kY[ jLsf] pQ/ / csf]{ 5p] k[YjLsf] blIf0f lbzflt/ kms{]/ a:5 . 58sf] pQ/lt/sf]
5p] nfO{ pQ/L w|'j / blIf0flt/sf] 5p] nfO{ blIf0fL w'j| elgG5 . r'Dassf] pQ/ / blIf0f
lbzf b]vfpg] u'0fnfO{ lbzf;"rs u0' f elgG5 . r'Dassf] oxL u'0fn] ubf{ rD' asaf6
sDkf; agfOG5 . r'DasLo sDkf;n] ;w}“ pQ/ / blIf0f lbzf b]vfp“5 . bj' l} t/ rR' rf]
k/]sf] ;fgf] r'Dassf] lar laGb' Pp6f l;of]sf] 6'Kkf]df c8o\ fO{ sDkf; agfOPsf]
xG' 5 . r'DasLo sDkf; Pp6f a66\ fdf /flvPsf] xG' 5 . 58 rD' assf] lbzf ;r" s
u'0f k/LIf0f ug{ To;nfO{ gfOngsf] wfufn] lar efudf afw“ /] em'G8o\ fpg'kb{5 . 58
rD' asnfO{ sg' } Knfl:6ssf] a66\ fdf /fv/] kfgLdf t/} fpb“ f klg lbzf bv] fp5“ . kfgLdf
tl} /Psf] j:t' :jtGqkj" s{ 3D' g ;S5 .
ljm| ofsnfk !
Ps 6j' m| f ga6fl/g] / gtlGsg] dl;gf] wfuf] np] m . ;f] wfufs] f] Ps
5p] n] Pp6f 58 rD' assf] lar efudf afw“ . ca wfufn] fO{ prfn/]
rD' asnfO{ emG' 8o\ fpm . eml' G8Psf] rD' assf] glhs rD' asLo j:t' jf
c¿ rD' as /fv/] ko| fu] ug{' xb“' g} . 58 rD' assf] Ps 5p] pQ/ /
csf]{ 5]p blIf0f lbzflt/ kms]{/ a:5 . ca 58 r'DasnfO{
rnfpm . Ps l5gkl5 kml] / klxn] h:t} pQ/ blIf0f kms{]/ a:5 .
:jtGqkj" {s 3'Dg ;Sg] u/L /flvPsf] r'Dassf] Ps 5]p pQ/ / csf]{ 5p] ;w“} blIf0f
kms/{] a:g] u'0fnfO{ lbzf ;"rs u'0f elgG5 .
#= rD' asLo zlSt 5p] lt/ a9L xg' ] u'0f
rD' assf] larlt/ zlSt sd x“'b} hfG5 / l7slar efudf rD' assf] zlSt sd x'G5 .
lj|mofsnfk @
Pp6f 58 rD' as / sx] L kmnfdsf] w'nf] n]pm . 58 rD' assf]
lardf ga6fl/g] wfuf]n] af“w]/ em'G8\ofpm . kmnfdsf]
w'nf] Pp6f sfuhdf np] m . r'DasnfO{ kmnfdsf] w'nfd] f
n6k6\ofpm . wfuf] ;dft]/ r'DasnfO{ lj:tf/} dfly
prfn . s] bl] vG5 < kmnfdsf] wn' f] rD' assf] 5]plt/ a9L
dfqfdf 6fl“ ;Psf] b]lvG5 . larlt/ kmnfdsf] wn' f] sd x'b“ }
hfg] 5 . l7s lardf t kmnfdsf] wn' f] 6f“l;Ps} x“b' g} . o; tYoaf6 r'Dassf] zlSt 5]plt/
sl] Gbt| xG' 5 . larlt/ rD' assf] zlSt sd xb“' } hfG5 / l7s lardf t rD' assf] zlSt w/] } sd
x'G5 . 5]plt/ w]/} zlSt ePsfn] g} a9L dfqfdf kmnfdsf wn' fx] ¿ 6f“l;Psf xg' \ .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
$= ;dfg w'|jx¿ ljsif{0f / c;dfg w|'jx¿ cfsif0{ f x'g] u'0f
Pp6f rD' assf] pQ/L wj'| / csf{] rD' assf] klg pQ/L wj'| nfO{ ;dfg wj'| elgG5 . To:t}
Pp6fsf] blIf0fL / csfs{] f] klg blIf0fL wj'| x¿ klg ;dfg wj'| g} xg' \ . bO' { cf6] f rD' asx¿sf
;dfg w|j' x¿ Ps csf]s{ f] glhs nUbf ljsif{0f x'G5 . cyf{t Pp6fn] csf{]nfO{ ljsif0{ f
ub5{ . Pp6f rD' assf] pQ/L w|'j / csf{] r'Dassf] blIf0fL w|'jx¿lar cfsif0{ f x'G5 .
ljk/Lt wj'| x¿ Psn] csfn{] fO{ cfkml" t/ cfsif0{ f ub5{ . rD' asx¿lar xg' ] o:tf] u0' fnfO{
;dfg wj'| ljsif{0f / c;dfg wj'| cfsif0{ f x'g] u'0f elgG5 .
lj|mofsnfk #
Pp6f 58 rD' assf] lar efudf wfufn] ] emG' 8\ofpm . csf{] 58 r'Das
xftdf n]pm . xftsf] rD' assf] pQ/L wj'| emG' 8\ofOPsf] r'Dassf] klg
pQ/ w|j' lt/ glhs nu . s] x'G5 x/] , pQ/ / pQ/ w'|jx¿lar
ljsif0{ f xG' 5 . ca xftsf] rD' assf] blIf0f wj'| emG' 8o\ fOPsf] rD' assf]
blIf0f wj|' glhs nu . km]l/ s] x'G5 x]/ . blIf0f / blIf0f w|j' x¿lar
klg ljsif{0f x'G5 .
o; ljm| ofsnfkaf6 ;dfg wj|' x¿lar ljsif0{ f xG' 5 eGg] yfxf xG' 5 .
ca kml] / xftsf] r'Dassf] pQ/L w|j' em'G8o\ fOPsf] r'Dassf] blIf0f ;dfg wj|' ljsif0{ f ePsf]
wj|' glhs nu . pQ/L / blIf0fL w'|jx¿lar cfsif0{ f x'G5 . o;af6
c;dfg w|j' lar cfsif{0f xG' 5 eGg] lgisif{ lgsfNg ;lsG5 .
%= wj'| x¿ g5'l6\6g] u'0f
kT| os] rD' asdf b'O{cf]6f w'j| x¿ x'G5g\ . Pp6f pQ/L w|'j / csf]{ blIf0fL wj|' . oL
wj|' x¿ slxNo} 5'6l\ 6b}gg\ . Pp6f dfq w'|j ePsf] rD' as x'b“ }g . r'DasnfO{ 6'jm| f kfbf{
b'O{ v08df ljeflht xG' 5 . t/ kT| os] v08sf bO' { 5p] df km]l/ bO' c{ f]6} w'|jx¿ x'G5g\ .
pQ/L w'j| /x]sf] v08sf] csf{] 5p] df blIf0f wj'| ljsl;t xG' 5 . blIf0fL wj'| /xs] f] v08sf]
csf{] 5p] df pQ/L wj'| aG5 . bj' } wj|' df r'DasLo zlSt a/fa/ x'G5 .
lj|mofsnfk $
Pp6f gof“ An]8nfO{ lrqdf h:t} bO' { 6j' |mf kf/ . Pp6f r'Dassf] pQ/L wj'| n] Ps 6'jm| f
An8] nfO{ Ps 5]pbl] v csf{] 5]p;Dd /u8 . Toxfa“ f6 rD' as p7fP/ km]l/ klxn]s} 5p] af6
/u8]/ csf]{ 5p] k¥' ofpm . o;/L @)÷@% k6s /u8]kl5 pSt 6'j|mfdf r'DasLo u0' f ljsf;
xG' 5 . An]8 r'Dasdf sDkf;sf] dbtn] pQ/L wj'| lrg . ca 6'j|mfnfO{ bO' { 6j' |mf kf/ /
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
k|To]s 6'j|mfdf b'O{cf]6f w|'jx¿ 5g\ jf 5}gg\ sDkf;sf] dbtn]
k/LIf0f u/ . pQ/L wj'| /xs] f] 6j' m| fsf] csf{] 5p] df blIf0f wj'|
aG5 . To:t} csf{] 6j' m| fdf klg bO' c{ f6] } wj'| x¿ xG' 5g\ . o; ljm| ofsnfkaf6
r'Dassf w|j' x¿ slxNo} 5'6\l6b}gg\ eGg] tYo kd| fl0ft xG' 5 .
r'DasLo / crD' asLo j:t' -Magnetical and Non Magnetic Substance_
rD' asn] ;a} j:tn' fO{ cfsif0{ f ug{ ;Stg} . sg' } j:td' f rD' assf] c;/ kb5{ eg] sg' } j:td' f
rD' asn] c;/ ug{ ;Stg} . rD' asn] cfsif0{ f ug{ ;Sg] j:tn' fO{ rD' asLo j:t' elgG5 .
wftx' ¿dWo] kmnfd, lgsn] / sfj] fN6nfO{ rD' asn] cfsif0{ f ub5{ . oL tLg wftx' ¿ rD' asLo
j:t' xg' \ . rD' asLo j:tn' fO{ ljleGg ljlwx¿af6 rD' as agfpg ;lsG5 . rD' asn] cfsif0{ f
gug{] j:tn' fO{ crD' asLo j:t' elgG5 . crD' asLo j:tn' fO{ rD' asn] cfsif0{ f ug{ ;Sbg} .
;g' , rfb“ L, lkQn, sf7, Knfl:6s, /a/ cflb crD' asLo j:t' xg' \ .
lj|mofsnfk %
s'g} j:t' r'DasLo xf] jf xf]Og eg/] k/LIf0f ug{ Pp6f r'Dassf] cfjZostf kb5{ . r'Dassf]
Ps 5p] k/LIf0f ug'{kg]{ j:t'sf] glhs nu . r'Das / pSt j:t'x¿ lar cfsif0{ f ePg eg]
;f] j:t' crD' asLo xg' \ egL yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 . olb rD' asn] ;f] j:tn' fO{ cfsif{0f ub5{
eg] ;f] j:t' rD' asLo j:t' xf] egL yfxf x'G5 .
rD' asLo wj'| x¿ -Magnetic Poles_
Pp6f rD' asdf bO' c{ f6] f wj'| x¿ xG' 5g\ . tL wj'| x¿ cfk;df slxNo} 56' l\ 6bg} g\ eGg] s/' f
dfly k:| 6 eO;ss] f] 5 . rD' asLo zlSt o;sf wj'| x¿df sl] Gbt| xG' 5g\ . rD' asn] ug{]
cfsif0{ f jf ljsif0{ f zlSt o;sf wj'| x¿df clwstd xG' 5g\ . xfdLn] ljm| ofsnfk ! af6
bl] v;ss] f 5f“} ls rD' assf] rD' asLo zlSt o;sf 5p] lt/ a9L dfqfdf xG' 5 . rD' asLo
wj'| x¿ 5p] lt/ /xg] xg' fn] o;sf] zlSt klg 5p] lt/ a9L ePsf] xf] . rD' assf] 5p] d}
-6K' kfd_} rD' assf] wj'| xb“' g} . 6K' kfe] Gbf clnleq o;sf] wj'| /xs] f] xG' 5 . rD' asLo wj'|
sxfl“ g/ 5 eGg] s/' f lgDglnlvt ljm| ofsnfkaf6 kTtf nufpg ;lsG5 M
ljm| ofsnfk ^
Pp6f ;t] f] sfuhnfO{ 6a] 'ndf g;g]{ u/L lkgsf] dbtn] c8o\ fpm . sfuhsf] lardf Pp6f 58
r'Das /fv . 58 r'Dassf] 3/] f l;;fsndn] sf/] . ca Pp6f r'DasLo sDkf; rD' assf]
Ps 5p] df lrqdf h:t} :yfgdf /fv . sDkf;sf] bj' } 5p] n] b]vfPsf laGbx' ¿df lrx\g
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
nufpm . sDkf;nfO{ ‘Y’ :yfgdf ;f/ . kml] /
sDkf;sf] bO' { 5p] n] bv] fPsf laGb'x¿df lrxg\
nufpm . ca sDkf;nfO{ ‘Z’ :yfgdf ;f/]/
dflys} ljlw bf]xf]¥ofpm . ca sDkf;nfO{
rD' assf] csf]{ 5]pdf X,Y,Z :yfgdf /fv]/
dflys} ljlwcg';f/ lrx\g nufpm . ca rD' as
/ sDkf;nfO{ sfuhaf6 x6fpm . sDkf;sf] b'O{ 5p] n] b]vfPsf laGbx' ¿ hf8] /] ;/n /v] f
l;;fsndn] sf/] . tL /v] fx¿ rD' assf] 3/] fleq Pp6f laGbd' f hfl] 8g] 5 . ToxL laGb' rD' assf]
wj|' xf] . rD' assf] csf]{ 5p] df klg o:t} laGb' aG5 . ca rD' assf wj|' x¿ larsf] nDafO
gfk . of] r'DasLo nDafO xf] . rD' assf] bO' { 5p] larsf] nDafOsf] gfk rD' assf] nDafO xf] .
s] lgisif{ lgsfNg ;lsG5 n]v .
rD' asLo nDafO = ==============
rD' assf] nDafO = ==============
rD' asLo Ifq] -Magnetic Field_
s'g} klg r'Dasn] Pp6f lglZrt jl/kl/sf] If]q;Dd dfq r'DasLo j:t'nfO{ c;/
ug{ ;S5 . t;y{ rD' assf] jl/kl/ r'Dasn] c;/ ug{ ;Sg] b'/L lglZrt xG' 5 .
;f] Ifq] eGbf 6f9f rD' asn] sg' } c;/ kfg{ ;Stg} . rD' assf] jl/kl/sf] 7fp“ hxf“
rD' asn] c¿ r'DasLo j:t'df c;/ ub5{ Tof] 7fpn“ fO{ To; rD' assf] r'DasLo If]q
elgG5 . s'g} rD' assf] If]q 7n' f] xG' 5 eg] sg' } r'Dassf] If]q ;fgf] x'G5 . Pp6f sDkf;
lg8nsf] ;xfotfn] s'g} 58 rD' assf] Ifq] kQf nufpg ;lsG5 . o;sf nflu lgDg
lnlvt ljm| ofsnfk u//] x/] f}“ M
ljm| ofsnfk &
6a] n' df Pp6f ;t] f] sfuh lkgsf] dbtn] c8o\ fpm . sfuhsf] lardf Pp6f 58 rD' as /fv/] o;sf] 3/] f
l;;fsndn] lrxg\ nufpm . ca Pp6f lg8n sDkf; np] m / rD' assf] Ps 5p] glhs /fv . rD' asn]
o;sf] lg8nnfO{ c;/ u5{ ls ubg{} x/] . ca sDkf;nfO{ rD' asaf6 clnslt 6f9f ;f/ / sDkf;
lg8nnfO{ c;/ u5{ ls ubg{} x/] . To;/L g} sDkf;nfO{ la:tf/} rD' asaf6 6f9f ;fb{} rD' asn] c;/
u5{ ls ubg}{ xb] {} hfpm . sDkf;nfO{ rD' asn] c;/ ug{ g;Sg] 7fpd“ f ku' k] l5 lrxg\ nufpm . rD' assf]
csf]{ 5p] df klg To:t} u/]/ r'Dasn] sDkf;nfO{ c;/ ug{ g;ss] f] 7fp“ lrx\g nufpm .
dflys} ljlwcg;' f/ rD' assf] jl/kl/ rD' asn] c;/ ug{ g;Sg] 7fpx“ ¿ lrxg\ nufpm . To;/L
lrx\g nufp“b} hf“bf rD' assf] jl/kl/ Pp6f 3]/f aGg] 5 . pSt 3/] fleq rD' assf] c;/ k5{ .
