Family: Hawaiian honeycreepers Vol. 11: Birds IV
BEHAVIOR Psittirostra cantans
Voice described by George C. Munro as “a strange bird Resident
chirp.” Monroe characterized the species as a quiet, retiring
bird, easily overlooked. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET At beginning of the breeding season, males gather and display
to females in groups resembling leks. As Laysan has no trees,
Preferred food is unknown. Individual shot by Munro in 1913 finch secures cup-shaped nest of grass and twigs in clumps of
had been feeding on fruit of the opuhe (Urera sandwichensis), grass or in small bushes.
Munro speculated it also fed on the akoko (Euphorbia lorifolia).
Dissection of the stomach found native berries, but hooked bill CONSERVATION STATUS
and relatively weak jaw musculature suggest it may have fed
mostly on land snails. Listed as Endangered by the USFWS and the State of Hawaii,
and as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Habitat is vulnerable to vio-
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY lent storms and the proliferation of alien species. Nearly be-
came extinct in the 1920s. Population had declined to about
Not known. 100 individuals in 1923, but diet of carrion and seabird eggs
helped them to survive.
CONSERVATION STATUS
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Extinct. First seen alive February 22, 1913, when Munro col-
lected a single specimen in the Kaiholena Valley of Lanai. Significance lies in the successful efforts of wildlife biologists
Munro was the only person to see the species, so nearly every- to preserve the species, and in the implications for the study of
thing known about it is in his book The Birds of Hawaii (1960). adaptive evolution. Biologists transferred 108 birds from
Only existing specimen (Munro’s) is in Bishop Museum in Hon- Laysan to Pearl and Hermes Reef in 1967. In less than 30
olulu. After 1913, Munro saw the bird on March 16, 1916, in the years, the beaks shortened in accordance with their new
Kaiholena Valley, and on August 12, 1918, at Waiakeakua. The food sources, demonstrating how quickly species can physi-
1918 sighting was the last, by that time most of the native akoko cally change in adapting to a local environment. About 350
forest on Lanai had been replaced by pineapple plantations. birds survive at Pearl and Hermes. ◆
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS Palila
None known. ◆ Loxioides bailleui
Laysan finch TAXONOMY
Psittirostra cantans Loxioides bailleui Oustalet, 1877.
TAXONOMY OTHER COMMON NAMES
Psittirostra cantans Wilson, 1890. French: Psittirostre palila; German: Palila; Spanish: Palila.
OTHER COMMON NAMES PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
French: Psittirostre de Laysan; German: Laysangimpel; Span- 6–6.5 in (15–16.5 cm); 2 oz (56 g). Fairly large, with large, par-
ish: Certiola de Laysan. rotlike bill. Sexes show little variation in coloring, both have
bright yellow crowns, faces and necks, gray backs, white bellies
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS and flanks, and dark beaks; wings are gray edged with yellow.
Male has a dark patch surrounding each eye, somewhat muted
6–6.5 in (15–18 cm). Bill large and parrotlike, tip of upper in the female.
mandible forms slight downward hook. Adult males have
bright yellow head, throat, and breast; lower back and rump DISTRIBUTION
grayish brown, abdomen whitish, gray collar around neck. Fe-
males less gaudy, dark streaks in yellowish crown, some streak- Western slope of Mauna Kea on Big Island of Hawaii, 6,000–
ing on flanks, gray collar, yellowish throat and breast, dark 8,000 ft (1,829–2,438 m) above sea level.
brown spots along back.
HABITAT
DISTRIBUTION
Cool, montane, mamane-niao forest.
Laysan Island and Pearl and Hermes Reef, a coral atoll; both
sites part of a long string of such islets northwest of main Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Hawaiian Islands. Shares both sites with nesting seabirds.
HABITAT
Laysan is a low-lying, sandy island about 1,000 acres (405 ha) in
area; no trees, but abundant shrubbery and grasses. Pearl and
Hermes Reef is a coral atoll containing several small islands.
BEHAVIOR
Lively and gregarious; do not fear humans, will even eat food
out of hands of observers.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Omnivorous. Feed on carrion, insects, seeds, roots, sprouts,
soft parts of plants and seeds, and interiors of tern eggs, whose
shells it punctures with its beak to reach the soupy innards.
350
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Hawaiian honeycreepers
Loxioides bailleui Melamprosops phaeosoma
Resident Resident
BEHAVIOR and its color pattern is unique among all Hawaiian native
birds. In 1992 some ornithologists proposed excluding the
Tall trees and extensive crown cover among mamane (Sophora po’o-uli from the Drepanididae, but this was not carried, and
chrysophylla) and naio (Myoporum sandwicense) forests, with a as of 2002, the species was included. Main color brown, male’s
high proportion of native understory plants for foraging and crown is gray merging into dark brown on nape, belly is buff
nesting. Call is loud, clear “chee-clee-o.” washed with brown. Most striking and memorable feature is
black mask offset by white throat. Has short, black, finchlike
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET bill and long, pale legs. Female is similarly colored, but more
cryptically.
Feeds mainly on green seed pods of mamane trees, also ma-
mane flowers, buds, naio berries, and caterpillars. DISTRIBUTION
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY Northeastern slope of Haleakala Crater on Maui.
Breeding season March to September; female lays two eggs. HABITAT
CONSERVATION STATUS Lives just below timberline in rainy (up to 550 in [14 m] a
year), high-altitude, nearly impassable ohia forest draped in
Listed as Endangered federally and by the IUCN. The popula- epiphytic mosses, lichens, and ferns.
tion is fairly large, with an upper estimate of 5,000, but within
a restricted range. A complicating factor with palila is their site BEHAVIOR
tenacity. Most palila translocated by wildlife biologists to other
areas, even with adequate food sources, return to their original Spend most of their time foraging in dense forests in small
sites or die of stress. family groups. Seldom vocalize, main calls are single or repeti-
tive “chit.”
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
None known. ◆
Hop along tree limbs, tearing apart epiphytes and loose bark
Po’o-uli with finchlike bills and gleaning leaves and bark in the sub-
canopy and understory, searching for beetles, spiders, and
Melamprosops phaeosoma other invertebrates, especially land snails. Only honeycreeper
to prefer land snails as major dietary item.
TAXONOMY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Melamprosops phaeosoma Casey Jacobi 1974.
Breeds February to June; lays one or two eggs in a cup nest.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
CONSERVATION STATUS
English: Black-faced honeycreeper; French: Po-o-uli masqué;
German: Mauigimpel; Spanish: Puli. Critically Endangered. As of 2001, only three individuals (two
females and one male), are known. Invasive rats probably main
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS agents of this near extinction.
5.5 in (15 cm); 0.9 oz (25.5 g). Differs from all other honey- SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
creeper species in odor, tongue structure, and vocalizations,
A rallying symbol for conservation. ◆
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
351
Family: Hawaiian honeycreepers Vol. 11: Birds IV
Resources Olson, Storrs L., and Helen F. James. “Description of Thirty-
Two New Species of Birds From the Hawaiian Islands;
Books Parts I and II, Passeriformes.” Ornithological Monographs
Carlquist, Sherwin. Hawaii, A Natural History. New York: 45&46, bound as one; American Ornithologists’ Union,
1991.
Natural History Press, American Museum of Natural
History, 1992. Simon, Chris. “Hawaiian Evolutionary Biology: An
Introduction;” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2, no. 7 (July
Denny, James. The Birds of Kauai Honolulu: University of 1987): 175–178.
Hawaii Press, 2001.
Simon, J. C., T. K. Pratt, K. E. Berlin, and J. R. Kowalsky.
Hilton-Taylor, C., comp. 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened “Reproductive Ecology and Demography of the
Species. Species Survival Commission (SSC) Red List Akohekohe.;” Condor 103, no. 4:(Nov 2001): 736–745.
Programme. Cambridge, UK: IUCN 2000.
Organizations
Poole, A., P. Stettenheim, and F. Gill, eds. Birds of North The Bishop Museum. 1525 Bernice Street, Honolulu, HI
America: Life Histories for the 21st Century. (Monograph
Series) Po’o-uli, no. 272; Akepa, no. 294; Apapane, no. 296; 96817-0916 USA. Phone: (808) 847-3511. E-mail: museum
Maui Parrotbill, no. 311; Anianiau, no. 312; Iiwi, no. 327; @bishopmuseum.org Web site: <http://www.bishopmuseum
Ou and Lanai Hookbill, no. 335–336; Amakihis, no. 360; .org>
Akohekohe, no. 400; Kona Grosbeak, Greater, and Lesser
Koa-Finches, no. 424; Kakawahie and Oahu Alauahio, no. Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center. 3190 Maile Way,
503; Greater and Lesser Akialoa, no. 512; Akikiki, no. 552; St. John Hall, Room 408, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA.
Akiapala’au and Nukupuu, no. 600; Maui Alauahio, no. 681. Phone: (808) 956-5691. Fax: (808) 956-5687. E-mail: Bill
Washington, DC: American Ornithologists Union, YEAR. [email protected] Web site: <http://biology.usgs.gov/pierc/
piercwebsite.htm>
Pratt, H. Douglas, Phillip L. Bruner, and Delwyn G. Berrett.
The Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific. Princeton, NJ: Other
Princeton University Press, 1987. Payne, Robert B. “Bird Families of the World.” University of
Scott, J. M., S. Conant, and C. Van Riper III, eds. Evolution, Michigan Museum of Zoology, Bird Division. 12 Jan. 2000
Ecology, Conservation, and Management of Hawaiian Birds: A (16 Mar. 2002). <http://www.ummz.lsa.umich.edu/birds/
Vanishing Avifauna. Studies in Avian Biology 22. Camarillo, birddivresources/families.html.>.
CA: Allen Press, Cooper Ornithological Society, 2001.
Pratt, Thane. “Birds of Hawaii.” Pacific Island Ecosystems
Stattersfield, Alison J., and David R. Capper, eds. Threatened Research Center. 18 June 2001 (16 Mar. 2002). <http://
Birds of the World: The Official Source for Birds on the IUCN biology.usgs.gov/pierc/PLPrattTPage.htm.>.
Red List. Barcelona: Lynx Ediciones, 2001.
Kevin F. Fitzgerald, BS
Periodicals
“Hawaii, Showcase of Evolution.” Natural History 91, no. 12
(December 1982).
352 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
▲
Waxbills and grassfinches
(Estrildidae)
Class Aves
Order Passeriformes
Suborder Passeri (Oscines)
Family Estrildidae
Thumbnail description
Small, often brightly colored, highly social birds
with large, conical bills
Size
3.5–6.7 in (9–17 cm)
Number of genera, species
29 genera, 129 species
Habitat
Savanna, forest, and semi-desert
Conservation status Distribution
Endangered: 2 species; Vulnerable: 8 species; Sub-Saharan Africa, southeastern Asia, Australia, and South Pacific islands. Small
Near Threatened: 6 species populations have been introduced throughout other parts of the world
Evolution and systematics the floor of the mouth. In contrast to the colored bulges at
the angles of the gape, the patterns in the interior of the
Weaverfinches, or estrildids, are related to the weavers mouth are, in many cases, retained for life.
with which they were formerly placed in the family Plocei-
dae. They do, however, differ clearly from weavers not only The plumage is sometimes inconspicuous, but often very
in external appearance, but also in behavior and in a number attractively colored. It is never, as in many weavers, striped
of digestive tract characteristics. For these reasons, they are in a sparrow or bunting-like fashion. Adult plumage is at-
now generally considered a distinct family that has diverged tained over a period of six to eight weeks without a distin-
far from the common ancestral stock shared with the weavers. guishable intermediate phase as in the fringillid finches. As in
Sibley and Monroe, on the basis of genetic studies on DNA- the whydahs, the outermost primary is generally very much
DNA hybridization, have grouped several of the existing fam- shortened. Using the physical characteristics of an individ-
ilies, including Estrildidae and Ploceidae, into the Passeridae ual’s plumage, one can usually place it in one of the many Es-
family. Although there is presently no consensus among or- trildidae groups. For example, the parrotfinches usually
nithologists about their work, it will certainly play an impor- display combinations of vibrant greens, blues, and reds in con-
tant role in avian taxonomy in the future. trast to the munias and mannikins (Lonchura spp.), which are
usually characterized by various shades of browns and tans.
Physical characteristics For some of the groups, the name is descriptive and indicates
that group’s distinguishing feature, such as in the olive-backs
Weaverfinches are relatively quite small in size ranging (Nesocharis spp.), the crimson-wings (Cryptospiza spp.), and the
from the 3.5 in (9 cm) quailfinches (Ortygospiza spp.) to the bluebills (Spermophaga spp.). Sometimes, however, a group’s
6.7 in (17 cm) Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora). There are about name can be misleading, such as with the firefinches (Lagonos-
29 genera with about 129 species. Particularly characteristic ticta spp.) whose plumage usually contains colors ranging from
of the weaverfinches are the projections or swellings of thick- pink to crimson red, but never what most would consider a
ened connective tissue known as tubercles or papillae shown “fiery” red. The patterning of the plumage can also help place
by the young at the edges of the bill and at the gape. These estrildids into groups. The twinspots have white spots on their
are a striking white, blue, or yellow color, often emphasized underparts and sides with each feather containing two spots,
by black surroundings. In the Gouldian finch (Chloebia goul- the characteristic for which they are named. The pytilias
diae) and the parrotfinches (Erythrura spp.) the tubercles have (Pytilia spp.), on the other hand, have barring in these areas
developed into organs which seem to reflect light and thus in addition to a bright red face in the males. The firetails (Em-
show up in the semi-darkness of the nest. A characteristic of blema spp.) can have either barring or spots on their sides and
the weaverfinches that varies according to the genus and underparts, but their distinguishing characteristic is their
species is the gape pattern of the nestlings. These patterns bright red rump and tail.
consist of dark spots or lines on the palate, the tongue, and
353
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Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
1 23 4
Nestlings of species found within the family Estrildidae exhibit a combination of mouth, tongue, and palate patterns that help identify them as a
particular species. Species of whydahs and indigobirds (Vidua spp.), brood parasites, have evolved to exhibit mouth patterns similar to their cor-
responding estrildid host species, thereby increasing the chances that the host parents will accept their new “adopted” chicks. 1. Red-billed fire-
finch (Lagonosticta senegala); 2. Gouldian finch (Chloebia gouldiae); 3. White-headed munia (Lonchura maja); 4. African silverbill (Lonchura
cantans). (Illustration by Joseph E. Trumpey)
The bill of the almost exclusively insectivorous species, clude the grassfinches, the firetails, the two species within
such as the negro-finches (Nigrita spp.) and the flowerpecker Neochmia, as well as the monotypic genera Chloebia and
weaver-finches (Parmoptila spp.), is as slim as that of warblers. Aidemosyne. Introduced populations of several estrildid species
In species that eat large seeds, like the bluebills and the seed- have been established throughout the world from either in-
crackers (Pyrenestes spp.), it is almost as thick and strong as tentional releases or from escaped captive birds.
that of hawfinches. The waxbills (Estrilda spp.) fall somewhere
in the middle of this size range with their often bright red Habitat
“waxy” bills. Tail size is also quite variable, ranging from the
long central tail feathers of the grassfinches (Poephila spp.) to Most weaverfinches live in grass or bush steppes, savan-
the unusually short tail of the quailfinches. nas, and open dry area forests. A few have penetrated deserts
and semi-deserts, particularly in South Africa and central Aus-
Distribution tralia. Others resumed their family’s apparent earlier position
as true forest dwellers, particularly in western and central
The family Estrildidae is an Old World family with a nat- Africa, southeastern Asia, and the Indo-Australian insular
ural distribution around and south of the equator in the area. Recently, several species have become closely linked with
Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australasian biogeographic regions. man and have moved into fields and gardens, some even into
Most species within this family can be found in Africa. The city parks. The red-billed firefinch (Lagonosticta senegala)
negro-finches and flowerpecker weaver-finches can be found comes into native huts in its search for food. Zebra finches
in equatorial east central Africa. The olive-backs have very (Taeniopygia guttata) and crimson finches (Neochmia phaeton)
small, often patchily distributed ranges within central Africa. breed on and in buildings.
