Phone: +45 3 532 1323
Fax: +45-35321010 Raptor Conservation Group, Endangered Wildlife Trust
<http://www.iucn.org> Private Bag X11
Parkview, Gauteng 2122
Japanese Association for Wild Geese Protection South Africa
Minamimachi 16 Phone: +27-11-486-1102
Wakayangi 989-5502 Fax: +27-11-486-1506
Japan <http://www.ewt.org.za>
Phone: +81 228 32 2004
Fax: +81 228 32 2004 Raptor Research Foundation
<http://www.japwgp.org> P.O. Box 1897, 810 E. 10th Street
Lawrence, KS 66044-88973
Ligue pour la Protection des Oiseaux USA
La Corderie Royale, B.P. 263 <http://biology.biosestate.edu/raptor>
17305 Rochefort cedex
France Research Centre for African Parrot Conservation Zoology and
Phone: +33 546 821 234 Entomology Department
Fax: +33 546 839 586
<http://www.lpo-birdlife.asso.fr> Private Bag X01
Scottsville 3201
Loro Parque Fundación Natal Republic of South Africa
Loro Parque S.A. 38400 Puerto de la Cruz
Tenerife, Canary Islands Roberts VII Project, Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African
Spain Ornithology, University of Cape Town

National Audubon Society Rondebosch 7701
700 Broadway South Africa
New York, NY 10003 Fax: (021) 650 3295
USA <http://www.uct.ac.za/depts/fitzpatrick/docs/r549.html>

532 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Organizations ORGANIZATIONS
Admail 975 Freepost ANG 6335, The Lodge
Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2TN Wageningen 6700 CA
United Kingdom The Netherlands
<http://www.rspb.org.uk> Phone: +31 317 478884
Fax: +31 317 478885
Ruffed Grouse Society <http://www.wetlands.agro.nl>
451 McCormick Rd
Coraopolis, PA 15108 Wetlands International (the Americas)
Phone: (888) 564-6747 7 Hinton Avenue North, Suite 200
Fax: (412) 262-9207 Ottawa, Ontario K1Y 4P1
<http://www.ruffedgrousesociety.org> Canada
Phone: (613) 722-2090
Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, Smithsonian National <http://www.wetlands.org>
Zoological Park
Wetlands International/Survival Service Commission Flamingo
3001 Connecticut Avenue, NW Specialist Group
Washington, DC 20008
USA c/o Station Biologique de la Tour du Valat
Phone: (202) 673-4800 Le Sambuc, Arles 13200
<http://www.natzoo.si.edu> France

The Songbird Foundation Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust
2367 Eastlake Ave. East Slimbridge, Glos GL2 7BT
Seattle, WA 98102 United Kingdom
USA Phone: +44 01453 891900
Phone: (206) 374-3674
Fax: (206) 374-3674 Woodcock and Snipe Specialist Group
<http://www.songbird.org> Director, European Wildlife Research Institute
Bonndorf, Glashuette D-79848
University of Michigan Germany
3019 Museum of Zoology, 1109 Geddes Ave Phone: 949 7653 1891
Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1079 Fax: 949 7653 9269
USA
Phone: (734) 647-2208 Woodhoopoe Research Project, FitzPatrick Institute of African
Fax: (734) 763-4080 Ornithology, University of Cape Town
<http://www.ummz.lsa.umich.edu/birds/index.html>
P.O. Rondebosch
Wader Specialist Group, Mr. David Stroud Cape Town, Western Cape 7700
Monkstone House, City Road South Africa
Peterborough PE1 1JY Phone: +27 (0)21 650-3290
United Kingdom Fax: +27-21-650-3295
Phone: +44 1733 866/810 <http://www.fitztitute.uct.ac.za>
Fax: +44 1733 555/448
Working Group on Birds in Madagascar and the Indian Ocean
Wader Study Group, The National Centre for Ornithology Islands. World Wide Fund for Nature
The Nunnery
Thetford, Norfolk JP24 2PU Antananarivo 101 BP 738
United Kingdom Madagascar
Phone: +261 3207 80806
Waterbird Society
National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Working Group on International Wader and Waterfowl
Institution Research (WIWO)
Washington, DC 20560
USA Stichting WIWO, c/o P O Box 925
<http://www.nmnh.si.edu/BIRDNET/cws> Zeist 3700 AX
The Netherlands
Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network (WHSRN) <http://www.wiwo-international.org>
Manomet Center for Conservation Science, P O Box 1770
Manomet, MA 02345 World Center for Birds of Prey, The Peregrine Fund
USA 566 West Flying Hawk Lane
Phone: (508) 224-6521 Boise, ID 83709
Fax: (508) 224-9220 USA
<http://www.manomet.org/WHSRN/index.html> Phone: (208) 362-3716
Fax: (208) 362-2376
Wetlands International <http://www.peregrinefund.org>
Droevendaalsesteeg 3A
World Parrot Trust
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia Glanmor House
Hayle, Cornwall TR27 4HB
United Kingdom
<http://www.worldparrottrust.org>

533

Organizations WPA/BirdLife/SSC Megapode Specialist Group
c/o Department of Ornithology, National Museum of
World Pheasant Association Natural History, P.O. Box 9517
P. O. Box 5, Lower Basildon St Leiden 2300 RA
Reading RG8 9PF The Netherlands
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 1 189 845 140 WPA/BirdLife/SSC Partridge, Quail, and Francolin Specialist
Fax: +44 118 984 3369 Group
<http://www.pheasant.org.uk>
c/o World Pheasant Association, PO Box 5
World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owl Lower Basildon, Reading RG8 9PF
P.O. Box 52 United Kingdom
Towcester NN12 7ZW Phone: +44 1 189 845 140
United Kingdom Fax: +118 9843369
Phone: +44 1 604 862 331 <http:/www.pheasant.org.uk>
Fax: +44 1 604 862 331 PQF: <http://www.gct.org.uk/pqf>
<http://www.Raptors-International.de>

534 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

•••••

Contributors to the first edition

The following individuals contributed chapters to the original edition of Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, which was edited by
Dr. Bernhard Grzimek, Professor, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Germany; Director, Frankfurt Zoological Garden, Germany;

and Trustee, Tanzanian National Parks, Tanzania.

Dr. Michael Abs Dr. Hilde Baumgärtner Dr. Heinz Brüll
Curator, Ruhr University Zoological Collection of the State of Director; Game, Forest, and Fields
Bochum, Germany Bavaria Research Station
Munich, Germany Hartenholm, Germany
Dr. Salim Ali
Bombay Natural History Society C. W. Benson Dr. Herbert Bruns
Bombay, India Department of Zoology, Cambridge Director, Institute of Zoology and the
University Protection of Life
Dr. Rudolph Altevogt Cambridge, England Schlangenbad, Germany
Professor, Zoological Institute,
University of Münster Dr. Andrew Berger Hans Bub
Münster, Germany Chairman, Department of Zoology, Heligoland Ornithological Station
University of Hawaii Wilhelmshaven, Germany
Dr. Renate Angermann Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.
Curator, Institute of Zoology, A. H. Chrisholm
Humboldt University Dr. J. Berlioz Sydney, Australia
Berlin, Germany National Museum of Natural History
Paris, France Herbert Thomas Condon
Edward A. Armstrong Curator of Birds, South Australian
Cambridge University Dr. Rudolf Berndt Museum
Cambridge, England Director, Institute for Population Adelaide, Australia
Ecology, Hiligoland Ornithological
Dr. Peter Ax Station Dr. Eberhard Curio
Professor, Second Zoological Institute Braunschweig, Germany Director, Laboratory of Ethology,
and Museum, University of Göttingen Ruhr University
Göttingen, Germany Dieter Blume Bochum, Germany
Instructor of Biology, Freiherr-vom-
Dr. Franz Bachmaier Stein School Dr. Serge Daan
Zoological Collection of the State of Gladenbach, Germany Laboratory of Animal Physiology,
Bavaria University of Amsterdam
Munich, Germany Dr. Maximilian Boecker Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Zoological Research Institute and A.
Dr. Pedru Banarescu Koenig Museum Dr. Heinrich Dathe
Academy of the Roumanian Socialist Bonn, Germany Professor and Director, Animal Park
Republic, Trajan Savulescu Institute of and Zoological Research Station,
Biology Dr. Carl-Heinz Brandes German Academy of Sciences
Bucharest, Romania Curator and Director, The Aquarium, Berlin, Germany
Overseas Museum
Dr. A. G. Bannikow Bremen, Germany Dr. Wolfgang Dierl
Professor, Institute of Veterinary Zoological Collection of the State of
Medicine Dr. Donald G. Broadley Bavaria
Moscow, Russia Curator, Umtali Museum Munich, Germany
Mutare, Zimbabwe
535
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Contributors to the first edition Dr. Walter Fiedler Dr. Carl Gans
Docent, University of Vienna, and Professor, Department of Biology,
Dr. Fritz Dieterlen Director, Schönbrunn Zoo State University of New York at
Zoological Research Institute, A. Vienna, Austria Buffalo
Koenig Museum Buffalo, New York, U.S.A.
Bonn, Germany Wolfgang Fischer
Inspector of Animals, Animal Park Dr. Rudolf Geigy
Dr. Rolf Dircksen Berlin, Germany Professor and Director, Swiss Tropical
Professor, Pedagogical Institute Institute
Bielefeld, Germany Dr. C. A. Fleming Basel, Switzerland
Geological Survey Department of
Josef Donner Scientific and Industrial Research Dr. Jacques Gery
Instructor of Biology Lower Hutt, New Zealand St. Genies, France
Katzelsdorf, Austria
Dr. Hans Frädrich Dr. Wolfgang Gewalt
Dr. Jean Dorst Zoological Garden Director, Animal Park
Professor, National Museum of Berlin, Germany Duisburg, Germany
Natural History
Paris, France Dr. Hans-Albrecht Freye Dr. H.C. Dr. H.C. Viktor Goerttler
Professor and Director, Biological Professor Emeritus, University of Jena
Dr. Gerti Dücker Institute of the Medical School Jena, Germany
Professor and Chief Curator, Halle a.d.S., Germany
Zoological Institute, University of Dr. Friedrich Goethe
Münster Günther E. Freytag Director, Institute of Ornithology,
Münster, Germany Former Director, Reptile and Heligoland Ornithological Station
Amphibian Collection, Museum of Wilhelmshaven, Germany
Dr. Michael Dzwillo Cultural History in Magdeburg
Zoological Institute and Museum, Berlin, Germany Dr. Ulrich F. Gruber
University of Hamburg Herpetological Section, Zoological
Hamburg, Germany Dr. Herbert Friedmann Research Institute and A. Koenig
Director, Los Angeles County Museum
Dr. Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt Museum of Natural History Bonn, Germany
Professor and Director, Institute of Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.
Human Ethology, Max Planck Dr. H. R. Haefelfinger
Institute for Behavioral Physiology Dr. H. Friedrich Museum of Natural History
Percha/Starnberg, Germany Professor, Overseas Museum Basel, Switzerland
Bremen, Germany
Dr. Martin Eisentraut Dr. Theodor Haltenorth
Professor and Director, Zoological Dr. Jan Frijlink Director, Mammalology, Zoological
Research Institute and A. Koenig Zoological Laboratory, University of Collection of the State of Bavaria
Museum Amsterdam Munich, Germany
Bonn, Germany Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Barbara Harrisson
Dr. Eberhard Ernst Dr. H.C. Karl Von Frisch Sarawak Museum, Kuching, Borneo
Swiss Tropical Institute Professor Emeritus and former Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.
Basel, Switzerland Director, Zoological Institute,
University of Munich Dr. Francois Haverschmidt
R. D. Etchecopar Munich, Germany President, High Court (retired)
Director, National Museum of Paramaribo, Suriname
Natural History Dr. H. J. Frith
Paris, France C.S.I.R.O. Research Institute Dr. Heinz Heck
Canberra, Australia Director, Catskill Game Farm
Dr. R. A. Falla Catskill, New York, U.S.A.
Director, Dominion Museum Dr. Ion E. Fuhn
Wellington, New Zealand Academy of the Roumanian Socialist Dr. Lutz Heck
Republic, Trajan Savulescu Institute of Professor (retired), and Director,
Dr. Hubert Fechter Biology Zoological Garden, Berlin
Curator, Lower Animals, Zoological Bucharest, Romania Wiesbaden, Germany
Collection of the State of Bavaria
Munich, Germany Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

