COMPLETE MPU2222 MODULE

Reference List : Electronic Sources

Article From an Online articles follow the same guidelines for
Online Periodical / printed articles. Include all information the
Databases online host makes available, including an issue
number in parentheses.

Article without DOI: Article without DOI:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on
publication). Title of article. Title of Online writing the living Web. A List
Periodical, volume number (issue number if Apart: For People Who Make
available). Retrieved from Websites, 149.
http://www.someaddress.com/full Retrieved from
/url/ http://www.alistapart.com/article
s/cite living
Article with DOI:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of
publication). Title of article. Title of Journal,
volume number, page range. Article with DOI:

doi:0000000/000000000000 or

http://dx.doi.org/10.0000/0000 Gelkopf, M., Ryan, P., Cotton, S.,

& Berger, R. (2008).
The impact of “training the

APA 6th ed. does not include the retrieval date trainers” for helping tsunami-
unless the source is likely to change often (for survivor children on Sri Lankan

example, a Wiki). Instead, “Retrieved from” is disaster volunteer workers.
International Journal of Stress
used. Management, 15 (2), 117-135.

APA 6th ed. does not include database doi:10.1037/1072-

information; instead, the home page URL of the 5245.15.2.117

journal is used. OR

Digital Object Identifier (DOI): Many online
journal entries include a DOI, either with the Wooldridge, M. B., & Shapka, J.

copyright information or in the online citation. If (2012). Playing with technology:

a DOI is present, it should be used instead of Mother-toddler interaction scores

other retrieval information. lower during play with electronic
toys. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 33(5),
Note:
If a DOI is available it should be used instead of 211-218.

the URL. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appde
If both the journal's URL and the DOI are v.2012.05.005

unavailable, the best course is to treat the
source as offline journal.

Page | 51

Online Scholarly Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the
Journal Article (Date of publication). Title of nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics,
article. Title of Journal, volume 8.
number. Retrieved from Retrieved from
http://www.someaddress.com/full http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
/url/

Online Scholarly If the article appears as a printed Whitmeyer, J. M. (2000). Power through
Journal Article version as well, the URL is not appointment [Electronic version]. Social Science
with Printed required. Use "Electronic version" Research, 29, 535-555.

Version Available in brackets after the article’s

title.

Online Newspaper Author, A. A. (Date of publication). Brody, J. E. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves
article Title of article. Title of Newspaper. keep brain agile. The New York Times. Retrieved

Retrieved from from http://www.nytimes.com

http://www.someaddress.com/full

url

NOTE: Give the URL of the home
page when the online version of
the article is available to avoid
nonworking URLs.

Online Magazine Author, A. A. (Date of Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology:
Article publication). Title of article. Title Psychologists fight back about the misuse of
of Magazine. Retrieved from research. Monitor on Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved

http://www.someaddress.com/full from http://www.apa.org/monitor/
url

Non-periodical List as much of the following information as possible (you sometimes have to hunt around to
find the information. If there is a page such as http://www.somesite.com/somepage.htm, and
Web Document, somepage.htm does not carry the information you are looking for, move up the URL to
http://www.somesite.com/)
Web Page, or
Report Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved from
http://Web address.

Title of document (Date of publication). Retrieved day, month, year, from http://Web address

NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page, provide a URL that links to
the home page or entry page for the document.

Page | 52

Chapter or Section Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite: URL
of a Web Document (Date of publication). Title of rewriting engine. In Apache HTTP Server Version
article. In Title of book or larger 1.3 Documentation (Apache modules). Retrieved
document (chapter or section
number). Retrieved from from
http://www.someaddress.com/full
/url/. http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/mod_rewrite.
html

Music Recording Songwriter, W. W. (Date of Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight
copyright). Title of song [Recorded [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and
by artist if different from song the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London, England: Big
writer]. On Title of album [Medium
of recording]. Location: Label. Pig Music Limited.
(Recording date if different from
copyright date).

Figures or Visual NOTE
Elements · Label the visual (e.g., Figure 1., Figure 2., etc.; in

italics) with a caption (the caption serves as title and
explanation)—this is double spaced.

· If copyright information has to be included – place it
after the caption.

· Label should line up with the left-hand margin, the

visual is centered.

Figure 1. Property and Violent Crime · Figures should not be integrated into the essay’s text

in Major Metropolitan Areas, 1996. because they can disrupt the flow of your paper if not

From The Canadian Criminal Justice placed properly. Each figure should be on a separate
System (p. 36), by S. Ramcharan, page after any tables, but before an appendix (see p.
2 for manuscript order). If a visual element is not

W. de Lint and T. Fleming, 2001, immediately relevant to the essay, but serves to clear-

Toronto, Canada: Prentice Hall. up a point of extraneous detail, it can be placed in an

Copyright 2001 by Pearson appendix.

Education Canada. Reprinted [OR

Adapted] with permission. REFERENCE PAGE

· Despite including the full reference below the figure
(or table), you should still list it on your reference
page, and format your reference page entry
according to the type of material you quoted from (i.e.
book, journal article, website).

If you are seeking to publish your paper and used a figure
(or table) from another source, you must get permission to
reprint that particular material. You do not need take this
step for your unpublished undergraduate papers.

Note: The DOI can be looked up via http://www.crossref.org

Page | 53

Exercises

Give the in-text citation and reference page citation for the following resources. You should give the
citation for a direct quote without integrating it into your writing. An example quote is given so that all
you must do is give the citation afterward.

1. Author(s): Lynn Smith
Year: 2010
Title: A Study of Undergraduate Students
Page number: article pgs. 170-191; quote pg. 172
Journal: Collegiate Learning Review

In-Text:
“… out of every five students feels unprepared for writing classes” ______________________.

Reference:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

2. Author(s): Allen Jameison and Susan Plette
Volume: 4
Title: A Quick Look at the Symptoms of Adult-Onset Cardiac Disease in Diabetics
Issue: 2
Journal: Journal of Medical Practices
Page number: article pgs. 80-85; quote on pg. 83
Year: 2013

In-Text:
“…showed few symptoms after two weeks of treatment”
______________________________________.

Reference:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

3. Author(s): Steven Marisol
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Title: Mathematical Concepts for Non-Math Majors
City of Publication: New York City, New York
Year: 2008
Page number: quote pg. 214

Page | 54

In-Text:
“…to show the matrices’ values”
_________________________________________________________.

Reference:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

4. Author(s): Jan Plumm and Carol Neischke
Publisher: Harley Publishing, Inc.
Title: A Creationist View of Sexuality
City of Publication: New Brunswick, New Jersey
Year: 2008
Page number: quote pg. 113-114
Edition: 7

In-Text:
“…sexual habits leading to cohabitation”
___________________________________________________.

Reference:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

5. Author(s): John P. Ackran
Date of Publication: September 21, 2013
Title of webpage: Statistics of Insurance Coverage of Elderly
Publish in: London
Publisher: Oxford Fajar
DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2012.05.005

In-Text: “…no coverage available”
_______________________________________________________.

Reference:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

Page | 55

SPEECH WRITING

Page | 56

OUTLINING THE SPEECH

Think about this for a while:

Can you build a house without a blueprint? Or can you cook without a recipe?

THE OUTLINE IS THE BLUEPRINT OF YOUR SPEECH!

Ø An outline helps you make sure that related items are together, that ideas flow from one
to another, that the structure of your speech will “stand up”—and not collapse.

Ø Probably you will use two kinds of outlines for your speeches—one very detailed, for the
planning stage, and one very brief, for the delivery of the speech.