The other Africa-endemic groups have more diversified
ranges. These include the pytilias, the multiple genera of Behavior
twinspots, the crimson-wings, the seedcrackers, the bluebills,
the firefinches, the waxbills, the quailfinches, the cordon- In recent years the display behavior of weaverfinches has
bleus (Uraeginthus spp.), and the two species in the genus been studied with particular intensity. The bond between
Amadina. The munias and mannikins have radiated through- members of a pair, and sometimes among members of a small
out Africa, including Madagascar, across southern Asia, and flock, is usually strong. Unlike in many groups of birds, male
into Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, and surrounding islands. weaverfinches do not feed the female as part of a courtship
The parrotfinches are concentrated in Southeast Asia ritual. In most species the male has a “display dance” in which
throughout its many islands as well as the mainland. Some it sings and either hops towards the female or performs char-
species have a very limited range sometimes consisting of only acteristic bows or stretching movements while hopping about
a single island, a major disadvantage to the conservation of a in front of the female. Many avadavats (Amandava spp.) and
species when a threat to its population arises. Australia, like some Australian grassfinches hold a feather or a grass stalk in
Africa, has its own set of endemic estrildid groups. These in- the bill during this display, apparently as a nest symbol. The
354 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
1 2 34
5 67
Bill morphology can often give insight into the diet of a species. Those with slender bills typically consume more insects in their diet, while those
with conical bills eat primarily a seed-based diet. The relative size of the bill is often directly proportional to the size of the food that the species
can consume. These species illustrate the range of bill shapes and sizes represented within the family Estrildidae: 1. Common waxbill (Estrilda
astrild); 2. Red-fronted flowerpecker weaver-finch (Parmoptila rubrifrons); 3. White-breasted negro-finch (Nigrita fusconota); 4. Double barred finch
(Poephila bichenovii); 5. Green-winged pytilia (Pytilia melba); 6. Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora); 7. Crimson seedcracker (Pyrenestes sanguineus).
(Illustration by Joseph E. Trumpey)
female weaverfinch’s way of indicating readiness for mating take arthropods. They are attracted by nuptial swarms of ants
is unique among songbirds. She cowers on a branch and trem- and termites at the beginning of the rainy season and they
bles her tail, which is held vertically while the wings are kept pick the insects up from the ground or sally after them like
still. In contrast, other songbird females tremble their wings flycatchers in a short fluttering flight. Some Australian
and keep the tail quite still. weaverfinches have developed a manner of drinking which is
evidently unique among passerine birds and occurs outside
The song of weaverfinches is often soft and sometimes in- this order in only a few groups of birds. They suck in the wa-
audible to human ears. This may, in part, be due to the fact ter like pigeons, immersing the bill almost up to its base. This
that weaverfinches do not use songs to indicate aggression or behavior has evolved independently several times in birds of
territoriality, and therefore do not need their song to be heard arid areas probably because the birds are exposed to danger
by neighbors. An often unmusical and short song is uttered at the water holes. By sucking up the water they can reduce
just loud enough for a nearby female to hear as part of the the time required to stock up with fluid.
male’s courtship. Unlike other vocalizations, the song is not
instinctual. Instead, it is learned during a very narrow win- Reproductive biology
dow during development of the fledgling (25 to 35 days of
age for the zebra finch). Captive birds raised by a different Estrildid nests are always roofed over and are, as a rule, al-
species often learn the song of the male foster parent, but not most spherical with a diameter of about 4–8 in (10–20 cm).
the other calls. However, they can learn the meaning of the Many species attach a long entry tube to the nest, but this, in
foster parents’ calls and will often respond with the corre- contrast to many weaver nests, never hangs down vertically.
sponding call from their own repertoire. Usually both partners participate in nest building. Males
mainly gather the nesting material and the females build with
Feeding ecology and diet it. Most species use fresh or dry grass stalks and many line
the nest cup with feathers or other soft materials. In many
The predominant food of weaverfinches is half-ripe and cases nests are built outside the breeding season as well and
ripe grass seeds. Particularly in the breeding season many also
355
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
convergent evolution is used to fool the host species into ac-
cepting their “adopted” charges. The similarities between the
groups have even fooled ornithologists in the past to place
them within the same family. The whydahs and indigobirds
are now rightly placed in family Ploceidae with the weavers,
their true relatives.
A zebra waxbill (Amandava subflava) sits atop its nest. (Photo by P. Conservation status
Craig-Cooper/VIREO. Reproduced by permission.)
According to the IUCN, the family Estrildidae contains six
these are used for roosting. In many species a whole group of species which are considered Near Threatened, eight which
birds use such sleeping nests together. Nests are usually placed are Vulnerable, and two that have reached the status of En-
in bushes or low trees. Some species nest on the ground, while dangered. The reason for the decline in most of these species’
others suspend their nests between grass stalks or reeds or numbers is multifactorial. Several species, including the green
nest in tree holes. avadavat (Amandava formosa), the green-faced parrotfinch
(Erythrura viridifacies), and the Timor sparrow (Padda fuscata),
The clutch usually consists of four to six eggs, with rare which are all listed as Vulnerable, have suffered from habitat
cases of up to nine. Both sexes incubate eggs and brood young. loss and modification in addition to trapping for the pet trade.
In the daytime they relieve one another at approximately equal Early and strict laws governing the exportation of Australian
intervals of about one and a half hours, while at night both fauna have nearly eliminated the threat of trapping for the pet
sexes in many species sit together in the nest. The male, when trade on that continent. However, habitat modifications in the
appearing for relief at the nest, often brings as a “present” a form of fragmentation, overgrazing by cattle, and widespread
bit of grass or feather. The incubation period is 12–16 days. burning have affected the populations of the star finch
Young receive mainly half-ripe seeds. Parents regurgitate these (Neochmia ruficauda), the diamond firetail (Stagonopleura gut-
in small portions from the crop and push the food into the tata), and the Endangered gouldian finch in Australia. Hav-
young bird’s gape. The nestling with wide open bill grabs the ing a range that is limited only to a small island or two means
adult’s bill about the angles. The begging posture of the young that a threat to an already decreased population can have ma-
is also unique among passerines. They do not stretch the head jor consequences. This has been the case for several par-
and neck towards the parents, but lay the neck flat on the nest rotfinches including the royal parrotfinch (Erythrura regia),
floor, turning only the gape upwards. The chick’s bill is wide considered by some ornithologists to be a subspecies of the
open, displaying the characteristic pattern inside the mouth red-headed parrotfinch (Erythrura cyaneovirens). This species
and the head is moved from side to side and turned in a lively has felt the impact of logging and cattle grazing in its native
manner. There are no trembling wing movements so charac- range of Vanuatu and Banks islands. However, the Java spar-
teristic in other food-begging young birds. This begging pos- row, another island denizen with a small population, is grad-
ture is retained after leaving the nest. The nestling period lasts ually succumbing to the combined effects of trapping for the
about three weeks, which is surprisingly long for such small pet trade, killing, and egg-robbing because of their effects on
birds. Even after fledging, the young have not definitely left
the nest, for the parents guide them back to it for sleeping The western bluebill (Spermophaga haematina) has a distinctive, col-
and, at first, even for feeding. Young remain dependent on the orful bill. (Photo by Doug Wechsler/VIREO. Reproduced by permission.)
parents for food for one or two weeks after fledging.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Some species of weaverfinches serve as brood hosts for the
whydahs and indigobirds (Vidua spp.). Each parasitic species
has a corresponding estrildid host species with which it shares
many similarities including juvenal plumage as well as the
characteristic species-specific mouth markings. This result of
356
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
rice crops, and hunting for food. Population numbers are not galese or society finch has never occurred in the wild. Instead,
the only factors considered when classifying the conservation it is a form of the white-backed munia (Lonchura striata) that
status of a species, however. Population trends play a major was domesticated in the Far East during the early 1700s or
role as well. This is well illustrated by comparing the Anam- even earlier. The deficiencies of weaverfinches are balanced
bra waxbill (Estrilda poliopareia) and the pink-billed parrotfinch in most species by attractive colors and patterns. They are
(Erythrura kleinschmidti), both of which have populations fewer lively, sociable, in most cases peaceable, and not demanding
than 1,000 individuals. The former’s population is stable and in their maintenance. They are particularly suitable for large
it is therefore classified as Vulnerable whereas the latter’s pop- aviaries where a mixed group of different species and colors
ulation is declining, earning it an Endangered status. can often be kept harmoniously. If planting within the aviary
and feeding are suitable, breeding can usually be expected
Significance to humans once the pair becomes established.
Weaverfinches, in contrast to many other songbirds, have In contrast to their pet quality, some estrildids, namely the
neither long nor very attractive songs, and only on a few rare munias and mannikins, can have a devastating impact on agri-
circumstances when they are handfed do they become tame. cultural crops such as rice. This often leads to their wide-
Nevertheless, they have, throughout the history of aviculture, spread persecution. Hunting of the pests becomes a sport and
been among the most popular and frequent pet and aviary children are sometimes hired to collect eggs from nests. Some
birds. Several species such as the Java sparrow, the zebra finch, species, such as the Java sparrow, are also hunted for food,
and the gouldian finch have reached the status of domesti- while others, like the spotted munia (Lonchura punctulata), are
cated species, a rare title among birds kept as pets. The Ben- collected for religious purposes.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 357
1
3
2
5
4
6
8
7
9
10 11
1. White-breasted negro-finch (Nigrita fusconota); 2. Peter’s twinspot (Hypargos niveoguttatus); 3. Red-headed finch (Amadina erythrocephala);
4. Male (top) and female red-fronted flowerpecker weaver-finch (Parmoptila rubrifrons); 5. Green-winged pytilia (Pytilia melba); 6. Jameson’s fire-
finch (Lagonosticta rhodopareia); 7. Crimson seedcracker (Pyrenestes sanguineus); 8. Common waxbill (Estrilda astrild); 9. Male (top) and female
red-cheeked cordon-bleu (Uraeginthus bengalus); 10. African silverbill (Lonchura cantans); 11. African quailfinch (Ortygospiza atricollis). (Illustra-
tion by Joseph E. Trumpey)
358 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
1 3
2
4 5
6 7
89
1. Diamond firetail (Stagonopleura [Emblema] guttata); 2. Spotted munia (Lonchura punctulata); 3. Red avadavat (Amandava amandava); 4. Female
(left) and male pin-tailed parrotfinch (Erythrura prasina); 5. Female (left) and male Gouldian finch (Chloebia gouldiae); 6. Pink-billed parrotfinch
(Erythrura kleinschmidti); 7. Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora); 8. Male (left) and female zebra finch (Poephila guttata); 9. Double-barred finch (Poephila
bichenovii). (Illustration by Joseph E. Trumpey)
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 359
Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
Species accounts
Red-fronted flowerpecker weaver-finch FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Parmoptila rubrifrons A longer more slender bill than that of most estrildids reflects
this species’ more insectivorous diet of mostly ants, including
SUBFAMILY their larvae and pupae. This species, along with the closely-
related flowerpecker weaver-finch (Parmoptila woodhousei),
Estrildinae possesses a brush-like tongue which is believed to be an adap-
tation to a diet of ants. When searching for food, this species
TAXONOMY examines both live and dead leaves.
Pholidornis rubrifrons Sharpe and Ussher, 1872 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
OTHER COMMON NAMES As for negro-finches, the nesting behavior and the nestlings’
mouth patterns of P. woodhousei are what convinced taxono-
English: Jameson’s antpecker, red-fronted antpecker; French: mists that the flower-peckers are indeed estrildids, albeit aber-
Parmoptile à front rouge; German: Ameisenpicker; Spanish: rant examples. However, the nest and nestlings of P. rubrifrons
Pinzón Hormiguero de Jameson. have not been found or described.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS CONSERVATION STATUS
3.9–4.3 in (10–11 cm). Similar to warblers, with which they CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.
were previously classified. Sexually dimorphic with males hav-
ing a red forehead and cinnamon-brown underparts; females SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
lack the red forehead and have spotted underparts. Juveniles
are similar to adult males but lack the red forehead. None known. ◆
DISTRIBUTION White-breasted negro-finch
Two populations: one in Liberia and southwestern Côte Nigrita fusconota
d’Ivoire and one in northern Democratic Republic of Congo,
eastern Congo, and western Uganda. SUBFAMILY
HABITAT Estrildinae
Inhabits forest edges and scrub, usually low to the ground. TAXONOMY
BEHAVIOR Nigrita fusconotus Fraser, 1843.
Found at mid-level or near the ground in pairs, small groups, OTHER COMMON NAMES
or sometimes mixed-species groups. The voice of this secretive
species has not been recorded. French: Nigrette à ventre blanc; German: Weißbrust-
mantelschwärzling; Spanish: Negrita Pechiblanca.
Parmoptila rubrifrons
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Resident
3.9 in (10 cm). Sexes similar with females sometimes having
360 slightly paler underparts with less gray. Juveniles are duller
than adults and have a dark brown rump and tail compared to
the adults’ blue-black rump and tail.
DISTRIBUTION
Guinea and Sierra Leone, east to western Kenya, and south to
northern Angola.
HABITAT
Occurs in secondary growth, cleared areas, forest edges, and
gallery forest.
BEHAVIOR
Found singly, in pairs, or in small groups. The song is de-
scribed as a descending, trilling “tz-tz-tz-tz-tzeeee” sometimes
ending with a few “tsip” or “chip” notes. Males sing from April
to October both from a high perch in a tree and while feeding.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Feeds at varying heights of shrubs and trees; rarely seen on
the ground. Unlike most estrildids, negro-finches forage by
searching leaves in a warbler-like fashion. Their diet consists
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
Nigrita fusconota Pytilia melba
Resident Resident
of small insects, caterpillars, berries and other small fruits, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
the oily cases of oil palm nuts, and small seeds. The bill,
which is more slender than most estrildids, is probably an 4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm). Sexually dimorphic with females lack-
adaptation for this species’ increased insectivorous portion of ing red on the head. Juveniles resemble a duller version of the
the diet. female.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY DISTRIBUTION
The mouth patterns of nestlings and the nest, a sphere with a Senegal east across northern Nigeria and southern Niger to
side entrance, are some of the only features that associate this Ethiopia and Somalia, south through Tanzania to northern
species with the family Estrildidae. Nesting material includes South Africa.
bark strips, leaf fibers, dry grass, and moss. A clutch is typically
three to six white eggs. HABITAT
CONSERVATION STATUS Prefers dry, open areas including semi-desert, thorn scrub, aca-
cia woodland, grassland, savanna, and cultivated areas.
CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.
BEHAVIOR
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Found either singly or in pairs except at watering holes where
Likely due to the lack of bright coloration and to the more in- small flocks might temporarily congregate. The call is a “see-
sectivorous diet, this species has failed to become popular in eh,” “wick” or “wit” note. The song, which is sometimes
the pet trade. ◆ lengthy, is a series of whistles and trills interspersed with
“kwik” notes.
Green-winged pytilia
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Pytilia melba
Feeds on the ground eating mainly grass seeds and termites, al-
SUBFAMILY though other seeds and insects are probably eaten.
Estrildinae REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
TAXONOMY The nest is usually round or dome-shaped and built of grass
and lined with feathers. Three to six white eggs are laid and
Fringilla melba Linnaeus, 1758. incubated for 12–13 days. The breeding season lasts from No-
vember to June, peaking after the heaviest rains. Nests are of-
OTHER COMMON NAMES ten parasitized by the paradise whydah (Vidua paradisaea).
English: Melba finch, melba waxbill; French: Beaumarquet CONSERVATION STATUS
melba; German: Buntastrild; Spanish: Pinzón Melba.