536

Contributors to the first edition

Dr. H.C. Heini Hediger Dr. Richard F. Johnston Dr. Wolfgang Klausewitz CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION
Director, Zoological Garder Professor of Zoology, University of Curator, Senckenberg Nature
Zurich, Switzerland Kansas Museum and Research Institute
Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A. Frankfurt a.M., Germany
Dr. Dietrich Heinemann
Director, Zoological Garden, Münster Otto Jost Dr. Konrad Klemmer
Dörnigheim, Germany Oberstudienrat, Freiherr-vom-Stein Curator, Senckenberg Nature
Gymnasium Museum and Research Institute
Dr. Helmut Hemmer Fulda, Germany Frankfurt a.M., Germany
Institute for Physiological Zoology,
University of Mainz Dr. Paul Kähsbauer Dr. Erich Klinghammer
Mainz, Germany Curator, Fishes, Museum of Natural Laboratory of Ethology, Purdue
History University
Dr. W. G. Heptner Vienna, Austria Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A.
Professor, Zoological Museum,
University of Moscow Dr. Ludwig Karbe Dr. Heinz-Georg Klös
Moscow, Russia Zoological State Institute and Professor and Director, Zoological
Museum Garden
Dr. Konrad Herter Hamburg, Germany Berlin, Germany
Professor Emeritus and Director
(retired), Zoological Institute, Free Dr. N. N. Kartaschew Ursula Klös
University of Berlin Docent, Department of Biology, Zoological Garden
Berlin, Germany Lomonossow State University Berlin, Germany
Moscow, Russia
Dr. Hans Rudolf Heusser Dr. Otto Koehler
Zoological Museum, University of Dr. Werner Kästle Professor Emeritus, Zoological
Zurich Oberstudienrat, Gisela Gymnasium Institute, University of Freiburg
Zurich, Switzerland Munich, Germany Freiburg i. BR., Germany

Dr. Emil Otto Höhn Dr. Reinhard Kaufmann Dr. Kurt Kolar
Associate Professor of Physiology, Field Station of the Tropical Institute, Institute of Ethology, Austrian
University of Alberta Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Academy of Sciences
Edmonton, Canada Germany Vienna, Austria
Santa Marta, Colombia
Dr. W. Hohorst Dr. Claus König
Professor and Director, Dr. Masao Kawai State Ornithological Station of Baden-
Parasitological Institute, Farbwerke Primate Research Institute, Kyoto Württemberg
Hoechst A.G. University Ludwigsburg, Germany
Frankfurt-Höchst, Germany Kyoto, Japan
Dr. Adriaan Kortlandt
Dr. Folkhart Hückinghaus Dr. Ernst F. Kilian Zoological Laboratory, University of
Director, Senckenbergische Anatomy, Professor, Giessen University and Amsterdam
University of Frankfurt a.M. Catedratico Universidad Austral, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Frankfurt a.M., Germany Valdivia-Chile
Giessen, Germany Dr. Helmut Kraft
Francois Hüe Professor and Scientific Councillor,
National Museum of Natural Dr. Ragnar Kinzelbach Medical Animal Clinic, University of
History Institute for General Zoology, Munich
Paris, France University of Mainz Munich, Germany
Mainz, Germany
Dr. K. Immelmann Dr. Helmut Kramer
Professor, Zoological Institute, Dr. Heinrich Kirchner Zoological Research Institute and A.
Technical University of Braunschweig Landwirtschaftsrat (retired) Koenig Museum
Braunschweig, Germany Bad Oldesloe, Germany Bonn, Germany

Dr. Junichiro Itani Dr. Rosl Kirchshofer Dr. Franz Krapp
Kyoto University Zoological Garden, University of Zoological Institute, University of
Kyoto, Japan Frankfort a.M. Freiburg
Frankfurt a.M., Germany Freiburg, Switzerland

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 537

Contributors to the first edition Leo Lehtonen Dr. Wilhelm Meise
Science Writer Chief Curator, Zoological Institute
Dr. Otto Kraus Helsinki, Finland and Museum, University of Hamburg
Professor, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
and Director, Zoological Institute and Bernd Leisler
Museum Second Zoological Institute, University Dr. Joachim Messtorff
Hamburg, Germany of Vienna Field Station of the Federal Fisheries
Vienna, Austria Research Institute
Dr. Hans Krieg Bremerhaven, Germany
Professor and First Director (retired), Dr. Kurt Lillelund
Scientific Collections of the State of Professor and Director, Institute for Dr. Marian Mlynarski
Bavaria Hydrobiology and Fishery Sciences, Professor, Polish Academy of
Munich, Germany University of Hamburg Sciences, Institute for Systematic and
Hamburg, Germany Experimental Zoology
Dr. Heinrich Kühl Cracow, Poland
Federal Research Institute for R. Liversidge
Fisheries, Cuxhaven Laboratory Alexander MacGregor Memorial Dr. Walburga Moeller
Cuxhaven, Germany Museum Nature Museum
Kimberley, South Africa Hamburg, Germany
Dr. Oskar Kuhn
Professor, formerly University Dr. Konrad Lorenz Dr. H.C. Erna Mohr
Halle/Saale Professor and Director, Max Planck Curator (retired), Zoological State
Munich, Germany Institute for Behavioral Physiology Institute and Museum
Seewiesen/Obb., Germany Hamburg, Germany
Dr. Hans Kumerloeve
First Director (retired), State Dr. Martin Lühmann Dr. Karl-Heinz Moll
Scientific Museum, Vienna Federal Research Institute for the Waren/Müritz, Germany
Munich, Germany Breeding of Small Animals
Celle, Germany Dr. Detlev Müller-Using
Dr. Nagamichi Kuroda Professor, Institute for Game
Yamashina Ornithological Institute, Dr. Johannes Lüttschwager Management, University of Göttingen
Shibuya-Ku Oberstudienrat (retired) Hannoversch-Münden, Germany
Tokyo, Japan Heidelberg, Germany
Werner Münster
Dr. Fred Kurt Dr. Wolfgang Makatsch Instructor of Biology
Zoological Museum of Zurich Bautzen, Germany Ebersbach, Germany
University, Smithsonian Elephant
Survey Dr. Hubert Markl Dr. Joachim Münzing
Colombo, Ceylon Professor and Director, Zoological Altona Museum
Institute, Technical University of Hamburg, Germany
Dr. Werner Ladiges Darmstadt Dr. Wilbert Neugebauer
Professor and Chief Curator, Darmstadt, Germany Wilhelma Zoo
Zoological Institute and Museum, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, Germany
University of Hamburg Basil J. Marlow, B.SC. (Hons)
Hamburg, Germany Curator, Australian Museum Dr. Ian Newton
Sydney, Australia Senior Scientific Officer, The Nature
Leslie Laidlaw Conservancy
Department of Animal Sciences, Dr. Theodor Mebs Edinburgh, Scotland
Purdue University Instructor of Biology
Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A. Weissenhaus/Ostsee, Germany Dr. Jürgen Nicolai
Max Planck Institute for Behavioral
Dr. Ernst M. Lang Dr. Gerlof Fokko Mees Physiology
Director, Zoological Garden Curator of Birds, Rijks Museum of Seewiesen/Obb., Germany
Basel, Switzerland Natural History
Leiden, The Netherlands Dr. Günther Niethammer
Dr. Alfredo Langguth Professor, Zoological Research
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Hermann Meinken Institute and A. Koenig Museum
Humanities and Sciences, University Director, Fish Identification Institute, Bonn, Germany
of the Republic V.D.A.
Montevideo, Uruguay Bremen, Germany