The Outline Preparation
A detailed outline developed during the process of speech preparation that includes the title,
specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, sub points, connectives, conclusion,
and bibliography of a speech.

Ø A brief outline used to jog a speaker’s memory during the presentation of a speech.

Guidelines

· State the specific purpose of your speech
· Identify the central idea
· Label the introduction, body and conclusion
· Use consistent pattern of the arrangement of your main points
· State main points and sub points in full sentences
· Attach a bibliography
· Give your speech a title

The clear visual framework (The pattern of symbolization and indentation in a speech outline
that shows the relationships among the speaker’s ideas) of this outline immediately shows the
relationships among the ideas of the speech. The most important ideas (main points) are farthest
to the left. Less important ideas (sub points, sub-sub points, and so on) are progressively farther
to the right.

This pattern reveals the structure of your entire speech. Once you have organized the
body of your speech, you should have identified the main points. You need only flesh out your
outline with sub points and sub-sub points, as necessary, to support the main points.

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But suppose, as sometimes happens, you find yourself with a list of statements and are not sure
which ones are the main points, which are the sub points, and so forth.

INTRODUCTION

Attention-Getting Opener: _____________________________________________________________________

Preview: _________________________________________________________________

I. ______________________________________________________

II. ______________________________________________________

III. ______________________________________________________

Transition #1 : _______________________________________________________________________

BODY

I. First Main Point: __________________________________________________________________________
A. Sub point / Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________
B. Sub point/ Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________
C. Sub point/ Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________
Transition #2: _________________________________________________________________________

II. Second Main Point: _______________________________________________________________________
A. Sub point / Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________
B. Sub point/ Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________
C. Sub point/ Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________
Transition #3: _________________________________________________________________________

III. Third Main Point: _________________________________________________________________________
A. Sub point / Supporting Material: _________________________________________________________
B. Sub point/ Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________
C. Sub point/ Supporting Material: __________________________________________________________

Transition #4: _________________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION

Summary: ___________________________________________________________________

I. _______________________________________________________

II. _______________________________________________________

III. _______________________________________________________

Concluding Remarks: _________________________________________________________________________

Bibliography: 1. _____________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________

Summary

Page | 58

Outlines are essential to effective speeches. By outlining, you make sure that related
ideas are together, that your thoughts flow from one to another, and that the structure of your
speech is coherent. You will probably use two kinds of outlines for your speeches—the detailed
preparation outline and the brief speaking outline.

In the preparation outline, you state your specific purpose and central idea; label the
introduction, body, and conclusion; and designate transitions, internal summaries, and internal
previews. You should identify main points, subpoints, and sub-subpoints by a consistent pattern
of symbolization and indentation. Your teacher may require a bibliography with your preparation
outline.

The speaking outline should contain key words or phrases to jog your memory, as well
as essential statistics and quotations. Make sure your speaking outline is legible, follows the
same visual framework as your preparation outline, and includes cues for delivering the speech.

Exercises for Critical Thinking

1. Below is a partially blank outline from a speech about the Golden Gate Bridge. Below the
column, arranged in random order, are the sub points to fill in the outline. Choose the
appropriate sub point for each blank in the outline.

Outline

I. More than 20 years passed from the time the Golden Gate Bridge was proposed to
the time it opened.

A. _____________________________________________________________
B. _____________________________________________________________
C. _____________________________________________________________
D. ____________________________________________________________

II. Now 75 years old, the Golden Gate Bridge remains a marvel of modern engineering.

A. _____________________________________________________________
1. _______________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________

B. _____________________________________________________________
1. _______________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________

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Sub points
Ø Today, those towers make it the world’s third tallest suspension bridge.
Ø Construction finally began in 1933 and ended in 1937.
Ø The span between its towers is 4,200 feet.
Ø At the time it was built, the Golden Gate was also the longest suspension bridge in the
world.
Ø In 1923, the State of California passed legislation authorizing construction of the bridge.
Ø Its two towers rise almost 750 feet above the waters of the Pacific Ocean.
Ø Once construction of the bridge was authorized, it took ten years to approve the design
and financing.
Ø That span makes it the ninth longest suspension bridge in the world today.
Ø At the time it was built, the Golden Gate was the tallest suspension bridge in the world.
Ø The bridge was originally proposed in 1916 but faced years of legal hurdles.
Ø From the preparation outline on the Golden Gate Bridge you constructed

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Supporting your Ideas
Supporting Materials

· Information you can use to substantiate your arguments and clarify your position
· Materials used to support a speaker’s idea.
· Is chosen very carefully
· Brings your ideas across clearly and creatively.
· The problem with generalizations is that they don’t answer the three questions listeners

always ask of a speaker: “What do you mean?” “Why should I believe you?” “So what?”
Types of Supporting Materials

· Examples
· Statistics
· Testimony
· Citing Sources Orally

Examples:
· Specific instances used to illustrate your point or to represent a group of people, ideas,
conditions, experiences or the like.

· Ideas become specific, personal and lively.

· Types:

Ø Brief example— also called specific instances—may be referred to in passing to
illustrate a point. The following excerpt uses a brief example to illustrate he
miraculous nature of recent advances in creating artificial limbs for accident
victims:

Changes in technology have made it possible for doctors to work
wonders that once seemed impossible. Roger Charter, for example,
lost both his feet when they were crushed in a truck accident. Now
he has new feet—made of a springy plastic alloy that duplicates a
normal arch. Not only can Roger walk normally, but he can run and
play sports again!

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Ø Extended examples – A story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length
to illustrate a point.
Extended examples are often called narratives, illustrations, or anecdotes. By
telling a story vividly and dramatically, they pull listeners into the speech.

- Narratives provide the basis for emotional connection, empathy, and
relevance for many topic

- You should use narratives in ethical ways. Never reveal private information
without permission and should not rely overly mush on the emotional nature
of narratives

Ø Hypothetical examples - An example that describes an imaginary or fictitious
situation.
All the examples presented up to now have been factual; the incidents they refer
to really happened. Sometimes, however, speakers will use a hypothetical
example—one that describes an imaginary situation. Usually such examples are
brief stories that relate a general principle.

· Explaining to the audience that an example is hypothetical is important. Presenting a
hypothetical example as a real example is unethical, and your credibility will be questioned
if the audience learns that they were misled.

Tips for Using Examples
1. Use examples to clarify your ideas
2. Use examples to reinforce your ideas
3. Use Examples to Reinforce Your Ideas
4. Use Examples to Personalize Your Ideas
5. Make Your Examples Vivid and Richly Textured
6. Practice Delivery to Enhance Your Extended Examples

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Facts and Statistics
· FACTS – statements that can be verified by independent observers
· STATISTICS
o facts expressed in numbers; numerical data
o describes size, make predictions, illustrate trends or show relationship
· A speech that is supported by statistics is usually more persuasive than undocumented
presentation.
· As a speaker, you must be aware of possible bias in the use of numbers.
· Since statistics can be interpreted so many ways and put to so many uses, you should
seek figures gathered by objective, nonpartisan sources

Example:

Since 1962, more than one million Americans have died in firearm suicides,
homicides, and unintentional injuries. In 1998 alone, 30708 Americans died by
gunfire….

This is a uniquely American epidemic. In the same year that more
than 30,000 people were killed by guns in America, the number in Germany was
1,164. In Canada, it was 1,304. In Australia, 391. In England and Wales 211. And
in Japan the number for the entire year was 83.

Questions to ask yourself before choosing a statistic:

· Is this information relevant to my purpose?
· Is this information the most recently available?
· Is this information truly representative of the subject?
· Is this information from a credible source?
· Is this information consistent with what other reputable sources report?
· Is this information free from bias?
· Is this information complete?