Not threatened.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Kept in aviculture where it proves to be a challenge to breed,
requiring a variety of insects in the diet. In captivity males
361
Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
defend a territory against conspecific individuals as well as any FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
bird showing red coloration on the head. ◆
Feeds on or near the ground. Their diet is poorly understood,
Crimson seedcracker but, based in part on bill morphology, is presumed to be
mostly seeds, especially those with hard coverings.
Pyrenestes sanguineus
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
SUBFAMILY
Three to four white eggs are incubated for 16 days. The few
Estrildinae nests described were composed mostly of reeds.
TAXONOMY CONSERVATION STATUS
Pirenestes sanguineus Swainson, 1837. Not threatened.
OTHER COMMON NAMES SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
French: Pyréneste gros-bec; German: Karmesinastrild; Spanish: In the past, this species could be sporadically found in zoos and
Pinzón Casca Nueces Rojo. aviaries, but it has failed to become established in aviculture. ◆
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Peters’ twinspot
5.1–5.5 in (13–14 cm). Sexes differ slightly. Males have a red Hypargos niveoguttatus
head, nape, breast, and flanks. Females lack red on the flanks
and are duller on the nape and breast. Juveniles lack red except SUBFAMILY
on the rump and tail.
Estrildinae
DISTRIBUTION
TAXONOMY
Southern Côte d’Ivoire to southern Senegal.
Spermophaga niveoguttata Peters, 1868.
HABITAT
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Prefers wet habitats including marsh, flooded rice fields,
swamps, and undergrowth near water. English: Red-throated twinspot, Peters’ spotted firefinch;
French: Sénégali enflammé; German: Tropfenastrild; Spanish:
BEHAVIOR Pinzón Dos Puntos de Peter.
This shy species is found in pairs or small groups. The call is a PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
sharp “zeet,” while the song is described as a melodious war-
ble, sometimes given during flight. 4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm). Sexually dimorphic; females lack the
male’s bright red face and breast. Juveniles similar to females
but lack white spots on flanks and underparts.
Pyrenestes sanguineus Hypargos niveoguttatus
Resident Resident
362 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
DISTRIBUTION Lagonosticta rhodopareia
Southern Somalia, south to northeastern South Africa, west to Resident
east-central Angola.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
HABITAT
Feeds on or near the ground on seeds of grasses and other
Found in grass or the undergrowth of habitats including grass- plants, and occasionally on small invertebrates.
land, evergreen thicket, forest edges, and other brushy cover
often near water. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
BEHAVIOR The breeding period is at the end of the rainy season and the
beginning of the dry season. The round nest is built by the
Usually found in pairs or small groups. This species is quiet male in small shrubs and made of grasses, rootlets, and other
and shy, but may give a “tseet” note. Its song is an insect-like plant fibers. This species is the breeding host of the purple in-
trill. digobird (Vidua purpurascens).
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET CONSERVATION STATUS
Feeds on the ground, usually near cover, on a variety of seeds. Not threatened.
A small part of the diet consists of insects.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
This species has occasionally been kept in aviculture, but never
The spherical nest, usually composed of grass and other plant in great numbers. ◆
fibers, is built on the ground or low in a shrub. Three to six
white eggs are incubated for 12–13 days. Red-cheeked cordon-bleu
CONSERVATION STATUS Uraeginthus bengalus
Not threatened. SUBFAMILY
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS Estrildinae
This species often becomes tolerant of humans and can fre- TAXONOMY
quently be found near human settlements. The ease by which
they become adapted to human contact makes them likely Fringilla bengalus Linnaeus, 1766.
aviary subjects. ◆
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Jameson’s firefinch
English: Cordon-bleu, red-cheeked blue waxbill; French: Cor-
Lagonosticta rhodopareia donbleu à joues rouges; German: Schmetterlingsastrild; Span-
ish: Coliazul Bengalí.
SUBFAMILY
363
Estrildinae
TAXONOMY
Estrelda rhodopareia Heuglin, 1868.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
English: Pink-backed firefinch; French: Amarante de Jameson;
German: Rosenamarant; Spanish: Pinzón Candela de Jameson.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.9–4.3 in (10–11 cm). Sexually dimorphic; males bright red on
head, breast, and underparts; females light brown except for
bright red lores. Juveniles similar to females but lack red lores.
DISTRIBUTION
Central Ethiopia south to Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Zam-
bia. Discontinuous populations in western Angola and in
southwestern Chad.
HABITAT
Occurs in areas containing both low cover and ample grass in-
cluding grassland, thicket, forest edges, bracken-briar, and
thorn scrub.
BEHAVIOR
Found in pairs or small groups. The call is a “ti-ti-ti-ti-ti” or a
softer “tsit, tsit.” The song is a melodious “we-we-we-we-we”
or “weet-weet-weet-weet” with a whistling “feeeee” repeated
several times.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
Uraeginthus bengalus Common waxbill
Resident Estrilda astrild
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS SUBFAMILY
4.9–5.1 in (12.5–13 cm). Sexually dimorphic; male has a red spot Estrildinae
on cheeks, a pink bill, light brown or pink-brown legs; female
lacks red spots on cheeks, feathers are paler than for the male. TAXONOMY
Juveniles lack blue on flanks and have a darker bill.
Loxia astrild Linnaeus, 1758.
DISTRIBUTION
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Southern Mauritania, east to Ethiopia, south to northern Zam-
bia. An introduced population exists in Hawaii. English: St. Helena waxbill, barred waxbill, brown waxbill,
pheasant finch; French: Astrild ondulé; German: Wellenastrild;
HABITAT Spanish: Astrilda Común.
Occurs in grassland, savanna, thorn scrub, dry woodland, forest PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
edges and clearings, gardens and villages, roadsides, and culti-
vated areas. 4.3–5.1 in (11–13 cm). Sexes are alike. Juveniles are paler than
adults and have fainter barring.
BEHAVIOR
DISTRIBUTION
Found in pairs or small flocks during the breeding season.
Otherwise, this species can gather in large sometimes mixed- Found naturally in southern Senegal, east to Ethiopia, south to
species flocks. The call is a “tsee-tsee-tsee.” The song is a “te South Africa, essentially throughout most of sub-Saharan
tchee-wa-tcheee” or a “ssee-deedelee-deedelee-ssee-see.” Africa. Has been introduced in Brazil, Portugal, and many is-
lands throughout the world including Hawaii, Tahiti, the Sey-
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET chelles, Bermuda, and Puerto Rico.
Feeds on the ground on a variety of seeds and insects, includ- HABITAT
ing termites which are occasionally caught in flight.
Prefers areas with tall grass including marsh, reed beds, aban-
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY doned cultivated areas, gardens, grassy clearings or paths, and
farms or plantations.
Uses old Ploceus weaver nests or builds its own round nest of
grass several meters off the ground. Three to six white eggs are BEHAVIOR
incubated for 11 days.
Being highly gregarious, this species is found in small flocks
CONSERVATION STATUS during the breeding season and larger flocks when not breed-
ing. Calls include a “chip,” “tchic,” and “pit” while the song is
CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN. described as a “tcher-tcher-preee,” although it can be highly
variable.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
Estrilda astrild
This species becomes accustomed to humans and can be found
in villages and gardens. It is also a commonly kept and bred Resident
aviary bird. ◆
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
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Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET bill. Males are unique among estrildids due to their non–
breeding or eclipse plumage with which they look more like
Feeds mainly on a diversity of seeds taken both from growing the females.
plants and off the ground. Swarming termites as well as other
insects make up a small portion of the diet. DISTRIBUTION
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY Eastern Pakistan through India into Burma and south-central
China with populations in southern Thailand, Cambodia and
Builds a pear-shaped nest of grass stems at or near the ground. Vietnam and on Java. Introduced populations in Japan, Hawaii,
Four to six white eggs are incubated for 11–12 days. This species Fiji, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sumatra, Saudi Arabia, and
is the brood host for the pin-tailed whydah (Vidua macroura). Puerto Rico.
CONSERVATION STATUS HABITAT
CITES: Appendix III. Not threatened according to IUCN cri- Occurs in grassy areas including marsh, cane fields, jungle
teria clearings, open woodland, reed beds, edges of cultivated or in-
habited areas, and gardens.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
BEHAVIOR
Commonly kept in captivity, this species has been bred in aviaries
and cages and is readily offered for beginning aviculturists. ◆ In pairs or small flocks except in winter when flocks may reach
100 or more birds. The call, given when perched or in flight, is
Red avadavat a “tee” or “tsi” but can be quite variable. The song is a weak,
but melodious warble. Females also give a shorter version of the
Amandava amandava song, although they utter it less frequently than do males.
SUBFAMILY FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Estrildinae Feeds in vegetation and on the ground on a variety of grass
seeds. Observations of captive birds suggest that a small quan-
TAXONOMY tity of insects is also consumed.
Fringilla amandava Linnaeus, 1758. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
OTHER COMMON NAMES Nests are placed on or near the ground and are composed of
grass blades and stems as well as other plant matter. A nest is
English: Red munia, avadavat, strawberry finch, tiger finch; lined with soft materials such as feathers, vegetable down, and
French: Bengali rouge; German: Tigerfink; Spanish: Bengalí fine grass. Four to six white eggs are incubated for 11–12 days.
Rojo.
CONSERVATION STATUS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Not threatened.
3.9 in (10 cm). Sexually dimorphic; females have less extensive
spotting and red. Juveniles similar to females but have a darker SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
This species is a popular cage bird that has been kept and bred
in captivity for many years. In the pet trade, it is better known
as the strawberry finch. ◆
Amandava amandava African quailfinch
Resident Ortygospiza atricollis
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia SUBFAMILY
Estrildinae
TAXONOMY
Fringilla atricollis Vieillot, 1817.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
English: Quailfinch, ground finch, partridge finch; French:
Astrild-caille à lunettes; German: Wachtelastrild; Spanish:
Astrilda Aperdizada.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.7–3.9 in (9.5–10 cm). A short tail and lark-like legs are in-
dicative of this species’ terrestrial nature. Sexes slightly differ;
males have a black face and brown breast. Females are lighter
in these areas. Juveniles similar to the female but have fainter
barring and a darker bill.
DISTRIBUTION
Senegal east to western Cameroon. Southern Sudan to Angola
and south to South Africa.
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Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
Ortygospiza atricollis Stagonopleura guttata
Resident Resident
HABITAT OTHER COMMON NAMES
Found in open areas with patchy grass growth, often near wa- English: Diamond sparrow, diamond Java sparrow, spotted-
ter, including sandy grassland, marsh, farms and croplands, and sided finch; French: Diamant à gouttelettes; German: Diaman-
recently mowed areas. tamadine; Spanish: Pinzón Cola de Fuego Diamante.
BEHAVIOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
This shy species spends almost all of its time on the ground in 4.7 in (12 cm). The adult male is brown, above and including
pairs or small flocks, being seen only when flushed, one of the wings; rump and upper tail coverts are bright crimson, tail
few reasons it ever takes flight. The call is a metallic “trillink” feathers black; forehead, crown of head, and hind neck ashy
or “chwillink” while the song is a series of “click, clack, cluck” gray; lores black; throat white; sides of foreneck and flanks
notes delivered rapidly and repeatedly. black, with some feathers having a subterminal white spot;
breast, abdomen, and undertail-coverts white; bill vinous red;
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET legs and feet dark gray; iris red. The adult female is very simi-
lar but usually smaller, with a narrower black band on fore-
Feeds on small grass seeds and on occasional spiders or insects. neck, and paler lores.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY DISTRIBUTION
A dome-shaped nest of grass stems and blades is built on the East-central and southeastern Australia.
ground. Four to six white eggs are incubated by both parents.
HABITAT
CONSERVATION STATUS
Inhabits savanna woodland, eucalypt forests, acacia scrub,
CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN. mallee, orchards, cultivated areas, and parks and gardens.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS BEHAVIOR
Has appeared in aviculture in very low numbers in the past, Found in pairs or small, often mixed-species flocks. The contact
but is not a popular aviary subject, probably due to its shy and call is a “twooo-heee” while the alarm call is a loud “tay tay tay.”
flighty disposition. ◆ The song is described as a series of low-pitched rasping and
buzzing notes. Roosts in specially built nests similar to those
Diamond firetail used for rearing young, but lacking an entrance tube and lining.
Stagonopleura guttata or Emblema guttata FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
SUBFAMILY Feeds on the ground where it characteristically hops in search
of a variety of seeds and insects.
Poephilinae
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
TAXONOMY
The breeding season is from August to January during which
Loxia guttata Shaw, 1796. this species builds a grass nest with an entrance tube up to 6 in
(15 cm) long. The nest is lined with fine grasses and feathers
366
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Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
in which four to six white eggs are laid. The nest is sometimes marshes, cultivated areas and farmlands, orchards, and inhab-
built under or near those of raptors. ited areas and gardens. Water can always be found nearby.
CONSERVATION STATUS BEHAVIOR
Near Threatened. The decline in numbers is thought to be A highly gregarious species, the zebra finch can be found in
due to alterations of the natural habitat. pairs or, more often, large flocks. The call is a “tya” or
“tchee.” The song, given by displaying males, is a mixture of
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS trills and nasal notes.
This species is the only firetail commonly kept in zoos. ◆ FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Zebra finch Feeds on the ground on a variety of grass seeds and shoots.
The ability to go long periods without water (up to 513 days in
Taeniopygia guttata one study) and the pigeon-like manner of drinking has allowed
this species to survive long periods of drought.
SUBFAMILY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Poephilinae
Round nests made of variable materials are either built new or
TAXONOMY made by renovating roosting nests or other species’ nests.
Three to eight white eggs are incubated for 11–15 days.
Fringilla guttata Vieillot, 1817.
CONSERVATION STATUS
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Not threatened.
English: Spotted-sided finch, chestnut-eared finch; French: Dia-
mant mandarin; German: Zebrafink; Spanish: Pinzón Zebra. SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS This species is the most commonly kept and studied estrildid
and probably ranks in the top five of most commonly kept birds.
3.9 in (10 cm). Sexually dimorphic; females lack the orange Kept since the mid to late 1800s, this species has become do-
cheek patch and the white-spotted chestnut flanks found in mesticated with as many as 30 separate mutations and many
adult males. Juveniles similar to females but have a dark bill. combinations thereof developed. Strains developed in Germany
and England are several times larger than the wild birds. ◆
DISTRIBUTION
Double-barred finch
Throughout most of the interior of Australia and parts of In-
donesia. Taeniopygia bichenovii
HABITAT SUBFAMILY
Inhabits a wide variety of habitats but prefers open areas such Poephilinae
as plains, savanna, woodland, mulga scrub, grassland, salt-
TAXONOMY
Taeniopygia guttata
Fringilla bichenovii Vigors and Horsfield, 1827.
Resident
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
English: Bicheno finch, owl finch, owl-faced finch, banded finch,
ringed finch, black-ringed finch; French: Diamant de Bichenov;
German: Ringelastrild; Spanish: Pinzón de Dos Barras.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.9–4.3 in (10–11 cm). Sexes alike. Juveniles are a paler version
of adults. The double-barred finch is brown with white spots
on the upper wings. The underparts and face are cream, with
the face surrounded by a black ring. There is another black bar
across the lower breast.
DISTRIBUTION
Northern and eastern Australia.
HABITAT
Inhabits dry, open areas including grass plains, open woodland,
forest edges, cane fields, inhabited and cultivated areas, and
parks and gardens.
BEHAVIOR
Found in small flocks during the breeding season and in larger
flocks when not breeding. Roosts communally in specially built
nests. The call is a “tat, tat” or a “tiaat, tiaat.” The song is a
softer version of that of the zebra finch.