538 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Dr. Bernhard Nievergelt Dr. Werner Rathmayer Contributors to the first edition CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION
Zoological Museum, University of Biology Institute, University of
Zurich Konstanz Dr. Hubert Saint Girons
Zurich, Switzerland Konstanz, Germany Research Director, Center for
National Scientific Research
Dr. C. C. Olrog Walter Reinhard Brunoy (Essonne), France
Institut Miguel Lillo San Miguel de Biologist
Tucuman Baden-Baden, Germany Dr. Luitfried Von Salvini-Plawen
Tucuman, Argentina First Zoological Institute, University
Dr. H. H. Reinsch of Vienna
Alwin Pedersen Federal Fisheries Research Institute Vienna, Austria
Mammal Research and aRctic Explorer Bremerhaven, Germany
Holte, Denmark Dr. Kurt Sanft
Dr. Bernhard Rensch Oberstudienrat, Diesterweg-Gymnasium
Dr. Dieter Stefan Peters Professor Emeritus, Zoological Berlin, Germany
Nature Museum and Senckenberg Institute, University of Münster
Research Institute Münster, Germany Dr. E. G. Franz Sauer
Frankfurt a.M., Germany Professor, Zoological Research
Dr. Vernon Reynolds Institute and A. Koenig Museum,
Dr. Nicolaus Peters Docent, Department of Sociology, University of Bonn
Scientific Councillor and Docent, University of Bristol Bonn, Germany
Institute of Hydrobiology and Bristol, England
Fisheries, University of Hamburg Dr. Eleonore M. Sauer
Hamburg, Germany Dr. Rupert Riedl Zoological Research Institute and A.
Professor, Department of Zoology, Koenig Museum, University of Bonn
Dr. Hans-Günter Petzold University of North Carolina Bonn, Germany
Assistant Director, Zoological Garden Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Berlin, Germany Dr. Ernst Schäfer
Dr. Peter Rietschel Curator, State Museum of Lower
Dr. Rudolf Piechocki Professor (retired), Zoological Saxony
Docent, Zoological Institute, Institute, University of Frankfurt a.M. Hannover, Germany
University of Halle Frankfurt a.M., Germany
Halle a.d.S., Germany Dr. Friedrich Schaller
Dr. Siegfried Rietschel Professor and Chairman, First
Dr. Ivo Poglayen-Neuwall Docent, University of Frankfurt; Zoological Institute, University of
Director, Zoological Garden Curator, Nature Museum and Vienna
Louisville, Kentucky, U.S.A. Research Institute Senckenberg Vienna, Austria
Frankfurt a.M., Germany
Dr. Egon Popp Dr. George B. Schaller
Zoological Collection of the State of Herbert Ringleben Serengeti Research Institute, Michael
Bavaria Institute of Ornithology, Heligoland Grzimek Laboratory
Munich, Germany Ornithological Station Seronera, Tanzania
Wilhelmshaven, Germany
Dr. H.C. Adolf Portmann Dr. Georg Scheer
Professor Emeritus, Zoological Dr. K. Rohde Chief Curator and Director,
Institute, University of Basel Institute for General Zoology, Ruhr Zoological Institute, State Museum of
Basel, Switzerland University Hesse
Bochum, Germany Darmstadt, Germany
Hans Psenner
Professor and Director, Alpine Zoo Dr. Peter Röben Dr. Christoph Scherpner
Innsbruck, Austria Academic Councillor, Zoological Zoological Garden
Institute, Heidelberg University Frankfurt a.M., Germany
Dr. Heinz-Siburd Raethel Heidelberg, Germany
Oberveterinärrat Dr. Herbert Schifter
Berlin, Germany Dr. Anton E. M. De Roo Bird Collection, Museum of Natural
Royal Museum of Central Africa History
Dr. Urs H. Rahm Tervuren, South Africa Vienna, Austria
Professor, Museum of Natural History
Basel, Switzerland Dr. Marco Schnitter
Zoological Museum, Zurich
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia University
Zurich, Switzerland

539

Contributors to the first edition Dr. Bernard Stonehouse Dr. Jiri Volf
Canterbury University Zoological Garden
Dr. Kurt Schubert Christchurch, New Zealand Prague, Czechoslovakia
Federal Fisheries Research Institute Otto Wadewitz
Hamburg, Germany Dr. Richard Zur Strassen Leipzig, Germany
Curator, Nature Museum and
Eugen Schuhmacher Senckenberg Research Institute Dr. Helmut O. Wagner
Director, Animals Films, I.U.C.N. Frankfurt a.M., Germany Director (retired), Overseas Museum,
Munich, Germany Bremen
Dr. Adelheid Studer-Thiersch Mexico City, Mexico
Dr. Thomas Schultze-Westrum Zoological Garden
Zoological Institute, University of Basel, Switzerland Dr. Fritz Walther
Munich Professor, Texas A & M University
Munich, Germany Dr. Ernst Sutter College Station, Texas, U.S.A.
Museum of Natural History
Dr. Ernst Schüt Basel, Switzerland John Warham
Professor and Director (retired), State Zoology Department, Canterbury
Museum of Natural History Dr. Fritz Terofal University
Stuttgart, Germany Director, Fish Collection, Zoological Christchurch, New Zealand
Collection of the State of Bavaria
Dr. Lester L. Short Jr. Munich, Germany Dr. Sherwood L. Washburn
Associate Curator, American Museum University of California at Berkeley
of Natural History Dr. G. F. Van Tets Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
New York, New York, U.S.A. Wildlife Research
Canberra, Australia Eberhard Wawra
Dr. Helmut Sick First Zoological Institute, University
National Museum Ellen Thaler-Kottek of Vienna
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Institute of Zoology, University of Vienna, Austria
Innsbruck
Dr. Alexander F. Skutch Innsbruck, Austria Dr. Ingrid Weigel
Professor of Ornithology, University Zoological Collection of the State of
of Costa Rica Dr. Erich Thenius Bavaria
San Isidro del General, Costa Rica Professor and Director, Institute of Munich, Germany
Paleontolgy, University of Vienna
Dr. Everhard J. Slijper Vienna, Austria Dr. B. Weischer
Professor, Zoological Laboratory, Institute of Nematode Research,
University of Amsterdam Dr. Niko Tinbergen Federal Biological Institute
Amsterdam, The Netherlands Professor of Animal Behavior, Münster/Westfalen, Germany
Department of Zoology, Oxford
Bertram E. Smythies University Herbert Wendt
Curator (retired), Division of Forestry Oxford, England Author, Natural History
Management, Sarawak-Malaysia Baden-Baden, Germany
Estepona, Spain Alexander Tsurikov
Lecturer, University of Munich Dr. Heinz Wermuth
Dr. Kenneth E. Stager Munich, Germany Chief Curator, State Nature Museum,
Chief Curator, Los Angeles County Stuttgart
Museum of Natural History Dr. Wolfgang Villwock Ludwigsburg, Germany
Los Angeles, California, U.S.A. Zoological Institute and Museum,
University of Hamburg Dr. Wolfgang Von Westernhagen
Dr. H.C. Georg H.W. Stein Hamburg, Germany Preetz/Holstein, Germany
Professor, Curator of Mammals,
Institute of Zoology and Zoological Zdenek Vogel Dr. Alexander Wetmore
Museum, Humboldt University Director, Suchdol Herpetological United States National Museum,
Berlin, Germany Station Smithsonian Institution
Prague, Czechoslovakia Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Dr. Joachim Steinbacher
Curator, Nature Museum and Dieter Vogt Dr. Dietrich E. Wilcke
Senckenberg Research Institute Schorndorf, Germany Röttgen, Germany
Frankfurt a.M., Germany
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
540

Dr. Helmut Wilkens Dr. Walter Wüst Contributors to the first edition
Professor and Director, Institute of Instructor, Wilhelms Gymnasium
Anatomy, School of Veterinary Munich, Germany Dr. Fritz Zumpt
Medicine Director, Entomology and
Hannover, Germany Dr. Heinz Wundt Parasitology, South African Institute
Zoological Collection of the State of for Medical Research
Dr. Michael L. Wolfe Bavaria Johannesburg, South Africa
Utah, U.S.A. Munich, Germany
Dr. Richard L. Zusi
Hans Edmund Wolters Dr. Claus-Dieter Zander Curator of Birds, United States
Zoological Research Institute and A. Zoological Institute and Museum, National Museum, Smithsonian
Koenig Museum University of Hamburg Institution
Bonn, Germany Hamburg, Germany Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Dr. Arnfrid Wünschmann
Research Associate, Zoological Garden
Berlin, Germany

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 541

•••••

Glossary

The following glossary is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather includes primarily terms that (1) have some specific importance to our
understanding of birds, (2) have been used in these volumes, (3) might have varying definitions relative to birds as opposed to common

usage, or (4) are often misunderstood.

Accipiter—This is the genus name for a group of bird- the strongest flying birds and least developed in some
eating hawks (Accipitridae; e.g., sharp-shinned hawk, groups that are flightless.
Cooper’s hawk). These birds show similar behavior and
appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism. Females are Alcid—Referring to a member of the family Alcidae; in-
much larger than males and the female of the sharp- cluding puffins, auks, auklets, murres, razorbills, and
shinned hawk often seems as large as the male of the guillemots.
Cooper’s hawk, leading to some confusion on the part of
birders. In the face of uncertainty, these birds are often Allopatric—Occurring in separate, nonoverlapping geo-
just referred to as “Accipiters” and the name is now graphic areas.
firmly ensconced in “birding” terminology.
Allopreening—Mutual preening; preening of the feathers
Adaptive radiation—Diversification of a species or single of one bird by another; often a part of courtship or pair
ancestral type into several forms that are each adaptively bond maintenance.
specialized to a specific niche.
Alpha breeder—The reproductively dominant member of
Aftershaft—A second rachis (= shaft) arising near the base a social unit.
of a contour feather, creating a feather that “branches.”
Aftershafts can be found in many birds (e.g., pheasants) Alternate plumage—The breeding plumage of passerines,
but in most the aftershaft is much smaller than the main ducks, and many other groups; typically acquired
shaft of the feather. In ratites (ostrich-like birds), the af- through a partial molt prior to the beginning of
tershaft is about the same size as the main shaft. Some- courtship.
times the term “aftershaft” is restricted to the rachis that
extends from the main rachis and the whole secondary Altricial—An adjective referring to a bird that hatches with
structure is referred to as the “afterfeather.” little, if any, down, is unable to feed itself, and initially
has poor sensory and thermoregulatory abilities.
Agonistic—Behavioral patterns that are aggressive in con-
text. Most aggressive behavior in birds is expressed as Alula—Small feathers at the leading edge of the wing and
song (in songbirds) or other vocal or mechanical sound attached to the thumb; also called bastard wing; func-
(e.g. see Drumming). The next level of intensity is dis- tions in controlling air flow over the surface of the wing,
play, and only in extreme circumstances do birds resort thus allowing a bird to land at a relatively slow speed.
to physical aggression.
Anatid—A collective term referring to members of the
Air sac—Thin-walled, extensions of the lungs, lying in the family Anatidae; ducks, geese, and swans.
abdomen and thorax, and extending even into some
bones of birds. Air sacs allow an increased respiratory ca- Anisodactyl— An adjective that describes a bird’s foot in
pacity of birds and the removal of oxygen both as air which three toes point forward and one points back-
passes in through the lungs and also as it passes back wards, a characteristic of songbirds.
through the lungs as the bird exhales. The flow of air
through the air sacs also helps dissipate the heat pro- Anserine—Goose-like.
duced through muscle activity and increases a bird’s vol-
ume while only minimally increasing weight—thus Anting—A behavior of birds that involves rubbing live ants
effectively making birds lighter relative to their size and on the feathers, presumably to kill skin parasites.
more efficient in flying. Air sacs are best developed in
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
542

Antiphonal duet—Vocalizations by two birds delivered al- Glossary GLOSSARY
ternately in response to one another; also known as re-
sponsive singing. Bergmann’s rule—Within a species or among closely re-
lated species of mammals and birds, those individuals in
AOU—American Ornithologists’ Union; the premier pro- colder environments often are larger in body size.
fessional ornithological organization in North America; Bergmann’s rule is a generalization that reflects the abil-
the organizational arbiter of scientific and standardized ity of warm-blooded animals to more easily retain body
common names of North American birds as given in the heat (in cold climates) if they have a high body surface
periodically revised Check-list of North American Birds. to body volume ratio, and to more easily dissipate excess
body heat (in hot environments) if they have a low body
Arena—See Lek. surface to body volume ratio.