Tips for Using Statistics

1. Use Statistics to Quantify Your Ideas
2. Use Statistics Sparingly
3. Identify the Sources of Your Statistics
4. Explain Your Statistics
5. Round Off Complicated Statistics
6. Use Visual Aids to Clarify Statistical Trends

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Testimony
· Definition – Quotations or paraphrases used to support a point - consist of written or
oral statements of others’ experiences used by a speaker to substantiate or clarify a point.

· Types:

o Expert testimony – Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their
fields.
§ Citing the views of people who are experts is a good way to lend credibility
to your speeches.
§ It shows that you are not just mouthing your own opinions, but that your
position is supported by people who are knowledgeable about the topic.
§ Expert testimony is even more important when a topic is controversial or
when the audience is skeptical about a speaker’s point of view.
§ In presentation – point out a famous politician, a syndicate columnist or
well-known entertainer

o Quoting vs paraphrasing – direct quotation - testimony can also be presented by
paraphrasing. Rather than quoting someone verbatim, you present the gist of that
person’s ideas in your own words.

Tips for Using Testimony

1. Quote or paraphrase accurately.
2. Use testimony from qualified sources.
3. Use testimony from unbiased sources.
4. Identify the people you quote or paraphrase.

The Ethical Use of Supporting Materials

1. Provide the date, source, and context of information cited in your speech.
2. Don’t present an opinion as though it was a fact.
3. Remember that statistics are open to differing interpretations.
4. Protect your listeners from biased information.
5. Tell listeners if you can’t identify the exact sources of your information.
6. Don’t quote out of context.
7. Be sure examples reflect reality.
8. Don’t present hypothetical examples as though they were factual.

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Summary

Good speeches need strong supporting materials to bolster the speaker’s point of view.
The three basic types of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.

In the course of a speech you may use brief examples—specific instances referred to in
passing—and sometimes you may want to give several brief examples in a row to create a
stronger impression. Extended examples are longer and more detailed.
Hypothetical examples describe imaginary situations and can be quite effective for relating ideas
to the audience. All three kinds of examples help clarify ideas, reinforce ideas, or personalize
ideas. To be most effective, they should be vivid and richly textured.
Statistics can be extremely helpful in conveying your message as long as you use them sparingly
and make them meaningful to your audience. Above all, you should understand your statistics
and use them fairly. Make sure your figures are representative of what they claim to measure,
that you use statistical measures correctly, and that you take statistics only from reliable sources.
Citing the testimony of experts is a good way to make your ideas more credible. You can also
use peer testimony, from ordinary people who have first-hand experience on the topic.
Regardless of the kind of testimony, you can either quote someone verbatim or paraphrase his
or her words. Be sure to quote or paraphrase accurately and to use qualified, unbiased sources.
When citing sources in a speech, you need to let your audience know where you got your
information and why they should accept it as qualified and credible.
In most cases, this means identifying the document you are citing, its date of publication or
posting, the author or sponsoring organization, and the author’s credentials.

Exercises for Critical Thinking

1. Each of the following statements violates at least one of the criteria for effective supporting
materials discussed in this chapter. Identify the flaw (or flaws) in each statement.

a) As Taylor Swift stated in a recent interview, U.S. policy toward North Korea should put
more emphasis on bilateral negotiations

b) According to The New York Times Almanac, California has the largest Native American
population of any state in the union—421,346. Arizona is second with 294,118 and
Oklahoma is third with 287,124.

c) I don’t know why rental car companies don’t like to rent to people under the age of 25.
My friends and I all drive a lot, and none of us has been in an accident.

d) In a random survey conducted last month among people visiting Las Vegas casinos, 96
percent of respondents opposed limitations on gambling in the United States. Clearly,
then, the American people oppose such limitations.

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e) In the words of one expert, “The state education budget has been cut so much in recent
years that any further cuts will do irreparable harm to our schools and the children they
serve.”

f) Figures compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics show that the median salary for
petroleum engineers in the U.S. is $108,910. This shows that petroleum engineers
average almost $109,000 a year in salary.

g) According to a study by American Airlines, passenger satisfaction among frequent fliers
is growing each year.

Page | 66

ORGANIZING THE BODY OF SPEECH

Organize Your Speech

Good organization heightens a speaker’s credibility and helps listener better understand a
presentation. Presenters who are more organized are more perceived as more competent and
trustworthy.

Why Organize?

· To get a clearer picture of what your ideas are
· To pinpoint which idea is the most important
· Listeners cannot replay what you have said if they don’t understand what you have

just said.
· To achieve a particular result with a particular audience
· To create a simple speech so that it is easy for listeners to follow, understand and

remember your message.

Principles of Good Form

A well-organized speech should follow a few simple principles of good form:

· SIMPLICITY
o Limit the number of main ideas.
o Keep your wording direct and to the point.

· BALANCE
o The major parts of your speech should receive appropriate development.

· ORDER
o Follows a consistent pattern of development from beginning to end
o The way you arrange your main points.

Structuring the body of your speech

There are 3 tasks you have to do:

1. Select your main ideas
2. Arrange them appropriately
3. Decide on supporting materials

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Selecting Your Main Ideas
Main Ideas

· Major points developed in the body of a speech.
· the most important ideas of your message
· points that develop your specific purpose

How should you organize the body of your presentation?

· Emphasize main points of your presentation by highlighting the primary idea that you
want to develop.

· Limit your main points to two or three for most speeches
o Most messages have two to three main points, reflecting what an audience can
easily remember
o Ensure that your main points are nearly equal in important

· You have various options for how to organize your main points:
· The time-sequence pattern
o Lists main points in order of events that occur
o Examples; The steps in reducing water pollution, The development of
smartphone technology
· Spatial Relations Pattern
o Demonstrates how things are related visually
o Examples; using map to show historic conversation sites over a period of
time, describing activities like playing football
· Cause-Effect Pattern
o Describes or explains causes and consequences
o Example; How taking a daily vitamin can increase your body immunity to
disease
· Problem-Solution Pattern
o First main idea – problem
o Second main idea – solution to problem
o Examples; Protecting your privacy on Facebook, The environmental issue
of establishing game preserves
· Topical Sequence
o Highly versatile and simply divide topics into logical related parts
o Examples; Three reasons to volunteer at food bank, Two types of hybrid
vehicles

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· Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
o Well suited for speeches asking for personal action
o 5 specific components
- Capture audience’s attention
- Establish the need of your proposal
- Present the solution to the problem for audience’s satisfaction
- Visualizing the solution for the audience
- Request action or approval from the audience

· Your purpose and topic determine your choice of organizational pattern.
o Time-sequence and spatial relationship founds often in informative presentation
o The cause-effect and topical sequence founds often in both informative and
persuasive presentations
o The problem-solution and Monroe’s Motivated sequence founds often in persuasive
presentations

Using Connectives
A word or phrase that connects ideas of a speech and indicates the relationship between them.

· Examples of connectives:
§ Transitions – a word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one
point and is moving to another
§ Internal Previews – a statement in the body that lets the audience know what
the speaker is going to discuss next
§ Internal Reviews – reminds listeners what you just discussed
§ Signposts – a very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech
or that focuses attention on key ideas (My second point is that….)

Transitions:
In addition to … also …

Now that we have …, let me share …

Not only is … but it can …

Now that we’ve seen …, let’s look at …

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Internal Previews:
“In discussing how Asian Americans have been stereotyped in the mass media, we’ll look

first at the origins of the problem and second at its continuing impact today.”
Internal Reviews:

“Now that we have covered the symptoms of this disease, let’s move to tests used to
diagnose it”
Signposts:
First, Second, Third, Fourth, Lastly, Next
The most important thing …

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Summary
Clear organization is vital to speechmaking. Listeners demand coherence. They get only

one chance to grasp a speaker’s ideas, and they have little patience for speakers who ramble
aimlessly from one idea to another. A well-organized speech will enhance your credibility and
make it easier for the audience to understand your message.