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Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
Taeniopygia bichenovii Erythrura prasina
Resident Resident
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET tail, and belly. A yellow variant exists where the red is replaced
with yellow. Females have less blue on the face, shorter tail,
Feeds among grasses and on the ground where it consumes a and a lack of red on the belly or breast. Juveniles resemble fe-
variety of seeds and undoubtedly a small quantity of insects. males but have a yellowish lower bill.
This species drinks in a pigeon-like manner.
DISTRIBUTION
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Laos south to Borneo and Sumatra.
Breeds year-round with three to six white eggs laid. Builds an
almost spherical nest of dry grass stems or uses old nests of HABITAT
other species.
Found in forest edges, secondary growth, rice fields, and
CONSERVATION STATUS bamboo.
Not threatened. BEHAVIOR
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS Usually found in small flocks, but larger flocks can form espe-
cially in rice fields. The call is a “tseet-tseet” or “tsit-tsit” while
Commonly kept and bred in captivity where it is known as the the song is described as a series of clinking, crackling, and
owl finch. ◆ chirping.
Pin-tailed parrotfinch FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Erythrura prasina This species has only been observed feeding on rice or bamboo
seed heads in the wild, but in captivity it takes a diversity of
SUBFAMILY seeds as well as leafy green vegetables.
Erythrurinae REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
TAXONOMY The round nest is built at variable heights and is made of bam-
boo blades and other plant fibers. Four to six white eggs are
Loxia prasina Sparrman, 1788. incubated 12–14 days.
OTHER COMMON NAMES CONSERVATION STATUS
English: Pin-tailed nonpareil, long-tailed munia; French: Dia- Not threatened.
mant quadricolore; German: Lauchgrüne papageiamadine;
Spanish: Pinzón Loro de Cola Aguda. SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS In Borneo, this species is a major pest on rice crops. Due to
the bright coloration, this and other parrotfinch species are
Male: 5.9 in (15 cm); female: 4.5–4.7 in (11.5–12 cm). Sexually popular aviary subjects. ◆
dimorphic. Males have a longer tail, a blue face, and red rump,
368 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
Pink-billed parrotfinch CONSERVATION STATUS
Erythrura kleinschmidti Endangered. The replacing of native trees in Fiji with those of
non-native conifers for forestry is thought to be a major factor
SUBFAMILY in the decline of this species.
Erythrurinae SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
TAXONOMY None known. ◆
Amblynura kleinschmidti Finsch, 1878. Gouldian finch
OTHER COMMON NAMES Chloebia gouldiae
English: Black-faced parrotfinch; French: Diamant à bec rose; SUBFAMILY
German: Schwarzstirn-papageiamadine; Spanish: Pinzón Loro
de Pico Rojo. Erythrurinae
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS TAXONOMY
4.3 in (11 cm). Sexes alike. Unusually shaped bill. They have a Amadina gouldiae Gould, 1844.
strikingly pale 1.5 cm bill. Black head color changing to blue.
At the base of the bill the black is replaced by yellow-green up OTHER COMMON NAMES
to the ear. The back is green, the upper tail coverts are red
and the tail is black. They have pale feet and dark eyes. Juve- English: Rainbow finch, painted finch, lady Gould, purple-
niles have a dark-tipped bill. breasted finch; French: Diamant de Gould; German: Goul-
damadine; Spanish: Pinzón de Gould.
DISTRIBUTION
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Found only on Viti Levu, Fiji.
4.9–5.5 in (12.5–14 cm). The most brightly colored estrildid,
HABITAT this species is sexually dimorphic; females have a shorter tail
and a paler breast. Juveniles are a duller, paler version of the
Found in mature rainforests and sometimes in cocoa planta- adults. Black-headed, red-headed, and yellow-headed varieties
tions. exist naturally in the wild. The black-headed is the common
morph (75% of the population) while only one in several thou-
BEHAVIOR sand is of the yellow-headed variety.
Found alone, in pairs, or in small family flocks, but may join DISTRIBUTION
mixed-species flocks when feeding. The call is a “tsee-tsee” or
“chee-chee-chee.” A formal song is not described but this Fragmented areas in north-central Australia.
species also utters a clicking sound.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Feeds on the ground and in trees on figs and other fruit,
flower buds, and on diverse invertebrates. The unusually
shaped bill is probably an adaptation for its insect-seeking
methods whereby it cracks open dead stems of tree-ferns.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Nests are made of bamboo, leaves, and small twigs and lichens.
Erythrura kleinschmidti Chloebia gouldiae
Resident Resident
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 369
Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
HABITAT Lonchura cantans
Found in dry grassland, plains, areas near water, forest edges, Resident
scrubland, and savanna woodland.
song is a series of rising and falling trills for which it is some-
BEHAVIOR times called the warbling silverbill.
Found in flocks of up to several hundred individuals. This shy FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
species tends to avoid areas inhabited by humans. The call is a
“sit,” “ssit-ssit,” or a “sree.” The song is a very soft, almost in- Feeds on grass seeds picked from the growing plant or off the
audible series of whispers, hisses, whinings, and clicks. ground. Although it has been reported to eat aphids, insects are
not a major part of its diet. This has been supported by captive
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET birds, which rear their young solely on vegetable matter.
Feeds among grasses on a variety of seeds, especially those of REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
sorghum, and on diverse insects and spiders, especially during
the breeding season. Drinks in a pigeon-like manner. Uses old weaver nests or sometimes builds a round nest of grass
where three to six white eggs are incubated for 11–13 days.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
CONSERVATION STATUS
Breeds from November to April during which it builds a glob-
ular nest without an entrance tube and sometimes without a CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.
roof. Occasionally this species will also use holes in trees or
termite mounds as a nesting site. Four to seven white eggs are SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
incubated for 14–15 days.
Often found near human settlements, sometimes nesting in the
CONSERVATION STATUS eaves of houses. This species is commonly found in aviculture. ◆
Endangered. The decrease in numbers is thought to be due to Spotted munia
widespread burning of grasses and increase in grazing within
its native range. Lonchura punctulata
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS SUBFAMILY
Commonly kept and bred in captivity where young are often Lonchurinae
fostered by Bengalese or society finches, a domesticated form
of the white-backed munia (Lonchura striata). In captivity this TAXONOMY
species has an unusually high predisposition to the air sac mite
(Sternostoma tracheacolum). ◆ Loxia punctulata Linnaeus, 1758.
African silverbill OTHER COMMON NAMES
Lonchura cantans English: Scaly-breasted munia/mannikin/finch, barred munia,
spice finch/bird, ricebird, nutmeg mannikin/finch, spotted
SUBFAMILY mannikin, common munia; French: Capucin damier; German:
Muskatamadine; Spanish: Capuchino Nutmeg.
Lonchurinae
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
TAXONOMY
Loxia cantans Gmelin, 1789.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
English: Warbling silverbill, black-rumped silverbill, silverbill;
French: Capucin bec-d’argent; German: Silberschnäbelchen;
Spanish: Monjita Pico-de-plata.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.9–4.5 in (10–11.5 cm). Sexes indistinguishable; brown, belly
white, rump and tail black. Juveniles have slightly paler under-
parts.
DISTRIBUTION
Southern Mauritania, east to Eritrea, south to northeastern
Tanzania. Two Asian populations, one in southern Saudi Ara-
bia and western Yemen, and one in southern Oman. Intro-
duced populations are established in Hawaii and Puerto Rico.
HABITAT
Can be found in dry savanna, thorn scrub, acacia woodland,
semi-desert, and inhabited or cultivated areas, usually near a
water source.
BEHAVIOR
This highly social species can be found in large, often dense,
flocks. The call note is a sharp “cheep” or “tseep” while the
370
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
trade, with no noticeable impact on population numbers except
in Vietnam and Southeast Asia where the species is also caught
in large numbers for human consumption and Buddhist reli-
gious purposes. ◆
Lonchura punctulata Java sparrow
Resident Padda oryzivora
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS SUBFAMILY
3.9–4.7 in (10–12 cm). Sexes alike with juveniles a paler brown Lonchurinae
and lacking the scaled pattern on the underparts.
TAXONOMY
DISTRIBUTION
Loxia oryzivora Linnaeus, 1758.
India, southern China, and Southeast Asia including parts of
Malaysia and Indonesia. Populations introduced in Australia, OTHER COMMON NAMES
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Japan, and the Seychelles.
English: Ricebird, Java temple bird, Java finch, rice munia,
HABITAT paddy bird; French: Padda de Java; German: Reisfink; Spanish:
Gorrión de Java.
Inhabits open or semi-open habitats including cultivated and
inhabited areas, parks and gardens, grassland, rice fields, and PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
forest edges.
5.1–6.7 in (13–17 cm). Sexes alike. Upperparts are gray, the head
BEHAVIOR and tail are black, the underparts are rosy, the cheeks are white,
and the bill is bright pink to red. Young and immature Javas are
Found in large sometimes mixed-species flocks. The call is a dull brown and gray, with bill darker than that of adults.
repeated “kitty-kitty-kitty.” The soft song is a “klik-klik-klik”
followed by a series of whistles and ending with a “weeee,” al- DISTRIBUTION
though it can be highly variable.
Found naturally only on the island of Java. Introduced in many
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET areas throughout the world including numerous south Pacific
islands, southeast Asia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Florida.
Feeds on grass seeds, including rice, both on the ground and
on live plants. There are several reports of birds feeding on HABITAT
flattened roadkills, possibly as a source of minerals from bones.
This species also feeds in human trash dumps taking scraps of Found in open woodland, grassland and savanna, but more
bread and other food. common in cultivated and inhabited areas.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY Padda oryzivora
As many as several hundred round nests of grass and bark can Resident
comprise a breeding colony. Three to seven white eggs are in-
cubated for 14 days. 371
CONSERVATION STATUS
Not threatened.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
This species is commonly kept and bred in captivity where it is
known as the spice finch. Large numbers are caught for the pet
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Waxbills and grassfinches Vol. 11: Birds IV
BEHAVIOR Amadina erythrocephala
Occurs in pairs or in small flocks, although large flocks usually Resident
gather in rice fields. The call is a “tchuk” while the song is a
mixture of “diks,” “tchuks,” “wees,” and clicks. HABITAT
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET Inhabits semi-desert, savanna, dry grassland, thorn scrub, and
the edges of cultivated and inhabited areas.
Feeds in vegetation or on the ground on a variety of seeds,
fruits, and small insects. BEHAVIOR
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY Found in small flocks. The call is a “chuk, chuk” or, while in
flight, a “zree zree.” The song is a series of soft buzzing notes.
Nest is built in tree holes or crevices in buildings. It is
roundish in shape and composed of grass stems. Four to six FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
white eggs are incubated for 13–14 days.
This species both walks and hops as it feeds on the ground on
CONSERVATION STATUS a variety of seeds and insects.
CITES: Appendix II. IUCN considers this species Vulnerable. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Causes of population decline in the native range include trap-
ping of live birds for the pet trade, hunting for sport and food, This species uses old nests of weavers (e.g. sociable weaver
and raiding of eggs from the nest to decrease their numbers [Philetairus socius]) or sparrows, or sometimes holes in build-
and therefore their depredation of rice crops. ings. Three to eight white eggs are incubated for 12–14 days.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS CONSERVATION STATUS
This species has long been kept in aviculture where it has been Not threatened.
domesticated and where several color mutations have been de-
veloped. On its native island of Java, it is hunted for human SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
consumption and persecuted for its impact on rice crops. ◆
Occasionally kept in zoos and aviaries but not nearly as com-
Red-headed finch monly as its relative the cut-throat finch (Amadina fasciata).
Amadina erythrocephala
SUBFAMILY
Lonchurinae
TAXONOMY
Loxia erythrocephala Linnaeus, 1758.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
English: Red-headed weaverfinch; French: Amadine à tête
rouge; German: Rotkopfamadine; Spanish: Capuchino de
Cabeza Roja.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm). One of the more robust estrildids. The
red-headed finch, as its name implies, has a bright, blood red
head. Lores are buffish. The lower throat through the belly is
marked with black and white scalloping with some chestnut
feathers in the middle belly and then off-white in the lower
belly areas. Females lack red on the head but may carry a few
red feathers. Juveniles are a paler version of the female.
DISTRIBUTION
Southwestern Angola, east to western Mozambique, south to
South Africa.
Resources Restall, R. Munias and Mannikins. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1997.
Books
Clement, P., A. Harris, and J. Davis. Finches and Sparrows. Simpson, K. and N. Day. The Princeton Field Guide to the Birds
of Australia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Goodwin, D. Estrildid Finches of the World. Ithaca, New York: Zann, R. The Zebra Finch. New York: Oxford University Press,
1996.
Cornell University Press, 1982.
Pizzey, G. A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Princeton: Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Princeton University Press, 1980.
372
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Waxbills and grassfinches
Resources Other
Birds Australia Nest. Birds Australia. 14 November 2001. <http://
Zimmerman, D., D. Turner, and D. Pearson. Birds of Kenya
and Northern Tanzania. Princeton: Princeton University www.birdsaustralia.com.au/>.
Press, 1996. 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union
Periodicals for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 14
Stripling, R., A. Kruse, and D. Clayton. “Development of Song November 2001. <http://www.redlist.org/>.
UNEP-WCMC Database. United Nations Environment
Responses in the Zebra Finch Caudomedial Neostriatum: Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 20
Role of Genomic and Electrophysiological Activities.” November 2001. <http://www.unep-wcmc.org/>.
Journal of Neurobiology 48 (2001): 163-180.
Joseph Allen Smith
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 373
▲
Weavers
(Ploceidae)
Class Aves
Order Passeriformes
Suborder Passeri (Oscines)
Family Ploceidae
Thumbnail description
Small to medium-sized passerine birds; bill
conical or pointed; plumage plain yellow or
black, or these colors in combination with red,
brown, or orange, or else sparrowy brown; often
there is a seasonal change in plumage, which
may include development of greatly elongated
tail-feathers; many species highly social,
occurring in large flocks
Size Distribution
4.3–10 in, up to 28 in with elongated tail Sub-Saharan Africa, Arabian Peninsula, South and Southeast Asia, Madagascar,
(11–25 up to 70 cm); 0.3–2.3 oz (9–65 g) Mauritius, Réunion, Comoros, Seychelles
Number of genera, species
19 genera; 135 species
Habitat
Forest, woodland, swamps, savanna, semi-arid
regions
Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 1 species; Endangered: 6
species; Vulnerable: 7 species; Near
Threatened: 3 species; Data Deficient: 2 species
Evolution and systematics gan on the abdomen; the sparrow-weavers, Plocepasserinae
(nine species), build nests of straight grass stalks which are
The fossil record of passerine birds is fragmentary and dif- not woven but stuck into the nest structure; the “true” weavers
ficult to interpret. There are no conspicuous skeletal charac- Ploceinae (103 species) weave a closed nest, with the entrance
ters in ploceids that distinguish their bones from those of either at the side or below; the whydahs, indigobirds, and
other passerine families, which makes it unlikely that fossils cuckoo finch Viduinae (20 species) are brood parasites, which
will provide clear evidence of their origins. However, both lay their eggs in the nests of other birds. The position of the
fossils and molecular data suggest that the passerine birds are Viduinae is debatable. Behavioral studies by J. Nicolai sug-
an old group, and that many extant families could be as old gested links to some Ploceinae such as the bishop-birds,
as 40 million years. Thus the weaver group are likely to have whereas skeletal and molecular data imply that the waxbills
evolved in Africa over a period during which there have been (Estrildidae) are their closest relatives. The cuckoo finch
dramatic changes in climate, with the extent of forest cover (Anomalospiza imberbis) has usually been classified as a weaver,
fluctuating greatly. This would have promoted speciation in but both morphological and molecular data show that it be-
both forest and open-country habitats. longs in the Viduinae.
