DELIVERING THE SPEECH
If you were to record one of Conan O’Brien’s comedy routines, memorize it word for word, and stand up
before your friends to recite it, would you get the same response O’Brien does? Not very likely. And why
not? Because you would not deliver the jokes as O’Brien does. Of course, the jokes are basically funny.
But Conan O’Brien brings something extra to the jokes—his manner of presentation, his vocal inflections,
his perfectly timed pauses, his facial expressions, his gestures. All these are part of an expert delivery.
It would take you years of practice—as it took O’Brien—to duplicate his results.
No one expects your speech class to transform you into a multimillion-dollar talk show host. Still,
this example demonstrates how important delivery can be to any public speaking situation. Even a
mediocre speech will be more effective if it is presented well, whereas a wonderfully written speech can
be ruined by poor delivery.
This does not mean dazzling delivery will turn a mindless string of nonsense into a triumphant
oration. You cannot make a good speech without having something to say. But having something to say
is not enough. You must also know how to say it.
Speech delivery is a matter of nonverbal communication. It is based on how you use your voice
and body to convey the message expressed by your words. There is a great deal of research showing
that the impact of a speaker’s words is powerfully influenced by his or her nonverbal communication. In
this chapter, we will explain how you can use nonverbal communication to deliver your speeches
effectively and to increase the impact of your verbal message.
What is Good Delivery?
Wendell Phillips was a leader in the movement to abolish slavery in the United States during the 1800s.
Some people considered him the greatest speaker of his time. The following story suggests one reason
why:
Shortly before the Civil War an Andover student, learning that Phillips was to lecture in
Boston, made a 22-mile pilgrimage on foot to hear him. At first the trip seemed hardly
worthwhile, for the student discovered that Phillips was not an orator in the grand
manner, but spoke in an almost conversational style. He stood on the platform, one hand
lightly resting on a table, talked for what seemed to be about 20 minutes, concluded, and
sat down. When the student looked at his watch, he found to his astonishment that he
had been listening for an hour and a half!
Good delivery does not call attention to itself. It conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly, interestingly,
and without distracting the audience. Most audiences prefer delivery that combines a certain degree of
formality with the best attributes of good conversation—directness, spontaneity, animation, vocal and
facial expressiveness, and a lively sense of communication.
Speech delivery is an art, not a science. What works for one speaker may fail for another. And
what succeeds with today’s audience may not with tomorrow’s. You cannot become a skilled speaker
just by following a set of rules in a textbook. In the long run, there is no substitute for experience. But
take heart! A textbook can give you basic pointers to get you started in the right direction.
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When you plan your first speech (or your second or third), you should concentrate on such basics
as speaking intelligibly, avoiding distracting mannerisms, and establishing eye contact with your listeners.
Once you get these elements under control and begin to feel fairly comfortable in front of an audience,
you can work on polishing your delivery to enhance the impact of your ideas. Eventually, you may find
yourself able to control the timing, rhythm, and momentum of a speech as skillfully as a conductor
controls an orchestra.
Methods of Delivery
There are four basic methods of delivering a speech:
(1) reading verbatim from a manuscript,
(2) reciting a memorized text,
(3) speaking impromptu, and
(4) speaking extemporaneously.
Reading from a Manuscript
Certain speeches must be delivered word for word, according to a meticulously prepared manuscript.
Examples include a Pope’s religious proclamation, an engineer’s report to a professional meeting, or a
President’s message to Congress. In such situations, absolute accuracy is essential. Every word of the
speech will be analyzed by the press, by colleagues, perhaps by enemies. In the case of the President,
a misstated phrase could cause an international incident.
Although it looks easy, delivering a speech from manuscript requires great skill. Some people do
it well. Their words “come alive as if coined on the spot.” Others ruin it every time. Instead of sounding
vibrant and conversational, they come across as wooden and artificial. They falter over words, pause in
the wrong places, read too quickly or too slowly, speak in a monotone, and march through the speech
without even glancing at their audience. In short, they come across as reading to their listeners, rather
than talking with them.
If you are in a situation where you must speak from a manuscript, practice aloud to make sure
the speech sounds natural. Work on establishing eye contact with your listeners. Be certain the final
manuscript is legible at a glance. Above all, reach out to your audience with the same directness and
sincerity that you would if you were speaking extemporaneously.