Tof] 3/] fleqsf] 7fp“ g} rD' asLo If]q xf] .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
k|of]ufTds ljm| ofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk # cWoog u/L rD' assf ;dfg w|'j ljsif0{ f / c;dfg w'j|
cfsif{0f xG' 5 eGg] k|of]uåf/f k|dfl0ft u/ .
;f/fz+
!= rD' asdf xg' ] r'DasLo zlStnfO{ r'DasTj elgG5 .
@= rD' as Ps cToGt pkofu] L j:t' xf] .
#= r'Dasn] r'DasLo j:tn' fO{ cfsif{0f u5{ .
$= rD' assf] zlSt 5]plt/ s]lGbt| x'G5 .
%= :jtGqkj" s{ 3D' g ;Sg] u/L /flvPsf] r'Das ;w}“ kY[ jLsf] pQ/ / blIf0f lbzflt/
t]l;{P/ a:5 .
^= b'O{cf]6f rD' assf ;dfg wj'| x¿ cfk;df ljsif0{ f x'G5 / ljk/Lt wj'| x¿ cfsif0{ f
xG' 5 .
&= Pp6f r'Dassf pQ/ / blIf0f w|'jx¿ slxNo} 56' l\ 6b}gg\ .
*= rD' asn] c;/ ug]{ j:t'x¿nfO{ rD' asLo j:t' elgG5 . kmnfd, lgsn] / sf]jfN6
r'DasLo j:tx' ¿ x'g\ .
(= rD' assf] 5]plt/sf] laGb' hxf“ rD' asLo zlSt sl] Gb|t xG' 5 To; laGb'nfO{ r'DasLo
w|'j elgG5 .
!)= r'Dassf] jl/kl/ rD' asn] c;/ ug{] ;Ddsf] Ifq] nfO{ rD' asLo Ifq] elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“ e/ M
-s_ r'Dasdf xg' ] ljzi] f u'0fnfO{ ============== elgG5 .
-v_ r'Dasn] ;;fgf kmnfdsf 6j' m| fnfO{ ============ ub{5 .
-u_ Pp6f rD' assf] pQ/L w'|jn] csf{] rD' assf] pQ/L w'j| nfO{ ======== ub{5 .
-3_ rD' asLo zlSt o;sf ============= df s]lGbt| x'G5g\ .
-ª_ r'DasnfO{ 6j' m| f ubf{ o;sf =============== 56' l\ 6bg} .
-r_ r'Dasn] cfsif{0f ug{ g;Sg] j:tn' fO{ ================ j:t' elgG5 .
@= lbOPsf pQ/x¿dWo] Pp6f ;xL pQ/ 5fg M
-s_ r'Dasn] sg' j:t'nfO{ cfsif{0f u5{ <
-c_ lkQn -cf_ kmnfdsf] 6'j|mf
-O_ l;;fsnd -O_{ O/]h/
-v_ :jtGqkj" {s 3'Dg ;Sg] u/L em'G8\ofOPsf] 58 rD' as stf kms]{/ a:5 <
-c_ pQ/ blIf0f -cf_ k"j{ klZrd
O_ pQ/ kj" { -O_{ blIf0f klZrd
-u_ sg' j:t' rD' asLo xf]Og <
-c_ lkQn -cf_ kmnfd
-O_ lgs]n -O_{ sfj] fN6
#= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ n]v M
-s_ r'DasTj egs] f] s] xf] <
-v_ rD' assf] k|ofu] x'g] s'g} rf/cf6] f pks/0fx¿sf] gfd n]v .
-u_ r'DasnfO{ kmnfdsf] w'nf]df n6\k6fp“bf o;sf] 5]plt/ a9L kmnfdsf] w'nf]
6f“l;Psf] x'G5, lsg <
-3_ 6a] 'ndf /flvPsf] 58 rD' as lsg pQ/ / blIf0f kms{/] a:bg} <
-ª_ b'O{cf6] f r'DasLo / b'Oc{ f6] f cr'DasLo j:t'x¿sf] gfd nv] .
-r_ r'DasLo If]q egs] f] s] xf] < s:tf] rD' assf] Ifq] 7'nf] x'G5 <
-5_ rD' assf] nDafO / r'DasLo nDafOdf s] leGgtf x'G5 < JofVof u/ .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
* ljB't\
(Electricity)
dflg;x¿sf nflu ljBt' \ Pp6f clt cfjZos zlSt ePsf] 5 . b}lgs hLjgdf w/] }
sfo{ ug{ ljB'ts\ f] cfjZostf kb{5 . c“Wof/f] x6fpg lah'nL aQLsf] cfjZostf
kb{5 . /]l8of], 6]lnlehg, 6]lnkmf]g, sDKo'6/ cflb cfw'lgs pks/0fx¿ klg ljBt' \
af6 g} ;~rfng x'G5g\ . To:t} lx6/ afNg, Ol:t/L ttfpg, df]6/ rnfpg cflb
ljleGg sfo{x¿ ug{ ljBt' s\ f] cfjZostf kb5{ . w]/} pBf]u / sf/vfgfx¿ ljB'ta\ f6
g} ;~rfng x'G5g\ . ljB't\ klg Ps ks| f/sf] zlSt xf] .
ljBt' s\ f] ;|ft] -Source of electric_
ljB't\ pTkfbg ug{] pks/0fx¿ g} ljBt' s\ f ;f| t] xg' \ . w/] } ljlwx¿af6 ljB't\ pTkfbg
ug{ ;lsG5 . tLdWo] k|d'v ¿kn] lgDglnlvt pks/0fx¿af6 ljB't\ pTkfbg
ug{] ljlwaf/] oxf“ rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
-!_ ;n] -Cell_
-@_ kmf]6f] ;n] -Photo Cell_
-#_ 8fOgfdf] -Dynamo_ / h]g]/6] / -Generator_
!= ;]n (Cell)
;n] df /f;folgs ljlwaf6 ljBt' \ pTkfbg ul/G5 . /f;folgs zlStnfO{ ljBt' \ zlStdf
¿kfGt/ ul/G5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;fwf/0f ;]n, 8«fO ;n] cflb . 6r{ nfO6, /]l8of,]
6f« lGh:6/ cflb rnfpg 8f« O ;]nsf] k|ofu] ul/G5 . o;df t/n /f;folgs kbfy{ ko| f]u
gul/g] x“b' f hxf“ txL“ nUg klg ;lsG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
@= kmf6] f] ;n] -Photo Cell_
;f}o{ zlStnfO{ ljB't\ zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f ug]{ pks/0fNffO{ kmf]6f] ;]n elgG5 .
w]/} cf]6f kmf6] f] ;]nx¿ hf]8/] ;f}o{ Aof6«Lsf] lgdf{0f ul/G5 . ;fo} { Aof6«Laf6 kf| Kt xg' ]
ljBt' a\ f6 cfh ef]ln ufpx“ ¿df aQL afNg,] 6]lnlehg rnfpg,] sDKo6' / rnfpg] cflb
ljleGg sfo{ ul/G5 .
#= 8fOgfdf] / hg] /] 6] / -Dynamo and Generator_
h]g]/]6/ Pp6f ljB't\ pTkfbg ug]{ pks/0f
xf] . o;n] w/] } dfqfdf ljBt' \ pTkfbg ug{ ;S5 .
h]g/] 6] /af6 pTkfbg ul/g] ljBt' \ ;:tf] klg k5{ .
h]g/] 6] /af6 ljBt' \ pTkfbg ugo{ ;nfO{ tLj| ultdf
3d' fpgk' b5{ . alu/x]sf] kfgL, atf;, afkm zlSt
cflbaf6 h]g]/]6/ 3'dfOG5 . g]kfndf w]/}h;f] ;fOsnsf] 8fOgfdf]
alu/xs] f] kfgLaf6 g} ljBt' \ pTkfbg ul/G5 . o;/L pTkfbg
ul/Psf] ljBt' n\ fO{ hnljBt' \ elgG5 . kxf8sf] le/fnf] hldgaf6 aUg] gbLsf] kfgL 7'nf]
kf]v/Ldf hDdf ul/G5 . cUnf] 7fp“df /x]sf] kf]v/Laf6 kfgLnfO{ kfOkaf6 tn
v;flnG5 . pSt kfgLsf] zlStn] hg] /] 6] / 3D' 5 / ljBt' \ pTkfbg xG' 5 . o:t} ;fOsndf
8fOgfdf] /flvPsf] xG' 5 . ;fOsnsf] kfªu\ f| 3D' bf 8fOgfdf]n] ljB't\ pTkfbg u5{ .
ljB't\ kl/ky
ljm| ofsnfk !
Pp6f 8f« O ;n] , #) ;]ld nfdf] b'O{ 6j' |mf tf/, Pp6f aNa
/ l:jr np] m . tL ;fdu|Lx¿ lrqdf h:t} jm| d ldnfP/
hf8] . ca l:jrnfO{ bafpb“ f -aGb ubf_{ aQL aN5 .
l:jrnfO{ vn' f ubf{ aQL lgE5 . aQL ans] f] cj:yfdf
ljBt' \ kj| fx ePsf] xG' 5 . aQL lges] f] cj:yfdf ljBt' \ kj| fx
/fl] sG5 . l:jr aGb /xG' hn] ljBt' \ lg/Gt/ kj| fx xG' 5 . ljBt' \
lg/Gt/ kj| fx xg' ] u/L ljB't\ ;f| t] , ;'rfns tf/ / ljB't\ pks/0f -aQL_ hf]8]/ agfOPsf]
kynfO{ ljBt' \ kl/ky elgG5 . oxf“ 8f« O;n] ljB't\ ;|f]t / aQL ljB't\ pks/0f x'g\ . ljBt' \
sf] dbtn] ;~rfng x'g] sg' } pks/0fnfO{ ljB't\ pks/0f elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
ljB'ts\ f] pkof]u ug{ ljBt' \ kl/ky agfpg' h?/L 5 . ljBt' \ kl/kydf ;'/lIft tj/n]
lg/Gt/ ljB't\ k|jfx x'G5 . ljB't\ kl/ky agfp“bf ljB't\ lglb{i6 af6f] / :yfgaf6
axG5 . 3/df cfkl" t{ x'g] zlStzfnL ljB't\ gfª\uf] xftn] 5fO] Pdf ljB't\ em8s\ f nfUg
;S5 . ljBt' \ em8s\ fn] xfdf| ] dT[ o';d]t xg' ;S5 . Aof6«L / ;]naf6 pTkfbg x'g] ljB't\ sdhf]/
xG' 5 . To;af6 ljBt' \ em8s\ f nfUb}g . tk} lg ;a} vfnsf] ljB't\ ko| f]u ug{ agfOPsf] ljB't\
kl/kydf gfª\uf] xftn] g5'g' /fdf| ] xG' 5 .
;r' fns (Conductor)
lj|mofsnfk @
ljm| ofsnfk ! df Pp6f tf/ eP/ ljBt' \ kj| fx ePsf] xfdLn] bV] of“} . o;/L ljBt' \ kj| fx xg' ;Sg]
kbfyn{ fO{ ;r' fns elgG5 . tfdf, ;g' , rfb“ L, lkTtn, uf| kmfO6 cflb ;r' fnssf pbfx/0f xg' \ .
h'g j:ta' f6 ljBt' \ k|jfx x'g ;S5 To:tf] j:t'nfO{ ;'rfns elgG5 . tfdfsf] tf/ ;r' fns
xf] . To:t} cGo k|sf/sf wftx' ¿ klg ;'rfns g} x'g\ .
ljm| ofsnfk #
sf7, /a/, Knfl:6s, 9ª' u\ f, l;Ssf, lkg, lsnf
O/]h/, l;;fsndleqsf] n]8sf] 6'j|mf cflb ljleGg
j:t'x¿ ;ª\sng u/ . Pp6f 8f« O;]nnfO{ tn lrqdf
bv] fP h:t} tf/x¿n] aNa;“u hf]8/] 6]k nufpm .
lrqdf h:t} tf/sf] A 5p] / csf{] tf/sf] B 5p] n] AB
l;SsfnfO{ hf8] ]/ x/] , aQL aN5 . aQL an]sf] x'gfn]
l;Ssfaf6 ljBt' \ kj| fx x'G5 egL yfxf kfpgk' 5{ .
l;Ssf cfndf]lgod wfta' f6 ag]sf] x“b' f ;'rfns xg' \ . l;Ssf ;ª\sng ul/Psf 7fp“df
ljleGg j:t'x¿ /fv]/ x/] . sg' s'g j:t' /fVbf aQL aN5 / sg' /fVbf aQL aNb}g < tn
tflnsfdf l6kf]6 u/ .
j:t'sf] gfd aQL aN5 aQL aNb}g ;r' fns crfns cw{rfns
l;Ssf
====
====
n]8 aQL dw'/f] aN5
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
crfns (Insulator)
dflysf] ljm| ofsnfkaf6 yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 ls 9'ª\uf, /a/, O/]h/, Knfl:6s cflbaf6
ljBt' \ kj| fx x'b“ }g . o:tf j:tx' ¿ crfns x'g\ .
hg' j:t'af6 ljBt' \ k|jfx x'b“ }g To:tf j:tn' fO{ crfns elgG5 .
Knfl:6s crfns ePsfn] tf/sf] aflx/ Knfl:6sn] 9fss] f] x'G5 . o;f] ubf{ tf/sf]
aflx/ 5“'bf klg ljB't\ em8\sf nfUbg} .
cw{rfns (Semi Conductor)
ljm| ofsnfk ! df n]8sf] 6'jm| faf6 ljBt' \ kj| fx u/L aQL afNbf s]xL dw/' f] aN5 .
n]8af6 ljBt' \ cfl+ zs ¿kn] dfq k|jfx x'G5 . To;n} ] aQL dw'/f] ans] f] xf] . cf+lzs
¿kn] ljBt' \ k|jfx ug{] j:t'nfO{ cwr{ fns elgG5 . n]8, l;lnsg cflb cwr{ fnssf
pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\ .
ko| fu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk
Pp6f ;fwf/0f ljBt' \ kl/ky tof/ u/L lj|mofsnfk # df lbOPcg';f/ j:tx' ¿ ;ª\sng
u/ / k|ofu] u/L ;r' fns, crfns / cw{rfns j:t' 5'6\ofpm .
kl/of]hgf sfo{
!= sfutL, ;'Gtnf, :ofp cflb ljleGg kmnk"mnx¿ ;ª\sng u/ . kT| o]sdf kfnk} fnf]
b'O{ 6j' |mf An]8 jf tfdfsf] / h:tfsf] kftf 3;' fpm . tL kftfx¿nfO{ tf/n] hf]8/]
;fgf] rD' asLo l;of] /fv/] x]/ . cjnf]sg u/ / lgisif{ n]v .
@= Pp6f Knfl:6ssf] ef8“ fdf clnslt tfhf ufa] / ;ªs\ ng u/ . To;df kfgL ld;fP/
n]bf] agfpm . To;df Pp6f tfdfsf] kftf / h:tfsf] kftf 8'afpm . tL bO' { kftfx¿
tf/n] hf8] ]/ ljB't\ k|jfx eP gePsf] DofUgl] 6s lg8nåf/f kQf nufpm .
;f/fz+
!= ljB't\ bl} gs hLjgdf cToGt pkof]uL zlSt xf] .
@= ljB'ts\ f kd| 'v ;f| t] x¿ ;n] , kmf]6f] ;n] / hg] /] ]6/ xg' \ .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
#= ljBt' \ ;f| t] , tf/, pks/0f / l:jrnfO{ ljB't\ lg/Gt/ kj| fx x'g ;Sg] u/L hf]l8Psf]
aGb kynfO{ ljB't\ kl/ky elgG5 .
$= ljBt' \ k|jfx ;lhn} x'g] j:tn' fO{ ljB't\sf] ;r' fns elgG5 .
%= ljBt' \ kj| fx gx'g] j:tn' fO{ ljB'ts\ f] crfns elgG5 .
^= ljBt' \ cf+lzs ¿kn] kj| fx xg' ] j:tn' fO{ cwr{ fns elgG5 .
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“ e/ M
-s_ 8«fO;]nn] ================ zlStnfO{ ljBt' \ zlStdf ?kfGt/ u5{ .