Earlier studies based on anatomy and other morphologi- The genus Ploceus (Ploceinae) is one of the largest bird
cal characters linked the Ploceidae to the Estrildidae, another genera at present with more than 60 species. An examination
family of seed-eating birds which is primarily African. This of skull characteristics suggests that there are several distinct
was supported by the DNA-hybridization studies of Charles groups within this genus, and new studies may lead to it be-
Sibley, but he placed both these groups as sub-families in a ing broken up into several distinct genera. The relationships
new family (Passeridae), along with the sparrows (Passerinae), between the African and Asian Ploceus weavers are not clear,
wagtails and pipits (Motacillinae), and accentors (Prunellinae). and they have evidently been separated for a long time. The
This arrangement remains controversial, and we have fol- Foudia species on the Indian Ocean islands appear to be de-
lowed a more traditional system. The four subfamilies of Plo- rived from the African genera Quelea or Euplectes, whereas
ceidae are most easily defined by their breeding habits: the the two Madagascar Ploceus species could be African or Asian
buffalo weavers, Bubalornithinae (three species), build large in origin. These conclusions are based on plumage, nest
nest structures of sticks and have a unique, rigid phalloid or-
375
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
black stripes on the crown of the head. Male indigobirds are
blackish, with pale or reddish bill and legs, in varying com-
binations. Male whydahs have mainly black or black-and-
white breeding plumage with very long central tail feathers,
which may be either narrow or broadened. The male cuckoo
finch is canary-yellow in breeding plumage.
Among the Ploceinae, there are conspicuous differences
between genera. Males are almost always larger than females,
while sexual dimorphism in plumage is especially marked in
polygynous species. However, even in dimorphic species, the
males do not always have a seasonal plumage change. Eye
color often changes with age from brown to red, yellowish,
or creamy; in many cases only males have a distinctively col-
ored eye. The bill color of male birds may change seasonally
from brown to black, in response to increased levels of male
sex hormones. The genus Malimbus is remarkably uniform.
All species are predominantly black with some red, or in one
case yellow, plumage; males and females differ in plumage,
and juvenile birds have a distinctive plumage, different to both
adults. There is no seasonal change in plumage. In contrast
the open-country bishops and widows (Euplectes) all have spar-
rowy brown females, while males molt into a breeding
plumage which is wholly or partly black, with either red or
orange to yellow areas, and in some cases a long, black tail.
Young birds resemble females, and males do not usually ac-
quire breeding plumage until at least their second year. The
large genus Ploceus includes species that are sexually dimor-
phic with or without a seasonal change in plumage, and species
in which the sexes are identical. Black and/or yellow are the
predominant plumage colors in males, with some green,
brown, or orange, but never red, feathers.
Weaver nests in Rajasthan, India. (Photo by M.A. Fisher. Bruce Cole- Distribution
man Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Weavers occur throughout sub-Saharan Africa, where all
structure, carotenoid pigments, and some skeletal characters; sub-families are represented. Only two genera of Ploceinae
no molecular studies had been published by 2001. are found outside Africa; the fodies (Foudia) which are en-
demic to Madagascar and other Indian Ocean islands, and Plo-
Physical characteristics ceus with two species on Madagascar and five in Asia. One
East African species, Rüppell’s weaver (Ploceus galbula), also
The weavers have no defining physical characteristics occurs on the Arabian peninsula. Several species are com-
which are shared by all or even most members of the family. monly exported as cage birds, and escapes or deliberate re-
The sexes may be virtually indistinguishable, even in the hand, leases have led to their establishment, sometimes temporary,
or highly dimorphic. Tails can be short or extravagantly long. in other regions, including Australia, California, Portugal,
The bill is always straight, not curved, but varies from short Hawaii, St. Helena, and some islands in the West Indies. An
and heavy to longer and quite slender. At the sub-family level, Asian species, the streaked weaver (Ploceus manyar), is now es-
there is more consistency. Buffalo weavers are either mainly tablished in the Nile delta in Egypt, and is believed to have
black or mainly white, with heavy seed-eater bills. Sparrow- escaped from Alexandria Zoo.
weavers are all “sparrowy” brown in appearance, with some
black or white plumage areas. There is no obvious seasonal Habitat
plumage change in either of these groups, and little sexual
dimorphism, although males are usually larger. Within the Many weavers are associated with water, since they breed
parasitic Viduinae, there is marked sexual dimorphism in in wetlands, along rivers, dams, and lakes, nesting in reeds or
plumage during the breeding season, after which males molt other waterside vegetation. However, in these cases they of-
into a plumage which resembles that of the females. They can ten move to grassland or savanna during the non-breeding
usually be disinguished from other small seed-eating birds by season. Several species may breed in wetlands, but also in trees
far from open water, and have adapted well to man-modified
376 habitats such as farmland. Only members of the sparrow-
weavers and buffalo weavers are permanent residents of arid
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
and semi-arid areas. Some species are exclusively forest birds,
either in lowland or montane evergreen forest, and may spend
much of their time in the canopy 100 ft (30 m) above the
ground. All members of the genus Malimbus are strictly for-
est inhabitants.
Behavior
Although many species of weavers move about extensively
during the dry season, these are local movements rather than
predictable, long-distance migration. The red-billed quelea
(Quelea quelea) does carry out predictable movements in many
regions, and these seem to be correlated with rainfall patterns.
This appears to be the only species that could qualify as a mi-
grant throughout its range.
Although they may have a wide range of different calls, few
weavers would be considered “songbirds” in the conventional
sense. The songs that male weavers use to advertise their ter-
ritories are often a harsh, repetitive chatter with no tuneful,
musical notes. Some forest species do sing short phrases,
sometimes as duets, which are more attractive to our ears.
The parasitic indigobirds learn elements of the song of their
host species while in the nest, and later incorporate these into
the songs which they use in courtship.
Feeding ecology and diet A masked weaver (Ploceus velatus) with the nest he has built to at-
tract a female. (Photo by M.P. Kahl. Photo Researchers, Inc. Repro-
Categorizing weavers as insectivorous or granivorous is duced by permission.)
misleading. All species will take insects when they are avail-
able, and the young are often fed primarily insects, especially Elsie Collias—who observed many species in the field, in cap-
in the first days after hatching. There is frequently a seasonal tivity, and in museum collections—has provided an excellent
change in diet, with seeds the main or even the only food framework for the evolution of nest-building in the family. In
source in the dry season, and insects more important in the buffalo weavers and sparrow-weavers the technique is simple,
rainy season. The heavy bill of the grosbeak weaver (Am- with the nests formed as piles of interlocking material. These
blyospiza albifrons) enables the birds to open sunflower seeds, birds are associated with nests throughout the year, and thus
but they have also been seen to catch small frogs. Small lizards maintain the structures with periodic building at all seasons;
are on the menu of several other species in the wild. Fruit and both sexes participate to some degree. In the true weavers
berries are eaten readily, and nectar from plants such as Aloe (Ploceinae) nest-building is seasonal and these are short-lived
and Erythrina. Here weavers are messy feeders, often eating structures, which mostly do not survive beyond one breeding
the whole flower and stripping the plants, leaving with their season. The commonest pattern is for the male to produce a
faces caked with pollen. The Cape weaver (Ploceus capensis) is nest frame by weaving and knotting strips of material col-
probably the main pollinating agent for the endemic South lected and prepared for this purpose. Once the female has
African crane flower Strelitzia regina. mated and accepted a particular nest, she then adds the lin-
ing. However, the female’s contribution varies greatly, de-
Reproductive biology pending on the mating system; in Jackson’s widow (Euplectes
jacksoni) the female is solely responsible for building and lin-
Social organization in weavers shows clear correlations ing the nest, which is not on the male’s territory.
with habitat and feeding ecology, as J. H. Crook first demon-
strated in his innovative comparative studies. Forest weavers Courtship in sparrow-weavers and buffalo weavers involves
are generally insectivorous and remain in pairs throughout song and visual displays, generally near the nest structures. In
the year, whereas seed-eating species of the open savanna as-
sociate in flocks, and form colonies for breeding. This, in turn, 377
influences their breeding systems, with monogamy usual in
the forest species, while many of the colonial weavers are
polygynous, with one male mating in turn with a succession
of different females.
Nests and nest construction have attracted most attention
in this group of birds. The pioneering work of Nicholas and
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
2 4
1 3
Weaver nests: 1. Thick-billed weaver (Amblyospiza albifrons); 2. Red-headed weaver (Anaplectes rubriceps); 3. Spectacled weaver (Ploceus ocu-
laris); 4. Sociable weaver (Philetairus socius). (Illustration by Amanda Humphrey)
the Ploceinae, among the monogamous forest species, other African bird families such as the starlings, cooperative
courtship frequently takes place away from the nest, even be- breeding in which several related or unrelated individuals help
fore construction begins. By contrast the colonial species set the parents to rear the young is rare in weavers. It occurs pri-
up territories and build nests before intensive courtship starts, marily in some of the sparrow-weavers in arid country, where
and the male often displays hanging at the nest entrance. a nesting tree forms a permanent base for the group, which
Bursts of display activity may sweep through a colony as roosts in the nests throughout the year. The situation in the
groups of females arrive, and the males all appear to be vy- parasitic Viduinae is especially interesting. Whydahs and in-
ing for their attention. In the polygynous species, each male digobirds lay their eggs in the nests of waxbills; the eggs of
will build a series of nests, and try to attract as many females both host and parasite are plain white, and similar in size.
as possible. Nest that are not accepted by females, or are no Waxbill young have highly distinctive mouth-markings,
longer occupied, are often demolished. The male may then which are matched by the young parasites. The young are
rebuild at the same site so that a single male masked weaver raised together, so although the waxbill parents have extra
(Ploceus velatus) can build more than 20 nests over a three- mouths to feed, they do not lose their whole brood as is of-
month season. There is one exceptional species, Jackson’s ten the case for cuckoo hosts. However, the cuckoo finch par-
widow, in which males display at dancing grounds which con- asitizes small grassland warblers, and the host young seldom
stitute a lek: a male courtship arena which females visit to se- survive.
lect a mate, after which they go off to nest and have no further
contact with the male. In the parasitic Viduinae, males set up Conservation status
“song-posts” at which they display, and to which females are
attracted. The breeding system is thus a form of lek, where BirdLife International has produced a review of globally
the females visit males only to mate, although the males do threatened birds, and an account of the Important Bird Areas
not occupy a communal display ground. of Africa. The major threat to weaver species is habitat loss,
since some of them have very restricted ranges. Three island
Parental care is closely correlated with the mating system. fodies are threatened both by habitat loss and introduced
In monogamous species, both incubation and feeding of the predators on Mauritius, Seychelles, and Rodrigues, respec-
young may be shared equally between the partners, whereas tively. Foudia rubra may be Critically Endangered, whereas
in polygynous species the female normally does all the F. sechellarum and F. flavicans are currently regarded as Vul-
parental duties without assistance. In some cases, polygynous nerable. The Asian yellow weaver (Ploceus megarhynchus) is a
males may feed at the nest late in the season, or occasionally grassland species with a restricted range in India. Although the
feed the young once they have fledged. Compared to some
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
378
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
Asian golden weaver (Ploceus hypoxanthus) occurs in several A red-headed weaver (Anaplectes rubriceps) works on his nest. (Photo
countries, it is uncommon and regarded as Near Threatened. by E.R. Degginger. Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
On mainland Africa, the golden-naped weaver (P. aure- For hundreds of years, grain-eating weavers have been a
onucha) and the yellow-footed weaver (P. flavipes) are both pest for farmers in Africa. M. Adanson, a French botanist for
known only from the Ituri Forest, and have been seen just a whom the baobab genus Adansonia is named, spent several
few times in the last 30 years. Their canopy habitat and the years in Senegal from 1747, and reported that the inhabitants
political problems in this region make it difficult to obtain ac- suffered greatly from the depredations of the weavers. He de-
curate information. Four localized species in West Africa, scribed several traditional bird-scaring methods which are still
Bannerman’s weaver (P. bannermani), Bates’s weaver (P. in use in Africa today. Since the 1960s the red-billed quelea
batesi), the Gola malimbe (Malimbus ballmanni) and the Ibadan has been recognized as the major pest of cultivated cereals in
malimbe (M. ibadanensis), occur in forest that is disappearing Africa. Despite international efforts to reduce its numbers, us-
rapidly throughout this region. The situation is most critical ing aerial spraying and fire-bombs set under roost sites, it re-
for the Ibadan malimbe, which has the smallest range. Two mains enormously abundant: in March 2000 the South African
little-known species, the Loango weaver (P. subpersonatus) on department of agriculture reported that an estimated 21 mil-
the coastal strip and the black-chinned weaver (P. nigrimen- lion queleas had been killed in control operations during the
tum) in open savanna, range from Gabon southwards towards past month! It seems that in the past, queleas bred prolifically
Angola. in good years, and then starved when food supplies declined.
Today when wild grass seeds are unavailable, they find crops
In East Africa, Clarke’s weaver (P. golandi) is restricted to a very acceptable alternative and consequently agriculture en-
the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in Kenya, while the Tanzanian ables them to maintain high population levels. To the inter-
mountain weaver (P. nicolli) is found in relict forest patches ested naturalist, a vast flock of queleas “roller-feeding” (in
on the Usambara Mountains and a few other sites. Fortunately constant motion, with the birds at the back flying up over
both areas are now the site of active conservation programs. those ahead of them to be first at the untouched plants) is one
Agricultural changes in the highland grasslands of Kenya are of the great spectacles of Africa, but it is a catastrophe for the
a potential threat to Jackson’s widow, while Fox’s weaver (P. small farmer, and there is no simple, effective solution.
spekeoides) is apparently confined to one lake system in central
Uganda, but remains unstudied. The Kilombero weaver (P.
burnieri) was a surprising discovery in Tanzania, described in
1990 and evidently limited to a small area.
Significance to humans
Several colonial weaver species are closely associated with
human settlements, nesting in exotic vegetation, and in
forested areas, taking advantage of habitat changes to colo-
nize new clearings. Eggs and nestlings may be utilized for
food on occasion, but often the relationship is quite harmo-
nious. The long tail feathers of breeding male long-tailed wid-
ows (Euplectes progne) were once used as elements in traditional
head-dresses for warrior tribes in South Africa, but otherwise
the colored plumages have not been utilized.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 379
12
3
45
6
7 9
8
1. Red-headed weaver (Anaplectes rubriceps); 2. Sociable weaver (Philetairus socius); 3. White-browed sparrow weaver (Plocepasser mahali);
4. Dark-backed weaver (Ploceus bicolor); 5. Thick-billed weaver (Amblyospiza albifrons); 6. Village weaver (Ploceus cucullatus); 7. Blue-billed mal-
imbe (Malimbus nitens); 8. Spectacled weaver (Ploceus ocularis); 9. Red-billed buffalo weaver (Bubalornis niger). (Illustration by Amanda Humphrey)
380 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
1 3
2 4
5
6
9
8
7
10
1. Sakalava weaver (Ploceus sakalava); 2. Red-collared widow (Euplectes ardens); 3. Red bishop (Euplectes orix); 4. Pin-tailed whydah (Vidua
macroura); 5. Red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea); 6. Cuckoo finch (Anomalospiza imberbis); 7. Madagascar fody (Foudia madagascariensis);
8. Dusky indigobird (Vidua funerea); 9. Jackson’s widow (Euplectes jacksoni); 10. Baya weaver (Ploceus philippinus). (Illustration by Amanda
Humphrey)
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 381
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
Species accounts
Red-billed buffalo weaver FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Bubalornis niger Mainly insects, also seeds and fruit. Most food collected on the
ground.