Reciting from Memory
Among the feats of the legendary orators, none leaves us more in awe than their practice of presenting
even the longest and most complex speeches entirely from memory. Nowadays it is no longer customary
to memorize any but the shortest of speeches—toasts, congratulatory remarks, acceptance speeches,
introductions, and the like.
If you are giving a speech of this kind and want to memorize it, by all means do so. However, be
sure to memorize it so thoroughly that you will be able to concentrate on communicating with the
audience, not on trying to remember the words. Speakers who gaze at the ceiling or stare out the window
trying to recall what they have memorized are no better off than those who read dully from a manuscript.
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Speaking Impromptu
An impromptu speech is delivered with little or no immediate preparation. Few people choose to speak
impromptu, but sometimes it cannot be avoided. In fact, many of the speeches you give in life will be
impromptu. You might be called on suddenly to “say a few words” or, in the course of a class discussion,
business meeting, or committee report, want to respond to a previous speaker.
When such situations arise, don’t panic. No one expects you to deliver a perfect speech on the
spur of the moment. If you are in a meeting or discussion, pay close attention to what the other speakers
say. Take notes of major points with which you agree or disagree. In the process, you will automatically
begin to formulate what you will say when it is your turn to speak.
Whenever you are responding to a previous speaker, try to present your speech in four simple
steps: First, state the point you are answering. Second, state the point you wish to make. Third, support
your point with appropriate statistics, examples, or testimony. Fourth, summarize your point. This four-
step method will help you organize your thoughts quickly and clearly. If time allows, sketch a quick
outline of your remarks on a piece of paper before you rise to speak. This will help you remember what
you want to say and will keep you from rambling.
If the situation calls for you to speak from a lectern, walk to it calmly, take a deep breath or two
(not a visible gasp), establish eye contact with your audience, and begin speaking. No matter how
nervous you are inside, do your best to look calm and assured on the outside. Once you begin speaking,
maintain eye contact with the audience. Help the audience keep track of your ideas with signposts such
as “My first point is . . .; second, we can see that . . .; in conclusion, I would like to say . . ..” By stating
your points clearly and concisely, you will come across as organized and confident.
As with other kinds of public speaking, the best way to become a better impromptu speaker is to
practice. You can do this on your own. Simply choose a topic on which you are already well informed,
and give a one- or two-minute impromptu talk on some aspect of that topic. Any topic will do, no matter
how serious or frivolous it may be. You don’t even need an audience—you can speak to an empty room.
Better yet, speak to a digital recorder and play it back to hear how you sound. The purpose is to gain
experience in pulling your ideas together quickly and stating them succinctly.
Speaking Extemporaneously
In popular usage, “extemporaneous” means the same as “impromptu.” But technically the two are
different. Unlike an impromptu speech, which is delivered off-the-cuff, an extemporaneous speech is
carefully prepared and practiced in advance. In presenting the speech, the extemporaneous speaker
uses only a brief set of notes or a speaking outline to jog the memory. The exact wording is chosen at
the moment of delivery.
This is not as hard as it sounds. Once you have your outline (or notes) and know what topics you
are going to cover and in what order, you can begin to practice the speech. Every time you run through
it, the wording will be slightly different. As you practice the speech over and over, the best way to present
each part will emerge and stick in your mind.
The extemporaneous method has several advantages. It gives more precise control over thought
and language than does impromptu speaking; it offers greater spontaneity and directness than does
speaking from memory or from a full manuscript; and it is adaptable to a wide range of situations. It also
encourages the conversational quality audiences look for in speech delivery.
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“Conversational quality” means that no matter how many times a speech has been rehearsed, it
still sounds spontaneous. When you speak extemporaneously—and have prepared properly—you have
full control over your ideas, yet you are not tied to a manuscript. You are free to establish strong eye
contact, to gesture naturally, and to concentrate on talking with the audience rather than declaiming to
them.
Like thousands of previous students, you can become adept at speaking extemporaneously by
the end of the term. As one student commented in looking back at his class: “At the start, I never thought
I’d be able to give my speeches without a ton of notes, but I’m amazed at how much progress I’ve made.
It’s one of the most valuable things I learned in the entire class.” Most experienced speakers prefer the
extemporaneous method, and most teachers emphasize it.
The Speaker’s Voice
What kind of voice do you have? Is it rich and resonant like Morgan Freeman’s? Soft and alluring like
Scarlett Johansson’s? Loud and irritating like Dick Vitale’s? Whatever the characteristics of your voice,
you can be sure it is unique. Because no two people are exactly the same physically, no two people have
identical voices.