The process of planning the body of a speech begins when you determine the main
points. You should choose them carefully, phrase them precisely, and organize them
strategically. Because listeners cannot keep track of a multitude of main points, most speeches
should contain no more than two to five. Each should focus on a single idea, should be worded
clearly, and should receive enough emphasis to be clear and convincing.

You can organize main points in various ways, depending on your topic, purpose, and
audience. Chronological order follows a time pattern, whereas spatial order follows a directional
pattern. In causal order, main points are organized according to their cause-effect relationship.
Topical order results when you divide your main topic into subtopics. Problem-solution order
breaks the body of the speech into two main parts—the first showing a problem, the second
giving a solution. Supporting materials are the backup ideas for your main points. When
organizing supporting materials, make sure they are directly relevant to the main points they
are supposed to support.

Connectives help tie a speech together. They are words or phrases that join one thought
to another and indicate the relationship between them. The four major types of speech
connectives are transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts. Using them
effectively will make your speeches more unified and coherent.

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BEGINNING AND ENDING OF THE SPEECH

The Introduction
The short term memory is about 20 seconds. That means you have 20 seconds to capture
their attention in your speech introduction.
Short, sweet, and mind capturing words need to be used.
An introduction, the beginning portion of your presentation, serves four functions.

1. Gains and maintains and favorable attention.
2. Relates your topic to your audience
3. Relates to the topic
4. Previews the message by stating the purpose and forecasting the organization of the

presentation.
Gaining and Maintaining Favorable Attention
10 possible ways to gain and maintain your audience’s attention

1. Present a person or object (demonstrate safe weight-lifting, handed out packets of
artificial sweetened)

2. Invite audience participation
3. Imagine a situation (flying through the air, burrowing underground)
4. Use audio and video
5. Arouse audience suspense
6. Use slides, film, video or PowerPoint
7. Read a quotation
8. State striking facts or figures
9. Tell a story
10.Use humor (handled well, an appropriate of humor will likely be welcomed by the

audience)

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Preview Your Speech
· Indicates the main points you will cover
· Help listeners follow what you are saying

What is the fastest-growing sport among American women? If you answered
weight lifting, you are absolutely correct. Once seen as an exclusively ……
I started lifting weights when I was in high school, and I have kept at it for the
past eight years. I have also taught weight lifting in several health clubs, and I am

a certified instructor through the Aerobics and Fitness Association of America.

Where do you fit in your family structure? Are you at the top of the totem pole,
partway down, or at the bottom? How might your place in the family structure
influence who you are? Today, I would like to explore how personality
development can be affected by each of the four major patterns of birth order –
the only child, the first child, the second or middle child, and the youngest child.

Can you identify the topic and main points?

The Conclusion
Just like the introduction, the conclusion of a presentation fulfills certain functions

· To let the audience know you are ending the speech
· To reinforce the central idea
· To forewarn the audience that you are to stop
· the final words of your speech

“Great is the art of beginning, but greater is the art of ending”

–Longfellow-

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There are two major functions of conclusions:

I. Signal of the speech

I. An ending that is too sudden will leave the audience puzzled and unfulfilled.

Ways to signal the end:

I. Through what you say – In conclusion…, Let me end by saying…,
II. Manner of delivery

§ Crescendo ending
§ By the use of the voice – tone, pacing, intonation, rhythm

§ Dissolve ending
§ Generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic
final statement

III. Reinforce The Central Idea
· There are many ways to do this:
o Summarize your speech
o End with a quotation
o Make a dramatic statement
o Echo the introduction
o End with a story
o Close with a quotation
o Use strategic repetition
o Call for action (especially for persuasive speeches)

Crescendo Ending

“Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place, but I’m not
concerned about that now. I just want to do God’s will, and he’s allowed me to go up to
the mountain, and I’ve looked over and I’ve seen the Promised Land. I may not get there
with you, but I want you to know tonight that, we as a people, will get to the Promised
Land. So, I’m happy tonight. I’m not worried about anything; I’m not fearing any man.
Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord”

- Martin Luther King, April 1968

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Dissolve Ending
“Now, as with so much of our childhood, the farm is no longer the same. Grandpa is gone.
The barn has been rebuilt. The softball sits idly on the shelf. Grandma no longer cooks
her huge family dinners. Going to the farm is different without these pleasures. But still
the memories remain. I can still see the fields. I can still smell the hay. I can still hear
the laughter. I can still feel the love.

Thank you.”
Relate the Topic to the Audience

“Today, I’m going to talk about collecting postcards – a hobby that is both fascinating
and financially rewarding. I would like to explain the basic kinds of collectible postcards,
why they are so valuable, and how collectors buy and sell their cards.”

“It’s Saturday morning, and you are helping clean out your grandmother’s attic. After
working a while, you stumble upon a trunk, open it, and discover inside hundreds of old
postcards. Thinking about getting to the football game on time, you start tossing the
cards into the trash can. CONGRATULATIONS! You have just thrown away a year’s
college tuition.”
Which one is more interesting?

Startle the Audience
“Take a moment and think of the three women closest to you. Who comes to mind? Your
mother? Your sister? Your girlfriend? Your wife? Now guess which one will be sexually
assaulted during her lifetime. It’s not a pleasant thought, but according to the US
Department of Justice, one of every three American women will be sexually assaulted
sometime during her life.”

Ask Questions
“Do you surf the Web for hours on end? Do you spend more time surfing the web that
reading books for your classes? Do you feel a sense of depression when you can’t get
on the Internet? If so, you may be part of that growing portion of the population whom
psychologists identify as Internet addicts.

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Begin with a Quotation
“Space – the final frontier. These are the voyages of the Starship Enterprise. Its five-

year mission: To explore new worlds. To seek out new life and civilizations. To boldly

go where no man has gone before”.

- STAR TREK

“Takkan hilang Melayu di dunia”

- HANG TUAH

Summary

First impressions are important. So are final impressions. This is why speeches need
strong introductions and conclusions. In most speech situations you need to accomplish four
objectives with your introduction—get the attention and interest of the audience, reveal the
topic of your speech, establish your credibility and goodwill, and preview the body of the speech.
Gaining attention and interest can be done in several ways. You can show the importance of
your topic, especially as it relates to your audience. You can startle or question your audience
or arouse their curiosity. You can begin with a quotation or a story.

Be sure to state the topic of your speech clearly in your introduction so the audience
knows where the speech is going. Establishing credibility means that you tell the audience why
you are qualified to speak on the topic at hand. Establishing goodwill may be necessary if your
point of view is unpopular. Previewing the body of the speech helps the audience listen
effectively and provides a smooth lead-in to the body of the speech.

The first objective of a speech conclusion is to let the audience know you are ending, which
you can do by your words or by your manner of delivery. The second objective of a conclusion
is to reinforce your central idea. You can accomplish this by summarizing the speech, ending
with a quotation, making a dramatic statement, or referring to the introduction. Sometimes you
may want to combine two or more of these techniques. Be creative in devising a vivid, forceful
conclusion.

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Exercises for Critical Thinking

1. Here are six speech topics. Explain how you might relate each to your classmates in the
introduction of a speech.

Social Security laughter coffee
steroids illiteracy blood donation

2. Think of a speech topic (preferably one for your next speech in class). Create an
introduction for a speech dealing with any aspect of the topic you wish. In your
introduction, be sure to gain the attention of the audience, to reveal the topic and relate
it to the audience, to establish your credibility, and to preview the body of the speech.