SUBFAMILY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Bubalornithinae
Colonial and polygynous, often polygynandrous (each male
TAXONOMY mates with several females, and female mates with more than
one male), since in most broods genetic studies indicate multiple
Bubalornis niger A. Smith, 1836, Kurrichane, South Africa. paternity. Nest is a large mass of thorny twigs, containing up to
13 nest chambers, lined with green vegetation. Male builds main
OTHER COMMON NAMES structure and starts lining chambers; female adds further lining
before laying. Phalloid organ not inserted during copulation, but
French: Alecto à bec rouge; German: Büffelweber; Spanish: stimulation from this structure may be essential for successful
Tejedor Búfalo de Pico Rojo. mating. Lays three to four eggs in spring and summer. Incuba-
tion 11 days, fledging 20–23 days. Female alone incubates and
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS does most feeding of chicks; male feeds young occasionally.
8.7 in (22 cm); unsexed 2.7–2.9 oz (78–82 g). Male dark black- CONSERVATION STATUS
ish brown, white patch in wings in flight. White bases to body
feathers may show when plumage ruffled. Bill and legs red. Fe- Not threatened; dependent on large trees, but much habitat is
male dark brown, variably flecked with white on underparts. sparsely populated.
Bill and legs brown. Juveniles paler with more white on under-
parts. Bill orange-yellow. SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
DISTRIBUTION None known; may use human-made structures as nest sites, or
nest near homesteads. ◆
Ethiopia and Somalia through eastern Africa to Angola, Zam-
bia, and northern Mozambique, south to northern South Africa. White-browed sparrow-weaver
HABITAT Plocepasser mahali
Dry thornveld with large trees. SUBFAMILY
BEHAVIOR Plocepasserinae
In groups or non-breeding flocks up to 50 birds, may associate TAXONOMY
with other species. Usually present at nest sites throughout the
year. Plocepasser mahali A. Smith, 1836, Orange River, South Africa.
Bubalornis niger OTHER COMMON NAMES
Resident French: Mahali à sourcils blancs; German: Augenbrauenmahali;
Spanish: Tejedor Gorrión de Cejas Blancas.
382
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
6.7 in (17 cm); female and male 1.6–1.8 oz (45–52 g). Brown
upperparts with broad white eyebrow and white rump, white
underparts. Bill brown to black. Sexes alike, juvenile paler than
adult with a pale bill.
DISTRIBUTION
Southern Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia south through eastern
Africa to Zambia, South Angola, and northern South Africa.
HABITAT
Mopane and acacia savanna in relatively dry country.
BEHAVIOR
Groups of up to 12 birds resident, defend territory of about 55
yd (50 m) in diameter with complex songs and group displays.
Strong dominance hierarchy within group, with a single breed-
ing pair. Roost singly in nests.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Insects and seeds, in variable proportions. Most food collected
on the ground; birds will dig in soil, roll over small stones,
clods, and elephant droppings.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
Plocepasser mahali Philetairus socius
Resident Resident
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Colonial, cooperative breeder. Nest is an elongated retort 5.5 in (14 cm); female and male 0.8–1.1 oz (24–32 g). Sandy
made of straight dry grass stems, resting on thin branches, ini- brown with black chin and throat, dark feathers with pale
tially with an opening at each end. Both male and female, and edges on mantle and flanks. Bill blue-gray. Sexes alike. Juvenile
other group members, may contribute to building nest. Second uniform sandy brown, with no darker feathers. Bill pale brown.
entrance closed in breeding nests, which are then lined with
feathers. Nest orientation related to prevailing winds. Lays two DISTRIBUTION
to three eggs, mainly in spring and summer but also in other
months. Incubation 14–16 days, fledging 18–23 days. Juveniles Namibia, southwestern Botswana, northwestern South Africa.
still fed occasionally up to three months after leaving nest. Fe-
male alone incubates and feeds young for first three days. Male HABITAT
seldom feeds young; helpers related to breeding pair do much
of the feeding. Unrelated helpers assist in territorial defense, Open, arid regions with scattered trees and bare ground.
but not in raising young.
BEHAVIOR
CONSERVATION STATUS
Gregarious, resident at nest sites, roosting in chambers
Not threatened; common in many thinly populated areas. throughout the year. Predators such as cobras may live within
nest structure, also “lodgers” like the pygmy falcon (Polihierax
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS semitorquatus), which is an obligate commensal. Other birds
may occasionally roost or breed in vacant nest chambers.
None known, although may feed on wheat or maize in winter,
usually only grains left behind in fallow lands. ◆ FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Sociable weaver Seeds and insects, particularly harvester termites. Proportion of
insect and seed food varies seasonally, collected primarily on
Philetairus socius the ground. Feed in flocks within 1 mi (1.5 km) radius of nest
site. Seldom drink water.
SUBFAMILY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Plocepasserinae
Colonial, monogamous with cooperative breeding. Communal
TAXONOMY nest is a huge mass of dry grass stems, with individual nest
chambers entered from below. Up to 13 ft (4 m) deep and 24
Loxia socia Latham, 1790, Great Namaqualand, South Africa. ft (7.2 m) long, supported by large branches; in treeless areas
may use telephone poles. Pair bond may last for only one
OTHER COMMON NAMES breeding attempt, even if both partners resident in same nest
mass; helpers chiefly offspring of pair from earlier broods. Lays
French: Républicain social; German: Siedelweber; Spanish: two to six eggs; season entirely dependent on rainfall, and
Tejedor Sociable. breeding may start in any month. Incubation 13–14 days,
fledging 21–24 days. Both sexes incubate and feed the young;
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia up to nine helpers may feed chicks.
383
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
CONSERVATION STATUS BEHAVIOR
Not threatened. Range is thinly populated, includes major con- Usually solitary or in pairs, occasionally groups up to seven
servation areas. birds; regularly joins mixed-species flocks. Very shy except at
the nest.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Nest material sometimes used for stock fodder in times of
drought. ◆ Mainly insects, also spiders and some fruit. Forages on thin
twigs, clusters of dry leaves, and vine tangles, mainly at mid-
Blue-billed malimbe levels of forest.
Malimbus nitens REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
SUBFAMILY Solitary and monogamous, although sometimes several pairs
nest close together. Male courtship, singing and posturing, oc-
Ploceinae curs away from the nest. Nest is ball-shaped, woven from palm
strips, rootlets, or fibers, with canopy over entrance placed low
TAXONOMY at one side; always overhanging water. In Ghana the birds ap-
pear to select nest sites close to crocodile dens. Lays one to
Ploceus nitens J. E. Gray, 1831, Sierra Leone. two eggs during late summer to autumn. Incubation 14 days,
fledging 16 days. Female alone incubates, and broods small
OTHER COMMON NAMES chicks; both male and female feed young.
English: Gray’s malimbe; French: Malimbe à bec bleu; Ger- CONSERVATION STATUS
man: Rotkehlweber; Spanish: Malimbe de Gray.
Not threatened, but will not survive without undisturbed forest
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS habitat.
5.7–6.7 in (14.5–17.0 cm); female 1.0–1.2 oz (29–36 g), male SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
1.3–1.7 oz (38–47 g). Black with scarlet throat; female less
glossy than male, black tinged with brown, and red less in- None known. ◆
tense. Bill blue-gray, eye red. Juvenile sooty brown with throat
and breast dull orange-brown. Eye gray-brown. Spectacled weaver
DISTRIBUTION Ploceus ocularis
Senegal east to extreme western Uganda, south to Democratic SUBFAMILY
Republic of Congo and northern Angola.
Ploceinae
HABITAT
TAXONOMY
Lowland forest, oil palms, swamp forest, and mangroves; occa-
sionally dense savanna woodland. Ploceus ocularis A. Smith, 1828, Eastern Cape = Grahamstown,
South Africa.
Malimbus nitens
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Resident
French: Tisserin à lunettes; German: Brillenweber; Spanish:
384 Tejedor Moteado.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
5.9–6.3 in (15–16 cm); female 0.7–1.0 oz (21–30 g), male
0.8–1.1 oz (22–32 g). Greenish yellow weaver with slender,
dark bill and dark “spectacle” line through the eye. Eyes pale
cream. Male has dark bib on the throat, lacking in female. Ju-
venile lacks spectacle line or bib, eye brown, bill pale brown.
DISTRIBUTION
Cameroon east to Sudan, Ethiopia, south to northern Namibia,
northern Botswana, and eastern South Africa.
HABITAT
Open woodland, forest edge, thickets, and gardens.
BEHAVIOR
Singly or in pairs throughout the year, family groups after
breeding. May join mixed-species flocks of insectivorous birds.
Territorial, calling regularly, a descending “tee-tee-tee-tee.”
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Mainly insectivorous, gleaning leaves and branches and prob-
ing bark. Also takes berries, small geckos, nectar, and bread
and chicken feed in gardens.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
Ploceus ocularis Ploceus bicolor
Resident Resident
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY regions. Sexes alike. Juvenile duller than adult, bill light
brown.
Nests are finely woven, suspended singly from tip of vegeta-
tion, with entrance tunnel 4 in (10 cm) long. Lays one to four DISTRIBUTION
eggs, usually two to three, in spring to summer in different re-
gions. Incubation 13–14 days, fledging 15–19 days. Both sexes Nigeria east to southern Sudan and eastern Africa, south to
incubate and feed young. Occasionally parasitized by Diederik eastern South Africa but absent from Botswana, Namibia.
cuckoo (Chrysococcyx caprius).
HABITAT
CONSERVATION STATUS
Forested areas and dense riverine vegetation, subtropical
Not threatened. Widespread over large area, occurs in man- thicket.
modified habitats such as suburban gardens.
BEHAVIOR
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
In pairs throughout the year, small family parties after breed-
None known. ◆ ing. Joins mixed-species flocks. Song a musical duet, heard at
all times of the year.
Dark-backed weaver
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Ploceus bicolor
Insects, mainly gleaned from branches, bark, and tangled
SUBFAMILY vegetation in mid-story of forest. Also fruit and berries, and
nectar.
Ploceinae
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
TAXONOMY
Monogamous, solitary nester. Often returns to same site, so
Ploceus bicolor Vieillot, 1819, ‘Senegal’ = South Africa. several old nests may be in close proximity. Nest is retort-
shaped with broad entrance tunnel pointing downwards;
OTHER COMMON NAMES suspended at tip of branch or creeper. Woven of thin vines
and creepers, appears rough and always looks old and dry.
English: Forest weaver; French: Tisserin bicolore; German: Lays two to four eggs in summer. Incubation 15–17 days,
Waldweber; Spanish: Tejedor Bicolor. fledging 22 days. Probably both sexes incubate; both feed
young.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
CONSERVATION STATUS
5.5 in (14 cm); female 1.0–1.3 oz (29–36 g), male 1.1–1.6 oz
(32–46 g). Upperparts dark, underparts golden yellow. Bill Not threatened, but dependent on preservation of well-wooded
dark with blue-gray rims. Eye brown or red in different habitats.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
None known. ◆
385
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
Village weaver FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Ploceus cucullatus Varied diet includes seeds, insects, flowers, nectar. Forages on
the ground or gleans on vegetation and tree trunks.
SUBFAMILY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Ploceinae
Colonial, polygynous. In central Africa often in large mixed
TAXONOMY colonies with Vieillot’s black weaver (Ploceus nigerrimus). Nest
is oval with entrance below, may have a short spout. Woven by
Ploceus cucullatus P. L. S. Müller, 1776, Senegal. male, who displays hanging below nest, fluttering wings, and
calling. Breeding varies regionally, may continue throughout
OTHER COMMON NAMES the year in central Africa. Lays two to five eggs. Incubation 12
days, fledging 17–21 days. Female alone incubates, male may
English: Spotted-backed weaver; black-headed weaver, V- feed nestlings. Often parasitized by Diederik cuckoo.
marked weaver; French: Tisserin gendarme; German: Textor-
weber; Spanish: Tejedor de la Villa. CONSERVATION STATUS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Not threatened, very widespread, common in human-modified
habitats and often abundant.
5.9–6.7 in (15–17 cm); female 1.1–1.5 oz (31–43 g), male
1.1–1.6 oz (32–45 g). Breeding male has head black; forehead SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
yellow in southern birds, and extent of black on throat and
breast varies. All populations have upperparts yellow spotted Familiar commensal throughout central Africa; can be signifi-
with black, underparts plain yellow. Bill black, eye red. Female cant crop pest for subsistence farmers. ◆
and non-breeding male upperparts dull olive, eyebrow, throat,
and breast yellow to buff, belly whitish. Bill brown; older fe- Sakalava weaver
males may have red eye. During breeding season, female more
yellow on underparts. Juvenile like female, eye brown. Ploceus sakalava
DISTRIBUTION SUBFAMILY
Senegal east to Somalia, south to northern Namibia, northern Ploceinae
Botswana, eastern South Africa. Introduced to Haiti, Domini-
can Republic, Puerto Rico, Mauritius, and Réunion. TAXONOMY
HABITAT Ploceus sakalava Hartlaub, 1867, Madagascar.
Open wooded areas; in forest zone, in clearings and secondary OTHER COMMON NAMES
growth, cultivated areas.
French: Tisserin sakalave; German: Sakalavenweber; Spanish:
BEHAVIOR Fodi Sakalava.
Gregarious, in flocks when foraging and forms large roosts, of-
ten with other weavers. May be nomadic in dry season, and
possible regular movements in some regions.
Ploceus cucullatus Ploceus sakalava
Resident Resident
386 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Ploceus philippinus
5.1–5.9 in (13–15 cm); adult 0.7–0.9 oz (20–27 g). Breeding Resident
male has yellow head, gray underparts and back, brown wings
and tail. Bare reddish skin around eye, unique in weavers, blue- DISTRIBUTION
gray bill. Female is paler below, with whitish throat and dis-
tinct brown stripes on side of head, above and below eye; bill Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka east to southwestern China,
pale gray. Non-breeding male like female, but bare pinkish south throughout Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali.
skin around eye. Juvenile like female, but paler with bill horn-
colored. HABITAT
DISTRIBUTION Forest edge, open savanna and scrub, cultivated areas. Appears
to prefer agricultural land.
Western Madagascar.
BEHAVIOR
HABITAT
Gregarious in flocks, and forms large communal roosts in
Open, lowland areas including cultivated land, spiny bush, and reedbeds or sugarcane, together with other weavers, seed-
deciduous dry forests. eating birds, starlings, and bulbuls.
BEHAVIOR FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Highly gregarious, typically in flocks of 200 or more. Adults mainly seed-eating, including rice, sorghum, millet, and
wheat. Also consumes insects, even frogs recorded, and young
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET fed primarily insects.
Feed primarily on the ground, collecting seeds, but also forage REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
in trees and marshes, and young are fed primarily insects.
Colonial, polygynous. Nest is retort-shaped with entrance tun-
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY nel of varying length, often suspended over water in trees or
bushes. Male builds nest, displays there to attract mates. Blobs
Colonial, some males may be polygynous, but mating system of mud, sometimes dung, regularly added to inside of nest.
not studied. Nest is retort-shaped, often suspended on a short Long-standing but unsubstantiated legend that male embeds
woven rope, with entrance tunnel up to 16 in (40 cm) long. fireflies in mud, so that they illuminate the inside of the nest.
Both male and female build nest, and colonies usually in trees, Lays two to five eggs, breeding from spring through to au-
often within villages, and even attached to thatched roofs of tumn, depending on timing of monsoon. Incubation 14–15
huts. Small colonies may be placed under nests of crows or days, fledging 13–16 days. Female alone incubates, male may
large birds of prey. Breeding season varies with rainfall, espe- assist in feeding young. Nests robbed by snakes and crows.
cially in dry southwest. Lays two to four eggs; incubation and
fledging periods unrecorded. Female alone incubates, but both CONSERVATION STATUS
sexes feed young.
Not threatened; locally common to abundant, and regarded as
CONSERVATION STATUS a pest in grain-growing areas.
Not threatened, widespread in open and cultivated areas, and SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
seldom molested.