Aspect ratio—Length of a wing divided by width of the Bioacoustics—The study of biological sounds such as the
wing; High aspect wings are long and narrow. These are sounds produced by birds.
characteristic of dynamic soaring seabirds such as alba-
trosses. These birds have tremendous abilities to soar Biogeographic region—One of several major divisions of
over the open ocean, but poor ability to maneuver in a the earth defined by a distinctive assemblage of animals
small area. In contrast, low aspect ratio wings are short and plants. Sometimes referred to as “zoogeographic re-
and broad, characteristic of many forest birds, and pro- gions or realms” (for animals) or “phytogeographic re-
vide great ability to quickly maneuver in a small space. gions or realms” (for plants). Such terminology dates
from the late nineteenth century and varies considerably.
Asynchronous—Not simultaneous; in ornithology often Major biogeographic regions each have a somewhat dis-
used with respect to the hatching of eggs in a clutch in tinctive flora and fauna. Those generally recognized in-
which hatching occurs over two or more days, typically a clude Nearctic, Neotropical, Palearctic, Ethiopian,
result of initiation of incubation prior to laying of the Oriental, and Australian.
last egg.
Biomagnification—Sometimes referred to as “bioaccumu-
Auricular—An adjective referring to the region of the ear lation.” Some toxic elements and chemical compounds
in birds, often to a particular plumage pattern over the are not readily excreted by animals and instead are
ear. stored in fatty tissues, removing them from active meta-
bolic pathways. Birds that are low in a food chain (e.g.,
Austral—May refer to “southern regions,” typically mean- sparrows that eat seeds) accumulate these chemicals in
ing Southern Hemisphere. May also refer to the geo- their fatty tissues. When a bird that is higher in the food
graphical region included within the Transition, Upper chain (e.g., a predator like a falcon) eats its prey (e.g.,
Austral, and Lower Austral Life Zones as defined by C. sparrows), it accumulates these chemicals from the fatty
Hart Merriam in 1892–1898. These zones are often char- tissue of each prey individual, thus magnifying the level
acterized by specific plant and animal communities and of the chemical in its own tissues. When the predator
were originally defined by temperature gradients espe- then comes under stress and all of these chemicals are
cially in the mountains of southwestern North America. released from its fat into its system, the effect can be
lethal. Chemicals capable of such biomagnification in-
Autochthonous—An adjective that indicates that a species clude heavy metals such as lead and mercury, and such
originated in the region where it now resides. manmade compounds as organochlorine pesticides and
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Barb—One of the hair-like extensions from the rachis of a
feather. Barbs with barbules and other microstructures Booming ground—See Lek.
can adhere to one another, forming the strong, yet flexi-
ble vane needed for flight and protection and streamlin- Booted—An adjective describing a bird tarsus (leg) that has
ing of body surfaces. a smooth, generally undivided, rather than scaly (=
scutellate) appearance. The extent of the smooth or scaly
Barbules—A structural component of the barbs of many appearance of a bird tarsus varies among taxonomic
feathers; minute often interlocking filaments in a row at groups and there are many different, more specific, pat-
each side of a barb. As a result of their microstructure, terns of tarsal appearance that are recognized.
barbules adhere to one another much like “Velcro®”
thus assuring that feathers provide a stiff, yet flexible Boreal—Often used as an adjective meaning “northern”;
vane. also may refer to the northern climatic zone immediately
south of the Arctic; may also include the Arctic, Hud-
Basic plumage—The plumage an adult bird acquires as a sonian, and Canadian Life Zones described by C. Hart
result of its complete (or near complete) annual molt. Merriam.

Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia Bristle—In ornithology, a feather with a thick, tapered
rachis and no vane except for a remnant sometimes
found near the bristle base.

543

Glossary onopidae). A casque is often sexual ornamentation, but
may protect the head of a cassowary crashing through
Brood—As a noun: the young produced by a pair of birds underbrush, may be used for vocal amplification, or may
during one reproductive effort. As a verb: to provide serve a physiological function.
warmth and shelter to chicks by gathering them under
the protection of breast and/or wings. Cavity nester—A species that nests in some sort of a cav-
ity. Primary cavity nesters (e.g., woodpeckers, Picidae;
Brood parasitism—Reproductive strategy where one kingfishers, Alcedinidae; some swallows, Hirundinidae)
species of bird (the parasite) lays its eggs in the nests of are capable of excavating their own cavities; secondary
another species (the host). An acceptable host will incu- cavity nesters (e.g., starlings, Sturnidae; House Sparrows,
bate the eggs and rear the chicks of the brood parasite, Passeridae; bluebirds, Turdidae) are not capable of exca-
often to the detriment or loss of the host’s own off- vating their own cavities.
spring.
Cere—The soft, sometimes enlarged, and often differently
Brood patch—A bare area of skin on the belly of a bird, colored basal covering of the upper bill (maxilla) of many
the brood patch is enlarged beyond the normal apterium hawks (Falconiformes), parrots (Psitaciformes), and owls
(bare area) as a result of loss of feathers. It becomes (Strigiformes). The nostrils are often within or at the edge
highly vascularized (many blood vessels just under the of the cere. In parrots the cere is sometimes feathered.
surface). The brood patch is very warm to the touch and
the bird uses it to cover and warm its chicks. In terms of Cladistic—Evolutionary relationships suggested as “tree”
structure, the brood patch is the same as the incubation branches to indicate lines of common ancestry.
patch and the two terms are often used synonymously.
Technically the brood patch and incubation patch differ Cleidoic eggs—Cleidoic eggs are simply ones that are con-
in function: the incubation patch is used in incubating tained, hence protected, inside of a somewhat impervious
eggs, the brood patch is used to brood the young after shell—such as the eggs of birds. The presence of a shell
the eggs hatch. around an egg freed the amphibian ancestors of reptiles
from the need to return to the water to lay eggs and
Brood reduction—Reduction in the number of young in provided greater protection from dying.
the nest. Viewed from an evolutionary perspective,
mechanisms that allow for brood reduction may assure Cline—A gradient in a measurable character, such as size and
that at least some offspring survive during stressful times color, showing geographic differentiation. Various patterns
and that during times of abundant resources all young of geographic variation are reflected as clines or clinal vari-
may survive. Asynchronous hatching results in young of ation, and have been described as “ecogeographic rules.”
different ages and sizes in a nest and is a mechanism that
facilitates brood reduction: the smallest chick often dies Clutch—The set of eggs laid by a female bird during one
if there is a shortage of food. The barn owl (Tyto alba; reproductive effort. In most species, a female will lay one
Tytonidae) depends on food resources that vary greatly egg per day until the clutch is complete; in some species,
in availability from year to year and it often experiences particularly larger ones (e.g., New World vultures,
brood reduction. Cathartidae), the interval between eggs may be more
than one day.
Buteo—This is the genus name for a group of hawks that
have broad wings and soar. These hawks are often seen Colony—A group of birds nesting in close proximity, inter-
at a distance and are easily recognized as “Buteos” al- acting, and usually aiding in early warning of the pres-
though they may not be identifiable as species. Hence ence of predators and in group defense.
the genus name has come into common English usage.
Commensal—A relationship between species in which one
Caecum (pl. caeca)—Blindly-ending branch extending benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed.
from the junction of the small and large intestine. Most
birds have two caeca, but the number and their develop- Congeneric—Descriptive of two or more species that be-
ment in birds is highly variable. Caeca seem to be most long to the same genus.
highly developed and functional in facilitating microbial
digestion of food in those birds that eat primarily plant Conspecific—Descriptive of two or more individuals or
materials. populations that belong to the same species.

Caruncle—An exposed, often brightly colored, fleshy pro- Conspecific colony—A colony of birds that includes only
tuberance or wrinkled facial skin of some birds. members of one species.

Casque—An enlargement at the front of the head (e.g., on Contact call—Simple vocalization used to maintain com-
cassowaries, Casuaridae) or sometimes of the bill (e.g., munication or physical proximity among members of a
on hornbills, Bucerotidae) of a bird. A casque may be social unit.
bony, cartilaginous, or composed of feathers (e.g., Pri-
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544

Contour feather—One of those feathers covering the Glossary GLOSSARY
body, head, neck, and limbs of a bird and giving rise to
the shape (contours) of the bird. Crissum—The undertail coverts of a bird; often distinc-
tively colored.
Convergent evolution—When two evolutionarily unre-
lated groups of organisms develop similar characteristics Critically Endangered—A technical category used by
due to adaptation to similar aspects of their environment IUCN for a species that is at an extremely high risk of
or niche. The sharply pointed and curved talons of extinction in the wild in the immediate future.
hawks and owls are convergent adaptations for their
predatory lifestyle. Cryptic—Hidden or concealed; i.e., well-camouflaged pat-
terning.
Cooperative breeding—A breeding system in which birds
other than the genetic parents share in the care of eggs Dichromic—Occurring in two distinct color patterns (e.g.,
and young. There are many variants of cooperative the bright red of male and dull red-brown of female
breeding. The birds that assist with the care are usually northern cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis)
referred to as “helpers” and these are often offspring of
the same breeding pair, thus genetically related to the Diurnal—Active during the day.
chicks they are tending. Cooperative breeding is most
common among tropical birds and seems most common Dimorphic—Occurring in two distinct forms (e.g., in ref-
in situations where nest sites or breeding territories are erence to the differences in tail length of male and fe-
very limited. Several studies have demonstrated that male boat-tailed grackles, Cassidix major).
“helping” increases reproductive success. By helping a
helper is often assuring survival of genes shared with the Disjunct—A distribution pattern characterized by popula-
related offspring. The helper also may gain important tions that are geographically separated from one another.
experience and ultimately gain access to a breeding site.
Dispersal—Broadly defined: movement from an area; nar-
Coracoid—A bone in birds and some other vertebrates ex- rowly defined: movement from place of hatching to
tending from the scapula and clavicle to the sternum; the place of first breeding.
coracoid serves as a strut supporting the chest of the
bird during powerful muscle movements associated with Dispersion—The pattern of spatial arrangement of individ-
flapping flight. uals, populations, or other groups; no movement is im-
plied.
Cosmopolitan—Adjective describing the distribution pat-
tern of a bird found around the world in suitable habitats. Disruptive color—A color pattern such as the breast bands
on a killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) that breaks up the
Countershading—A color pattern in which a bird or other outline of the bird, making it less visible to a potential
animal is darker above and lighter below. The adaptive predator, when viewed from a distance
value of the pattern is its ability to help conceal the ani-
mal: a predator looking down from above sees the darker DNA-DNA hybridization—A technique whereby the ge-
back against the dark ground; a predator looking up netic similarity of different bird groups is determined
from below sees the lighter breast against the light sky; a based on the extent to which short stretches of their
predator looking from the side sees the dark back made DNA, when mixed together in solution in the labora-
lighter by the light from above and the light breast made tory, are able to join with each other.
darker by shading.
Dominance hierarchy—“Peck order”; the social status of
Covert—A feather that covers the gap at the base between individuals in a group; each animal can usually dominate
flight feathers of the wing and tail; coverts help create those animals below it in a hierarchy.
smooth wing and tail contours that make flight more ef-
ficient. Dummy nest—Sometimes called a “cock nest.” An “extra”
nest, often incomplete, sometimes used for roosting,
Covey—A group of birds, often comprised of family mem- built by aggressive males of polygynous birds. Dummy
bers that remain together for periods of time; usually ap- nests may aid in the attraction of additional mates, help
plied to game birds such as quail (Odontophorinae). define a male’s territory, or confuse potential predators.