-v_ ljB't\ pTkfbg ug]{ pks/0fnfO{ ================== elgG5 .
-u_ tLj| ultdf au]sf] kfgLaf6 pTkfbg ul/g] ljBt' n\ fO{ ============== elgG5 .
-3_ ljB't\ k|jfx ug{] j:t'nfO{ ================ elgG5 .
-ª_ cfl+ zs ¿kn] ljB't\ kj| fx ug{] j:t' ================== xf] .
-r_ ljBt' s\ f] k|ofu] ug{ ================== agfpg' h?/L 5 .
@= lbOPsf pQ/x¿dWo] Pp6f ;xL pQ/ 5fg M
-s_ k|sfznfO{ ljBt' \df ?kfGt/ ug]{ pks/0f sg' xf] <
-c_ /f;folgs ;n] -cf_ kmf]6f] ;n]
-O_ 8fOgfdf] -O_{ hg] ]/]6/
-v_ tn lbOPsf dWo] sg' pks/0fn] w]/} j/] ljB't\ pTkfbg ug{ ;St}g <
-c_ ;fwf/0f ;n] -cf_ 8«fO ;n]
-O_ kmf6] f] ;]n -O_{ 8fOgfdf]
-u_ au]sf] kfgLaf6 ljBt' \ pTkfbg ug{ sg' pks/0f rflxG5 <
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-c_ ;fwf/0f ;n] -cf_ 8«fO ;]n
-O_ 8fOgfdf] -O{_ h]g]/]6/
-3_ ;'rfns j:t' s'g xf] <
-c_ 9ª' \uf -cf_ n]8
-O_ tfdf -O{_ /a/
-ª_ tn lbOPsf dWo] crfns j:t' s'g xf] <
-c_ lkQn -cf_ kmnfd
-O_ rf“bL -O{_ Knfl:6s
-r_ cf+lzs ¿kn] ljB't\ k|jfx ug{] j:tn' fO{ s] elgG5 <
-c_ rfns -cf_ cwr{ fns
-O_ s'rfns -O{_ crfns
#= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ n]v M
-s_ kmf]6f] ;]n eg]sf] s] xf] <
-v_ hnljBt' \ egs] f] s] xf] < hnljB't\ pTkfbg ug{] ljlw 5f]6s/Ldf nv] .
-u_ Pp6f ;n] , tf/, aQL / l:jr hf8] s] f] kl/kysf] lrq sf/] / ljleGg efux¿sf]
gfd nv] .
-3_ ljBt' \ kl/ky eg]sf] s] xf] < o;sf] dxŒj s] 5, nv] .
-ª_ tfdfsf] tf/ jl/kl/ Knfl:6sn] lsg 9fs]sf] xG' 5 <
-r_ crfns j:t' s]nfO{ elgG5 < bO' {cf6] f pbfx/0f nv] .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
( kbfy{
(Matter)
xfd|f] jl/kl/ ljleGg k|sf/sf j:t'x¿ kfOG5g\ . h:t} M kfgL, xfjf, 9'ª\uf, 6]a'n,
lstfa cflb . j:t'x¿sf /ª, uGw, cfsf/ / cGo u'0fx¿ km/s km/s xG' 5g\ . tyflk
ltgLx¿sf s]xL ;femf u'0fx¿ x'G5g\ . dfly plNnlvt j:tx' ¿sf ;femf u0' fx¿ s] s]
x'g\ . ltdL eGg ;S5f} < kfgL, xfjf, 9ª' \uf, 6]an' / lstfasf] lk08 x'G5 . o;}u/L tL
;as} f] cfotg klg xG' 5 . o;/L lk08 / cfotg ePsf j:t'x¿nfO{ kbfy{ elgG5 .
;a} kbfyx{ ¿ ;;fgf k/df0f' tyf c0f'af6 ags] f] xG' 5 . k|sfz, cfjfh, 5fof cflbsf]
lk08 / cfotg x'b“ }g . To;}n] ltgLx¿ kbfy{ xfO] gg\ .
kbfy{sf ef}lts u'0fx¿ -Physical Properties of Matter_
kbfy{sf ljleGg u'0fx¿ x'G5g\, h:t} M kbfy{sf] lglZrt lk08 x'G5, cfotg x'G5,
/ª x'G5, uGw x'G5 / :jfb x'G5 . oLdWo] xfdLn] oxf“ kbfy{sf] lk08 / cfotgaf/]
dfq 5nkmn ug{] 5f}“ .
-s_ kbfy{sf] lglZrt lk08 xG' 5 .
ljm| ofsnfk !
cfkm\ gf bO' {cf]6} xft km}nfP/ /fv / Pp6f ;fyLnfO{ Pp6f
xftdf O“6f / csf]{ xftdf pq} ;fOhsf] sf7sf] 6'jm| f /fVg
nufpm . ca s'g a9L ux'|ªu\ f] cge' j xG' 5 eg < O“6f a9L
ux'|ª\uf] x'G5, lsgls O“6fsf] lk08 sf7sf lk08eGbf a9L
xG' 5 . o;/L 7f;] j:ts' f] lglZrt lk08 xG' 5 . pxL cfsf/
sf bO' c{ f6] f lunf; np] m . Pp6fdf kfgL /fv / bO' { cf6] f
lunf; prfn]/ s'g ux'|ªu\ f] 5 kQf nufpm .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
lj|mofsnfk @
pxL ;fOhsf xfjf gel/Psf bO' c{ f6] f an] g' np] m . Pp6f an] g' df
dv' n] xfjf e/ / csf{] an] g' nfO{ xfjf ge/L /fv . ca bj' } an] g' nfO{
;Gtl' nt ¿kdf ldnfOPsf] Pp6f kftnf] sf7sf] 58sf] Ps csf{
5p] df emG' 8o\ fpm . sg' a]n'g tnlt/ em'S5 xf]nf, cjnfs] g
u/ < xfjf el/Psf] a]n'g tnlt/ emS' 5 . o;af6 xfjfsf]
-kbfy_{ lk08 x'G5 eGg] yfxf x'G5 .
dflysf ko| fu] af6 xfjf, O“6f, sf7 / kfgLsf] lk08 xG' 5 eGg] kbfy{sf] lglZrt lk08 x'G5
yfxf x'G5 . s'g} klg j:t'df ePsf] kbfys{ f] kl/df0f -quantity of matter_ nfO{ To;
j:t'sf] lk08 elgG5 .
-v_ kbfy{sf] cfotg xG' 5 .
lj|mofsnfk #
af]tndf kfgL /fv . ca kfgLn] 7fp“ cf]u]6]sf] b]Vg
;lsG5 . lsgls kfgLsf] 7fpd“ f s'g} csf{] j:t' /fVg ;ls“bg} .
o:t} Pp6f sfr“ sf] lunf; np] m / To;df klg kfgL 6Dd e/ .
ca Pp6f kfgL g;f:] g] 9ª' u\ fsf] 6j' m| f np] m / kfgL ePsf] lunf;df
8a' fpm . kfgL ePsf] lunf;df 9ª' u\ f /fVbf kfgL kf]lvG5 .
o;af6 yfxf xG' 5 ls 9'ªu\ fn] 7fp“ cf]u6\5 . 9'ª\ufn] cfu] 6] s] f]
7fp“ g} 9ª' u\ fsf] cfotg xf] . 9'ªu\ fn] 7fp“ cfu] 6s] f]
kbfys{ f ljleGg cj:yfx¿ -States of Matter_
kbfy{ ltg cj:yfdf /xg ;S5 . tL cj:yfx¿ xg' \ M 7f];, t/n / Uof; . ;fwf/0f
tfkjm| ddf dg} -wax_ 7f];, kfgL t/n / clS;hg Uof; cj:yfdf kfOG5 .
7f;] -Solid_
7f]; kbfy{sf] cfÇg} cfsf/ / lglZrt cfotg x'G5 . ;fdfGotof logLx¿ s8f
x'G5g\ . h:t} M 9'ª\uf, uR' rf, lunf;, O6“ f OToflb .
t/n -Liquid_
t/n kbfy{sf] lglZrt cfotg x'G5 t/ lglZrt cfsf/ xb“' }g . h:tf] ef“8fdf /fVof]
o;n] To:t} cfsf/ lnG5 . logLx¿ aUg] ub5{ . h:t} M kfgL, k6] «f]n, l8h]n, dl6tn] ,
cNsfx] n OToflb .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
Uof; -Gas_
Uof;sf] cfÇgf] lglZrt cfsf/ / cfotg xb“' g} . h:tf] ef8“ fd] f /fVof] To:t} cfsf/ / cfotg
xG' 5 . h:t} M xfjf, clS;hg, gfO6f« h] g, sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8, xfO8f« h] g, ldyg] OToflb .
kbfys{ f] cj:yfdf kl/jtg{ -Change of States of Matter_
;fwf/0f tfkj|mddf kbfy{sf tLg cj:yfx¿ xG' 5g\ . ttfP/ jf lr:ofP/ kbfys{ f] cj:yf
kl/jtg{ ug{ ;lsG5 . ttfP/ 7f;] nfO{ t/n / t/nnfO{ Uof;df kl/jtg{ ug{ ;lsG5 .
j:t'df tfk lbb“ f o;df /xs] f c0f'x¿ ultzLn xG' 5g\ . a9L tfkj|mddf c0fx' ¿ a9L
ultzLn xG' 5g\ / c0fx' ¿sf] larsf] b/' L a95\ cyft{ 7f;] j:t' t/ndf kl/jtg{ xG' 5 .
t/ndf a9L tfk lbb“ f o;sf c0fx' ¿ 56' l\ 6G5g\ / Uof;df kl/jt{g xG' 5 . Uof;nfO{
lr:ofp“bf o;sf c0fx' ¿ Ps csfs{ f] glhsdf cfp5“ / t/ndf kl/jt{g x'G5 . To:t}
t/nnfO{ lr:ofpb“ f o;sf c0f'x¿ k/:k/df 6fl“ ;G5g\ / 7f];df kl/jt{g xG' 5 .
tfk tfk
7f;] t/n Uof;
lr;f] lr;f]
tfkn] 7f]; kbfyn{ fO{ kufn/] t/n cj:yfdf Nofp5“ . ;g' jf rfb“ LnfO{ ttfP/ kufNg
;lsG5 / ljleGg cfsf/sf uxgfx¿ tof/ ul/G5g\ . a/kmnfO{ ttfpb“ f kfgL aG5 .
7f];nfO{ ttfp“bf t/n aGg] k|lj|mofnfO{ kUng] -melting_ elgG5 . s'g} kbfy{sf] kUng]
lj|mof Pp6f lglZrt tfkjm| ddf xG' 5, h;nfO{ kUng] laGb' -melting point_ elgG5 .
a/km 0qC eGbf dflysf] tfkjm| ddf kUng] ub5{ / kfgL aG5 . ljleGg 7f;] j:tx' ¿sf
kUng] laGb' km/s km/s xG' 5g\ .
tfk
a/km kfgL
t/nnfO{ ttfp“bf Uof;df kl/jt{g x'G5 . kfgLnfO{ ttfp“bf kfgLsf] afkm aG5 . afkm
Pp6f Uof; xf] . t/nnfO{ ttfP/ afkm aGg] k|lj|mofnfO{ jfikLs/0f -evaporation_
elgG5 . ;fwf/0f tfk / rfkdf -;d'b| ;txdf_ kfgL 100qC tfkjm| ddf pDnG5 .
tfk
t/n Uof;
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
s]xL kbfy{x¿ h:t} M sk'/, cfof]l8g, Pdf]lgod Snf]/fO8 / lkmgfOn -napthalene_
ufn] LnfO{ ttfp“bf gkUnLsg} l;w} afkm -Uof;_ aG5 . s'g} 7f]; kbfyn{ fO{ ttfp“bf
Uof; aGg] / km]l/ lr:ofp“ bf 7f]; aGg] kl| j|mofnfO{ pWjk{ ftg -sublimation_ elgG5 .
pWjk{ ftg xg' ] sf/0fn] g} logLx¿sf] uGw kmn} G5 .
tfk
7f;] Uof;
Uof;nfO{ lr:ofp“bf t/n kbfy{df kl/jt{g x'G5 . kfgLsf] afkmnfO{ lr:ofpb“ f kfgL
aG5 . Uof;nfO{ lr:ofP/ t/n aGg] k|lj|mofnfO{ bj| Ls/0f -condensation_ elgG5 .
t/nnfO{ lr:ofpb“ f 7f]; kbfy{df kl/jt{g xG' 5 . kfgLnfO{ lr:ofpb“ f a/km aG5 . t/
nnfO{ lr:ofP/ 7f;] aGg] k|lj|mofnfO{ hDg] -freezing_ elgG5 .
lr;f] lr;f]
Uof; t/n 7f];
tŒj, of}lus / ld>0f -Element, Compound and Mixture_
xfdf| ] j/k/ kfOg] kbfyx{ ¿ sg' } z4' / sg' } cz4' xg' ;S5g\ . z4' kbfy{ Pp6} lsl;dsf
c0fx' ¿ -molecules_ af6 ags] f xG' 5g\ . h:t} M tfdf / kfgL z4' kbfy{ xg' \ . tŒj / ofl} us
klg z4' kbfy{ xg' \ . cz4' kbfy{ ljleGg lsl;dsf c0fx' ¿ ldnL ags] f] xG' 5 . ld>0f Pp6f
cz4' kbfy{ xf] . ofl} us / ld>0fnfO{ 6S' o| fpg jf 56' o\ fpg ;lsG5 . kfgL Pp6f ofl} us
xf] . o;nfO{ /f;folgs kl| jm| ofåf/f xfO8f« h] g / clS;hgdf 56' o\ fpg ;lsG5 . wldnf] kfgL
Pp6f ld>0f xf] . o;nfO{ 5fg/] kfgL / afnj' f 56' o\ fpg ;lsG5 . tŒjx¿nfO{ 6S' o| fpg
;lsb“ g} . kmnfd Pp6f tŒj xf], o;nfO{ /f;folgs k|ljm| ofåf/f csf]{ kbfyd{ f kl/jt{g
ug{ ;ls“b}g . xfd|f] j/k/ ljleGg lsl;dsf j:tx' ¿ kfOG5g\ . tLdWo] s]xL j:tx' ¿
Pp6} lsl;dsf kbfy{af6 dfq ag]sf xG' 5g\ .
tŒj -Element_
xfdLn] cfÇgf] b}lgs hLjgdf k|of]udf Nofpg] j:t'x¿ ljleGg kbfy{x¿af6
ag]sf x'G5g\ . h:t} M xfdLn] k|of]u ug]{ ef“8fs'“8fx¿ kf| oM kmnfd / cfndfl] godaf6
ags] f x'G5g\ . uxgfx¿ ;'g / rfb“ Laf6 ags] f x'G5g\ . kmnfd, cfndf]lgod, ;g' ,
rf“bL h:tf kbfyx{ ¿ Ps} ks| f/sf k/df0fx' ¿af6 ag]sf xG' 5g\ . logLx¿nfO{ 6j' |mfP/
csf]{ kbfy{ agfpg ;lsb“ }g . o:tf kbfy{nfO{ tŒj elgG5 . ;;+ f/df kf| s[lts / s[lqd
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
u/L xfn;Dd hDdf !!* cf6] f tŒjx¿ kŒff nfus] f 5g\ . kf| sl[ ts tŒjx¿ hDdf (@
cf]6f 5g\ . afs“ L ;a} s[lqd tŒjx¿ x'g\ . xfO8«f]hg, clS;hg, kmnfd, tfdf, ;g' ,
rf“bL OToflb kf| sl[ ts tŒjx¿ x'g\ eg] Soflnkmf]lg{od, cfOG;6fOlgod OToflb s[lqd
tŒjx¿ xg' \ .
;fwf/0f tfkj|mddf tŒjx¿ 7f];, t/n / Uof; ltg cf]6} cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ .
;'g, rfb“ L, kmnfd OToflb 7f]; cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ . kf/f] / a|f]ldg t/n cj:yfdf
kfOG5g\ . xfO8«f]hg, clS;hg, gfO6f« h] g OToflb Uof; cj:yfdf kfOg] tŒjx¿ xg' \ .
ofl} us -Compound_
xfdLn] cfÇgf] vfgs] /' fdf lrgL, kfgL, vfg] gg' OToflb j:tx' ¿ pkofu] ul//xs] f 5f“} . oL
;a} j:tx' ¿ PseGbf a9L tŒjx¿ ldnL ags] f kbfyx{ ¿ xg' \ . lglZrt cgk' ftdf b'O{
jf b'O{eGbf a9L tŒjx¿lar /f;folgs k|ltljm| of eO{ ag]sf] kbfyn{ fO{ of}lus elgG5 .
h:t} M kfgL, vfg] g'g, lrgL, sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8, nu' f wg' ] ;fag' OToflb . ofl} ussf] ;ae} Gbf
;fgf] s0fnfO{ c0f' -molecule_ elgG5 . ofl} usdf Pp6} lsl;dsf c0f'x¿ x'G5g\ h;df
ljleGg lsl;dsf k/df0f'x¿ x'G5g\ .
xfO8«fh] g clS;hg kfgL
;fl] 8od Snf]l/g -vfg]g'g_ ;fl] 8od Snf]/fO8
sfag{ clS;hg sfa{g8fOcS;fO8
ld>0f -Mixture_
xfd|f] jl/kl/ kfOg] s]xL kbfy{x¿ b'O{ jf b'O{eGbf a9L j:t'x¿ ldnL ag]sf x'G5g\ .
h:t} M xfjf, wldnf] kfgL OToflb . xfjf, gfO6«f]hg, clS;hg, sfa{g8fOcS;fO8
/ w'nf]sf s0fx¿ ldnL ag]sf x'G5g\ . wldnf] kfgLdf kfgL, afn'jf / cGo
j:t'x¿ x'G5g\ . xfdLn] lkpg] lrofdf kfgL, b'w, lrgL / lrofkQL x'G5 . o;/L bO' {
jf bO' {eGbf a9L kbfyx{ ¿ ldl;P/ ag]sf]nfO{ ld>0f elgG5 . ld>0f c;dfg / ;dfg
u/L bO' { ks| f/sf x'G5g\, h:t} M
kfgL afn'jf o wldnf] kfgL -c;dfg ld>0f_
kfgL lrgL o ul' nof] kfgL -;dfg ld>0f_
kfgL vfg] g'g o gl' gnf] kfgL -;dfg ld>0f_
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
k|ofu] fTds lj|mofsnfk
!= 9ª' \uf, kfgL / xfjfsf] lglZrt lk08 / cfotg x'G5 eGg] s/' f ko| f]uåf/f
l;4 u/ .
@= kbfy{sf tLg cj:yfx¿ x'G5g\ eGg] s'/f ko| fu] åf/f bv] fpm .
#= 7f;] nfO{ ttfp“bf l;w} Uof;df kl/jtg{ x'g] kl| j|mof ko| fu] åf/f bv] fpm .
;f/fz+
!= xfdf| ] rf/}lt/ kfOg] ;a} j:tx' ¿ kbfy{ xg' \ .
@= kbfy{sf] cfotg / lk08 x'G5 .
#= s'g} klg j:td' f /x]sf] kbfys{ f] kl/df0fnfO{ To; j:ts' f] lk08 elgG5 .
$= kbfy{n] cfu] 6s] f] 7fpn“ fO{ To; kbfy{sf] cfotg elgG5 .
%= ;fwf/0f tfkjm| ddf kbfys{ f tLg cj:yfx¿ xG' 5g\ . tL xg' \ 7f;] , t/n / Uof; .
^= 7f]; kbfys{ f cfÇg} cfsf/ / lglZrt cfotg xG' 5g\ .
&= t/n kbfy{sf] lglZrt cfotg x'G5 t/ lglZrt cfsf/ x“b' }g .
*= Uof; kbfy{sf] lglZrt cfsf/ / cfotg x'“bg} .
(= tfk 36a9 ePdf kbfy{sf] cj:yfdf kl/jt{g x'G5 .
!)= s'g} kbfy{nfO{ 6S' |ofP/ gof“ j:t' aGg ;Sb}g, To:tf] kbfyn{ fO{ tŒj elgG5 .
!!= lglZrt cg'kftdf b'O{ jf bO' {eGbf a9L tŒjx¿lar /f;folgs k|ltljm| of eO{ ag]
sf] kbfyn{ fO{ of}lus elgG5 .
!@= bO' { jf bO' e{ Gbf a9L j:tx' ¿ ldl;P/ ags] fnfO{ ld>0f -mixture_ elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“ e/ M
-s_ kbfys{ f] ============== / ============== x'G5 .
-v_ ;a} kbfy{n] ================ cfu] 6g\ ] ub{5 .
-u_ t/n kbfys{ f] lglZrt cfotg xG' 5 t/ lglZrt ============= x“b' g} .
-3_ tfkn] ubf{ kbfy{sf] ============= kl/jt{g xG' 5 .
@= tn lbOPsf pQ/x¿dWo] Pp6f ;xL pQ/ 5fg M
-s_ ;fwf/0f tfkj|mddf Uof; cj:yfdf kfOg] tŒj sg' xf] <
-c_ kmnfd -cf_ clS;hg -O_ ;'g -O_{ kf/f]
-v_ ;fwf/0f tfkj|mddf t/n cj:yfdf kfOg] tŒj s'g xf] <
-c_ rf“bL -cf_ kmnfd -O_ a|fl] dg -O{_ ;'g
-u_ ;db' | ;txdf a/kmsf] kUng] laGb' slt xG' 5 <
-c_ 0qC -cf_ 100qC -O_ 200qC -O_{ 50qC
-3_ ;d'bL| ;txdf kfgLsf] pDng] laGb' sg' xf] <
-c_ 0qC -cf_ 100qC
-O_ 400qC -O_{ 200qC
-ª_ xfjf s] xf] <
-c_ tŒj -cf_ ld>0f
-O_ ofl} us -O_{ oLdWo] s]xL xf]Og
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-r_ t/naf6 Uof; aGg] kl| j|mofnfO{ s] elgG5 <
-c_ jfikLs/0f -cf_ pWj{kftg
-O_ hDg] -O{_ kUng] lj|mof
#= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ n]v M
-s_ kbfy{ egs] f] s] xf] < kbfys{ f s'g} b'O{ u0' fx¿ nv] .
-v_ kbfy{sf tLg cj:yfx¿ s] s] xg' \ < Ps Pscf6] f pbfx/0f;lxt n]v .
-u_ a/kmnfO{ ttfpb“ f lsg kfgLdf kl/jtg{ x'G5 <
-3_ bl} gs hLjgdf k|ofu] xg' ] sg' } rf/ tŒjx¿sf] gfd n]v .
-ª_ bl} gs hLjgdf k|ofu] x'g] sg' } rf/ of}lusx¿sf] gfd n]v .
-r_ t/nnfO{ ttfpb“ f lsg Uof;df kl/jtg{ xG' 5 <
$= tnsf zAbx¿nfO{ kl/eflift u/ M
-s_ tŒj -v_ ld>0f -u_ of}lus
-3_ jfikLs/0f -ª_ pWj{kftg -r_ kUng] lj|mof
%= km/s 5'6o\ fpm M
-s_ 7f;] kbfy{ / t/n kbfy{
-v_ tŒj / of}lus
-u_ of}lus / ld>0f
-3_ jfikLs/0f / pWj{kftg
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
!) ld>0f
(Mixture)
xfdLn] cfÇgf] b}lgs hLjgdf ljleGg ks| f/sf j:tx' ¿ pkof]u ub{5f“} . h:t} M rfdn,
kfgL, lrof, bw' cflb . rfdndf 9ª' u\ f, wfgsf] laof] ldl;Psf] klg kfOG5 . lrof agfpb“ f
kfgL, bw' , lrofkQL, lrgL ldl;Psf] xG' 5 . o;} u/L xfjfdf clS;hg, sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8
/ cGo Uof;x¿ ldl;Psf] xG' 5 . o;/L bO' { jf bO' e{ Gbf a9L kbfyx{ ¿ ldnL ags] f
j:t'x¿nfO{ ld>0f elgG5 . h'g j:t'x¿af6 ld>0f ags] f xG' 5g\ ltgLx¿nfO{ ld>0fsf
cjojx¿ -components_ elgG5 . xfjf Pp6f ld>0f xf] . of] gfO6f« ]hg, clS;hg,
sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 / cGo Uof;x¿ ldnL ags] f] xG' 5 . t;y{ gfO6f« h] g, clS;hg,
sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 / cGo Uof;x¿ xfjfsf cjojx¿ xg' \ . ld>0fdf /xs] f cjojx¿sf
u0' fx¿ oyfjt\ /xG5g\ / logLx¿sf] lglZrt cgk' ft klg x'b“ g} . ld>0fdf /xs] f
cjojx¿nfO{ efl} ts ljlwåf/f ;lhn;} “u 56' \ofpg ;lsG5 .
ld>0fsf k|sf/ -Types of Mixture_
xfdLn] bl} gs hLjgdf ljleGg ks| f/sf ld>0fx¿ ko| fu] ub5{ f“+} . xfdLn] udLs{ f lbgx¿df
ljleGg k|sf/sf kmnx¿sf] /;, ;j{t, 7G8f kbfy{x¿ k|of]u ub{5f}“ . oL ;a} j:t'x¿df
ljleGg k|sf/sf cjojx¿ ldl;Psf xG' 5g\ . lrofdf lrofkQL, kfgL, b'w / lrgL
xfnL ksfOPsf] x'G5 . jiffo{ fddf vf]nfsf] kfgL wldnf] bl] vG5 . vfn] fsf] kfgLdf
df6f] jf afnj' fsf s0fx¿ ;lhn};u“ b]lvG5 . vfgf vfb“ f slxns] fxL“ rfdn / bfndf
9'ªu\ f jf O6“ fsf ;;fgf 6j' m| fx¿ e]6fp“5f}“ . logLx¿ g} ld>0fsf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\ .
o;/L ld>0fdf /x]sf cjojx¿sf cfwf/df ld>0f b'O{ k|sf/sf xG' 5g\ .
-s_ ;dfg ld>0f -Homogeneous Mixture_ /
-v_ c;dfg ld>0f -Heterogeneous Mixture_
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
lj|mofsnfk !
b'O{cf]6f lunf; n]pm . k|To]s lunf;df cfwf cfwf
kfgL /fv . ca Pp6f lunf;df Ps rDrf gg' jf lrgL
/fv . csf]{ lunf;df Ps rDrf afn'jf jf df6f]
/fv . bj' } lunf;nfO{ Pp6f sf“r jf Knfl:6ssf] dl;gf]
58n] /fd|/L rnfpm . ca ;fyLx¿nfO{ ;fw] , kfgLdf
ldl;Psf] g'g jf lrgL jf afn'jf cfv“ fn] b]Vg ;lsG5 ls afnj' f / kfgL lrgL / kfgL
;ls“b}g < s] kfgLdf 3'n]sf] g'g jf lrgLnfO{ b]Vg
;lsG5 < ca kml] / b'j} lunf;nfO{ Psl5g l:y/ cj:yfdf /fv / ;fyLnfO{ ;fw] . b'j}
lunf;df ePsf gg' jf afn'jfdf s] kl/jtg{ xG' 5 < g'g jf lrgL 3'n/] lalng xG' 5, lunf;sf]
lkw“ df lylu|g] ub{g} . afnj' f kfgLdf lalng x“'b}g lunf;sf] lk“wdf lylug| ] ub{5 .
o;/L ld>0fdf /xs] f j:t'x¿ jf cjojx¿ cfk;df ;dfg ¿kn] ldl;Psf 5g\ eg] To:tf]
ld>0fnfO{ ;dfg ld>0f elgG5 . gg' kfgLsf] 3fn] jf lrgLkfgLsf] 3fn] ;dfg ld>0f xf] .
t/ ld>0fdf /x]sf j:tx' ¿ jf cjojx¿ ;dfg ¿kn] ldl;Psf 5g} g\ eg] To:tf] ld>0fnfO{
c;dfg ld>0f elgG5 . kfgLdf ldl;Psf] afnj' f jf vfn] fsf] wldnf] kfgL c;dfg ld>0f xf] .
ld>0f 56' o\ fpg] tl/sf -Methods of Separating Mixtures_
xfdLnfO{ yfxf 5 ls bO' { jf bO' e{ Gbf a9L j:tx' ¿ ldl;Psf] kbfy{nfO{ ld>0f elgG5 .
ld>0fdf /xs] f cjoj -j:tx' ¿_ cgfjZos ePdf jf pkofu] L j:tx' ¿ kf| Kt ugs{ f nflu
ld>0f 56' \ofpg] ul/G5 . ld>0fdf /x]sf cjojx¿nfO{ cfk;df cnUofpg] ljlwnfO{
5'6\ofpg] -separation_ elgG5 . ld>0fdf /x]sf cjojx¿nfO{ To;sf u'0fx¿sf cfwf/
df cfk;df 56' o\ fpg ;lsG5 . ld>0fx¿nfO{ 56' o\ fpg] w/] } ljlwx¿ 5g\ . To;dWo] oxf“
xfdL lyUof| pg,] 5fGg,] lgkmGg], rfNg] / r'DasLo ljlwsf af/d] f dfq 5nkmn ug]{ 5f“} .
lyUof| ofpg] / vGofpg] -Sedimentation and Decantation_
lyUo|fpg] / vGofpg] ljlwåf/f t/n kbfy{df ldl;Psf c3'ngzLn 7f;] jf cGo t/n
ux'ª| \uf] kbfy{x¿ 56' \ofpg ;lsG5 . h:t} M kfgLdf df6f] jf afnj' f ldl;Pdf of]
lj|mofåf/f kfgL / df6f] jf afnj' fnfO{ 56' \ofOG5 .
ljm| ofsnfk @
Pp6f lunf; jf las/ np] m . To;df clnslt df6f] jf afnj' f /fv / To;nfO{ sf“rsf]
58n] /fd/| L rnfpm . df6f] jf afnj' f kfgLdf c3'ngzLn ePsf sf/0fn] df6f] jf afn'jf
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
kfgLdf 3'Nb}g . kfgL / df6f] jf afn'jf ld>0fnfO{ Psl5g l:y/ x'g] u/L /fv . ca x]/
s] xG' 5 < lunf; jf las/sf] lkw“ df df6f] hDdf x'g yfN5 . kfgLnfO{ df6fa] f6 cnu ug{
las/nfO{ gxNnfO{ la:tf/} csf]{ ef8“ f]df vGofpm . o;af6 ;a} kfgL df6fa] f6 cnu xG' 5 .
o;/L kfgLdf /x]sf c3'ngzLn kbfy{x¿ ef“8f]sf] lk“wdf hDdf x'g'nfO{ lyu|g]
-sedimentation_ elgG5 . 7f];nfO{ grnfOsg kfgLnfO{ Pp6f ef“8f]af6 csf]{
ef8“ fd] f cnu ug{] ljlwnfO{ vGofpg] -decantation_ elgG5 .