At times damages crops, so that farmers often systematically
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS destroy nests at egg or nestling stage. ◆
Appear to take only waste rice, and not regarded as agricultural 387
pests. In many areas weaver colonies in villages, especially
those nesting close to a house, are considered a sign of good
fortune and consequently protected. ◆
Baya weaver
Ploceus philippinus
SUBFAMILY
Ploceinae
TAXONOMY
Loxia philippina Linnaeus, 1766, Philippines = Sri Lanka.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
French: Tisserin baya; German: Bayaweber; Spanish: Tejedor
de Baya.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
5.1–5.9 in (13–15 cm); female 0.7–1.0 oz (20–28 g), male
0.7–0.9 oz (20–26 g). Breeding male, yellow crown, black face
mask, mottled brown upperparts, paler, unstreaked underparts;
bill black. Female and non-breeding male, mottled rufous-
brown upperparts, some streaking on underparts, bill brown.
Juvenile like female.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
Red-billed quelea REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Quelea quelea Colonial, monogamous. Breeding activities in colony closely syn-
chronized; eggs and chicks may be abandoned when flock moves
SUBFAMILY on. May breed several times in same season, depending on local
food supply. Nest built by male, a thin-walled ball with large side
Ploceinae entrance. Lays one to five eggs. Incubation 10–12 days, fledging
11–13 days. Both sexes incubate and feed young. Vast colonies
TAXONOMY with 500 nests per tree attract hundreds of predators, including
eagles, vultures, storks, and carnivorous mammals.
Emberiza quelea Linnaeus, 1758, ‘India’ = Senegal.
CONSERVATION STATUS
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Not threatened; considered one of the most abundant bird
English: Red-billed dioch; French: Travailleur à bec rouge; species. Population can tolerate huge losses, and control efforts
German: Blutschnabelweber; Spanish: Quelea de Pico Rojo. have had no noticeable effect on numbers.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
4.7 in (12 cm); female 0.5–0.9 oz (15–25 g), male 0.6–0.9 oz Queleas are the major animal pest of cereal crops in Africa,
(16–26 g). Breeding male has face mask, either black or white, and international programs coordinated by the U.N. Food and
with pink or yellowish border; upperparts light brown with Agriculture Organization began in the 1960s. In 1989 losses
dark central streaks, underparts whitish. Bill red, legs pink. caused by this bird were estimated at $22 million per annum.
Non-breeding male and female lack face mask, gray-brown, However, many other factors contribute to crop losses in
streaked upperparts and whitish underparts. Bill red; yellow in Africa. Current research focuses on management rather than
breeding females. Juvenile like female. attempts to eliminate queleas or reduce their overall numbers.
In parts of West Africa, traditional hunters net queleas to
DISTRIBUTION pluck, dry, and sell in village markets. ◆
Throughout unforested sub-Saharan Africa. Madagascar fody
HABITAT Foudia madagascariensis
Open grassland and savanna. SUBFAMILY
BEHAVIOR Ploceinae
Highly gregarious, flocks sometimes numbering millions. TAXONOMY
Movements highly synchronized in flocks. Huge roosts may
break tree branches. Migratory with clear seasonal patterns in Loxia madagascariensis Linnaeus, 1766, Madagascar.
some regions.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Primarily small seeds about 0.1 in (2 mm) in diameter, also in-
sects. Drinks regularly, even in arid regions; flocks may sweep
over water, drinking on the wing.
Quelea quelea Foudia madagascariensis
Resident Resident
388 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
OTHER COMMON NAMES Euplectes orix
English: Red fody, Madagascar weaver; French: Foudi rouge, Resident
Foudi de Madagascar; German: Madagaskarweber; Spanish:
Fodi del Madagascar. first molt. Males first molt into breeding plumage in second
year.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
DISTRIBUTION
4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm); both sexes 0.5–0.7 oz (14–19 g). Breed-
ing male bright red, black line through eye, olive-brown wings Southern Kenya and Uganda south to southern tip of South
and tail. Bill black. Female and non-breeding male olive-brown Africa.
upperparts, gray-brown underparts. Bill horn-brown. Juvenile
like female but more buffy in appearance. HABITAT
DISTRIBUTION Tall grassland and cultivation, usually near water.
Madagascar; introduced to Amirantes, Comoros, Seychelles, BEHAVIOR
Mauritius, Réunion, St. Helena.
Gregarious throughout the year, forming large flocks which
HABITAT feed and roost in association with other seed-eaters. Males re-
turn to same breeding localities, often to same territory, in
Open savanna, grassland, forest clearings, and cultivated areas; successive years; return rate of females much lower. Both sexes
avoids intact forest. may live more than 10 years in the wild.
BEHAVIOR FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Gregarious, foraging in flocks and roosting communally in Mainly seed-eating, also takes many insects, particularly when
sugarcane, bamboos, or trees. Solitary and territorial during feeding young.
breeding season.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Colonial and polygynous, often hundreds of males holding ter-
Primarily a seed-eater, but also forages for insects in trees, and ritories in a single reed-bed. Male builds a series of nests, oval
takes nectar. upright structures with side entrances, typically supported by
vertical vegetation. Female lines nest once mated and ready to
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY lay. Old nests not demolished. In courtship male fluffs out
plumage, resembling black and red bumble-bee, making short
Solitary nests, monogamous. Nest is oval, upright with side en- flights towards female. May have up to seven females on terri-
trance near top; woven by male, but female participates from tory simultaneously. Breeding season dependent on rainfall; in
early stages. Lays two to four eggs, breeding season from winter rainfall region of South Africa, starts in winter, ends in
spring through summer to autumn. Female alone incubates, early summer. Elsewhere during rainy season, usually summer.
both sexes feed young. Incubation 11–14 days, fledging 15–16 Lays one to five eggs (generally three). Incubation 12–13 days,
days. fledging 11–15 days. Female alone incubates and feeds young.
Nests often subject to heavy predation, and parasitized by
CONSERVATION STATUS Diederik cuckoo.
Not threatened; thrives in human-modified habitats and has CONSERVATION STATUS
been introduced successfully to other regions.
Not threatened; abundant in many areas, benefits from farming
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS activities and building of dams, which provide additional
breeding sites.
An important pest in rice fields in Madagascar. Villagers use
traditional cage traps, attempt to scare the birds away from the SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
crops, and destroy nests. ◆
Locally an important pest of grain crops; in wheatlands of West-
Southern red bishop ern Cape, South Africa, large numbers are killed annually. ◆
Euplectes orix 389
SUBFAMILY
Ploceinae
TAXONOMY
Loxia orix Linnaeus, 1758, Angola.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
English: Red bishop-bird, Grenadier weaver; French: Euplecte
ignicolore; German: Oryxweber; Spanish: Obispo Rojo.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
5.1 in (13 cm); female 0.6–0.9 oz (17–26 g), male 0.7–1.0 oz
(21–30 g). Breeding male has red and black plumage, with
brown wings and tail. Bill black. Female and non-breeding
male sparrowy brown, pale underparts with some streaking.
Bill brown. Juvenile like female, buffy edges to feathers before
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
Red-collared widow-bird FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Euplectes ardens Takes mainly seeds and insects, which may be hawked in the
air; rarely berries, nectar.
SUBFAMILY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Ploceinae
Territorial, polygynous, with males well-dispersed. Nest in tall
TAXONOMY grass, a woven ball with side entrance. Frame started by male,
most building done by female. Breeding follows spring or sum-
Fringilla ardens Boddaert, 1783, Cape of Good Hope. mer rains. Lays two to three eggs; incubation 12–15 days,
fledging 14–17 days. Female alone incubates and feeds young.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
CONSERVATION STATUS
English: Red-collared widow; French: Veuve noire; German:
Schildwida; Spanish: Obispo de Collar Rojo. Not threatened; widespread in lowlands, but distinctive mon-
tane populations have restricted range.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
5.1 in (13 cm), with long tail 9.8–11.8 in (25–30 cm); female
0.6–0.7 oz (16–21 g), male 0.7–0.9 oz (20–25 g). Breeding male None known. ◆
black with long tail, red collar on upper breast, or red on head
and breast; some populations wholly black. Bill black. Female Jackson’s widow-bird
brown with dark streaking above, yellowish eyebrow, under-
parts buffy and unstreaked; bill brown. Non-breeding adult Euplectes jacksoni
male like female, but retains black wing feathers. Juvenile with
feathers of upperparts broadly edged buff. SUBFAMILY
DISTRIBUTION Ploceinae
Guinea east to Ethiopia, south to Angola and through Zambia TAXONOMY
to eastern Zimbabwe and eastern South Africa.
Drepanoplectes jacksoni Sharpe, 1891, Kikuyu, Kenya.
HABITAT
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Open or bushed grassland, cultivated areas; also highland
grasslands from 4,900–9,850 ft (1,500–3,000 m). English: Jackson’s widow, Jackson’s dancing whydah; French:
Euplecte de Jackson; German: Leierschwanzwida; Spanish:
BEHAVIOR Obispo de Jackson.
Gregarious, forming large roosts even during breeding season, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
feeding in flocks of 200 birds or more. Often associated with
other Euplectes. 5.5 in (14 cm) with long tail 11.4 in (29 cm); female 1.0–1.5 oz
(29–42 g), male 1.4–1.7 oz (40–49 g). Breeding male black with
Euplectes ardens Euplectes jacksoni
Resident Resident
390 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
brown wings, curved black tail. Bill steel blue. Female and sub- Amblyospiza albifrons
adult birds, upperparts dark brown with paler edges to feathers,
underparts buffy. Bill brown. Non-breeding adult male like fe- Resident
male, but bill dark bluish.
BEHAVIOR
DISTRIBUTION
Gregarious, roosting in reedbeds and breeding there. Flocks
Central Kenya and northern Tanzania. move daily up to 19 mi (30 km) to forage when not breeding.
HABITAT FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Highland grasslands, above 4,900 ft (1,500 m). Fruit, seeds, including large, hard-shelled seeds, and insects. In
non-breeding season often forages in forest, feeding on fruit in
BEHAVIOR canopy, also on the ground.
Gregarious, in flocks when feeding, gathering in communal REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
roosts at night. Breeding areas traditional, and same sites used
in successive years. Colonial, some males polygynous. Nest highly distinctive, wo-
ven of very fine reed strips, slung between upright stems, with
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET large side entrance. Built by male; once female accepts nest,
male reduces entrance to a narrow circular hole. Female lines
Mainly grass seeds, also some insects such as winged termites. nest. Lays two to five eggs in summer. Incubation 14–16 days,
fledging 19–22 days. Female alone incubates, feeds young.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
CONSERVATION STATUS
Polygynous, with a lek mating system. Male displays at dancing
ring, a circle of flattened grass about 24 in (60 cm) in diameter, Not threatened; widespread and range expanding in some areas
surrounding a central tuft. Facing tuft, male jumps to various such as Zimbabwe and South Africa.
heights, up to 1 yd (1 m) into the air while calling. If female
lands in ring, courtship and mating may follow. Female builds SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
nest, a ball of woven grass with side entrance, close to the
ground in a grass tuft. Nesting area usually about 330 yd (300 None known. ◆
m) from lek. Lays two to four eggs, usually after main rains.
Incubation 12–13 days, fledging 17 days. Female alone incu- Red-headed weaver
bates, and feeds young on regurgitated grass seeds, not insects.
Anaplectes rubriceps
CONSERVATION STATUS
SUBFAMILY
Vulnerable because of limited range, dependence on grasslands
which are being altered by agricultural activity. Ploceinae
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS TAXONOMY
Flocks may damage grain crops of subsistence farmers. ◆ Ploceus (Hyphantornis) rubriceps Sundevall, 1850, Upper Caf-
fraria, near the Tropic = Mohapoani, Rustenburg district,
Thick-billed weaver South Africa.
Amblyospiza albifrons 391
SUBFAMILY
Ploceinae
TAXONOMY
Pyrrhula albifrons Vigors, 1831, Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape,
South Africa.
OTHER COMMON NAMES
English: Grosbeak weaver; French: Grosbec à front blanc;
German: Weißstirnweber; Spanish: Tejedor de Pico Grueso.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
6.7–7.5 in (17–19 cm); female 1.1–1.6 oz (31–45 g), male 1.5–2.1
oz (43–60 g). Breeding male chocolate brown with white fore-
head, white patch in wing conspicuous in flight. Heavy black
bill. White on forehead variable, absent in non-breeding
plumage. Female has brown upperparts, underparts white heav-
ily streaked with brown. Heavy yellowish bill. Juvenile like fe-
male, more rufous above and buffy below. Bill dull brown.
DISTRIBUTION
Sierra Leone east to southern Sudan, western Ethiopia, south
to northern Namibia, northern Botswana, eastern Zimbabwe,
and eastern South Africa.
HABITAT
Reedbeds, cultivated areas, plantation, and forest.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
into summer. Incubation 11–13 days, fledging 17 days. Both
sexes incubate and feed young, but female contributes more.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Not threatened; extensive range, and well-represented in con-
servation areas.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
None known. ◆
Anaplectes rubriceps Pin-tailed whydah
Resident Vidua macroura
OTHER COMMON NAMES SUBFAMILY
French: Tisserin écarlate; German: Scharlachweber; Spanish: Viduinae
Tejedor de Cabeza Roja.
TAXONOMY
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Fringilla macroura Pallas, 1764, ‘East Indies’ = Angola.
5.9–6.7 in (15–17 cm); female 0.7 oz (20 g); male 0.9 oz (25 g).
Breeding male has head, breast, and upper back scarlet, upper- OTHER COMMON NAMES
parts otherwise gray, underparts white. Wing edged yellow or
red in different population; some also have black patch around English: King-of-six; French: Veuve dominicaine; German:
eye. Bill red, eye red. Female and non-breeding male, scarlet Dominikanerwitwe; Spanish: Viuda de Cola Aguda.
replaced by dull orange on upperparts, below yellow to buff.
Bill pink to orange, eye brown. Juvenile like female. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
DISTRIBUTION 4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm), male with long tail 10.2–13.4 in (26–34
cm); female 0.5–0.6 oz (14–16 g), male 0.5–0.7 oz (14–19 g).
Senegal east to Somalia, south to Namibia, Botswana, and Female and non-breeding male, brownish upperparts with
northeastern South Africa. broad black stripes on top of head, buff to white underparts.
Bill brownish red. Breeding male, black and white with four
HABITAT long, black central tail feathers. Bill bright red. Juvenile plain
brown above, buff below.
Woodland and acacia savanna, gardens.
DISTRIBUTION
BEHAVIOR
Sub-Saharan Africa. Introduced to Hawaii but apparently now
Solitary or in pairs, joins mixed-species flocks. Local move- extinct.
ments during dry season. May stay near, and roost in, old
nests. Vidua macroura
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET Resident
Mainly insects, spiders, some fruit and seeds. Forages in fo- Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
liage, on branches and creepers; hawks flying insects.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Often solitary, monogamous or polygynous; sometimes several
males in same tree. Nest built by male, at same site in succes-
sive seasons, so that several nests may be close together.
Retort-shaped structure, woven from twigs and mid-ribs of
leaves with rough appearance; long vertical entrance spout.
Suspended from tree, often one in which raptor is nesting. Fe-
male lines nest. Lays one to four eggs from late winter through
392
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
HABITAT Vidua funerea
Open savanna and grassland, farmland, gardens. Resident
BEHAVIOR
Male sings from perch, but does not imitate songs of host
species. When female arrives, bounces in the air with tail flip-
ping up and down while singing. Aggressive towards other
males, but also to other species. Non-breeding birds gregari-
ous, forming small flocks of 20–30 birds, often mixed with
other small seed-eaters.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Mainly seeds, also some insects. Collects most food on the
ground. Scratches with backward hops to unearth buried
seeds.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Brood parasite, polygynous. Lays one to two eggs per nest, re-
moving host egg for each egg added. Incubation about 11 days,
fledging about 20 days. Most frequent host is common waxbill
(Estrilda astrild), also other waxbills and occasionally warblers.