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LANGUAGE SKILLS

Meaning of Words
Words have two kinds of meanings—denotative and connotative.

Denotative meaning is precise, literal, and objective.
· It describes the object, person, place, idea, or event to which the word refers.
· One way to think of a word’s denotative meaning is as its dictionary definition.
· For example, denotatively, the noun “school” means “a place, institution, or building
where instruction is given.”

Connotative meaning is more variable, figurative, and subjective.
· The connotative meaning of a word is what the word suggests or implies.
· For instance, the connotative meaning of the word “school” includes all the feelings,
associations, and emotions that the word touches off in different people.
· For some people, “school” might connote personal growth, childhood friends, and a
special teacher.
· For others, it might connote frustration, discipline, and boring homework assignments.
· Connotative meaning gives words their intensity and emotional power.
· It arouses in listeners feelings of anger, pity, love, fear, friendship, nostalgia, greed, guilt,
and the like.
· Speakers, like poets, often use connotation to enrich their meaning. For example:

“Terrorists neither listen to reason nor engage in reasoning with others.
Their aim is to generate fear—to frighten people into submission. They measure
success by the magnitude of the fear they generate through brutal, savage acts
of violence.

Terrorists are prepared to kill to further whatever cause they claim to be
pursuing. And the heinousness of these murders is accentuated by the fact that
terrorists murder without passion. They murder with cool deliberation and
deliberate planning. They are utterly amoral.”

The underlined words in this passage have powerful connotations that are almost certain to
produce a strong emotional revulsion to terrorism.

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Using Language Accurately

Using language accurately is as vital to a speaker as using numbers accurately is to an
accountant.
Every word has shades of meaning that distinguish it from every other word.

If you look in a thesaurus, you’ll find the following words given as synonyms:

Education knowledge expertise

All mean roughly the same thing—special grasp of a subject matter or skill. But all these words
have different shades of meaning. See if you can fill in the best word to complete each of the
sentences below:

1. Because he won a scholarship to a top university, Enrique received an excellent
_________________.

2. Sophia acquired her ____________________of Chinese history by reading a number of
books on the subject.

3. Ebony’s _________________as a business consultant comes from having worked with
many clients over the years.

Words are the tools of the speaker’s craft. Good speakers use them accurately and correctly.
They also use language that will be clear, vivid, and appropriate for their listeners.

The best answers for the three statements are:

1. education 2. Knowledge 3. expertise

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Using Language Clearly

Use familiar words

One of the biggest barriers to clear speech is using big, bloated words where short, sharp
ones will do the job better. This is especially true when it comes to technical language that may
be familiar to the speaker but not to the audience.

Yet, if you work at it, you will almost always be able to translate even the most specialized
topic into clear, familiar language.

“Give me the right word and the right accent, and I will move the world.”
- Joseph Conrad

Speak properly, and in as few words as you can, but always plainly; for the end of speech
is not ostentation, but to be understood.

- William Penn (1644 - 1718)

The ability to use language effectively is one of the most important skills.

With the right words,
· you can communicate your thoughts, feelings and emotions
· you can teach, entertain, persuade to change attitudes and abide to your bidding.

Words can both help you and hurt you. They can make you happy or miserable; they can inspire
or depress you.

Examples:
In the 1976 Democratic presidential primaries, Governor Jimmy Carter said,

“I see nothing wrong with ethnic purity being maintained in the suburbs.”

In the 1968 Republican presidential primaries, the powerful Governor George Romney
said that the White House had “brainwashed” him regarding the Vietnam War.

The way you use words will leave an inedible impression on people’s minds.

From your words, people will form opinions about:
· educational background
· intelligence
· character
· economic status
· social status

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Choose concrete words
· Concrete words carry a message more effectively.
§ Pertain to tangible things – objects perceived through 5 senses
§ The more concrete words used, the more your audience understands your
message
§ Leaves little room for personal interpretation
§ E.g. college campus, airplane, traffic jam, flood, desk, woman, gun, etc.

· Abstract words are subjected to various interpretations and arguments
§ It depends on people’s
· backgrounds
· religion
· education
· nationality, etc.
§ When using abstract words, define and explain them to avoid misunderstanding
or misinterpretation
§ Pertain to intangible things, and cannot be perceived through 5 senses such as
· ideas (philosophy, socialism)
· concepts (democracy, justice)
· beliefs (Islam, Hinduism, Scientology)
· attitudes & values (fear, anger, ethics, integrity)

Eliminate Clutter
Clutter - Discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea
· Keep your language lean and lively.
· Beware of using several words where one or two will do.
· Avoid flabby phrases. Let your ideas emerge sharply and firmly.
· Watch out for redundant adjectives and adverbs. Inexperienced speakers (and writers) tend

to string together two or three synonymous adjectives, such as “a learned and educated
person” or “a hot, steamy, torrid day.”
· Throw away the unnecessary words. Watch for clutter when you write your speech outlines.
Be prepared to revise the outline until your ideas emerge clearly and crisply.
· You can also help eliminate clutter by practicing your speeches with a digital recorder. As
you play the speech back, keep an ear out not just for flabby phrases but for verbal fillers
such as “you know,” “like,” and “really.”
· Practice delivering the speech again, this time making a special effort to trim it of wasted or
distracting words. This will not only make you a better public speaker, but it will also help
you present ideas more effectively in meetings, conversations, and group discussions.

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Use Language Vividly
If you want to move people with your speeches, use vivid, animated language. Although there
are several ways to do this, two of the most important are imagery and rhythm.

Imagery
· The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas.
· Speakers can use imagery in much the same way to make their ideas come alive.
· Three ways to generate imagery are by using concrete words, simile, and metaphor.

Concrete Words
· Choosing concrete words over abstract words is one way to enhance the clarity of your

speeches. Concrete words are also the key to effective imagery.

Simile
· An explicit comparison, introduced with the word “like” or “as,” between things that are

essentially different yet have something in common.
· These are bright, fresh similes that clarify and vitalize ideas. Some similes, however, have

become stale through overuse. Here are a few:

fresh as a daisy hungry as a bear fit as a fiddle
busy as a bee strong as an ox happy as a lark

· Such clichés- a trite or overused expression - are fine in everyday conversation, but you
should avoid them in speechmaking. Otherwise, you are likely to be “dull as dishwater”
and to find your audience “sleeping like a log”!

Metaphor
· An implicit comparison, not introduced with the word “like” or “as,” between two things

that are essentially different yet have something in common.
· Unlike simile, metaphor does not contain the words “like” or “as.” For example:

America’s cities are the windows through which the world looks at American society.
- Henry Cisneros

With globalization, the same sea washes all of humankind. We are all in the same boat.
There are no safe islands.

- Kofi Annan

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Rythms

Language has a rhythm created by the choice and arrangement of words. Speakers like
poets, sometimes seek to exploit the rhythm of language to enhance the impact of their words.

A speech, however, is not a poem. You should never emphasize sound and rhythm at the
expense of meaning. The aim is to think about ways you can use the rhythm and flow of
language to enhance your meaning.

Parallelism

The first device is parallelism—the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words,
phrases, or sentences. For example:

Rich and poor, intelligent and ignorant, wise and foolish, virtuous and vicious, man and
woman —it is ever the same, each soul must depend wholly on itself.

- Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Repetition

Repetition means reiterating the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of
successive clauses or sentences. For example:

If not now, when? If not us, who? If not together, how?