5fGg] ljlw -Filtration_
5fGg] ljlwåf/f ljleGg cfsf/sf c3'ngzLn 7f]; kbfy{nfO{ t/n kfgL 5fgs] f]
kbfy{af6 5'6\ofpg ;lsG5 . lrof ksfp“bf lrof kQLnfO{ lrofaf6
;kmf sk8f jf tf/sf] 5fGg] hfnLsf] ;xfotfn] cnu u/s] f] b]vs] f]
xfn} f . of] ljlw g} 5fGg] ljlw xf] . kfgL / afnj' fsf] ld>0fnfO{
klg o; ljlwaf6 5'6o\ fpg ;lsG5 .
ljm| ofsnfk #
Pp6f las/ n]pm . To;df clnslt kfgL tyf afnj' f /fv / sfr“ sf]
58n] rnfpm . dl;gf] sk8f jf dl;gf Kjfnx¿ ePsf] Pp6f tf/
sf] 5Ggf n]pm . dl;gf] sk8f jf tf/sf] 5fGgn] fO{ csf{] las/dfly
/fv . ca kfgL / df6f]sf] ld>0fnfO{ dl;gf] sk8fdfly lj:tf/}
vGofpm . ;kmf kfgL las/df x'G5 / afn'jfsf s0fx¿ sk8fdfly
xG' 5 .
o;} u/L lj1fg k|of]uzfnfdf lkmN6/ k]k/ k|of]u u/]/ klg lkmN6/ k]k/n] 5fg]sf]
c;dfg ld>0fsf cJojx¿nfO{ 5'6\ofpg ;lsG5 . lkmN6/
k]k/ uf]nfsf/ rSsfx¿df sf6L /fv]sf x'G5g\ . o;nfO{
k6\ofP/ ;f]nLsf] cfsf/df /flvG5 . lkmN6/ sfuhsf] ;xfotfn]
wldnf] kfgLaf6 afnj' f / ;kmf kfgL 5fGg ;lsG5 .
o;/L dl;gf] Kjfn ePsf j:t'x¿åf/f c3'ngzLn kbfy{nfO{ t/n kbfy{af6 5'6\ofpg]
ljlwnfO{ 5fGg] ljlw elgG5 . dl;gf] Kjfnaf6 l5//] lg:s]sf] t/n kbfyn{ fO{ lkmN66]« /
dl;gf] Kjfnaf6 l5g{ g;s]sf] af“sL /x]sf] kbfy{nfO{ /l] ;8o\ ' -residue_ elgG5 . ;kmf
kfgL lkmN6]6« / afn'jf /]l;8o\ ' xf] .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
lgkmGg] ljlw -Winnowing_
lgkmGg] ljlwåf/f xn'sf / ux|'ª\uf
7f]; j:t'x¿sf ld>0fnfO{ 5'6\ofpg
;lsG5 . xfdLn] ufp“3/df wfgaf6 e';
56' \ofpg] tl/sf bv] ]sf 5f}“ . o; ljlwdf wfg lgkmg]sf]
wfg / e';sf] ld>0fnfO{ ls;fgn] clnslt prfOaf6
wfgnfO{ gfªu\ nfs] f] ;xfotfn] v;fNg] ub5{ g\ . wfg ux|'ª\uf] / e;' xn'sf x'G5 . xfjfsf]
axfjn] e';nfO{ 6f9f k'¥ofp5“ / wfg ux'ª| u\ f] ePsf sf/0fn] glhs} v:5 . o;/L
xfjfsf] ;xfotfn] xns' f] / ux'ª| u\ f] 7f]; ld>0fnfO{ 5'6o\ fpg] ljlwnfO{ lgkmGg] ljm| of
-winnowing_ elgG5 .
rfNg] ljlw -Sieving_
rfNg] ljlwaf6 ljleGg ;fOhsf 7f;] sf ld>0fnfO{ 56' \ofpg ;lsG5 . ltdLn] efG5fdf
lk7fd] f ePsf s0fx¿nfO{ rfngLsf] ;xfotfn] 56' o\ fPsf] bv] s] f xfn} f . of] rfNg] ljlw xf] .
lj|mofsnfk $
Pp6f rfngL n]pm . To;df ux“s' f] lk7f] /fv . ca rfngLnfO{ lk7f] rfn]sf]
lj:tf/} lj:tf/} xNnfpg] u/ . uxs“' f] lk7f] tnsf] csf]{ yfndf
v:5 t/ lk7f]df ePsf] rfs] / rfngLdf g} /lx/xG5 .
o;/L rfngLsf] ;xfotfn] ljleGg ;fOhsf 7f;] x¿sf] ld>0fnfO{
56' o\ fpg] ljlwnfO{ rfNg] ljlw -sieving_ elgG5 . 3/ agfpb“ f
afn'jf / 9ª' u\ f 5'6\ofpg] ljm| of klg rfNg] ljlw xf] .
rD' asLo ljlw -Magnetic Separation_
rD' asLo ljlwåf/f sg' } ld>0fdf /x]sf rD' asLo kbfyx{ ¿ -magnetic substances_ sf
s0fx¿nfO{ 5'6\ofpg ;lsG5 . o; ljlwdf r'Dassf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . o; ljlwdf
ld>0fnfO{ Pp6f sfuh jf sf8a{ f8] s{ f] yfndf /flvG5 / rD' asnfO{ pSt ld>0fsf] rf/l} t/
3d' fOG5 . o; k|sf/ ld>0fdf /xs] f rD' asLo kbfyx{ ¿ rD' asdf 6fl“ ;G5g\ / r'DasLo
kbfy{nfO{ rD' asaf6 cnUofOG5 . o; ljlwaf6 crD' asLo u'0f ePsf j:t'x¿nfO{
5'6\ofpg ;lsb“ }g .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
lj|mofsnfk %
kmnfdsf s0f / afn'jf n]pm . b'j}nfO{ cfk;df ld;fpm . ca pSt ld>0fnfO{
sfuhdf 5//] /fv . Pp6f r'Das np] m / To;nfO{ ld>0fsf] rf/}lt/ 3'dfpm . s] xG' 5
xfn] f < 5nkmn u/ / nv] . afnj' fdf /x]sf kmnfdsf s0fx¿ r'Dasdf 6fl“ ;G5g\ . o;/L
s'g} ld>0fdf /xs] f r'DasLo kbfyx{ ¿nfO{ rD' assf] ;xfotfn] 56' o\ fpg] ljlwnfO{ r'DasLo
ljlw elgG5 .
k|ofu] fTds lj|mofsnfk
!= ljm| ofsnfk ! cWoog u/L c;dfg / ;dfg ld>0f ko| fu] åf/f 56' o\ fpm .
@= ljm| ofsnfk @ cWoog u/L afn'jf / kfgLsf] ld>0f 56' o\ fpg] ljlwsf]
k|of]ufTds ljm| ofsnfk u/ .
#= ljm| ofsnfk # sf] cWoog u/L lkmN6/ k]k/sf] ;xfotfn] kfgL / afn'jf
ld>0f 5'6\ofpg] ljlw ko| f]ufTds skLdf nv] L b]vfpm .
$= ljm| ofsnfk % sf] cWoog u/L afnj' f / kmnfdsf s0fsf] ld>0fnfO{
5'6\ofpg] ljlw k|of]u u//] b]vfpm .
;f/f+z
!= b'O{ jf bO' {eGbf a9L kbfyx{ ¿ ldl;P/ ag]sfnfO{ ld>0f elgG5 .
@= ld>0fdf /x]sf cjojx¿sf] cj:yfcg';f/ c;dfg ld>0f / ;dfg ld>0f
u/L b'O{ k|sf/sf x'G5g\ .
#= ld>0fdf /xs] f cjojx¿ cfk;df ;dfg ¿kn] ldl;Psf 5g\ eg] To:tf] ld>0fnfO{
;dfg ld>0f elgG5 .
$= ld>0fdf /xs] f cjojx¿ cfk;df ;dfg ¿kn] ldl;Psf 5g} g\ eg] To:tf] ld>0fnfO{
c;dfg ld>0f elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
%= ld>0fdf /xs] f cgfjZos / xflgsf/s j:tx' ¿ x6fpg, pkof]uL / z4' j:t' kf| Kt
ug{ ld>0f 56' o\ fpg] ul/G5 .
^= ld>0fdf /x]sf cjojx¿nfO{ cfk;df cnUofpg] ljlwnfO{ ld>0f 5'6\ofpg]
-separation of mixture_ elgG5 .
&= kfgLdf /x]sf c3'ngzLn kbfy{x¿ ef“8f]sf] lk“wdf hDdf x'g'nfO{ lyuo| fpg]
-sedimentation_ elgG5 .
*= dl;gf] Kjfn ePsf j:tx' ¿åf/f c3n' gzLn kbfy{nfO{ t/n kbfya{ f6 56' o\ fpg]
ljlwnfO{ 5fGg] ljlw elgG5 .
(= xfjfsf] ;xfotfn] xn'sf] / uxª'| \uf] 7f;] j:ts' f] ld>0fnfO{ 56' o\ fpg] ljlwnfO{
lgkmGg] -winnowing_ ljm| of elgG5 .
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“ e/ M
-s_ b'O{ jf bO' e{ Gbf a9L kbfyx{ ¿ ldnL ag]sfn] fO{ ================ elgG5 .
-v_ gg' kfgLsf] 3fn] =================== ld>0f xf] .
-u_ vf]nfsf] wldnf] kfgL ============= ld>0f xf] .
-3_ kfgL / tn] sf] ld>0fnfO{ ========= ljlwaf6 56' o\ fpg ;lsG5 .
@= tn lbOPsf pQ/x¿dWo] Pp6f ;xL pQ/ 5fg M
-s_ afn'jf / kfgLsf] ld>0fnfO{ 5'6\ofpg sg' ljlw ko| fu] ug{ ;lsG5 <
-c_ 5fGg] ljlw -cf_ rD' asLo ljlw
-O_ lgkmGg] ljlw -O{_ rfNg] ljlw
-v_ afnj' f / kmnfdsf s0fsf] ld>0fnfO{ sg' ljlwåf/f 5'6\ofpg ;lsG5 <
-c_ lyUo|fpg] ljlw -cf_ r'DasLo ljlw
-O_ 5fGg] ljlw -O{_ rfNg] ljlw
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-u_ tnsf dWo] s'g ld>0f ;dfg ld>0f xf] <
-c_ lrgL / afnj' f -cf_ lrgL / kfgL
-O_ lrgL / kmnfdsf s0f -O_{ lrgL / gg'
-3_ vfg] t]n / kfgLsf] ld>0f s'g lsl;dsf] ld>0f xf] <
-c_ c;dfg ld>0f -cf_ ;dfg ld>0f
-O_ 7f;] x¿sf] ld>0f -O{_ Uof;x¿sf] ld>0f
-ª_ wfgaf6 e;' lgsfNg] ljlwnfO{ s] elgG5 .
-c_ lyUof| pg] ljlw -cf_ 5fGg] ljlw
-O_ rfNg] ljlw -O_{ lgkmGg] ljlw
#= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pŒf/ nv] M
-s_ ld>0f eg]sf] s] xf] < ld>0f slt ks| f/sf x'G5g\ <
-v_ c3'lnt kbfy{nfO{ t/n kbfy{af6 5'6\ofpg] ljlwx¿sf] gfd nv] .
-u_ ld>0fnfO{ 5'6o\ fpgs' f sg' } ltg sf/0f nv] .
$= tnsf zAbx¿ kl/eflift u/ M
-s_ lyUo|fpg] -v_ 5fGg] -u_ lgkmGg]
-r_ /l] ;8\o'
-3_ rfNg] ª_ lkmN66]«
%= tnsf s'g sg' j:tx' ¿ ld;fPdf ;dfg ld>0f / c;dfg ld>0f agfpg
;lsG5 < nv] .
-s_ kfgL -v_ dl6t]n -u_ t]n
-3_ afnj' f -ª_ g'g -r_ lrgL
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
^= tn lbOPsf ld>0fx¿ sg' ljlwaf6 5'6\ofOG5, nv] M
ld>0f 56' \ofpg] ljlw
-s_ ===================
-s_ kfgL afnj' f -v_ ===================
-v_ wfg e;' -u_ ===================
-u_ afnj' f kmnfdsf s0f -3_ ===================
-3_ uxs“' f] lk7f] rfs] /
&= km/s 5'6\ofpm M -v_ z'4 / cz4' j:t'
-3_ lyu|ofpg] / 5fGg]
-s_ ;dfg ld>0f / c;dfg ld>0f
-u_ lgkmGg] / rfNg]
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
!!s]xL pkof]uL
/;fogx¿
(Some Useful Chemical)
xfdLn] b}lgs hLjgdf ljleGg k|sf/sf /;fogx¿af6 ag]sf j:t'x¿ k|of]u
ub{5f}+“ . laxfg} xftd'v ;kmf ug{sf nflu ;fa'g / bf“t dfHgsf nflu 6'yk]:6sf] k|of]u
ub{5f}“ . ;fa'g / 6'yk]:6 /;fogaf6 ag]sf kbfy{x¿ x'g\ . xfdLn] vfgf ksfp“bf
bfn, t/sf/L / crf/df a];f/, cldnf] Pjd\ vfg] gg' xfNg] ub5{ f“} . kfp/f]6L / la:s6'
agfpb“ f vfg] ;f]8f / drf{ xfNg] ul/G5 . xfdLn] ko| f]u ul/g] /;fogx¿sf d'Vo ;f| ]t
ks| [ltdf kfOg] jg:klt / vlgh kbfyx{ ¿ xg' \ . o; PsfOdf bl} gs ko| fu] ug{] sx] L /;fogsf
af/d] f dfq rrf{ ug{] 5f“} .
ljm| ofsnfk !
ltdf| ] efG5f 3/df vfgf agfpgsf nflu k|ofu] xg' ] /;fogx¿ s] s] x'g\ < gfd n]v / tL
j:tx' ¿ sg' s'g k|ofh] gsf nflu pkof]u ul/G5 . ;r" L tof/ u/ .
/;fogx¿ k|of]u x'g] ko| fh] g
sfutL crf/ agfpg
======== ========
-s_ vfg] ;f8] f -Baking Soda_
vfg] ;f]8f as] /L pBf]ux¿df ko| f]u xg' ] d'Vo /;fog xf] . o;sf] /f;folgs gfd
;fl] 8od afOsfaf{g] 6] xf] . of] kfp/f6] L, ss] / la:s6' agfpg] pBfu] x¿df k|ofu]
ul/G5 . o;n] kfp/f6] L, s]s / la:s'6x¿nfO{ kmn' fpgsf ;fy} xn'sf] agfpg]
ub5{ . of] g/d ko] kbfy{ agfpg klg ko| fu] ul/G5 .
lj|mofsnfk @
clnslt vfg] ;f8] f np] m . To;nfO{ db} f jf uxs“' f] lk7fs] f] nb] fd] f ld;fpm . ca To;nfO{ Pp6f
ef8“ fd] f /fvL cfuf]dfly /fv / x]/ . db} fsf] n]bfd] f s] kl/jtg{ xG' 5 < 5nkmn u/L nv] .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-v_ rs' -cldnf_]
r's -cldnf_] sfutL, Hofld/, lgaj' f h:tf kmnsf] /;af6 kf| Kt xg' ] emfn] kbfy{ xf] .
o;sf] :jfb cldnf] x'G5 . o;df ;fOl6s« cDn -citric acid_ x'G5 . of] le6fldg ‘;L’
sf] d'Vo ;f| ]t xf] . rs' cldnf] kmnsf] /;nfO{ cfufd] f ksfP/ tof/ ul/G5 . of] ljleGg
lsl;dsf crf/x¿ agfpg ko| fu] ul/G5 . ;fy} o;n] ljleGg lsl;dsf crf/x¿ w]/}
lbg;Dd ;+/lIft ;fy /fVgdf klg dbt k¥' ofp5“ .
ljm| ofsnfk #
clnslt r's n]pm . o;sf] Ps b'O{ yf]kf lhaf| ]df xfn / o;sf] :jfb s:tf] 5 < 5nkmn u/ .
-u_ lrgL
lrgLsf] /f;folgs gfd ;j' m| fh] xf] . pvs' f] /; / ;v/v08af6 lrgL tof/ kfl/G5 . h:t} M
e'Os“ 6x/, cªu\ /' , s]/f, cfk“ kmnk"mnx¿ cflbdf klg lrgL s]xL dfqfdf kfOG5 . lrgL
;]tf] dl0fesf] ¿kdf /xG5 . lrgL u'lnof] xG' 5 . of] kfgLdf ;lhn} 3'lng] ePsfn]
ljleGg ko] kbfyd{ f o;sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . xfd|f] z/L/sf] /utdf klg s]xL dfqfdf
Un'sf]hsf ¿kdf lrgL kfOG5 . lrgLnfO{ vfgs] /' fx¿ ;+/If0f ug{ klg ko| fu] ul/G5 .