Host and parasite young reared together.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Not threatened; widespread and common.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
None known; annoys those who put out birdseed, as breeding
male pin-tailed whydah will attempt to drive all other birds
away from feeding site. ◆
Dusky indigobird FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Vidua funerea Seeds, mainly collected on the ground, including buried seeds
dug out by scratching backwards with both feet.
SUBFAMILY
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Viduinae
Brood parasite, polygynous, with males at display sites which
TAXONOMY females visit for mating. Lays one egg per host nest. Incuba-
tion and fledging periods apparently unrecorded. Host is
Fringilla funerea de Tarragon, 1847, Natal. African firefinch, and young of parasite specifically match
mouth markings of this species; male indigobirds learn vocal-
OTHER COMMON NAMES izations of host while in nest, and later incorporate these ele-
ments into their own song.
English: Black widow finch, variable indigobird; French: Com-
bassou variable; German: Purpuratlaswitwe; Spanish: Viuda CONSERVATION STATUS
Variable.
Not threatened. Locally common, with an extensive range in
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Africa.
4.3–4.7 in (11–12 cm), female 0.4–0.5 oz (12–16 g), male SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
0.5–0.6 oz (14–17 g). Breeding male black, with whitish bill
and red legs. Female and non-breeding male buff upperparts None known. ◆
with broad black stripes on head, whitish underparts. Juvenile
like female but head dark, unstriped. Cuckoo finch
DISTRIBUTION Anomalospiza imberbis
Tanzania to eastern South Africa. SUBFAMILY
HABITAT Viduinae
Grassy areas including fringes of cultivation, gardens, and TAXONOMY
roadsides.
Crithagra imberbis Cabanis, 1868, East Africa = Zanzibar.
BEHAVIOR
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Male sings from exposed perch for long periods, including
song and calls of African firefinch (Lagonosticta rubricata) English: Parasitic weaver; French: Anomalospize parasite; Ger-
interspersed with chirping notes. Displays to female in a bob- man: Kuckucksfink; Spanish: Tejedor Parásito.
bing flight. In non-breeding season birds associate in flocks,
join mixed flocks of other small seed-eaters, and become 393
nomadic.
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Family: Weavers Vol. 11: Birds IV
Anomalospiza imberbis male, yellowish head, upperparts olive with heavy streaks, bill
brown. Female mainly buffy, heavily streaked on upperparts.
Resident Short-tailed, with a stubby bill, deep at base. Juvenile resem-
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS bles female.
5.1 in (13 cm); unsexed birds 0.8–0.9 oz (23–26 g). Breeding DISTRIBUTION
male, yellow with some streaking, bill black. Non-breeding
Local in western and central Africa, through eastern Africa to
southern Africa.
HABITAT
Open grassland with scattered trees, wetlands, cultivated lands.
BEHAVIOR
Little-known and probably nomadic; likely to be overlooked in
mixed flocks of seedeaters. When breeding, in pairs or small
groups. Male has rasping song in display, defends grassland
territory. Non-breeding birds form large roosts in reedbeds,
sometimes holding more than 500 birds.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Seeds, mostly collected while perching on grasses and weeds.
REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Brood parasite, mating system not known, but probably polyg-
ynous. Lays one to two eggs per nest, removing one or more
host eggs. Incubation 14 days, fledging 18 days. Hosts are war-
blers of the genera Cisticola or Prinia, host young usually tram-
pled in nest, rarely reared with parasite young. Two cuckoo
finch young may be reared together.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Wide range and not considered threatened.
SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
None known. ◆
Resources Stattersfield, Alison J., and David R. Capper. Threatened Birds
of the World: The Official Source for Birds on the IUCN Red
Books List. Barcelona and Cambridge: BirdLife International/Lynx
Ali, Salim, and S. Dillon Ripley. Handbook of the Birds of India Edicions, 2000.
and Pakistan, Together with Those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Periodicals
Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Vol. 10, Flowerpeckers to Buntings. Andersson, Staffan. “Bowers on the Savanna: Display Courts
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987.
and Mate Choice in a Lekking Widowbird.” Behavioral
Bruggers, Richard D., Clive C. H. Elliott. Quelea quelea Africa’s Ecology 2 (1991): 210–218.
Bird Pest. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Barnard, Phoebe. “Territoriality and the Determinants of Male
Craig, Adrian J. F. K. “Weaving A Story: The Relationships of Mating Success in Southern African Whydahs (Vidua).”
the Endemic Ploceidae of Madagascar.” In Proceedings of the Ostrich 60 (1989): 103–117.
22nd International Ornithological Congress, edited by Nigel J.
Adams and Robert H. Slotow. Johannesburg: BirdLife Brosset, Andre. “Social Organization and Nest Building in the
South Africa, 1984: 3063–3070. Forest Weaver Birds of the Genus Malimbus (Ploceinae).”
Ibis 120 (1987): 27–37.
Fishpool, Lincoln D. C., and Michael I. Evans. Important Bird
Areas for Africa and Associated Islands: Priority Sites for Collias, Nicholas E., and Elsie C. Collias. “Evolution of Nest-
Conservation. Newbury and Cambridge, United Kingdom: Building Behavior in the Weaverbirds (Ploceidae).”
Pisces Publications and BirdLife International, 2001. University of California Publications in Zoology 73 (1964):
1–162.
Fry, C. Hilary, Stuart Keith, and Emil K. Urban. The Birds of
Africa. Vol. VII. London: Academic Press, in press. Crook, John H. “The Evolution of Social Organisation and
Visual Communication in the Weaverbirds (Ploceinae).”
Goodman, Steven M., and John P. Benstead. The Natural Behaviour Supplement 10 (1964): 1–178.
History of Madagascar. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
in press. Hudgens, Brian R. “Nest Predation Avoidance by the Blue-
Billed Malimbe Malimbus nitens (Ploceinae).” Ibis 139
Sibley, Charles G., and Jon E. Ahlquist. Phylogeny and (1997): 692–694.
Classification of Birds. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 1990. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
394
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Weavers
Resources Winterbottom, M., T. Burke, and T. R. Birkhead. “The
Phalloid Organ, Orgasm and Sperm Competition in a
Nicolai, Jürgen. “Der Brutparasitismus der Viduinae als Polygynandrous Bird: The Red-Billed Buffalo Weaver
ethologisches Problem.” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 21 (Bubalornis niger).” Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 50
(1964): 129–204. (2001): 474–482.
Payne, Robert B. “Brood Parasitism in Birds: Strangers in the Adrian Craig, PhD
Nest.” Bioscience 48 (1998): 377–386.
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 395
Class Aves ▲
Order Passeriformes
Suborder Passeri (Oscines) Sparrows
Family Passeridae
(Passeridae)
Thumbnail description
Small, seed-eating songbirds with stout bills Distribution
Worldwide except for Antarctica, Eurasia north of cultivation, north and west
Size Australia
4.5–7 in (12–17.5 cm)
Number of genera, species
Five genera; 39 species
Habitat
Grassland savanna, inhabited areas
Conservation status
No species threatened, no recent extinctions
Evolution and systematics that show prominently in the display flights that are charac-
teristic of open-country birds. The sexes in the snow finches,
Sparrows (Passeridae) are seed-eaters, separated by their ground sparrows, and rock sparrows are basically alike, the
method of dehusking seeds and their digestive tract. Origi- latter being distinguished by a yellow spot on the throat. In
nally placed with the finches (Fringillidae) and then with the contrast, most of the true sparrows are dimorphic with the
weavers (Ploceidae), sparrows are now recognized as a sepa- males characterized by black bibs and well developed head
rate family. It is thought that these birds evolved in the patterns.
Afrotropical Region during the middle of the Miocene. One
group, the snow finches and ground sparrows, probably arose Distribution
from an early radiation into the Palearctic. The birds in Africa
then split into two groups: the rock sparrows and the true From their Afrotropical origins the sparrows now occupy
sparrows, which subsequently colonized Africa and gave rise most of Africa and Eurasia. Many species have restricted dis-
to secondary colonizations of Eurasia. tributions, but two, the house sparrows (Passer domesticus)
and tree sparrows (Passer montanus), occur widely through-
As of 2001, five genera of sparrows are recognized: the out Eurasia and have increased the range of the family
snow finches (Montifringilla) and the ground sparrows (Pyrgi- through deliberate introductions from the mid-nineteenth
lauda) derived from the original Eurasian radiation; the pale century onwards. The house sparrows have now an almost
rock sparrow (Carpospiza brachydactyla) was separated from the worldwide distribution, absent only from Antarctica and
rock sparrows Petronia and placed in a monotypic genus Car- parts of tropical Africa. The tree sparrows have modest pop-
pospiza; the remainder are the true sparrows in the genus Passer ulations in North America and Australia, and are now ex-
with 26 representatives. panding in the southeast Asian archipelagos and some of the
Pacific island groups, partly by introduction, but also by nat-
Physical characteristics ural spread.
The sparrows, with their short, robust bills, have special- The capacity of the house sparrows for rapid range exten-
ized in the seeds of grasses, particularly the cultivated cere- sion is shown by the way they spread from the Urals to the
als that have been developed from them. Their tongues have Pacific coast in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Fol-
a unique skeletal structure that plays a part in dehusking the lowing the building of the trans-Siberian railway, they spread
seeds. These birds are also distinguished by a complete post- more than 3,000 mi (5,500 km) in a little over 100 years. The
juvenile moult. The bills of the males change from horn to rates of spread of this and introduced populations have ranged
black when they become sexually active. Most are compara- 9–50 mi per year (15–80 km per year).
tively sedentary. The true sparrows and the rock sparrows
have short, blunt wings and are not strong fliers, making Most species are sedentary or disperse nomadically outside
short, direct flights. The snow finches and the ground spar- the breeding season, though a few have a more defined mi-
rows, living in more open country, have proportionately gration. This particularly applies to high latitude and high al-
longer wings with varying amounts of white in their plumage
397
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Family: Sparrows Vol. 11: Birds IV
titude populations that withdraw to milder regions in the win- Reproductive biology
ter. Pale rock sparrows move south to Arabia and northeast
Africa in the winter, and the subspecies of the house sparrow Pair formation normally takes place by the male calling
Passer d. bactrianus breeds in the Central Asian Republics and and displaying at a nest site. The territory is effectively lim-
Afghanistan and winters in the northern plains of Pakistan. ited to the immediate vicinity of the nest. The open-country
Spanish sparrows (Passer hispaniolensis) breed in a Mediter- snow finches and ground sparrows have more developed songs
ranean-type climate with a short spring flush, migrating to and display flights that are given near the nest. Nests are
the northeast for successive broods as suitable conditions wax domed over. Clutches are typically four to six eggs, the ma-
and wane. jority of species being multi-brooded. Both sexes take part in
breeding activities. The young are born with natal down;
Habitat flight feathers develop rapidly and the young are fully fledged
in 12–20 days. In the sedentary species, like the house and
Sparrows are predominantly birds of open country with tree sparrows, the birds maintain the nest throughout the year
scattered trees, extending into the semi-desert and high, arid and pair for life. Breeding takes place in the spring and sum-
steppes of Asia (the snow finches and ground sparrows) and mer in temperate regions, following the end of the rains in
light woodland (the African rock sparrows that merit more the tropics. The birds are nominally monogamous, but DNA
the epithet bush than rock sparrow). The most significant studies show that colonial breeding leads to a considerable
feature, particularly in the true sparrows, is a close associa- degree of promiscuity with up to 15% of the chicks not fa-
tion with humans. Originally through feeding in cultivated thered by the attendant male.
areas and then moving into built-up areas, no fewer than 17
of the 26 species of true sparrows nest in holes in occupied Conservation status
buildings. The house and tree sparrows are the supreme ex-
amples with some individuals spending most of their time in Although there has been some retraction in range of rock
buildings and the house sparrows even living and breeding sparrows (Petronia petronia) in Europe and house sparrows are
in a coal mine in England, 2,100 ft (640 m) below ground suffering a major decline in western Europe, no species is un-
level. der serious threat.
Behavior
Most sparrows are gregarious, collecting in large foraging
flocks and forming colonial roosts. The majority have a
clumped breeding distribution. Colonial nesting is marked in
the Spanish sparrows, with nesting colonies of many hundred
thousand birds in central Asia. In such colonies, the nests are
closely packed together with up to 200 nests in one tree. More
usually the nests are more scattered, limited by the availabil-
ity of suitable sites, but 65,000 nests of golden sparrows (Passer
luteus) have been estimated in a loose colony spread over 1,500
acres (630 ha). More typically the colonies consist of 20–30
pairs.
The sparrows are one of the few passerines that indulge in
both dusting and bathing in water. Both are social activities.
The foraging flocks alternate bursts of seed collection with
resting spells in good cover. While presumably digesting the
hard seeds, the birds remain close together and maintain so-
cial contact with soft, conversational calls.
Feeding ecology and diet Sparrows nesting in a built-up habitat. (Illustration by Amanda
Humphrey)
The sparrows are essentially granivorous, feeding on the
seeds of small plants. In many cases this has led to special- Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
ization on the seeds of cultivated cereals and from this to food
put out for domestic animals and household scraps. Small
berries and tree seeds are also taken. In all cases the young
are reared largely on animal food. During the breeding sea-
son the adults also take a proportion of invertebrate food, con-
sisting mainly of slow-moving insects, though some are also
caught in flight.
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Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Sparrows
Significance to humans pact on man. Some sparrows take over the nest and nest sites
of other species and may affect their numbers, particularly
Those species specializing on the seeds of cultivated grains when suitable sites are limited.
may reach pest status, but otherwise the birds have little im-
Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia 399
1
2
4
3
5
6
7
8
1. Rock sparrow (Petronia petronia); 2. House sparrow (Passer domesticus); 3. Golden sparrow (Passer luteus); 4. Tree sparrow (Passer mon-
tanus); 5. Père David’s ground sparrow (Pyrgilauda davidiana); 6. Snow finch (Montifringilla nivalis); 7. Pale rock sparrow (Carpospiza brachy-
dactyla); 8. Southern rufous sparrow (Passer motitensis). (Illustration by Amanda Humphrey)
400 Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia
Vol. 11: Birds IV Family: Sparrows
Species accounts
House sparrow REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Passer domesticus Preferred nest site is a hole in building or tree, though also
builds free-standing domed nest in trees. Up to five clutches of
TAXONOMY two to five eggs per year. Incubation 11–14 days; fledging
14–16 days. Both sexes take part in breeding activities.
Fringilla domestica Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. 11 subspecies.
CONSERVATION STATUS
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Major decline in western Europe at end of the twentieth
English: English sparrow; French: Moineau domestique; Ger- century; but not considered threatened by the IUCN as of
man: Haussperling; Spanish: Gorrión Común. 2000.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS SIGNIFICANCE TO HUMANS
5.5–6.3 in (14–16 cm); 0.7–1.4 oz (20–40 g). Male has a gray Generally regarded with affection, but can be a pest of cereal
crown bordered by chestnut and a small black bib. Female drab cultivation. ◆
brown. Juvenile similar to female but paler.
Tree sparrow
DISTRIBUTION
Passer montanus
North Africa and Eurasia to limit of cultivation, except for
Thailand east to Japan. Through introductions from the mid- TAXONOMY
nineteenth century onwards is now present throughout most of
the inhabited world. Fringilla montana Linnaeus, 1758, Southern Italy. Seven sub-
species.
HABITAT
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Almost entirely associated with humans.
English: Eurasian tree sparrow; French: Moineau friquet; Ger-
BEHAVIOR man: Feldsperling; Spanish: Gorrión Molinero.
Mainly sedentary, living in small colonies throughout the year.
FEEDING ECOLOGY AND DIET
Seeds and household scraps. Young reared largely on inverte-
brates.
Passer domesticus 401
Resident
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Grzimek Animal Life Encyclopedia Volume 11 Birds IV ( PDFDrive )
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Grzimek Animal Life Encyclopedia Volume 11 Birds IV ( PDFDrive )
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