A golden voice is certainly an asset for a public speaker, but some of the most famous speakers
in history have had undistinguished voices. Abraham Lincoln had a harsh and penetrating voice; Winston
Churchill suffered from a slight lisp and an awkward stammer. Like them, you can overcome natural
disadvantages and use your voice to the best effect. Lincoln and Churchill learned to control their voices.
You can do the same thing.
The aspects of voice you should work to control are volume, pitch, rate, pauses, vocal variety,
pronunciation, articulation, and dialect.
Volume
At one time, a powerful voice was essential for an orator. Today, electronic amplification allows even a
soft-spoken person to be heard in any setting. But in the classroom, you will speak without a microphone.
When you do, be sure to adjust your voice to the acoustics of the room, the size of the audience, and
the level of background noise. If you speak too loudly, your listeners will think you boorish. If you speak
too softly, they will not understand you.
Remember that your own voice always sounds louder to you than to a listener. Soon after
beginning your speech, glance at the people farthest away from you. If they look puzzled, are leaning
forward in their seats, or are otherwise straining to hear, you need to talk louder.
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Pitch
Pitch is the highness or lowness of a speaker’s voice. The faster sound waves vibrate, the higher their
pitch; the slower they vibrate, the lower their pitch.
Changes in pitch are known as inflections. Inflection is what makes the difference between the
“Aha!” triumphantly exclaimed by Sherlock Holmes upon discovering a seemingly decisive clue and the
“Aha” he mutters when he learns the clue is not decisive after all. If you were to read the preceding
sentence aloud, your voice would probably go up in pitch on the first “Aha” and down on the second.
In ordinary conversation, we instinctively use inflections to convey meaning and emotion. People
who do not are said to speak in a monotone, a trait whose only known benefit is to cure insomnia in
one’s listeners.
Although few people speak in an absolute monotone, with no variation whatever in pitch, many
fall into repetitious pitch patterns that are just as hypnotic. You can guard against this by recording your
speeches as you practice them. If all your sentences end on the same inflection—either upward or
downward—work on varying your pitch patterns to fit the meaning of your words.
Rate
Rate refers to the speed at which a person talks. People in the United States usually speak at a rate
between 120 and 150 words per minute, but there is no uniform rate for effective speechmaking. Franklin
Roosevelt spoke at 110 words per minute, John Kennedy at 180. Martin Luther King opened his “I Have
a Dream” speech at 92 words per minute and finished it at 145. The best rate of speech depends on
several things—the vocal attributes of the speaker, the mood she or he is trying to create, the composition
of the audience, and the nature of the occasion.
Two obvious faults to avoid are speaking so slowly that your listeners become bored or so quickly
that they lose track of your ideas. Novice speakers are particularly prone to racing through their speeches
at a frantic rate. Fortunately, this is usually an easy habit to break, as is the less common one of crawling
through one’s speech at a snail’s pace.
The key in both cases is becoming aware of the problem and concentrating on solving it. Use a
recording device to check how fast you speak. Pay special attention to rate when practicing your speech.
Finally, be sure to include reminders about delivery on your speaking outline so you won’t forget to make
the adjustments when you give your speech in class.
Pauses
Learning how and when to pause is a major challenge for most beginning speakers. Even a moment of
silence can seem like an eternity. As you gain more poise and confidence, however, you will discover
how useful the pause can be. It can signal the end of a thought unit, give an idea time to sink in, and
lend dramatic impact to a statement. “The right word may be effective,” said Mark Twain, “but no word
was ever as effective as a rightly timed pause.”
Developing a keen sense of timing is partly a matter of common sense, partly a matter of
experience. You will not always get your pauses just right at first, but keep trying. Listen to accomplished
speakers to see how they use pauses to modulate the rate and rhythm of their messages. Work on
pauses when you practice your speeches.
Make sure you pause at the end of thought units and not in the middle. Otherwise, you may
distract listeners from your ideas. Most important, do not fill the silence with “uh,” “er,” or “um.” These
vocalized pauses can create negative perceptions about a speaker’s intelligence and often make a speaker
appear deceptive.