-u_ l3p
l3p ufO{, ljz]ifu/L e}“;Lsf] b'waf6 k|fKt x'g] Ps k|sf/sf] lrNnf] kbfy{ xf] .
sf]7fsf] tfkjm| ddf of] 7f]; cj:yfdf /xG5 . o;sf] /f;folgs gfd 6«fOUnfO;/] fO8
-triglyceride_ xf] . cfhsfn jg:klt t]naf6 ljleGg /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof u/L l3p
agfOG5 h;nfO{ ahf/df jg:klt l3p -8fN8f_ egL lrlgG5 . l3p vfgfn] z/L/nfO{
zlSt kb| fg ub5{ . dflg;sf] z/L/df lrNnf] kbfys{ f] clt cfjZostf xG' 5 . ljleGg
le6fldgx¿ A, D, E / K nfO{ z/L/df ;f;] /] lngsf nflu lrNnf] kbfy{ geO{ xb“' g} .
To;}n] s]xL dfqfdf lrNnf] kbfy{ vfg cfjZos k5{ t/ w]/} dfqfdf vfPdf of] af];f]
df kl/0ft xg' ;S5 .
-ª_ vfg] gg' -Common Salt_
vfg] g'g xfdLnfO{ geO{ gx'g] kbfy{ xf] . o;sf] /f;folgs gfd ;f]l8od
Snf]/fO8 xf] . o;df clnslt DofUg]l;od Snf]/fO8 klg x'G5 . cfhef]ln vfg] g'gdf
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
cfof]l8g klg ld;fOPsf] x'G5 . cfof]l8g o'St g'g vfgfn] aRrfx¿ km'lt{nf] x'g'sf
;fy} unuf“8 xg' af6 klg arfp“5 . vfg] g'g ;db' s| f] kfgLaf6 k|fKt ul/G5 . o;sf]
:jfb g'lgnf] xG' 5 . of] vfg] s/' fx¿df :jfbsf nflu /flvG5 . ;fy} df5f, df;' /
crf/nfO{ ;+/lIft ;fy /fVg klg o;n] dbt ub5{ .
ljm| ofsnfk $
clnslt vfg] gg' n]pm . lha|fd] f xfn / To;sf] :jfb s:tf] 5 ;fyLnfO{ eg .
k|ofu] fTds lj|mofsnfk
lj|mofsnfk @ cWoog u/L vfg] ;f]8f ko| fu] u/L kfp/f]6L tof/ u/ .
;f/f+z
!= xfdLn] cfÇgf] bl} gs hLjgdf ljleGg ks| f/sf /;fogx¿ k|ofu] ub{5f“} .
@= /;fogx¿sf ljleGg u0' f / :jfbx¿ xG' 5g\ .
#= /;fogx¿sf ljleGg pkof]lutfx¿ x'G5g\ .
$= vfg] ;f]8f a]s/L pBfu] x¿df ko| fu] ul/G5 .
%= l3pn] z/L/nfO{ zlSt kb| fg u5{ .
^= crf/ agfpg rs' k|of]u ul/G5 .
&= lrgLnfO{ vfgs] /' fx¿ ;/+ If0f ug{ ko| f]u ul/G5 .
*= vfg] g'g :jfbsf nflu vfg]s/' fdf k|of]u ul/G5 .
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“ e/ M
-s_ l3pn] z/L/nfO{===================================================lbG5 .
-v_ rs' sf] :jfb ======================================================= xG' 5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-u_ lrgL ==================================== ;+/If0f ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
-3_ vfg] gg' sf] /f;folgs gfd ======================================== xf] .
@= tn lbOPsf pQ/x¿dWo] Pp6f ;xL pQ/ 5fg M
-s_ vfg] ;f]8fsf] /f;folgs gfd tnsf dWo] s'g xf] <
-c_ ;f]l8od sfaf]g{ 6] -cf_ ;f]l8od afOsfafg{] 6]
-O_ ;f]l8od ;Nkm6] O_{ ;fl] 8od Snf/] fO8
-v_ r'sdf s'g cDn x'G5 <
-c_ ;fOl6s« cDn -cf_ Pl;l6s cDn
-O_ sfaf]{lgs cDn -O_{ xfO8f« S] nf]l/s Pl;8
-u_ r'ssf] :jfb s:tf] x'G5 <
-c_ cldnf] -cf_ g'lgnf]
-O_ 6/f{] -O{_ :jfbxLg
-3_ vfg] gg' s]af6 tof/ ul/G5 <
-c_ ;db' s| f] kfgLaf6 -cf_ vf]nfsf] kfgLaf6
-O_ kfv] /Lsf] kfgLaf6 -O_{ sj' fsf] kfgLaf6
#= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ n]v M
-s_ b}lgs hLjgdf ko| f]u ul/g] kfr“ cf]6f /;fogx¿sf] gfd nv] .
-v_ vfg] ;f8] fsf] s'g} bO' { pkof]lutf n]v .
-u_ r'ssf] :jfb s:tf] xG' 5 < of] vfgs] '/fdf lsg ko| fu] ul/G5 <
-3_ vfg] gg' sf] :jfb s:tf] x'G5 < o;sf sg' } bO' { pkof]lutf n]Vg'xf];\ .
$= km/s 5'6\ofpm M
-s_ vfg] ;f8] f / vfg] g'g
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
!@ xfjf
(Air)
kY[ jLsf] rf/l} t/ xfjfn] 9fss] f] x'G5 . xfjfsf] txnfO{ jfod' 08n elgG5 . xfjf ;a}
k|f0fLx¿sf nflu clt cfjZos kbfy{ xf] . xfjlagf xfdL af“Rg ;Sb}gf}“ . xfd|f]
rf/l} t/ k|To]s 7fpd“ f xfjf xG' 5 . o;nfO{ xfdL b]Vg ;Sbg} f}“ . o;nfO{ xfdL ;'£g
;Sb}gf“} . xfjfn] :yfg cf]u6g\ ] ub5{ . o;sf] tfn} klg x'G5 . of] k[YjLsf] ;a} 7fpd“ f
x'G5 . ;a} vfnL j:tx' ¿df klg xfjf el/Psf] xG' 5 .
xfjfsf] agf6] -Composition of Air_
xfjf ljleGg Uof;x¿sf] ld>0f xf] . xfjfnfO{ Pp6f tŒjsf] ¿kdf xg] {] ul/GYof] .
O={ ;= !&&% df km| fG;sf j1} flgs ne] fO] h/ -Lavoisier_ n] xfjf ljleGg Uof;x¿sf] ld>0f
xf] egL kd| fl0ft u/] . xfjfdf /xs] f ljleGg Uof;x¿dWo] ;ae} Gbf a9L gfO6f« h] g Uof;
/xs] f] 5 . of] Uof; xfjfdf sl/a kfr“ efusf] rf/ efu /xs] f] 5 . xfjfdf clS;hg,
sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8, lglijm| o Uof; -lxlnod, lgofg] , cfug{ , ljm| K6fg] , lhgg, /8] g_, kfgLsf] afkm
/ wn' fs] f s0fx¿ klg /xs] f xG' 5g\ . jfod' 08nsf] w/] } h;f] 7fpd“ f xfjfsf] agf6] Psg} f;sf]
xG' 5 . t/ xfjfdf kfgLsf] afkm / wn' fs] f s0fx¿sf] dfqf eg] 7fpc“ g;' f/ / Ctc' g;' f/ km/s
km/s xG' 5g\ . cfotgsf cfwf/df xfjfsf] agfj6 lgDgfg;' f/ /xs] f] x'G5 M
Uof; cfotg -k|ltzt_
gfO6f« h] g &*
clS;hg @!
sfa{g8fOcS;fO8 )=)#
lglij|mo Uof; )=(%
kfgL afkm 7fpc“ g';f/ km/s km/s
cGo Uof; )=)@
xfjfdf clS;hg x'G5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
ljm| ofsnfk !
Pp6f ;fgf] ef8“ fdf dg} aQL /fv . To;nfO{ kfgL
ePsf] csf{] ef8“ fdf /fv . To;nfO{ an] hf/
-bell jar_ jf sfr“ sf] Unf;n] 5f]k . a]n
hf/sf] kfgLsf] ;txdf lrx\g nufpm . dg}
aQLnfO{ afn .
a]nhf/sf] d'vnfO{ aGb u/ . d}g aQL kx“n] f] Hjfnf lbO{ aN5 . sx] L l5gdf
ha d}g aQL aNg 5f8] 5\ , ta an] hf/df ePsf] Uof; ;n] fp5“ . To;kl5 kfgLsf]
;tx lj:tf/} dfly r9\5 . xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hg d}g aQL aNbf k|of]u
x'G5 . To;n] ubf{ klg xfjfsf] cfotg 36s] f] xf] / kfgL dfly r9\5 . kfgLsf]
;tx 1/5th n] dfly r95\ .
xfjfdf sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 xG' 5 .
lj|mofsnfk @
Pp6f lunf; n]pm . To;df r'gkfgL /fv . ca Pp6f
dl;gf] gnL -delivery tube_ r'gkfgL ePsf] lunf;df
/fvL dv' n] kmS' b} hfpm . sx] L a/] kl5 rg' kfgL bl' wnf] xG' 5 . o;/L
d'vn] k'mSbf z/L/af6 aflx/ lg:sg] Uof;df sfa{g8fOcS;fO8
x'G5 . o;n] rg' kfgLnfO{ bl' wnf] agfp5“ . xfdLn] Zjf; km]bf{
kmfn]sf] Uof; xfjfdf ldl;P/ /x]sf] xG' 5 . t;y{ o;n] xfjfdf
sfa{g8fOcS;fO8 xG' 5 eGg] kd| fl0ft ub5{ .
xfjfdf kfgLsf] afkm x'G5 .
ljm| ofsnfk #
Pp6f l:6nsf] lunf;df cfwf kfgL /fv / To;df
bO' { rf/ cf6] f a/kmsf 6j' m| f /fv . sx] L l5gkl5 x/] s]
xG' 5 < l:6n lunf;sf] aflx/L ;txdf kfgLsf
yfk] fx¿ bl] vg] 5g\ . kfgLsf oL yf]kfx¿ xfjfdf
ePsf hnjfikx¿ ;o+ fh] g (condensation)
eO{ kfgL ag]sf] xf] . hf8f] dlxgfdf sf“rsf] ‰ofn ePsf] sf7] fdf ‰ofndf kfgLsf yf]kfx¿
b]lvG5 . of] klg xfjfdf ePsf] kfgL lrl;P/ ePsf] xf] . laxfgL kv af6] la?jf / rf}/df
zLtsf] yfk] f -dew_ b]lvg' klg xfjfdf ePsf] hn lrl;P/ g} xf] .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
xfjfsf u'0fx¿ -Properties of Air_
!= xfjf ljleGg Uof;x¿sf] ld>0f xf] .
@= xfjfsf] tfn} x'G5 .
#= xfjfn] :yfg cf]u65\ .
$= xfjfsf] /ª, uGw / :jfb x“b' g} .
%= xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hgn] ubf{ kmnfddf lvof nfU5 .
^= xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hgn] ubf{ j:t' aNg] ub{5 .
&= xfjf Ps :yfgaf6 csf]{ :yfg;Dd kj| fx x'g ;S5 .
*= xfjf sfl] RrP/ /xg ;S5 .
xfjfsf] tf}n x'G5 .
lj|mofsnfk $
Pp6f an] g' n]pm / To;sf] tf}n gfk . ca pSt a]ng' df xfjf e/ . kml] / ;f] a]n'gsf] tf}n gfk .
o; k6s a]n'gsf] tf}n klxne] Gbf a9L xG' 5 . o;/L xfjfsf] tf}n x'G5 eGg] s'/f a‰' g ;lsG5 .
xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hgn] lvof nfU5 .
lj|mofsnfk %
Pp6f k/LIf0f gnL np] m / To;leq kfgL lvof nfus] f]
/fvL To;sf] ;txnfO{ cfl] ;nf] agfpm . sx] L
kmnfdsf] w'nf] jf l:6n pn -steel wool_
n]pm / k/LIf0f gnLdf /fv . kmnfdsf
w'nf]x¿ k/LIf0f gnLdf 6f“l;G5 . kfgL
/fvs] f] las/df k/LIf0f gnLnfO{ 3fK] 6fP/ /fv .
k/LIf0f gnLdf ePsf] kfgLsf] ;txdf lrxg\
nufpm . Ps bO' { lbgkl5 kmnfdsf] wn' f] jf l:6n
pndf lvof nfus] f] bl] vG5 / kfgLsf] ;tx a9s] f]
bl] vg] 5 . lvof nfUbf xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hg ko| fu] xG' 5 . xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hgn] ubf{ g} lvof
nfu]sf] xf] .
sg' } klg ;kmf kmnfdsf] 6j' |mfnfO{ jf lsnfnfO{ cf]l;nf] 7fp“df /fVbf s]xL lbgkl5 kmnfd
/ftf] v/} f] xG' 5 . of] /ftf] v/} f] kbfy{nfO{ lvof -rust_ elgG5 . o:tf] x'g] kl| j|mofnfO{ lvof
nfUg' -rusting_elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
xfjfdf /xs] f k|d'v Uof;x¿sf] kl/ro / pkofl] utf
xfjf ljleGg Uof;x¿sf] ld>0f xf] . xfjfdf gfO6f« ]hg, clS;hg / sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8
kd| v' Uof;sf] ¿kdf /xs] f x'G5g\ . oL Uof;x¿sf cfcfÇg} pkof]lutf 5g\ .
-s_ gfO6f« ]hg -Nitrogen_ M xfjfdf /x]sf Uof;x¿dWo] ;ae} Gbf a9L gfO6f« ]hg
Uof; xf] . o;sf] cfotg xfjfdf sl/a &* k|ltzt x'G5 . ;fwf/0ftof o;n] c¿
kbfy{;“u ;+ofh] g -combination_ ub{}g . o;nfO{ af6] la?jf jf hgfj/n] l;w} ko| f]u ug{
;Sb}gg\ . t/ of] w/] } dxŒjk"0f{ Uof; xf] .
!= o;n] af6] la?jfdf Snf]/f]lkmn -chlorophyll_ agfpg dbt ub{5 . Snf/] f]lkmnsf]
cefjdf af6] la?jf kx“n] f] bl] vG5 .
@= o;n] af]6 la?jfsf] j[l4 / ljsf; xG' 5 .
#= ;a} kf| 0fLx¿n] kf| l] 6g agfpg kT| oIf jf ck|ToIf ¿kdf xfjfdf /x]sf] gfO6«fh] g
pkof]u ub5{ g\ .
$= o;nfO{ lrd -electric bulb_ leq /flvG5 .
-v_ clS;hg -Oxygen_ M xfjfdf /x]sf] gfO6f« ]hg Uof;kl5 bf];f| ] a9L dfqfdf kfOg]
Uof; clS;hg xf] . o;sf] cfotg sl/a @! k|ltzt x'G5 . of] Pp6f ;ljm| o -active_
Uof; xf] . of] ;lhn;} u“ cGo kbfy;{ u“ ;o+ f]hg x'G5 .
!= o;n] j:t' aNgsf nflu dbt k¥' ofp“5 .
@= ;a} hLjx¿n] Zjf;kZ| jf; ljm| ofsf nflu clS;hgsf] pkof]u ub5{ g\ .
#= c:ktfndf /xs] f la/fdLnfO{ sl[ qd Zjf;kZ| jf;sf nflu clS;hgsf] pkofu] ul/G5 .
-u_ sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 -Carbondioxide_ M xfjfdf sl/a )=)# kl| tzt sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8
x'G5 . of] af6] la?jfx¿sf nflu geO{ gxg' ] Uof; xf] . t/ o;nfO{ hgfj/x¿n] l;w} lng
;Sbg} g\ .
!= ;a} xl/of jg:kltx¿n] ks| fz ;Z+ n]if0f lj|mof -photosynthesis process_ ubf{
xfjfdf /xs] f sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8sf] pkof]u ub{5g\ / vfgf agfpg] ub{5g\ .
;;+ f/df ePsf ;a} hgfj/x¿ vfgfsf nflu af6] la?jfdf lge/{ /xG5g\ .
@= cfuf] lgefpg o;sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 .