Crepuscular—Active at dawn and at dusk. Dump nest—A nest in which more than one female lays
eggs. Dump nesting is a phenomenon often linked to
Crèche—An aggregation of young of many colonially- young, inexperienced females or habitats in which nest
nesting birds (e.g., penguins, Spheniscidae; terns, Laridae). sites are scarce. The eggs in dump nest are usually not
There is greater safety from predators in a crèche. incubated. Dump nesting may occur within a species or
between species.
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545

Glossary Extirpated—Referring to a local extinction of a species that
can still be found elsewhere.
Dynamic soaring—A type of soaring characteristic of
oceanic birds such as albatrosses (Diomedeidae) in which Extra-pair copulation—In a monogamous species, refers
the bird takes advantage of adjacent wind currents that to any mating that occurs between unpaired males and
are of different speeds in order to gain altitude and ef- females.
fortlessly stay aloft.
Facial disc—Concave arrangement of feathers on the face
Echolocation—A method of navigation used by some of an owl. The facial discs on an owl serve as sound
swifts (Apodidae) and oilbirds (Steatornithidae) to move parabolas, focusing sound into the ears around which the
in darkness, such as through caves to nesting sites. The facial discs are centered, thus enhancing their hearing.
birds emit audible “clicks” and determine pathways by
using the echo of the sound from structures in the area. Fecal sac—Nestling songbirds (Passeriformes) and closely
related groups void their excrement in “packages”—en-
Eclipse plumage—A dull, female-like plumage of males of closed in thin membranes—allowing parents to remove
Northern Hemisphere ducks (Anatidae) and other birds the material from the nest. Removal of fecal material
such as house sparrows (Passer domesticus) typically at- likely reduces the potential for attraction of predators.
tained in late summer prior to the annual fall molt.
Ducks are flightless at this time and the eclipse plumage Feminization—A process, often resulting from exposure to
aids in their concealment at a time when they would be environmental contaminants, in which males produce a
especially vulnerable to predators. higher levels of female hormones (or lower male hor-
mone levels), and exhibit female behavioral or physiolog-
Ecotourism—Travel for the primary purpose of viewing ical traits.
nature. Ecotourism is now “big business” and is used as
a non-consumptive but financially rewarding way to pro- Feral—Gone wild; i.e., human-aided establishment of non-
tect important areas for conservation. native species.

Ectoparasites—Relative to birds, these are parasites such as Fledge—The act of a juvenile making its first flight; some-
feather lice and ticks that typically make their home on times generally used to refer to a juvenile becoming in-
the skin or feathers. dependent.

Emarginate—Adjective referring to the tail of a bird that it Fledgling—A juvenile that has recently fledged. An empha-
notched or forked or otherwise has an irregular margin sis should be placed on “recently.” A fledgling generally
as a result of tail feathers (rectrices) being of different lacks in motor skills and knowledge of its habitat and
lengths. Sometimes refers to individual flight feather that fledglings are very vulnerable, hence under considerable
is particularly narrowed at the tip. parental care. Within a matter of a few days, however,
they gain skills and knowledge and less parental care is
Endangered—A term used by IUCN and also under the needed.
Endangered Species Act of 1973 in the United States in
reference to a species that is threatened with imminent Flight feathers—The major feathers of the wing and tail
extinction or extirpation over all or a significant portion that are crucial to flight. (See Primary, Secondary, Ter-
of its range. tial, Alula, Remex, Rectrix)

Endemic—Native to only one specific area. Flyway—A major pathway used by a group of birds during
migration. The flyway concept was developed primarily
Eocene—Geological time period; subdivision of the Ter- with regard to North American waterfowl (Anatidae) and
tiary, from about 55.5 to 33.7 million years ago. has been used by government agencies in waterfowl
management. Major flyways described include the At-
Erythrocytes—Red blood cells; in birds, unlike mammals, lantic, Mississippi, Central, and Pacific flyways. While
these retain a nucleus and are longer lived. Songbirds the flyway concept is often used in discussions of other
tend to have smaller, more numerous (per volume) ery- groups of birds, even for waterfowl the concept is an
throcytes that are richer in hemoglobin than are the ery- oversimplification. The patterns of movements of mi-
throcytes of more primitive birds. grant waterfowl and other birds vary greatly among
species.
Ethology—The study of animal behavior.
Frugivorous—Feeds on fruit.
Exotic—Not native.
Galliform—Chicken-like, a member of the Galliformes.
Extant—Still in existence; not destroyed, lost, or extinct.
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Extinct—Refers to a species that no longer survives any-
where.

546

Gape—The opening of the mouth of a bird; the act of Glossary GLOSSARY
opening the mouth, as in begging.
Homeothermy—In birds the metabolic ability to maintain
Gizzard—The conspicuous, muscular portion of the a constant body temperature. The lack of development
stomach of a bird. Birds may swallow grit or retain bits of homeothermy in new-hatched chicks is the underlying
of bone or hard parts of arthropods in the gizzard and need for brooding behavior.
these function in a manner analogous to teeth as the
strong muscles of the gizzard contract, thus breaking Hover-dip—A method of foraging involving hovering low
food into smaller particles. The gizzard is best devel- over the water, and then dipping forward to pick up prey
oped in birds that eat seeds and other plant parts; in from the surface (e.g., many herons, Ardeidae).
some fruit-eating birds the gizzard is very poorly devel-
oped. Hybrid—The offspring resulting from a cross between two
different species (or sometimes between distinctive sub-
Glareolid—A member of the family Glareolidae. species).

Gloger’s rule—Gloger’s rule is an ecogeographic general- Imprinting—A process that begins with an innate response
ization that suggests that within a species or closely re- of a chick to its parent or some other animal (or object!)
lated group of birds there is more melanin (a dark that displays the appropriate stimulus to elicit the chick’s
pigment) in feathers in warm humid parts of the species’ response. The process continues with the chick rapidly
or groups’ range, and less melanin in feathers in dry or learning to recognize its parents. Imprinting typically oc-
cooler parts of the range. curs within a few hours (often 13–16 hours) after hatch-
ing. Imprinting then leads to learning behavioral
Gorget—Colorful throat patch or bib (e.g., of many hum- characteristics that facilitate its survival, including such
mingbirds, Trochilidae). things as choice of foraging sites and foods, shelter,
recognition of danger, and identification of a potential
Graduated—An adjective used to describe the tail of a bird mate. The most elaborate (and best studied) imprinting
in which the central rectrices are longest and those to is associated with precocial chicks such as waterfowl
the outside are increasingly shorter. (Anatidae).

Granivorous—Feeding on seeds. Incubation patch—See Brood patch.

Gregarious—Occuring in large groups. Indigenous—See Endemic.

Gular—The throat region. Innate—An inherited characteristic; e.g., see Imprinting.

Hallux—The innermost digit of a hind or lower limb. Insectivorous—In ornithology technically refers to a bird
that eats insects; generally refers to in birds that feed
Hawk—Noun: a member of the family Accipitridae. Verb: primarily on insects and other arthropods.
catching insects by flying around with the mouth open
(e.g. swallows, Hirundinidae; nightjars, Caprimulgidae). Introduced species—An animal or plant that has been in-
troduced to an area where it normally does not occur.
Heterospecific colony—A colony of birds with two or
more species. Iridescent—Showing a rainbow-like play of color caused
by differential refraction of light waves that change as
Heterothermy—In birds, the ability to go into a state of the angle of view changes. The iridescence of bird
torpor or even hibernation, lowering body temperature feathers is a result of a thinly laminated structure in the
through reduced metabolic activity and thus conserving barbules of those feathers. Iridescent feathers are made
energy resources during periods of inclement weather or more brilliant by pigments that underlie this structure,
low food. but the pigments do not cause the iridescence.

Hibernation—A deep state of reduced metabolic activity Irruptive—A species of bird that is characterized by irregu-
and lowered body temperature that may last for weeks; lar long-distance movements, often in response to a fluc-
attained by few birds, resulting from reduced food sup- tuating food supply (e.g., red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra,
plies and cool or cold weather. Fringillidae; snowy owl, Nyctea scandiaca, Strigidae).

Holarctic—The Palearctic and Nearctic bigeographic re- IUCN—The World Conservation Union; formerly the In-
gions combined. ternational Union for the Conservation of Nature, hence
IUCN. It is the largest consortium of governmental and
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia nongovernmental organizations focused on conservation
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547

Glossary Mesoptile—On chicks, the second down feathers; these
grow attached to the initial down, or protoptile.
Juvenal—In ornithology (contrary to most dictionaries), re-
stricted to use as an adjective referring to a characteristic Metabolic rate—The rate of chemical processes in living
(usually the plumage) of a juvenile bird. organisms, resulting in energy expenditure and growth.
Hummingbirds (Trochilidae), for example, have a very
Juvenile—A young bird, typically one that has left the nest. high metabolic rate. Metabolic rate decreases when a
bird is resting and increases during activity.
Kleptoparasitism—Behavior in which one individual takes
(“steals”) food, nest materials, or a nest site from an- Miocene—The geological time period that lasted from
other. about 23.8 to 5.6 million years ago.