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Vocal Variety
Just as variety is the spice of life, so is it the spice of public speaking. A flat, listless, unchanging voice is
as deadly to speechmaking as a flat, listless, unchanging routine is to daily life. When giving a speech,
you should strive for vocal variety—changes in rate, pitch, and volume that will give your voice interest
and expressiveness.
For an excellent example of vocal variety, look at Video 13.2 in the online Media Library for this
chapter. The speaker, Sajjid Zahir Chinoy, was born and raised in Bombay, India, before coming to the
United States to attend college at the University of Richmond. At the end of his senior year, Chinoy was
selected as the student commencement speaker in a campus-wide competition. He spoke of the warm
reception he received at Richmond and of how cultural differences can be overcome by attempting to
understand other people.
At the end of his speech, Chinoy received thunderous applause—partly because of what he said,
but also because of how he said it. Addressing the audience of 3,000 people without notes, he spoke
extemporaneously with strong eye contact and excellent vocal variety. The speech was so inspiring that
the main speaker, Harvard psychiatrist Robert Coles, began his presentation by paying tribute to Chinoy.
“I’ve been to a number of commencements,” said Coles, “but I’ve never heard a speech quite like that!”
How can you develop a lively, expressive voice? Above all, by approaching every speech as Chinoy
approached his—as an opportunity to share with your listeners ideas that are important to you. Your
sense of conviction and your desire to communicate will give your voice the same spark it has in
spontaneous conversation.
Pronunciation
We all mispronounce words now and again. Here, for example, are four words with which you are
probably familiar. Say each one aloud. Very likely you made a mistake on at least one, for they are among
the most frequently mispronounced words in the English language. Let’s see:
Word Common Error Correct Pronunciation
genuine gen-u-wine gen-u-win
arctic ar-tic arc-tic
nuclear nu-cu-lar nu-cle-ar
err air ur
Every word leads a triple life: it is read, written, and spoken. Most people recognize and
understand many more words in reading than they use in ordinary writing, and about three times as
many as occur in spontaneous speech.
This is why we occasionally stumble when speaking words that are part of our reading or writing
vocabularies. In other cases, we may mispronounce the most commonplace words out of habit.
The problem is that we usually don’t know when we are mispronouncing a word. If we are lucky,
we learn the right pronunciation by hearing someone else say the word properly or by having someone
gently correct us in private. If we are unlucky, we mispronounce the word in front of a roomful of people,
who may raise their eyebrows, groan, or laugh.
All of this argues for practicing your speech in front of as many trusted friends and relatives as
you can corner. If you have any doubts about the proper pronunciation of certain words, be sure to
check a dictionary.
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Articulation
Articulation and pronunciation are not identical. Sloppy articulation is the failure to form particular speech
sounds crisply and distinctly. It is one of several causes of mispronunciation, but you can articulate a
word sharply and still mispronounce it. For example, if you say the “s” in “Illinois” or the “p” in
“pneumonia,” you are making a mistake in pronunciation, regardless of how precisely you articulate the
sounds.
Among college students, poor articulation is more common than ignorance of correct
pronunciation. We know that “let me” is not “lemme,” that “going to” is not “gonna,” that “did you” is
not “didja,” yet we persist in articulating these words improperly. Here are some other common errors
in articulation you should work to avoid:
Word Misarticulation
ought to otta
didn’t dint
don’t know
have to dunno
want to hafta
will you wanna
wilya
If you have sloppy articulation, work on identifying and eliminating your most common errors.
Like other bad habits, careless articulation can be broken only by persistent effort—but the results are
well worth it. As Shakespeare advised, “Mend your speech a little, lest you may mar your fortunes.”
Dialect
Most languages have dialects, each with a distinctive accent, grammar, and vocabulary. Dialects are
usually based on regional or ethnic speech patterns. The United States has four major regional dialects—
Eastern, New England, Southern, and General American. We also have multiple ethnic dialects. As the
nation has become more diverse culturally, it has also become more diverse linguistically.
Linguists have concluded that no dialect is inherently better or worse than another. Dialects are
not linguistic badges of superiority or inferiority. They are usually shaped by our regional or ethnic
background, and every dialect is “right” for the community of people who use it.
When is a given dialect appropriate in public speaking? The answer depends above all on the
composition of your audience. Heavy use of any dialect—regional or ethnic—can be troublesome when
the audience does not share that dialect. In such a situation, the dialect may cause listeners to make
negative judgments about the speaker’s personality, intelligence, and competence. This is why
professional speakers have been known to invest large amounts of time (and money) to master the
General American dialect used by most television news broadcasters.