#= ko] kbfyx{ ¿ h:t} M ;f8] fkfgL, lao/, sfs] cflb agfpg o;sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-3_ kfgLsf] afkm -Water Vapour_ M xfjfdf kfgLsf] afkm 7fp“ / Ct'cg;' f/ km/s
km/s x'G5 . j:t'x¿df x'g] jfikLs/0fn] ubf{ xfjfdf kfgLsf] afkm x'G5 . xfjfdf
/x]sf] kfgLsf] afkmsf] dfqfnfO{ cfbt|{ f -humidity_ elgG5 . xfjfdf /x]sf] kfgLsf] afkm
;a} hLjhGt'x¿sf nflu cToGt} dxŒjk0" f{ xG' 5 .
!= o;n] af6] la?jfsf] kftnfO{ ;'Svf x'gaf6 jf cfO] lngaf6 arfp“5 .
@= o;n] kmnkm" n tyf t/sf/Lx¿nfO{ tfhf / /l;nf] /fVg dbt ub{5 .
#= o;n] hgfj/x¿sf] z/L/nfO{ ;'Svf xg' af6 arfp5“ .
ko| fu] fTds ljm| ofsnfk
!= ljm| ofsnfk ! cWoog u/L xfjfdf clS;hg x'G5 eGg] s'/f k|dfl0ft u/L cfÇgf]
ko| fu] fTds skLdf n]v .
@= ljm| ofsnfk @ cWoog u/L xfjfdf sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 Uof; xG' 5 eGg] ko| fu]
u//] b]vfpm .
#= lj|mofsnfk # cWoog u/L xfjfdf kfgLsf] afkm x'G5 eGg] s'/f bv] fpm .
$= ljm|ofsnfk % cWoog u/L xfjfdf ePsf] clS;hgn] lvof nfU5 egL ko| fu] u/L bv] fpm .
;f/f+z
!= xfjf ljleGg Uof;x¿sf] ld>0f xf] . of] of}lus xfO] g .
@= xfjfdf gfO6f« h] g, clS;hg, sfa{g8fOcS;fO8, lglij|mo Uof;, kfgLsf] afkm /
w'nfsf s0fx¿ xG' 5g\ .
#= xfd|f] rf/}lt/ xfjf xG' 5 .
$= xfjfsf] /ª, uGw / :jfb x'“bg} . t/ o;sf] tfn} x'G5 / :yfg cfu] 6\g] ub5{ .
%= xfjf Ps :yfgaf6 csf{] :yfgdf k|jfx xG' 5 .
^= xfjfdf /x]sf] clS;hgn] ubf{ j:t' aNg] ub5{ . clS;hg gePsf] 7fp“df j:t'
aNg ;Sb}g .
&= xfjfdf ePsf] sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 pkofu] u/L xl/of jg:kltn] vfgf agfpg] ub5{ g\ .
o; kl| jm| ofnfO{ ks| fz ;Z+ ni] f0f elgG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“ e/ M
-s_ xfjf ljleGg Uof;x¿sf] ============== xf] .
-v_ =============== Uof;n] r'gkfgLnfO{ bl' wnf] agfp“5 .
-u_ j:t' aNg ============== Uof; rflxG5 .
-3_ xfjfn] ============== cf]u6\g] ub{5 .
-ª_ =============== 7fpd“ f /fVbf kmnfddf lvof nfU5 .
-r_ =============== af6] la?jfdf Snf]/f]lkmn agfpg dbt ub{5 .
@= lbOPsf pQ/x¿dWo] Pp6f ;xL pQ/ 5fg M
-s_ xfjfdf gfO6f« h] gsf] dfqf slt xG' 5 <
-c_ @! -cf_ &* -O_ )=)# -O{_ #)
-v_ xfjfdf ePsf] s'g Uof;n] ubf{ r'gkfgL bl' wnf] x'G5 <
-c_ sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 -cf_ gfO6f« h] g -O_ lxlnod -O_{ clS;hg
-u_ xfjfdf s'g Uof; x'G5 h;n] ubf{ cfl] ;nf] kmnfddf lvof nfU5 <
-c_ gfO6f« h] g -cf_ sfa{g8fOcS;fO8 -O_ clS;hg -O{_ cfug{
-3_ xfjf s'g k|sf/sf] kbfy{ xf] <
-c_ 7f]; -cf_ ld>0f -O_ ofl} us -O{_ tŒj
#= tnsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ bp] m M
-s_ xfjfdf ePsf Uof;x¿ s] s] xg' \ < ltgLx¿ slt slt kl| tztdf kfOG5g\ <
-v_ xfjfsf s'g} rf/ u'0f nv] .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-u_ xfjfsf s'g} rf/ pkof]lutf n]v .
-3_ xfjfdf kfgLsf] afkm xG' 5 egL s;/L b]vfpg ;lsG5 <
-ª_ gfO6«fh] g Uof;sf s'g} b'O{ pkof]lutf n]v .
-r_ sfa{g8fOcS;fO8 Uof;sf s'g} bO' { pkof]lutf nv] .
-5_ lvof s;/L nfU5 <
$= tnsf zAbx¿nfO{ kl/eflift u/ M -u_ cfb{t| f -humidity_
-s_ jfo'd08n -atmosphere_ -v_ lvof -rust_
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
!#wft' / cwft'
(Metal and Non Metal)
clxn;] Dd !!* cf6] f tŒjx¿ kmn] f kl/;ss] f 5g\ . tŒjx¿sf] cfcfÇgf u0' fx¿sf cfwf/df
o;nfO{ wft,' cwft' / cww{ ft' u/L tLg ju{df ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 . s]xL tŒjx¿
s8f, 6Nlsg], 7fl] sb“ f cfjfh lbg] / tfk Pjd\ ljB'ts\ f] ;'rfns xG' 5g\ . o; ks| f/sf
tŒjx¿nfO{ wft' elgG5 . h:t} M kmnfd, tfdf, ;'g, rfb“ L, cfndf]lgod OToflb . sx] L
tŒjx¿ g/d, g6lNsg,] 7fl] sb“ f cfjfh glbg] / tfk tyf ljBt' \sf sr' fns xG' 5g\ .
o; ks| f/sf tŒjx¿nfO{ cwft' elgG5 . h:t} M ;Nkm/, clS;hg, gfO6f« ]hg, Snf]l/g
sfag{ OToflb . t/ sx] L tŒjx¿df wft' / cwft' b'js} f u'0fx¿ x'G5g\ . o; ks| f/sf
tŒjx¿nfO{ cww{ ft' elgG5 . h:t} M l;lnsg, cf;l{] gs, PlG6dgL, lj:dy, hldl{ god
OToflb . dflg;x¿n] w/] } klxnfbl] v g} wftx' ¿sf] ko| fu] ub{} cfO/xs] f 5g\ . xfdLn]
kmnfd, cfndfl] god, tfdf OToflb wftx' ¿ 3/df vfgf ksfpg] ef8“ fs8“' f agfpg ko| fu]
ub5{ f“} . To:t} u/uxgfsf ¿kdf ;g' / rfb“ Lsf] ko| fu] ub5{ f“} . 3/ agfpg kmnfd, h:tf,
cfndfl] god OToflb wfts' f] ko| fu] ub5{ f“} . a;, sf/, xjfOhxfh, /]n OToflb agfpg
kmnfd / kmnfd ldl>t wft'sf ;fy} cfndfl] godsf] ko| fu] ub5{ f}“ . t;y{ dfgj hLjgdf
wftn' ] dxŒjk0" f{ :yfg cf]u6]sf] 5 . bz] sf] ljsf;df wfts' f] k|of]un] w]/} 7'nf] dxŒj
/fv]sf] x'G5 . hg' bz] df kmnfdsf] k|of]u hlt a9L x'G5 To; bz] nfO{ Tolt g} ;d4[ /
ljsl;t dflgG5 . wftx' ¿ ks| l[ tdf wfts' } ¿kdf xb“' g} . kf| oM h;f] wftx' ¿ ldl>t cj:yfdf
ks| l[ tdf kfOG5g\ . t/ sx] L wftx' ¿ h:t} M ;g' / rfb“ L ks| l[ tdf wfts' } ¿kdf kfOG5g\ .
wfts' f ;fdfGo u0' fx¿ -General Properties of Metals_
7f]; cj:yfdf kfOg] s8f t/ lk6]/ kftnf] tyf nfdf] agfpg ;lsg] tŒjnfO{ wft'
elgG5 . h:t} M kmnfd, tfdf, ;g' , rf“bL OToflb . wftx' ¿sf cfcfÇgf u'0f x'G5g\ t/
sx] L u'0fx¿ ;a} wfts' f Pp6} vfnsf x'G5g\ . oxf“ xfdL wftx' ¿sf] ;fdfGo u0' fx¿sf
af/d] f rrf{ ug{] 5f“} .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
-!_ wft'x¿sf] 6ns xG' 5 .
z4' cj:yfdf wft'x¿ 6lNsg] ub5{ g\ .
lj|mofsnfk !
kmnfd, tfdf, cfndfl] god OToflbsf 6j' |mfx¿ ;ªs\ ng u/ . oL 6j' |mfx¿nfO{ /fd|/L kfgL,
sk8f jf v;f| ] sfuhn] ;kmf u/ . ca tL wft'sf 6'j|mfx¿nfO{ Pp6f ;kmf sfuhdf /fv .
wftx' ¿ 6lNsg yfN5 . wft'x¿n] ks| fznfO{ k/fjt{g ub{5 . To;n} ] 6lNsg] ub5{ . wftx' ¿sf]
6lNsg] u'0fn] ubf{ cfsifs{ b]lvG5 .
-@_ wft'x¿ s8f x'G5g\ .
wftx' ¿ ;fdfGotM s8f xG' 5g\ . t/ of] s8fkg ;a} wftx' ¿df km/s km/s xG' 5 . sx] L
wftx' ¿ h:t} M ;fl] 8od, kf6] fl;od s8f xb“' g} . s8f wftn' fO{ ;lhn;} u“ sf6g\ ;lsb“ g} .
lj|mofsnfk @
kmnfd, tfdf, h:tf, O“6f / sf7sf
6'j|mfx¿ n]pm . ca tL 6'j|mfx¿df
kfn}kfnf] u/L kmnfdsf lsnfn] sf]/]/
x]/ . s'g 6'j|mfx¿df ;lhn};“u
sf]g{ ;lsG5 < cjnfs] g u/ . kmnfd, tfdf / h:tfdf sf]g{ ;ls“b}g hals O“6f / sf7sf
6j' |mfx¿df ;lhn;} “u sf]g{ ;lsG5 . o;af6 yfxf xG' 5 ls kmnfd, tfdf / h:tfx¿ s8f xG' 5g\ .
-#_ wftx' ¿af6 cfjfh pTkGg x'G5 .
wftx' ¿ sg' } csf{] j:t;' u“ 7fl] sb“ f jf cfk;df 7fl] sb“ f Ps k|sf/sf] Wjlg pTkGg xG' 5 .
ljm| ofsnfk #
kmnfd jf tfdfsf 6'j|mf n]pm / To;nfO{ 8f]/Lsf] ;xfotfn]
emG' 8\ofpm . ca kmnfd jf tfdfsf] 6'jm| fnfO{ ;fgf] 58n] lxsf{P/ x/] .
æl6ªÆ cfjfh lg:sG5 . wft'x¿df c0f'x¿ sl:;P/ /x]sfn] cfjfh
lg:sG5 . :s'ndf 3G6L ahfp“bf Ps ks| f/sf] cfjfh lg:sG5 .
-$_ wftn' fO{ lk6]/ kftnf] agfpg ;lsG5 .
k|foh;f] wftx' ¿nfO{ 3g -hammer_ n] 7fs] ]/ kftnf] agfpg ;lsG5 . wftx' ¿sf] o;
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
u'0fnfO{ d]lnPlaln6L -malleability_ elgG5 .
lj|mofsnfk $
kmnfd, h:tf jf cfndf]lgodsf] kftf
np] m . oL kftfx¿sf] rf8} fO x/] . ca
oL kftfx¿nfO{ 3gn] lxsf{pm / o;sf]
rf}8fOdf j[l4 ePsf] 5 ls 5g} x/] .
o;/L 3gn] lxsf{pb“ f o;sf] rf}8fOdf
j[l4 xG' 5 . o;af6 yfxf x'G5 ls wft'nfO{
kftnf] agfpg ;lsG5 .
-%_ wftn' fO{ lk6/] nfdf] agfpg ;lsG5 .
;g' , rf“bL, tfdf, cfndf]lgod, kmnfd OToflb wftn' fO{ ttfP/ lk6b\ f jf tfGbf nfdf]
kftnf] tf/sf] ¿kdf k|fKt x'G5 . wfts' f] o; u'0fnfO{ nfdf] x'g] u'0f -ductility_
elgG5 . Ps uf| d ;'gaf6 nueu bO' { lsnfl] d6/ nfdf] tf/ agfpg ;lsG5 . ;g' sf]
of] u'0fn] u/uxgf agfpg ;lhnf] xG' 5 .
-^_ wftx' ¿ ljBt' \sf ;'rfns xg' \ .
wft'x¿af6 ljBt' \ ;lhn};u“ k|jfx x'G5g\ . tfdf / cfndf]lgodsf] tf/ k|of]u u/L
3/x¿df lahn' Lsf] tf/af6 ljB't\ Nofpg] ul/G5 .
ljm| ofsnfk %
b'O{cf]6f 8«fO;]n, Pp6f cfndf]lgodsf] tf/ /
Pp6f aNa n]pm . tn lrqdf b]vfP h:t} ljB't\
kl/ky agfpm . ca tf/sf] lardf wft'sf]
l;Ssf /fvL l:jr lyr . aNa aN5 ls aNb}g
x]/ . aNa aN5 . o;af6 yfxf xG' 5 ls wft' ljB't\sf]
;r' fns xf] .
-&_ wftx' ¿ tfksf ;'rfns xg' \ .
wft'x¿af6 tfk ;lhn;} “u k;| f/ xG' 5 . wfts' f] o:tf] u0' fn] ubf{ vfgf ksfpgsf nflu
ef“8fs8“' fx¿ wft'af6 agfOG5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
ljm| ofsnfk ^
Pp6f kmnfdsf] 58 / pxL cfsf/sf] sf7sf]
6'j|mf n]pm . b'j}sf] 5]p ;dftL csf]{ 5]p Pp6f kmnfdsf] 58 sf7sf] 6'jm| f
aln/x]sf] d}g aQLsf] Hjfnf glhs /fv .
Psl5gkl5 bj' }df s] km/s bl] vG5, kQf nufpm .
kmnfdsf] 58 l56f] tftf] x'G5 / Ps 5]paf6 tfk
csf{] 5]pdf kU' 5 hals sf7sf] 6'jm| faf6 tfk k|;f/0f
x“'bg} . o;af6 yfxf x'G5 ls cwftx' ¿ tfksf sr' fns
xg' \ .
-*_ wft'x¿ 7f;] cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ .
k|foM wft'x¿ ;fwf/0f rfk tyf tfkj|mddf 7f]; cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ . t/ sx] L wft'
;fdfGo tfkjm| ddf t/n cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ h:t} M kf/f] .
wftx' ¿sf] pkofl] utf
xfd|f] bl} gs hLjgdf / pBf]u snsf/vfgfx¿df wft'x¿sf] pkofu] cTolws dfqfdf
xg' ] ub{5 . tL o; ks| f/ 5g\ M
!= ljleGg ks| f/sf ef“8fs“'8f agfpg wfts' f] pkof]u ul/G5 .
@= ljleGg k|sf/sf cfh} f/ tyf xftxltof/ agfpg wfts' f] pkofu] ul/G5 .
#= lah'nLsf] tf/ agfpg wfts' f] pkofu] ul/G5 .
$= 3/, k'n, 6«s, a;, /]n OToflb agfpg wfts' f] pkof]u ul/G5 .
%= uxgfx¿ agfpg wft'sf] pkof]u ul/G5 .
^= l;Ssfx¿ agfpg wfts' f] pkofu] ul/G5 .
&= cfndf]lgod kftfnfO{ cfi} fwL, rsn6] x¿ / l;u/]6 cflb ;/' lIft ;fy ag] { pkofu]
ul/G5 .