- Gordon Brown

We do not give up. We do not quit. We do not allow fear or division to break our spirit.
- Barack Obama

As you can see, repetition usually results in parallelism. In addition to building a strong
cadence, it also unifies a sequence of ideas, emphasizes an idea by stating it more than
once, and helps create a strong emotional effect.

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Alliteration

Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words.
For example:

Peace is essential for progress, but progress is no less essential for peace.
- Liaquat Ali Khan

Nothing great is accomplished without cooperation, compromise, and common cause.
- Ban Ki-moon

By highlighting the sounds of words, alliteration catches the attention of listeners and can
make ideas easier to remember.

Antithesis

Finally, you might try using antithesis—the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in
parallel structure. For example:

Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.
- John F. Kennedy
-

Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate.
- John F. Kennedy

It nearly always produces a neatly turned phrase. It is a fine way to give your speeches a
special touch of class.
You may be thinking that imagery and rhythm are too fancy for ordinary speeches like
yours. This is not true. Take a look at the following excerpt from one student’s speech
about the Massachusetts 54th:

To join an army that didn’t believe in you. To fight with an army who didn’t like you. To
die for an army that didn’t respect you. This was the Massachusetts 54th. Today they lay
where they died, on the beaches of South Carolina. Colonel Shaw and his men were piled
together in a mass grave, which has since been covered by the shifting tides of the Atlantic.
A small statue stands in Boston—a reminder of their sacrifice. Bravery, patriotism, and
sacrifice. These are qualities of the Massachusetts 54th. With the help of their efforts,
along with all the other black regiments that followed them, slavery did eventually come
to an end.

This is vivid, moving language. The imagery is sharp and poignant, the rhythm strong and
insistent. Think of how you can do similar things in your own speeches.

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Use Language Effectively
Appropriateness to the Occasion

Language that is appropriate for some occasions may not be appropriate for others.
As a simple example, a coach might address the football team as “you guys” (or worse!),
whereas the speaker in a more formal situation would begin with “distinguished guests.”
It’s only common sense to adjust your language to different occasions.

Appropriateness to the Audience

Appropriateness also depends on the audience. If you keep this in mind, it will help you
greatly when dealing with technical topics. When addressing an audience of physicians, you
might use the word “parotitis” to refer to a viral disease marked by the swelling of the parotid
glands. Your audience would know just what you meant. But when talking to a nonmedical
audience, such as your classmates, the appropriate word would be “mumps.”

You should be especially careful to avoid language that might offend your audience. Off-
color, humor or profanity might be appropriate in a comedy routine, but most listeners would
find it offensive in a formal public speech.

Remember, speakers are expected to elevate and polish their language when addressing
an audience.

Appropriateness to the Topic

Language should also be appropriate to the topic. You would not use metaphor,
antithesis, and alliteration when explaining how to change a bicycle tire.
But you might use all three in a speech honoring U.S. soldiers who have died in defense of their
country. The first topic calls for straightforward description and explanation. The second calls
for special language skills to evoke emotion, admiration, and appreciation.

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Appropriateness to the Speaker

No matter what the occasion, audience, or topic, language should also be appropriate to
the speaker. Every public speaker develops his or her own language style.
“Terrific,” you may be thinking. “I have my own style too. I feel more comfortable using abstract
words, slang, and technical jargon. That’s my way of speaking.” But to say that language should
be appropriate to the speaker does not justify ignoring the other needs for appropriateness.
There is a difference between one’s everyday style and one’s developed style as a public speaker.
Accomplished speakers have developed their speaking styles over many years of trial, error, and
practice. They have worked at using language effectively.

You can do the same if you become language-conscious. One way to develop this
consciousness is to read and listen to effective speakers. Study their techniques for achieving
accuracy, clarity, and vividness, and try to adapt those techniques to your own speeches. But
do not try to “become” someone else when you speak. Learn from other speakers, blend what
you learn into your own language style, and seek to become the best possible you.

Inclusive Language

· Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender,
race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors.

· Regardless of the situation, audiences expect public speakers to use inclusive language
that is respectful of the different groups that make up American society. They also expect
speakers to avoid stereotypes based on age, race, gender, disability, and other factors.

Ø Avoid the generic “he”
Ø Avoid the Use of “Man” When Referring to Both Men and Women
Ø Avoid Stereotyping Jobs and Social Roles by Gender
Ø Use Names That Groups Use to Identify Themselves

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Short, Simple Words Versus Long, Pretentious Words

Read this example. See whether you understand what this person is saying:

“We are in the ambassadorial residence, subject, of course, to some of the
discomfiture as a result of the need for elements of refurbishing and
rehabilitation.”

This is called “gobbledygook”.
He could have said:

“We’re decorating now so the house is a bit messy”.

For the purpose of informing your listeners, simple one- or two-syllable words are usually better.

Showy words Short words
termination end
ameliorate improve
delineate describe
optimum best
modification change
initiate start
conflagration fire
ablution washing

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Loaded Words
§ Words that concern race, religion, and politics
§ Can either infuriate or humiliate people and induce people to commit irrational acts. (The
Rwandan Genocide)
§ Avoid using these loaded words.
§ Examples:
- Race and religion: Whitey, Racist, Nigger, Hebe, Kike, Cockroaches
- Nationality: gringo, Spic, Harp, Wop, Dago, Jap, Polack
- Political Philosophy: Nazi, Anarchist, communist, Skin-Head, Left-Wing

Sexist Language
§ Language that promotes the stereotyping of people on the basis of gender.
§ Avoid from using sexist language because:
- It is a vital part of audience adaptation
- It is a matter of accuracy of speech-making.
- Your audience will consist of both men and women; be considerate to their
feelings.

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The Six C’s of Language Use

1. Clarity
§ If your words are not clear, listeners cannot understand your meaning.
§ You must yourself understand what you want to say.
§ Avoid using jargons.
§ Use simple words, not “gobbledygook”

2. Color
§ Emotional intensity or vividness of language
§ Example:

Six foot two, a hundred fifty-five pounds, smart – Stanford, remember. Clean cut
in his creased khakis, curly hair, and gorgeous teeth. And rich, very rich.

3. Concreteness
§ Avoid using too many abstract words
§ Use more concrete words.
§ The more concrete your language, the more pictorial and precise the information
you convey.

4. Correctness
§ Use correct grammar
Choose your words wisely
§ Avoid malapropisms
i. E.g. A speaker can add interest to his talk with an antidote.
ii. Good language can be reinforced by good gestation.

5. Conciseness
§ Simplicity and directness helps you to be concise.
§ Use the active voice, not passive.
§ Conciseness keeps you from wasting your audience’s time

6. Cultural Sensitivity
§ A lack of cultural sensitivity has negative consequences.
§ Always think before you speak and choose your words carefully.
§ Stay away from racial, ethnic, religious or gender-biased humor and expressions.

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Exercise for Critical Thinking
1. Arrange each of the sequences below in order, from the most abstract word to the most
concrete word.
a. housing complex, building, dining room, structure, apartment
b. Mona Lisa, art, painting, creative activity, portrait
c. automobile, vehicle, Ferrari, transportation, sports car
2. Each of the statements below uses one or more of the following stylistic devices: metaphor,
simile, parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and antithesis. Identify the device (or devices) used
in each statement.
a. “We are a people in a quandary about the present. We are a people in search of our future.
We are a people in search of a national community.” (Barbara Jordan)
b. “The vice presidency is the sand trap of American politics. It’s near the prize, and designed
to be limiting.” (Howard Fineman)
c. “People the world over have always been more impressed by the power of our example than
by the example of our power.” (Bill Clinton)
d. “America is not like a blanket—one piece of unbroken cloth, the same color, the same texture,
the same size. America is more like a quilt—many patches, many sizes, and woven and held
together by a common thread.” (Jesse Jackson)

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SPEECH
PRESENTATION

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How to Dress for a Public Speech?