Does this mean you must talk like a television news broadcaster if you want to be successful in
your speeches? Not at all. Regional or ethnic dialects do not pose a problem as long as the audience is
familiar with them and finds them appropriate. When speaking in the North, for example, a southern
politician may avoid regional dialect. But when addressing audiences in the South, the same politician
may intentionally include regional dialect as a way of creating common ground with listeners.
Although not strictly speaking a matter of dialect, the proficiency of nonnative speakers of English
often arises in the speech classroom. Fortunately, teachers and students alike usually go out of their way
to be helpful and encouraging to international students and others for whom English is not the primary
language. Over the years, many non-native speakers of English have found speech class a supportive
environment in which to improve their proficiency in spoken English.
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The Speaker’s Body
Imagine yourself at a party. During the evening you form impressions about the people around you.
Jonte seems relaxed and even-tempered, Nicole tense and irritable. Kyndra seems open and
straightforward, Bekah hostile and evasive. Amin seems happy to see you; Seth definitely is not.
How do you reach these conclusions? To a surprising extent, you reach them not on the basis of
what people say with words, but because of what they say with their posture, gestures, eyes, and facial
expressions. Suppose you are sitting next to Amin, and he says, “This is a great party. I’m really glad to
be here with you.” However, his body is turned slightly away from you, and he keeps looking at someone
across the room. Despite what he says, you know he is not glad to be there with you.
Much the same thing happens in speechmaking. Posture, facial expression, gestures, eye
contact—all affect the way listeners respond to a speaker. How we use these and other body motions to
communicate is the subject of a fascinating area of study called kinesics. One of its founders, Ray
Birdwhistell, estimated that more than 700,000 physical signals can be sent through bodily movement.
Studies have shown that these signals have a significant impact on the meaning communicated by
speakers.
Research has also confirmed what the Greek historian Herodotus observed more than 2,400 years
ago: “People trust their ears less than their eyes.” When a speaker’s body language is inconsistent with
his or her words, listeners often believe the body language rather than the words.
Here are the major aspects of physical action that will affect the outcome of your speeches.
Personal Appearance
If you were Lady Gaga, you could show up to make an MTV Music Video Award presentation speech
wearing a bizarre creation that left little to the imagination. If you were Albert Einstein, you could show
up to address an international science conference wearing wrinkled trousers, a sweater, and tennis shoes.
While the members of your audience would certainly comment on your attire, your reputation would not
be harmed. In fact, it might be enhanced. You would be one of the few, the very few, who live outside
the rules, who are expected to be unusual.
Now imagine what would happen if the president of a corporation showed up to address a
stockholders’ meeting attired like Lady Gaga, or if the President of the United States spoke on national
television wearing wrinkled clothes and tennis shoes. Both presidents would soon be looking for work.
Barring the occasional eccentric, every speaker is expected by her or his audience to exhibit a personal
appearance in keeping with the occasion of the speech.
Many studies have confirmed that personal appearance plays an important role in speechmaking.
Listeners always see you before they hear you. Just as you adapt your language to the audience and the
occasion, so should you dress and groom appropriately. Although the force of your speech can sometimes
overcome a poor impression created by personal appearance, the odds are against it. Regardless of the
speaking situation, you should try to evoke a favorable first impression.
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Movement
Novice speakers are often unsure about what to do with their body while giving a speech. Some pace
back and forth across the podium, shift their weight from one foot to the other, fidget with their notes,
or jingle coins in their pockets. Still others turn into statues, standing rigid and expressionless from
beginning to end.
Such quirks usually stem from nervousness. If you are prone to distracting mannerisms, your
teacher will identify them so you can work on controlling them. With a little concentration, these
mannerisms should disappear as you become more comfortable speaking in front of an audience.
As important as how you act during the speech is what you do just before you begin and after
you finish. As you rise to speak, try to appear calm, poised, and confident, despite the butterflies in your
stomach. When you reach the lectern, don’t lean on it, and don’t rush into your speech. Give yourself
time to get set. Arrange your notes just the way you want them. Stand quietly as you wait to make sure
the audience is paying attention. Establish eye contact with your listeners. Then—and only then—should
you start to talk.