*= kf/f] ydf]l{ d6/df tfk gfKg pkofu] ul/G5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
cwft'
7f];, t/n / Uof; cj:yfdf kfOg] t/ lk6]/ kftnf] tyf nfdf] agfpg gl;sg] tŒjnfO{
cwft' elgG5 . h:t} M sfag{ , ;Nkm/, km:kmf/] ; OToflb . cwftx' ¿sf u'0fx¿ cfcfÇg}
x'G5g\ t/ s]xL u0' fx¿ ;a} cwftx' ¿sf] Pp6} vfnsf xG' 5g\ . oxf“ s]xL To:tf u0' fx¿
pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
!= cwft'x¿ 7f;] , t/n / Uof; cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ .
@= cwft' wft'eGbf g/d xG' 5 .
#= cwft'x¿ aHg ;Sb}gg\ .
$= cwfts' f] 6ns x'b“ }g .
% = cwft'nfO{ lk6/] nfdf] agfpg ;lsb“ }g .
^= cwftn' fO{ lk6/] kftnf] agfpg ;lsb“ g} .
&= cwft'x¿ tfk / ljB'ts\ f sr' fns x'G5g\ .
cwfts' f] pkof]lutf
!= s'rfnssf] ¿kdf k|of]u ul/G5
@= a]n'g eg{df k|ofu] ul/G5
#= /s6] df k\mo'nsf] ¿kdf k|ofu] ul/G5
$= la:kmf6] s kbfy{ agfpg ko| fu] ul/G5 . h:t} M ;Nkm/ af?b agfpg ko| fu] ul/G5.
sx] L wftx' ¿
kmnfd -Iron_ M kmnfd s}nf] v/fgL /ªsf] wft' xf] . of] wft' 6Nsg] klg ub5{ . o;df
lvof ;lhn;} u“ nfU5 . kmnfdnfO{ ldl>t wft' :kft -steel_ agfP/ ko| fu] ul/G5 . xfdf| ]
bl} gs hLjgdf kmnfdsf] 7n' f] dxŒj xG' 5 . kmnfdnfO{ 3/, kn' , a;, sf/, 6s« , /n] sf ;fy}
3/df k|of]u xg' ] ef8“ fs“'8fx¿ agfpg k|ofu] ul/G5 .
tfdf -Copper_ M tfdf /ftf,] v/} f] /ªsf] wft' xf] . o;df lvof nfUbg} t/ xfjfdf /xb“ f
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
dlng x'G5 . of] rfb“ Lkl5sf] bf;] f| ] ljBt' \sf] ;'rfns xf] . ljB'ts\ f] ;'rfns ePsf
sf/0fn] ubf{ ljB'tLo pks/0fx¿ agfpg pkofu] ul/G5 . of] tfksf] ;r' fns klg
xf] . tfksf] ;'rfns ePsf sf/0fn] ubf{ ef8“ fs“'8fx¿ agfpg klg pkofu] ul/G5 .
tfdf / h:tf ld;fP/ lkTtn -brass_ elgg] ldl>t wft' agfOG5 .
;'g -Gold_ M ;g' rxlsnf] kx]n“ f] wft' xf] . o;nfO{ xfjf / kfgLn] c;/ ub}g{ .
To;}n] of] ;w}“ 6Nsg] ub{5 . of] w]/} dx“uf] wft' xf] . of] wft' uxgfx¿ agfpg pkofu]
ul/G5 . b]jL b]jtfx¿sf] dl" t,{ l;Ssf / tSdfx¿ agfpg klg pkofu] ul/G5 .
rf“bL -Silver_ M rf“bL 6ns ePsf] ;]tf] wft' xf] . o;nfO{ klg xfjf / kfgLn] c;/
ub{g} . rf“bL ;a} wft'eGbf a9L ljB't\sf] ;'rfns xf] . On]S6f« ]lgs pks/0fx¿ agfpg
o;sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . uxgfx¿ agfpg o;sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . bf“tdf ePsf vfnL
7fp“x¿ eg{ klg ko| f]u ul/G5 .
k|ofu] fTds lj|mofsnfk
!= wft' tfksf] ;r' fns xf] eGg] s'/f k|ofu] åf/f bv] fO{ k|ofu] fTds kl' :tsfdf nv] .
@= wft' ljB't\sf] ;'rfns xf] eGg] s'/f k|ofu] åf/f bv] fO{ ko| f]ufTds k'l:tsfdf nv] .
;f/f+z
!= tŒjx¿nfO{ u'0fx¿sf cfwf/df wft,' cwft' / cw{wft' u/L tLg jud{ f ljefhg
ul/Psf] 5 .
@= 7f;] cj:yfdf kfOg] s8f t/ lk6/] kftnf] tyf nfdf] agfpg ;lsg] tŒjnfO{ wft'
elgG5 .
#= 7f;] , t/n / Uof; cj:yfdf kfOg] t/ lk6/] kftnf] tyf nfdf] agfpg g;lsg]
tŒjnfO{ cwft' elgG5 .
$= wft' / cwft' b'j} u0' f ePsf tŒjx¿nfO{ cww{ ft' elgG5 .
%= wft'x¿ s8f, 6Nsg] / tfk tyf ljBt' \sf ;'rfns xG' 5g\ .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
cEof;
!= vfnL 7fp“ e/ M
-s_ wft' / cwft' b'j}sf] u0' f ePsf tŒjnfO{ ================ elgG5 .
-v_ wftx' ¿ k|foM h;f] ================= cj:yfdf kfOG5 .
-u_ ================== ltg cf6] } cj:yf 7f];, t/n / Uof;df kfOG5 .
-3_ ================= / ================ ks| l[ tdf wfts' } ¿kdf kfOG5g\ .
-ª_ wftn' fO{ lk6/] kftnf] agfpg] u'0fnfO{ =============== elgG5 .
-r_ wft'nfO{ lk6]/ nfdf] agfpg] u0' fnfO{ ============== elgG5 .
@= tn lbOPsf pQ/x¿Wo] Pp6f ;xL pQ/ 5fg M
-s_ l;lnsg s'g k|sf/sf] tŒj xf] <
-c_ wft' -cf_ cwft' -O_ cww{ ft' -O_{ ldl>t wft'
-O_{ tfdf
-v_ wft' eP/ klg t/n cj:yfdf kfOg] tŒj sg' xf] < -O_{ kmnfd
-O_{ tfdf
-c_ kf/f] -cf_ ;'g -O_ rfb“ L -O_{ cfndf]lgod
-O_ ldl>t wft'
-u_ tnsf dWo] s'g rflx“ ldl>t wft' xf] <
-c_ lkQn -cf_ hd{]lgod -O_ tfdf
-3_ tnsf wftd' Wo] s'gdf lvof nfU5 <
-c_ rfb“ L -cf_ kmnfd -O_ ;g'
-ª_ s'g wft' ;a}eGbf a9L ;r' fns xG' 5 <
-c_ kmnfd -cf_ tfdf -O_ rfb“ L
-r_ tnsf dWo] s'gnfO{ lk6/] kftnf] agfpg ;lsb“ }g <
-c_ wft' -cf_ cwft' -O_ cw{wft'
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
#= tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ nv] M
-s_ ;fwf/0ftof tŒjx¿nfO{ slt jud{ f ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 <
-v_ wfts' f sg' } rf/ u'0f n]v .
-u_ cwfts' f sg' } rf/ u'0f nv] .
-3_ wft'sf s'g} rf/ pkofl] utf nv] .
-ª_ tfdf wfts' f] s'g} b'O{ pkofl] utf nv] .
$= tnsf zAbx¿ kl/eflift u/ M
-s_ wft' -v_ cwft' -u_ cww{ ft'
%= km/s 56' \ofpm M -v_ cwft' / cw{wft'
-s_ wft' / cwft'
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
!$ hLjx¿
(Living Being)
xfdf| ] j/k/ ljleGg ks| f/sf hLjx¿ kfOG5g\ . hLjx¿nfO{ ltgLx¿sf] u0' f tyf nIf0fsf
cfwf/df hgfj/ tyf la?jf u/L bO' { hutd\ f ljefhg ul/G5 . dflg;, ufO,{ ss' /' ,
k/j] f, df5f cflb hgfj/ hutdf kg{] hLjx¿sf pbfx/0fx¿ xg' \ . To:t} ljleGg ks| f/sf
3f;“ x¿, Rofp, plgp,“ ;G' tnf, j/, lkkn cflb la?jf hutdf kg{] hLjx¿ xg' \ . hLjx¿
a:g] af;:yfgcg;' f/ ltgLx¿sf] zf/Ll/s agfj6, nIf0f tyf ljzi] ftfx¿ km/s km/s
xG' 5g\ . h:t} M lxdfnL :yfgdf kfOg] hgfj/ tyf la?jfsf] agfj6 / ltgLx¿n] bv] fpg]
nIf0fx¿ t/fO{ Ifq] df kfOg] hgfj/ tyf la?jfx¿sf] eGbf km/s xG' 5 . o; PsfOdf log}
ljifoj:ta' f/] 5nkmn ul/g] 5 .
la?jf / hgfj/df leGgtf -Differences between Plant and Animal_
la?jf / hgfj/ b'j} ;hLj x'g\ . logLx¿df s]xL ;dfgtf kfOG5 . h:t} M
Zjf;kZ| jf; ljm| ofdf bj' n} ] clS;hg lng] / sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8 kmfNg] ub{5g\ . bj' d} f
k|hgg ljm| of, j[l4 h:tf hLjg kl| jm| ofx¿ x'g] ub{5 . oBlk oL bO' { lardf w]/} s/' fx¿df
cGt/ kfOG5 . oL bO' { lardf kfOg] leGgtf tn tflnsfdf bv] fOPsf] 5 .
tflnsf
la?jf hgfj/
!= la?jfx¿n] ;fdfGotof rfn != hgfj/x¿n] zf/Ll/s rfn bv] fp5“ g\ .
bv] fpb“ g} g\ .
@= kmf]6f]l;Gy]l;; k|lj|mofaf6 cfkm"nfO{ @= hgfj/x¿ cfkmg\ f] vfgf la?jfaf6 jf
rflxg] vfgf cfkm“} lgdf0{ f ub5{ g\ . cGo hgfj/af6 lnG5g\ .
#= rt] gf eP klg hgfj/sf] h:tf] pRr #= la?jfsf] t'ngfdf r]tgfsf] :t/
r]tgf x“'bg} . pRr xG' 5 .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
la?jf hgfj/
$= la?jfsf] j[l4 hLjgsfnel/ jf $= hgfj/sf] j[l4 lglZrt ;dosf
clglZrt h:tf] bl] vG5 . nflu x'G5 .
%= lap, kft, 8f“7, h/f cflbaf6 k|hgg %= aRrf hGdfpg], cG8f kfg]{, z/L/
x'G5 . vl08t xg' ] cflb k|lj|mofaf6 kh| gg
x'G5 .
^= kf| oh;f] jg:kltdf xl/t s0f xG' 5 . ^= hgfj/df xl/t s0f xb'“ g} .
ljm| ofsnfk !
plNnlvt tflnsfdf lbOPsf] leGgtfsf cfwf/df ltdf| ] jl/kl/ kfOg] s'g} Ps Pscf6] f
la?jf / hgfj/sf] cjnf]sg u/ . dfly tflnsfdf lbOPcg';f/sf a'“bfx¿cg';f/sf]
km/s kQf nufpg] sfl] ;; u/ . tLdWo] s'g sg' a'“bfdf km/s kfOof] gf]6 u/ . tflnsfdf
lbOPsf] t/ ltdLn] km/s kTtf nufpg g;ss] f a“b' fdf lzIfs;“u 5nkmn u/ .
ljm| ofsnfk @
la?jf / ls/fkm6\ofª\u|fsf] cjnf]sg u/ . ls/fkm6\ofª\u|fn] s] vfG5g\ < la?jf /
ls/fsf] rfn cjnfs] g u/ . ltd|f] 3/ jf l5d]sdf ePsf 3/ kfn'jf hgfj/ / aur}“ fdf
/x]sf la?jfsf] jl[ 4sf] cjnf]sg u/L s] s] km/s kfp“5f} gf6] u/ .
af;:yfgsf cfwf/df hgfj/ / la?jfx¿sf] juLs{ /0f
kY[ jLdf xhf/fs“} f] ;ªV\ ofdf hgfj/ tyf la?jfx¿ kfOG5g\ . ks| l[ tdf kfOg] ljleGg
ks| f/sf hgfj/ tyf la?jfnfO{ a:g,] xs' g{ ,] vfgf kf| lKt ug,{] ;/' lIft /xg] jftfj/0f;lxtsf]
/fdf| ] 7fp“ rflxG5 . efu} fl] ns ljljwtf tyf xfjfkfgLcg;' f/ lxdfn, kxf8, t/fO{ jf
hf8f,] udL,{ hldg, kfgL, xfjf, lxp“ cflb 7fpd“ f ToxL jftfj/0fcg;' f/ xs' g{ , a9g\ ;Sg]
u0' f hgfj/ Pjd\ la?jfdf ks| l[ tn] kb| fg u/s] f] 5 . xfdLn] of] kf7df kfgL, hldg, xfjf
/ lxpd“ f xs' g{ ;Sg] hGt' tyf jg:kltsf af/d] f cWoog ug{] 5f“} .
-c_ hgfj/x¿sf] juLs{ /0f -&ODVVLŅFDWLRQ RI $QLPDO_
k[YjLdf kfOg] ;Dk"0f{ hgfj/x¿nfO{ ltgLx¿sf] af;:yfg tyf ltgLx¿n] bv] fpg] u'0fsf
cfwf/df lgDgfg;' f/ ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 M
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
!= kfgLdf kfOg] hgfj/ tyf ltgsf u'0fx¿ (&KDUDFWHULVWLFV RI $TXDWLF
Animals)
kfgLdf kfOg] hgfj/x¿ kf| oM kfgLdf a:5g\ . z/L/ 8ª' u\ f cfsf/sf] -streamlined_
xG' 5 . kfgLdf a:g] clwsfz+ hLjx¿n] luN;åf/f ;f; kmg] ]{ ub5{ g\ . z/L/ sTnfn]
-scale_ 9fs]sf] x'G5 . o:t} u/L logLx¿ lkmG;sf] ;xfotfn] kf8} g ;Sg], 6fpsf] tyf
lhp 5'6\l6Psf] x'g,] km'n kfg{], kmf]S;f] gxg' ] h:tf cGo nIf0fx¿ x'G5g\ . h:t} M sTn]
df5f, lemu“ ] df5f, afd df5f, ;db' L| 3f8] f cflb . o;/L g} 8lNkmg, uf]xL klg kfgLdf
kfOg] hLjx¿ xg' \ . t/ logLx¿sf] z/L/df kmfS] ;f] xG' 5 .
@= hldgdf kfOg] hgfj/ tyf ltgsf u0' fx¿ (&KDUDFWHULVWLFV RI 7HUUHVWULDO
Animals)
-s_ lr;f] tyf udL{ 7fpd“ f kfOg] hgfj/
rf}“/L ufO{ af3 xfQL
lr;f] 7fp“df x'g] hgfj/x¿sf] z/L/ /f}“n] 9flsPsf] x'G5 eg] udL{ 7fp“df
kfOg] hgfj/x¿df /f}“ sd x'G5 . hldgdf kfOg] hgfj/x¿sf] alnof]
df+;kz] L / xf8n] ag]sf] v'6\6f x'G5 . hgfj/cg';f/ v6' 6\ f tyf k~hfx¿ km/s km/s
x'G5g\ . s'g} hgfj/sf] v'/ -hoof_ lrl/P/ bO' {cf]6f ags] f] xG' 5 eg] s'g}sf] Pp6f dfq
xG' 5 . d?el" d h:tf] udL{ 7fpd“ f kfOg] hgfj/x¿sf] z/L/df nfdf] ;do;Dd kfgL ;~ro
ug{ ;Sg] yn} L xG' 5 . h:t} M rf/}“ L ufO{, kfn] / lao/, 3f8] f, af3, xfQL, p“6 cflb .
lj1fg tyf jftfj/0f, sIff –^
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SCIENCE GRADE 6
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