Your message is always the most important part of a public speech; however, everything else about
your speech will affect how your audience perceives you & your message. Your voice, your gestures,
your grammar, your movements, your mannerisms, your clothes, and your style all create the
impression you leave on the audience & how much of your message they hear and subsequently,
remember.

HOW YOU ARE DRESSED IS A VERY CRUCIAL PART OF THIS EQUATION!

In order to present yourself properly & professionally, here are some tips to be remembered when
preparing for a speech:

Always strive to look presentable through good grooming/hygiene and have an overall tidy
appearance.

o Avoid clothing with holes in it or that is overly casual (hoodies, sweatpants…)
o Avoid clothes that are inappropriately revealing
o Wear clothes that fit you, but are not so tight that they restrict your movement
o Females—Keep makeup natural & simple
o Males—Avoid wearing a hat before giving a presentation (hats are typically inappropriate

during a speech and hat-hair is never professional)

Wear clothing that is appropriate for the occasion, topic, & audience.
o If you are presenting a speech on comic books to a group of college students, nice jeans
and a polo (males) or a nice blouse (females) would be acceptable attire.
o The same clothing, however, would not be appropriate if you were speaking about
comic books to a group of CEO’s for X-Box… In that case, a business suit would be a
better choice.
o Another example would be if you were to present a speech on nursing/health and you
wore scrubs. This would be acceptable since your attire corresponds with your topic.
o Also, if you are in the military, BDU’s are an acceptable and professional option when
presenting a speech.

Females typically have to pay attention to more aspects of their appearance than males and
this is due to the wide variety of clothing styles, colors, and options made available to women.
Remember to:

o Avoid excessive, flashy, or over-sized jewelry and accessories
o Avoid excessive or strong-scented perfume

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What to wear… What NOT to wear…

 Dress slacks and khakis  Hats
 Dress skirts  Shorts/short skirts/short dresses
 Designer jeans (no holes)  Flip flops (dressy sandals are
 Shirts with collars
 Presentable dress shirts/casual shirts acceptable)
 Dress capris  Hoodies
 Sweaters  Sweat pants
 Dress shoes, athletic footwear in good  Tank tops
 Shirts containing any logos or phrases
shape
that contain potentially offensive words
or anything to do with drugs/alcohol
 T-shirts

Adapted from, http://www.uccs.edu/Documents/commcenter

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Keeping Time

Introduction

Restriction is a common feature of most student presentations as well as those in the professional/work
context. You will either be allotted a time for speaking and a time for questions or an overall timeslot for
both. Keeping to time shows respect for your audience and ensures that you deliver a focused
presentation that makes an impact.

What Goes Wrong?

Time limits are frequently exceeded for two main reasons:

the presenter has tried to incorporate too much information for the time allowed;
the process of presenting (e.g. speaking, distributing handouts, using visual aids) has simply
taken more time than the presenter had planned for.

Managing the Content

When planning your presentation, it is important to understand what can be achieved in the allocated
time. Remember that you cannot communicate the same amount of information in a presentation that
you can in a written report or essay.

Planning
It is important to prioritize your information at an early stage in the planning process. When

planning your presentation, put aside your notes and write a simple outline of your talk. This outline
should be based on a series of main points structured in a logical order. Make sure that you can express
each of the key points in a few words or a simple sentence. If you cannot do this it is likely that you
still haven’t found a precise focus for your presentation. Remember that a clear focus enhances the
impact of your talk.

When you have identified your main points, you can move on to illustrate your argument with
appropriate supporting information. Choose the supporting detail for each main point carefully to find
one or two examples that make a real impact and will be remembered. A wealth of less illuminating
detail will be much less effective.

Finally, plan to open and close your presentation with a strong introduction and conclusion.
Although these sections will demand time if they are to be effective, and thus further limit the amount
of information that you can include, they are essential elements of effective presentations and should
not be ignored. More techniques for structuring your presentation are discussed in a separate guide in
this series, structuring a presentation.

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Flexibility
If you have written your presentation as a complete script you will find it hard to adapt and reduce

the content as you deliver your material. However, if you have adopted the planning structure outlined
above, you will be better able to produce a flexible presentation that can be shaped according to the
time that you have available. If you need to reduce the length of your presentation, for whatever reason,
you should be able to shorten the introduction, deliver the main points without some/all of the
supporting detail and deliver a truncated conclusion.

Managing the Performance

Many presenters run out of time because they have not taken all aspects of their performance into
account when planning and rehearsing their presentation. When planning your performance you will
need to include time to:

· get settled in front of your audience in order to prepare your visual aids, notes etc. before
you start talking;

· distribute handouts at the start/during/end of your talk;
· develop points in more detail if it appears that your audience hasn’t understood an area of

your talk;
· accommodate any slight deviations from your script that you might make ‘off; respond to

questions whilst you’re speaking and after you’ve finished;
· work with your visual aids (change slides, annotate images, etc.);
· accommodate any pauses whilst you review your notes / allow your audience time to think

between main points.

The delivery of your presentation will need to be controlled and well-paced to achieve the best impact.
If you have not allowed time for the different elements of your performance, your presentation will
appear rushed and congested.

Planning Your Use of Time

It is important that when you have written the content of your presentation, you map out how it
will be delivered. This should include, for example, a clear plan of when you’ll be giving out handouts,
where you’ll be taking questions and the precise moment at which you’ll be changing visual aids. This
will help make these elements of your presentation appear more purposeful as well as ensuring that
you allocate time for such non-spoken aspects of delivery. Many presenters mark such features on the
script of their presentation so that they are all included in the final performance (much as a play script
includes stage directions to remind the actors what to do and when to do it).

When practicing your presentation, try to replicate the actual delivery as closely as possible.
Simply running through the words in your head is not enough to accommodate all aspects of the
performance. Ideally, try the presentation out in a seminar room or lecture theatre where you can
practice integrating all the elements of your talk, and time the whole thing. If this is impossible, rehearse
out loud, pausing where you would need time for other activities.

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Cutting Time

Even though you may run to time in rehearsal it is still important to leave a few minutes spare
for the actual presentation. The impact of nerves and any interaction with your audience will take up
more time than you’d think. It is safer to plan to be a little under time to make sure you can
accommodate all aspects of your talk and avoid rushing.

If you have followed the above advice about structuring your presentation around main points
and supporting information, it should be fairly easy to reduce the length of your presentation. To save
a small amount of time, cut out some of the supporting detail. To save larger amounts, review your
main points and reduce these in number. Never try speeding up the pace of delivery; this appears
amateurish and seriously affects any impact that you may be trying to make.

Managing the ‘Mental Clock’

Many presenters rely on their own mental awareness of time passing to keep themselves to time.
Unless you are a very experienced presenter, this rarely works in practice (it is not unusual for a
presenter to feel that they’ve only spoken for 5 minutes when in fact they took closer to 15). Always
refer to a clock at the back of the room to keep a track of time. Alternatively, prop your wristwatch up
on the desk in front of you to avoid having to glance down at your wrist. Time your delivery in rehearsal
and make a note on your script where you should have reached in 5, 10, 15 minutes etc. If it looks like
you’re running out of time, pause for a moment to review what you can realistically achieve in the last
moments. Always remember to include a conclusion, no matter how brief. This is where you make a
lasting impression on your audience and is a vital part of your success as a presenter.