Lachrymal—Part of the skull cranium, near the orbit; Migration—A two-way movement in birds, often dramati-
lachrymal and Harderian glands in this region lubricate cally seasonal. Typically latitudinal, though in some
and protect the surface of the eye. species is altitudinal or longitudinal. May be short-dis-
tance or long-distance. (See Dispersal)
Lamellae—Transverse tooth-like or comb-like ridges inside
the cutting edge of the bill of birds such as ducks (Anati- Mitochondrial DNA—Genetic material located in the
dae) and flamingos (Phoenicopteridae). Lamellae serve as mitochondria (a cellular organelle outside of the nu-
a sieve during feeding: the bird takes material into its cleus). During fertilization of an egg, only the DNA
mouth, then uses its tongue to force water out through from the nucleus of a sperm combines with the DNA
the lamellae, while retaining food particles. from the nucleus of an egg. The mitochondrial DNA
of each offspring is inherited only from its mother.
Lek—A loose to tight association of several males vying for Changes in mitochondrial DNA occur quickly through
females through elaborate display; lek also refers to the mutation and studying differences in mitochondrial
specific site where these males gather to display. Lek DNA helps scientists better understand relationships
species include such birds as prairie chickens (Phasian- among groups.
idae) and manakins (Pipridae).
Mobbing—A defensive behavior in which one or more
Lobed feet—Feet that have toes with stiff scale-covered birds of the same or different species fly toward a poten-
flaps that extend to provide a surface analogous to web- tial predator, such as a hawk, owl, snake, or a mammal,
bing on a duck as an aid in swimming. swooping toward it repeatedly in a threatening manner,
usually without actually striking the predator. Most
Lore—The space between the eye and bill in a bird. The predators depend on the element of surprise in capturing
loral region often differs in color from adjacent areas of their prey and avoid the expenditure of energy associated
a bird’s face. In some species the area is darker, thus with a chase. Mobbing alerts all in the neighborhood
helping to reduce glare, serving the same function as that a potential predator is at hand and the predator of-
the dark pigment some football players apply beneath ten moves on. Rarely, a predator will capture a bird that
each eye. In predatory birds, a dark line may extend is mobbing it.
from the eye to the bill, perhaps decreasing glare, but
also serving as a sight to better aim its bill. The color Molecular phylogenetics—The use of molecular (usually
and pattern of plumage and skin in the loral region is genetic) techniques to study evolutionary relationships
species-specific and often of use in helping birders iden- between or among different groups of organisms.
tify a bird.
Molt—The systematic and periodic loss and replacement of
Malar—Referring to the region of the face extending from feathers. Once grown, feathers are dead structures that
near the bill to below the eye; markings in the region continually wear. Birds typically undergo a complete or
are often referred to as “moustache” stripes. near-complete molt each year and during this molt
feathers are usually lost and replaced with synchrony be-
Mandible—Technically the lower half of a bird’s bill. The tween right and left sides of the body, and gradually, so
plural, mandibles, is used to refer to both the upper and that the bird retains the ability to fly. Some species, such
lower bill. The upper half of a bird’s bill is technically as northern hemisphere ducks, molt all of their flight
the maxilla, but often called the “upper mandible.” feathers at once, thus become flightless for a short time.
Partial molts, typically involving only contour feathers,
Mantle—Noun: The plumage of the back of the bird, in- may occur prior to the breeding season.
cluding wing coverts evident in the back region on top
of the folded wing (especially used in describing hawks Monophyletic—A group (or clade) that shares a common
(Accipitridae) and gulls (Laridae). Verb: The behavior in ancestor.
which a raptor (typically on the ground) shields its ac-
quired prey to protect it from other predators. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

548

Monotypic—A taxonomic category that includes only one Glossary GLOSSARY
form (e.g., a genus that includes only one species; a
species that includes no subspecies). Nuclear DNA—Genetic material from the nucleus of a
cell from any part of a bird’s body other than its repro-
Montane—Of or inhabiting the biogeographic zone of rel- ductive cells (eggs or sperm).
atively moist, cool upland slopes below timberline domi-
nated by large coniferous trees. Nuptial displays—Behavioral displays associated with
courtship.
Morphology—The form and structure of animals and plants.
Oligocene—The geologic time period occurring from
Mutualism—Ecological relationship between two species in about 33.7 to 23.8 million years ago.
which both gain benefit.
Old World—A general term that usually describes a
Nail—The horny tip on the leathery bill of ducks, geese, species or group as being from Eurasia or Africa.
and swans (Anatidae).
Omnivorous—Feeding on a broad range of foods, both
Nectarivore—A nectar-eater (e.g., hummingbirds, Trochil- plant and animal matter.
idae; Hawaiian honeycreepers, Drepaniidae).
Oscine—A songbird that is in the suborder Passeri, order
Near Threatened—A category defined by the IUCN sug- Passeriformes; their several distinct pairs of muscles
gesting possible risk of extinction in the medium term within the syrinx allow these birds to produce the diver-
future. sity of sounds that give meaning to the term “songbird.”

Nearctic—The biogeographic region that includes temper- Osteological—Pertaining to the bony skeleton.
ate North America faunal region.
Palearctic—A biogeographic region that includes temper-
Neotropical—The biogeographic region that includes ate Eurasia and Africa north of the Sahara.
South and Central America, the West Indies, and tropi-
cal Mexico. Paleocene—Geological period, subdivision of the Tertiary,
from 65 to 55.5 million years ago.
Nestling—A young bird that stays in the nest and needs
care from parents. Pamprodactyl—The arrangement of toes on a bird’s foot
in which all four toes are pointed forward; characteristic
New World—A general descriptive term encompassing the of swifts (Apodidae).
Nearctic and Neotropical biogeographic regions.
Parallaxis—Comparing the difference in timing and inten-
Niche—The role of an organism in its environment; multi- sity of sounds reaching each ear (in owls).
dimensional, with habitat and behavioral components.
Passerine—A songbird; a member of the order Passeri-
Nictitating membrane—The third eyelid of birds; may be formes.
transparent or opaque; lies under the upper and lower
eyelids. When not in use, the nictitating membrane is Pecten—A comb-like structure in the eye of birds and rep-
held at the corner of the eye closest to the bill; in use it tiles, consisting of a network of blood vessels projecting
moves horizontally or diagonally across the eye. In flight inwards from the retina. The main function of the
it keeps the bird’s eyes from drying out; some aquatic pecten seems to be to provide oxygen to the tissues of
birds have a lens-like window in the nictitating mem- the eye.
brane, facilitating vision underwater.
Pectinate—Having a toothed edge like that of a comb. A
Nidicolous—An adjective describing young that remain in pectinate claw on the middle toe is a characteristic of
the nest after hatching until grown or nearly grown. nightjars, herons, and barn owls. Also known as a
“feather comb” since the pectinate claw is used in preen-
Nidifugous—An adjective describing young birds that leave ing.
the nest soon after hatching.
Pelagic—An adjective used to indicate a relationship to the
Nocturnal—Active at night. open sea.

Nominate subspecies—The subspecies described to repre- Phalloid organ—Penis-like structure on the belly of buf-
sent its species, the first described, bearing the specific falo weavers; a solid rod, not connected to reproductive
name. or excretory system.

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Glossary food, although they are often led to food, guarded, and
brooded by a parent (e.g., plovers, Charadriidae;
Philopatry—Literally “love of homeland”; a bird that is chicken-like birds, Galliformes).
philopatric is one that typically returns to nest in the
same area in which it was hatched. Strongly philopatric Preen—A verb used to describe the behavior of a bird
species (e.g., hairy woodpecker, Picoides borealis) tend to when it cleans and straightens its feathers, generally with
accumulate genetic characteristics that adapt them to lo- the bill.
cal conditions, hence come to show considerable geo-
graphic variation; those species that show little Primaries—Unusually strong feathers, usually numbering
philopatry tend to show little geographic variation. nine or ten, attached to the fused bones of the hand at
the tip of a bird’s wing.
Phylogenetics—The study of racial evolution.
Protoptile—The initial down on chicks.
Phylogeny—A grouping of taxa based on evolutionary his-
tory. Pterylosis—The arrangement of feathers on a bird.

Picid—A member of the family Picide (woodpeckers, wry- Quaternary—The geological period, from 1.8 million years
necks, piculets). ago to the present, usually including two subdivisions:
the Pleistocene, and the Holocene.
Piscivorous—Fish-eating.
Quill—An old term that generally refers to a primary feather.
Pleistocene—In general, the time of the great ice ages; ge-
ological period variously considered to include the last 1 Rachis—The shaft of a feather.
to 1.8 million years.
Radiation—The diversification of an ancestral species into
Pliocene—The geological period preceding the Pleisto- many distinct species as they adapt to different environ-
cence; the last subdivision of what is known as the Ter- ments.
tiary; lasted from 5.5 to 1.8 million years ago.
Ratite—Any of the ostrich-like birds; characteristically lack
Plumage—The complete set of feathers that a bird has. a keel on the sternum (breastbone).

Plunge-diving—A method of foraging whereby the bird Rectrix (pl. rectrices)—A tail feather of a bird; the rectri-
plunges from at least several feet up, head-first into the ces are attached to the fused vertebrae that form a bird’s
water, seizes its prey, and quickly takes to the wing (e.g., bony tail.
terns, Laridae; gannets, Sulidae).
Remex (pl. remiges)—A flight feather of the wing; remiges
Polygamy—A breeding system in which either or both include the primaries, secondaries, tertials, and alula).
male and female may have two or more mates.
Reproductive longevity—The length of a bird’s life over
Polyandry—A breeding system in which one female bird which it is capable of reproduction.
mates with two or more males. Polyandry is relatively
rare among birds. Resident—Nonmigratory.