Summary
Keeping to time requires that you carefully prioritize information for inclusion in your presentation

and plan each element of your delivery carefully (i.e. the script, your use of visual aids, questions from
the audience). Rehearse your presentation thoroughly so that you have a clear idea of how the different
elements fit together and can gauge how much time you should allocate to each. When delivering your
presentation, keep an eye on the passage of time and be able to adjust your presentation accordingly.
The more experienced you become, the more skilled you will be at determining the amount of
information that can be included in a given time slot. However, even this isn’t fail-proof and you should
always rehearse carefully to ensure that you keep to time.

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CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM

Objectives

In writing peer critiques, students should refine their abilities to:
· Critically analyze all aspects of speech composition and delivery
· Distinguish between weak and strong support
· Identify unclear speech arrangement and identify possible solutions
· Diagnose delivery problems and propose remedies

Description

Like a number of other arts, we refine our public speaking abilities through a mixture of instruction,
practice, and imitation. As such, critically examining your peers’ speeches provides you another venue
for thinking about how to adapt to the complexity of different rhetorical situations. Additionally,
individual speakers benefit immensely from articulate feedback from their audiences. Over the course
of the quarter, you will be required to critique your classmates’ speeches. Your peer critique
assignments are listed on the speaker order sheet. You will be required to provide oral criticism
immediately following a peer’s speech, followed by written comments to be handed in to your TA. These
peer critiques, like your self-critiques, will be graded on a √/- system.

In-class Oral Comments
If you are called upon to provide an in-class critique, you should identify at least one strength of the
speech and one area for improvement. Please remember that you will be hindering your classmate’s
future public speaking success by being untruthful, vague, or indirect about opportunities for
improvement. By the same token, you should provide constructive criticism intended to help the speaker
improve. Due to the time constraints of the class, we may not be able to get to everyone’s comments
during the assigned class time. Regardless of whether you deliver an oral critique, you must turn in
written critiques by the beginning of the next discussion section.

Written Constructive Criticism
In contrast to the in-class peer critiques, your written critiques should provide detailed and thorough
feedback to the speaker concerning all aspects of the section you were assigned to critique. Your peer
critiques should not be overly vague or praise the speaker for 90% of the critique. These are not softball
critiques; we are all students of public speaking and can think about the real strengths and shortcomings
of a speech. You are critiquing the speech, which was an act of communication between the speaker
and the audience; you are not critiquing the person as a person. Your peer critiques should be, at
minimum, half a page single-spaced in length (approximately 50-60 words). Peer critiques must be
written in complete sentences and in essay format (no bullet points).

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A peer critique will receive a √ if:
1. the student was in class to deliver an in-class critique
2. the student turns in 2 copies of the peer critique
3. the critique references specific parts of the observed speech
4. the critique identifies both strengths an weaknesses
5. the critique addresses some of the assigned critical questions (see below)
6. the critique is courteous and aimed at helping the speaker improve

A peer critique will receive a - if:
1. the student was not present in class on the day of the speech
2. the student only turns in 1 copy of the peer critique
3. the critique is overly vague
4. the critique only praises the observed speech and ignores its major weaknesses
5. the critique only provides a summary of the observed speech
6. the critique is rude towards the person

What to Critique
When developing your peer critiques you should reference specific parts and passages of the speech.
Avoid critiques that are overly vague (e.g. “Your introduction was good”, “I thought your speech flowed
nicely”) and work on providing specific comments (e.g. “Your call for the replacement of the UW athletic
director needed some testimony from a respected UW source”). Below are some questions you can use
to guide your critique.

NOTE: You do not have to answer each and every question, but you should address a
majority of the questions.

These are simply some questions to guide your analysis and critique of a speech

Impromptu Speech: Critical Focus on Invention and Arrangement
- Did the speaker’s main points clearly support her/his thesis statement? How could this support
have been clearer?
- Were the main points balanced? If not, what seemed out of balance?
- Did the speaker’s evidence clearly support her/his main points? How could this evidence have
been clearer?
- Did the speaker provide concrete and specific evidence? How could this evidence have been
stronger?
- Did the speaker provide a clear preview of her/his main points? How could this have been
clearer?
- Did the speaker provide clear transitions? How could these have been clearer?
- Did the speaker provide a clear conclusion that summarized her/his main points? How could this
have been clearer?

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Persuasive Speech: Critical Focus on Argument
- Did the speaker make her/his arguments clearly? Did you understand what the speaker was
asserting? How could these arguments have been clearer?
- Did the speaker engage the opposing arguments effectively and fairly? Were there other
arguments that the speaker did not address that she/he should have?
- Did the speaker make language choices that were appealing to an oppositional audience?
- Did the speaker provide enough supporting material to justify his/her claims? Where did the
speaker need more supporting material/evidence?
- Was the supporting material appropriate for this speech? Was it credible?
- Was the speech delivered in a persuasive manner? How could the delivery have been more
persuasive?

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Sample Peer Critique

I thought this was a great speech that really spoke to the majority in the audience that was
against the idea of expanding America’s utilization on nuclear energy. The speaker began with a
compelling attention-gaining device, that of the destruction of Hurricane Katrina and the resulting impact
on our nation’s oil supply. This set up a clear problem that called for her argument that we need to
reconsider the benefits and potential costs of nuclear fuel. She also established her ethos well early on,
by being calm, friendly, looking directly at her audience at all times and speaking in a measured, clear
voice that was well-varied and easy to listen to. At the same time, it was clear that she was not simply
reading from her notecard; her delivery was relatively natural although it was obvious she practiced and
knew her material well.

The speaker’s arrangement was good considering her audience—she spoke first about the most
glaring concerns most people have about nuclear power: accidental meltdown, waste storage, and
possible security breaches. She then provided information to the audience that effectively rebutted their
concerns; aka new technology has been designed to address nearly all of these problems. After putting
her audience at ease, she provided several independent advantages of using nuclear energy. Here she
provided excellent reluctant testimony from a founder of Greenpeace that he was in support of nuclear
energy as a source of clean fuel. Considering most of those opposed to nuclear energy are
environmental groups, this was an excellent use of evidence from a source the audience would probably
find credible. I also really liked her airplane analogy that illustrated that we accept some risks in order
to gain higher benefits. In fact, I wish she had developed this further; it felt like it went by quite quickly.
Her conclusion was great in that it provided it reviewed the primary points she was making and re-
visited the purpose of her speech; New Orleans showed us how precarious and dangerous dependence
on traditional fuel sources can be, and we need to consider new ones.

I think there are a few things the speaker can do to improve. While this was an excellent speech,
there were still some areas for improvement. At some points it was a bit unclear as to where she was
getting some of her information—she cited some very specific data and didn’t always tell her audience
where this information came from. For the most part though, her oral citations were quite good. Her
structure was fairly clear, but her signposts were not always reinforcing what that structure was. (E.g.
she used “and” as her only signpost, numbers might have been more helpful). This was a bit of a
problem since there was so much evidence and some of the sub-points were so closely related that I
was unclear at times as to what environmentalist concern she was addressing. In her discussion of
waste storage, she did not discuss current opposition many environmental activists have to the Yucca
Mountain facility—it’s hard to prove waste storage isn’t a problem by using a primary example that many
people consider to be a big problem—if anything it might feed their concerns. While her delivery was
also overall excellent, the speaker had a tendency to look a bit staged at points. While she engaged the
audience frequently, there were moments where voice and gestures seemed unnatural. Her voice was
quite clear and loud enough to be heard at almost all points, however, her volume dropped at points
and it was hard to hear.

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