Polygyny—A breeding system in which one male bird Rhampotheca—The horny covering of a bird’s bill.
mates with two or more females.
Rictal bristle— A specialized tactile, stiff, hairlike feather
Polyphyletic—A taxonomic group that is believed to have with elongated, tapering shaft, sometimes with short
originated from more than one group of ancestors. barbs at the base. Rictal bristles prominently surround
the mouth of birds such as many nightjars (Caprimulgi-
Powder down—Specialized feathers that grow continu- dae), New World flycatchers (Tyrannidae), swallows
ously and break down into a fine powder. In some (Hirundinidae), hawks (Accipitridae) and owls (Strigidae).
groups (e.g., herons, Ardeidae) powder downs occur in They are occasionally, but less precisely referred to as
discrete patches (on the breast and flanks); in others “vibrissae,” a term more appropriate to the “whiskers”
(e.g., parrots, Psitacidae) they are scattered throughout on a mammal.
the plumage. Usually used to waterproof the other feath-
ers (especially in birds with few or no oil glands). Rookery—Originally a place where rooks nest; now a term
often used to refer to a breeding colony of gregarious
Precocial—An adjective used to describe chicks that hatch birds.
in an advanced state of development such that they gen-
erally can leave the nest quickly and obtain their own Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

550

Sally—A feeding technique that involves a short flight from Glossary GLOSSARY
a perch or from the ground to catch a prey item before
returning to a perch. Suboscine— A songbird in the suborder Passeri, order
Passeriformes, whose songs are thought to be innate,
Salt gland—Also nasal gland because of their association rather than learned.
with the nostrils; a gland capable of concentrating and
excreting salt, thus allowing birds to drink saltwater. Sympatric—Inhabiting the same range.
These glands are best developed in marine birds.
Syndactyl—Describes a condition of the foot of birds in
Scapulars—Feathers at sides of shoulders. which two toes are fused near the base for part of their
length (e.g., kingfishers, Alcedinidae; hornbills, Buceroti-
Schemochrome—A structural color such as blue or irides- dae.
cence; such colors result from the structure of the
feather rather than from the presence of a pigment. Synsacrum—The expanded and elongated pelvis of birds
that is fused with the lower vertebrae.
Scutellation—An arrangement or a covering of scales, as
that on a bird’s leg. Syrinx (pl. syringes)—The “voice box” of a bird; a struc-
ture of cartilage and muscle located at the junction of the
Secondaries—Major flight feathers of the wing that are at- trachea and bronchi, lower on the trachea than the larynx
tached to the ulna. of mammals. The number and complexity of muscles in
the syrinx vary among groups of birds and have been of
Sexual dichromatism—Male and female differ in color value in determining relationships among groups.
pattern (e.g., male hairy woodpecker [Picoides villosus, Pi-
cidae] has a red band on the back of the head, female Systematist—A specialist in the classification of organisms;
has no red). systematists strive to classify organisms on the basis of
their evolutionary relationships.
Sexual dimorphism—Male and female differ in morphol-
ogy, such as size, feather size or shape, or bill size or Tarsus—In ornithology also sometimes called Tar-
shape. sometatarsus or Metatarsus; the straight part of a bird’s
foot immediately above its toes. To the non-biologist,
Sibling species—Two or more species that are very closely this seems to be the “leg” bone—leading to the notion
related, presumably having differentiated from a com- that a bird’s “knee” bends backwards. It does not. The
mon ancestor in the recent past; often difficult to distin- joint at the top of the Tarsometatarsus is the “heel”
guish, often interspecifically territorial. joint, where the Tarsometarsus meets the Tibiotarsus.
The “knee” joint is between the Tibiotarsus and Femur.
Skimming—A method of foraging whereby the skimmers
(Rhynchopidae) fly low over the water with the bottom Taxon (pl. taxa)—Any unit of scientific classification (e.g.,
bill slicing through the water and the tip of the bill species, genus, family, order).
above. When the bird hits a fish, the top bill snaps shut.
Taxonomist— A specialist in the naming and classification
Slotting—Abrupt narrowing of the inner vane at the tip of of organisms. (See also Systematist. Taxonomy is the
some outer primaries on birds that soar; slotting breaks older science of naming things; identification of evolu-
up wing-tip turbulence, thus facilitating soaring. tionary relationships has not always been the goal of tax-
onomists. The modern science of Systematics generally
Sonagram—A graphic representation of sound. incorporates taxonomy with the search for evolutionary
relationships.)
Speciation—The evolution of new species.
Taxonomy—The science of identifying, naming, and clas-
Speculum—Colored patch on the wing, typically the sec- sifying organisms into groups.
ondaries, of many ducks (Anatidae).
Teleoptiles—Juvenal feathers.
Spur—A horny projection with a bony core found on the
tarsometatarsus. Territory—Any defended area. Typically birds defend a
territory with sound such as song or drumming. Territo-
Sternum—Breastbone. rial defense is typically male against male, female against
female, and within a species or between sibling species.
Structural color—See Schemochrome. Area defended varies greatly among taxa, seasons, and
habitats. A territory may include the entire home range,
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia only the area immediately around a nest, or only a feed-
ing or roosting area.

551

Glossary Uropygial gland—A large gland resting atop the last fused
vertebrae of birds at the base of a bird’s tail; also known
Tertiary—The geological period including most of the as oil gland or preen gland; secretes an oil used in
Cenozoic; from about 65 to 1.8 million years ago. preening.

Tertial—A flight feather of the wing that is loosely associ- Vane—The combined barbs that form a strong, yet flexible
ated with the humerus; tertials fill the gap between the surface extending from the rachis of a feather.
secondary feathers and the body.
Vaned feather—Any feather with vanes.
Thermoregulation—The ability to regulate body tempera-
ture; can be either behavioral or physiological. Birds can Viable population—A population that is capable of main-
regulate body temperature by sunning or moving to taining itself over a period of time. One of the major
shade or water, but also generally regulate their body conservation issues of the twenty-first century is deter-
temperature through metabolic processes. Baby birds ini- mining what is a minimum viable population size. Popu-
tially have poor thermoregulatory abilities and thus must lation geneticists have generally come up with estimates
be brooded. of about 500 breeding pairs.

Threatened—A category defined by IUCN and by the En- Vibrissae—See Rictal bristle.
dangered Species Act of 1973 in the United States to re-
fer to a species that is at risk of becoming endangered. Vulnerable—A category defined by IUCN as a species that
is not Critically Endangered or Endangered, but is still
Tomium (pl. tomia)—The cutting edges of a bird’s bill. facing a threat of extinction.

Torpor—A period of reduced metabolic activity and low- Wallacea—The area of Indonesia transition between the
ered body temperature; often results from reduced avail- Oriental and Australian biogeographical realms, named
ability of food or inclement weather; generally lasts for after Alfred Russell Wallace, who intensively studied this
only a few hours (e.g., hummingbirds, Trochilidae; area.
swifts, Apodidae).
Wattles—Sexual ornamentation that usually consists of
Totipalmate—All toes joined by webs, a characteristic that flaps of skin on or near the base of the bill.
identifies members of the order Pelecaniformes.
Zoogeographic region—See Biogeographic region.
Tribe—A unit of classification below the subfamily and
above the genus. Zygodactyl—Adjective referring to the arrangement of toes
on a bird in which two toes project forward and two to
Tubercle—A knob- or wart-like projection. the back.

Urohydrosis—A behavior characteristic of storks and New Compiled by Jerome A. Jackson, PhD
World vultures (Ciconiiformes) wherein these birds ex-
crete on their legs and make use of the evaporation of
the water from the excrement as an evaporative cooling
mechanism.

552 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

•••••

Aves species list

Struthioniformes [Order] C. strigulosus D. melanophrys
Struthionidae [Family] C. duidae D. cauta
Struthio [Genus] C. erythropus D. chrysostoma
S. camelus [Species] C. noctivagus D. chlororhynchos
C. atrocapillus D. bulleri
Rheidae [Family] C. cinnamomeus Phoebetria [Genus]
Rhea [Genus] C. boucardi P. fusca [Species]
R. Americana [Species] C. kerriae P. palpebrata
Pterocnemia [Genus] C. variegatus Macronectes [Genus]
P. pennata [Species] C. brevirostris M. giganteus [Species]
C. bartletti M. halli
Casuaridae [Family] C. parvirostris Fulmarus [Genus]
Casuarius [Genus] C. casiquiare F. glacialoides [Species]
C. bennetti [Species] C. tataupa F. glacialis
C. casuarius Rhynchotus [Genus] Thalassoica [Genus]
C. unappendiculatus R. rufescens [Species] T. antarctica [Species]
Nothoprocta [Genus] Daption [Genus]
Dromaiidae [Family] N. taczanowski [Species] D. capense [Species]
Dromaius [Genus] N. kalinowskii Pagodroma [Genus]
D. novaehollandiae [Species] N. omata P. nivea [Species]
D. diemenianus N. perdicaria Pterodroma [Genus]
N. cinerascens P. macroptera [Species]
Apterygidae [Family] N. pentlandii P. lessonii
Apteryx [Genus] N. curvirostris P. incerta
A. australis [Species] Nothura [Genus] P. solandri
A. owenii N. boraquira [Species] P. magentae
A. haastii N. minor P. rostrata
N. darwinii P. macgillivrayi
Tinamiiformes [Order] N. maculosa P. neglecta
Tinamidae [Family] Taoniscus [Genus] P. arminjoniana
Tinamus [Genus] T. nanus [Species] P. alba
T. tao [Species] Eudromia [Genus] P. ultima
T. solitarius E. elegans [Species] P. brevirostris
T. osgoodi E. formosa P. mollis
T. major Tinamotis [Genus] P. inexpectata
T. guttatus T. pentlandii [Species] P. cahow
Nothocercus [Genus] T. ingoufi P. hasitata
N. bonapartei [Species] P. externa
N. julius Procellariformes [Order] P. baraui
N. nigrocapillus Diomedidae [Family] P. phaeopygia
Crypturellus [Genus] Diomedea [Genus] P. hypoleuca
C. berlepschi [Species] D. exulans [Species] P. nigripennis
C. cinereus D. epomophora P. axillaris
C. soui D. irrorata P. cookii
C. ptaritepui D. albatrus P. defilippiana
C. obsoletus D. nigripes P. longirostris
C. undulatus D. immutabilis P. leucoptera
C. transfasciatus
553
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia

Aves species list O. hornbyi P. auritus
O. furcata P. grisegena
Halobaena [Genus] Pelecanoides [Genus] P. cristatus
H. caerulea P. garnotii [Species] P. nigricollis
P. magellani P. occipitalis
Pachyptila [Genus] P. georgicus P. taczanowskii
P. vittata [Species] P. urinator P. gallardoi
P. desolata Aechmophorus [Genus]
P. belcheri Sphenisciformes [Order] A. occidentalis [Species]
P. turtur Spheniscidae [Family]
P. crassirostris Aptenodytes [Genus] Pelecaniformes [Order]
A. patagonicus [Species] Phaethontidae [Family]
Bulweria [Genus] A. forsteri Phaethon [Genus]
B. bulwerii [Species] Pygoscelis [Genus] P. aethereus [Species]
B. fallax P. papua [Species] P. rubricauda
P. adeliae P. lepturus
Procellaria [Genus] P. antarctica
P. aequinoctialis [Species] Eudyptes [Genus] Fregatidae [Family]
P. westlandica E. chrysocome [Species] Fregata [Genus]
P. parkinsoni E. pachyrhynchus F. magnificens [Species]
P. cinerea E. robustus F. minor
E. sclateri F. ariel
Calonectris [Genus] E. chryoslophus F. andrewsi
C. diomedea [Species] Megadyptes [Genus]
C. leucomelas M. antipodes [Species] Phalacrocoracidae [Family]
Eudyptula [Genus] Phalacrocorax [Genus]
Puffinus [Genus] E. minor [Species] P. carbo [Species]
P. pacificus [Species] Spheniscus [Genus] P. capillatus
P. bulleri S. demersus [Species] P. nigrogularis
P. carneipes S. humboldti P. varius
P. creatopus S. magellanicus P. harrisi
P. gravis S. mendiculus P. auritus
P. griseus P. olivaceous
P. tenuirostris Gaviiformes [Order] P. fuscicollis
P. nativitatis P. sulcirostris
P. puffinus Gaviidae [Family] P. penicillatus
P. gavia Gavia [Genus] P. capensis
P. huttoni G. stellata [Species] P. neglectus
P. lherminieri G. arctica P. punctatus
P. assimilis G. immer P. aristotelis
G. adamsii P. perspicillatus
Oceanites [Genus] P. urile
O. oceanicus [Species] Podicipediformes [Order] P. pelagicus
O. gracilis P. gaimardi
Podicipedidae [Family] P. magellanicus
Garrodia [Genus] Rollandia [Genus] P. bouganvillii
G. nereis [Species] R. rolland [Species] P. atriceps
R. microptera P. albiventer
Pelagodroma [Genus] Tachybaptus [Genus] P. carunculatus
P. marina [Species] T. novaehollandiae [Species] P. campbelli
T. ruficollis P. fuscescens
Fregetta [Genus] T. rufolavatus P. melanoleucos
F. tropica [Species] T. pelzelnii P. niger
F. grallaria T. dominicus P. pygmaeus
Podilymbus [Genus] P. africanus
Nesofregetta [Genus] P. podiceps [Species] Anhinga [Genus]
N. fuliginosa [Species] P. gigas A. anhinga [Species]
Poliocephalus [Genus] A. melanogaster
Hydrobates [Genus] P. poliocephalus [Species]
H. pelagicus [Species] P. rufopectus Sulidae [Family]
Podiceps [Genus] Sula [Genus]
Halocyptena [Genus] P. major [Species] S. bassana [Species]
H. microsoma [Species]
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Oceanodroma [Genus]
O. tethys [Species]
O. castro
O. monorhis
O. leucorhoa
O. macrodactyla
O. markhami
O. tristami
O. melania
O. matsudairae
O. homochroa

554

S. capensis Agamia [Genus] Aves species list AVES SPECIES LIST
S. serrator A. agami [Species]
S. nebouxii Leptoptilos [Genus]
S. variegata Nyctanassa [Genus] L. javanicus [Species]
S. dactylatra N. violacea [Species] L. dubius
S. sula L. crumeniferus
S. leucogaster Nycticorax [Genus]
S. abbotti N. nycticorax [Species] Balaenicipitidae [Family]
N. caledonicus Balaeniceps [Genus]
Pelecanidae [Family] N. leuconotus B. rex [Species]
Pelecanus [Genus] N. magnificus
P. onocrotalus [Species] N. goisagi Threskiornithidae [Family]
P. rufescens N. melanolophus Eudocimus [Genus]
P. philippensis E. albus [Species]
P. conspicillatus Cochlearius [Genus] E. ruber
P. erythrorhynchos C. cochlearius [Species] Phimosus [Genus]
P. occidentalis P. infuscatus [Species]
Tigrisoma [Genus] Plegadis [Genus]
Ciconiiformes [Order] T. mexicanum [Species] P. falcinellus [Species]
Ardeidae [Family] T. fasciatum P. chihi
Syrigma [Genus] T. lineatum P. ridgwayi
S. sibilatrix [Species] Cercibis [Genus]
Pilherodius [Genus] Zonerdius [Genus] C. oxycerca [Species]
P. pileatus [Species] Z. heliosylus [Species] Theristicus [Genus]
Ardea [Genus] T. caerulescens [Species]
A. cinerea [Species] Tigriornis [Genus] T. caudatus
A. herodias T. leucolophus [Species] T. melanopsis
A. cocoi Mesembrinibis [Genus]
A. pacifica Zebrilus [Genus] M. cayennensis [Species]
A. melanocephala Z. undulatus [Species] Bostrychia [Genus]
A. hombloti B. hagedash [Species]
A. imperialis Ixobrychus [Genus] B. carunculata
A. sumatrana I. involucris [Species] B. olivacea
A. goliath I. exilis B. rara
A. purpurea I. minutus Lophotibis [Genus]
A. alba I. sinensis L. cristata [Species]
Egretta [Genus] I. eurhythmus Threskiornis [Genus]
E. rufescens [Species] I. cinnamomeus T. aethiopicus [Species]
E. picata I. sturmii T. spinicollis
E. vinaceigula I. flavicollis Geronticus [Genus]
E. ardesiaca G. eremita [Species]
E. tricolor Botaurus [Genus] G. calvus
E. intermedia B. pinnatus [Species] Pseudibis [Genus]
E. ibis B. lentiginosus P. papillosa [Species]
E. novaehollandiae B. stellaris P. gigantea
E. caerulea B. poiciloptilus Nipponia [Genus]
E. thula N. nippon [Species]
E. garzetta Scopidae [Family] Platalea [Genus]
E. gularis Scopus [Genus] P. leucocorodia [Species]
E. dimorpha S. umbretta [Species] P. minor
E. eulophotes P. alba
E. sacra Ciconiidae [Family] P. flavipes
Ardeola [Genus] Mycteria [Genus] P. ajaja
A. ralloides [Species] M. americana [Species]
A. grayii M. cinerea Phoenicopteriformes [Order]
A. bacchus M. ibis Phoenicopteridae [Family]
A. speciosa M. leucocephala Phoenicopterus [Genus]
A. idae Anastomus [Genus] P. ruber [Species]
A. rufiventris A. oscitans [Species] P. chilensis
A. striata A. lamelligerus Phoeniconaias [Genus]
Ciconia [Genus] P. minor [Species]
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia C. nigra [Species] Phoenicoparrus [Genus]
C. abdimii P. andinus [Species]
C. episcopus P. jamesii
C. maguari
C. ciconia 555
Ephippiorhynchus [Genus]
E. asiaticus [Species]
E. senegalensis
Jabiru [Genus]
J. mycteria [Species]

Aves species list Milvus [Genus] C. macrourus
M. milvus [Species] C. melanoleucos
Falconiformes [Order] M. migrans C. pygargus
Cathartidae [Family] C. ranivorus
Coragyps [Genus] Haliastur [Genus] C. aeruginosus
C. atratus [Species] H. sphenurus [Species] C. spilonotus
Cathartes [Genus] H. indus C. approximans
C. burrovianus [Species] C. maillardi
C. melambrotus Haliaeetus [Genus] C. buffoni
Gymnogyps [Genus] H. leucogaster [Species] Melierax [Genus]
G. californianus [Species] H. sanfordi M. gabar [Species]
Vultur [Genus] H. vocifer M. metabates
V. gryphus [Species] H. vociferoides M. canorus
Sarcoramphus [Genus] H. leucoryphus Accipiter [Genus]
S. papa [Species] H. albicilla A. poliogaster [Species]
H. leucocephalus A. trivirgatus
Accipitridae [Family] H. pelagicus A. griseiceps
Pandion [Genus] A. tachiro
P. haliaetus [Species] Ichthyophaga [Genus] A. castanilius
Aviceda [Genus] I. humilis [Species] A. badius
A. cuculoides [Species] I. ichthyaetus A. brevipes
A. madagascariensis A. butleri
A. jerdoni Gypohierax [Genus] A. soloensis
A. subcristata G. angolensis [Species] A. francesii
A. leuphotes A. trinotatus
Leptodon [Genus] Gypaetus [Genus] A. fasciatus
L. cayanensis [Species] G. barbatus [Species] A. novaehollandiae
Chondrohierax [Genus] A. melanochlamys
C. uncinatus [Species] Neophron [Genus] A. albogularis
Henicopernis [Genus] N. percnopterus [Species] A. rufitorques
H. longicauda [Species] A. haplochrous
H. infuscata Necrosyrtes [Genus] A. henicogrammus
Pernis [Genus] N. monachus [Species] A. luteoschistaceus
P. aviporus [Species] A. imitator
P. ptilorhynchus Gyps [Genus] A. poliocephalus
P. celebensis G. bengalensis [Species] A. princeps
Elanoides [Genus] G. africanus A. superciliosus
E. forficatus [Species] G. indicus A. collaris
Macheiramphus [Genus] G. rueppellii A. erythropus
M. alcinus [Species] G. himalayensis A. minullus
Gampsonyx [Genus] G. fulvus A. gularis
G. swainsonii [Species] A. virgatus
Elanus [Genus] Aegypius [Genus] A. nanus
E. leucurus [Species] A. monachus [Species] A. cirrhocephalus
E. caeruleus A. tracheliotus A. brachyurus
E. notatus A. occipitalis A. erythrauchen
E. scriptus A. calvus A. rhodogaster
Chelictinia [Genus] A. ovampensis
C. riocourii [Species] Circaetus [Genus] A. madagascariensis
Rostrhamus [Genus] C. gallicus [Species] A. nisus
R. sociabilis [Species] C. cinereus A. rufiventris
R. hamatus C. fasciolatus A. striatus
Harpagus [Genus] C. cinerascens A. bicolor
H. bidentatus [Species] A. cooperii
H. diodon Terathopius [Genus] A. gundlachi
Ictinia [Genus] T. ecaudatus [Species] A. melanoleucus
I. plumbea [Species] A. henstii
I. misisippiensis Spilornis [Genus] A. gentilis
Lophoictinia [Genus] S. cheela [Species] A. meyerianus
L. isura [Species] S. elgini A. buergersi
Hamirostra [Genus]
H. melanosternon [Species] Dryotriorchis [Genus] Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
D. spectabilis [Species]
556
Eutriorchis [Genus]
E. astur [Species]

Polyboroides [Genus]
P. typus [Species]
P. radiatus

Circus [Genus]
C. assimilis [Species]
C. maurus
C. cyaneus
C. cinereus