When you reach the end of your speech, maintain eye contact for a few moments after you stop
talking. This will give your closing line time to sink in. Unless you are staying at the lectern to answer
questions, collect your notes and return to your seat. As you do so, maintain your cool, collected
demeanor. Whatever you do, don’t start to gather your notes before you have finished talking, and don’t
cap off your speech with a huge sigh of relief or some remark like, “Whew! Am I glad that’s over!”
When practicing your speeches, spend a little time rehearsing how you will behave at the
beginning and at the end. It is one of the easiest—and one of the most effective—things you can do to
improve your image with an audience.
Gestures
Few aspects of delivery cause students more anguish than deciding what to do with their hands. “Should
I clasp them behind my back? Let them hang at my sides? Rest them on the lectern? And what about
gesturing? When should I do that—and how?” Even people who use their hands expressively in everyday
conversation seem to regard them as awkward appendages when speaking before an audience.
Over the years, more nonsense has been written about gesturing than any other aspect of speech
delivery. Adroit gestures can add to the impact of a speech; but effective speakers do not need a vast
repertoire of gestures. Some accomplished speakers gesture frequently, others hardly at all. The primary
rule is this: Whatever gestures you make should not distract from your message. They should appear
natural and spontaneous, help clarify or reinforce your ideas, and be suited to the audience and occasion.
Gesturing tends to work itself out as you acquire experience and confidence. For now, make sure
your hands do not upstage your ideas. Avoid flailing them about, wringing them together, or toying with
your rings. Once you have eliminated these distractions, forget about your hands. Think about
communicating with your listeners, and your gestures will take care of themselves—just as they do in
conversation.
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Eye Contact
The eyes have been called “the windows of the soul.” We look to them to help gauge a speaker’s
truthfulness, intelligence, attitudes, and feelings. Although patterns of eye contact in everyday
conversation vary from culture to culture, there is wide agreement across cultures on the importance of
eye contact in public speaking. In most circumstances, one of the quickest ways to establish a
communicative bond with your listeners is to look at them personally and pleasantly. Avoiding their gaze
is one of the surest ways to lose them.
Speakers in the United States who fail to establish eye contact are perceived as tentative or ill at
ease and may be seen as insincere or dishonest. It is no wonder, then, that teachers urge students to
look at the audience 80 to 90 percent of the time they are talking. You may find this disconcerting at
first. But after one or two speeches, you should be able to meet the gaze of your audience fairly
comfortably.
It isn’t enough just to look at your listeners; how you look at them also counts. Beware of the
tendency to gaze intently at one part of the audience while ignoring the rest. In speech class, some
students look only at the section of the room where the teacher is sitting. Others avoid looking anywhere
near the teacher and focus on one or two sympathetic friends. You should try to establish eye contact
with your whole audience.
When addressing a small audience such as your class, you can usually look briefly from one
person to another. For a larger group, you can scan the audience rather than try to engage the eyes of
each person individually. No matter what the size of your audience, you want your eyes to convey
confidence, sincerity, and conviction.
Look at Video 13.3 in the online Media Library for this chapter to see a fine example of eye
contact. The speaker is telling her classmates how they can become volunteers for the Special Olympics.
Notice how she uses her eyes to connect with her listeners at a personal level. This is the kind of strong
communication you should strive for in your speeches.
Practising Delivery
Popular wisdom promises that practice makes perfect. This is true, but only if we practice properly. You
will do little to improve your speech delivery unless you practice the right things in the right ways. Here
is a five-step method that has worked well for many students:
1. Go through your preparation outline aloud to check how what you have written translates into
spoken discourse. Is it too long? Too short? Are the main points clear when you speak them? Are
the supporting materials distinct, convincing, and interesting? Do the introduction and conclusion
come across well? As you answer these questions, revise the speech as needed.
2. Prepare your speaking outline. In doing so, be sure to follow the guidelines in Chapter 11. Use
the same visual framework as in the preparation outline. Make sure the speaking outline is easy
to read at a glance. Give yourself cues on the outline for delivering the speech. Practice the
speech aloud several times using only the speaking outline.
3. Be sure to “talk through” all examples and to recite in full all quotations and statistics. If your
speech includes visual aids, use them as you practice. The first couple of times, you will probably
forget something or make a mistake, but don’t worry. Keep going and complete the speech as
well as you can. Concentrate on gaining control of the ideas; don’t try to learn the speech word
for word. After a few tries you should be able to get through the speech extemporaneously with
surprising ease.
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4. Now begin to polish and refine your delivery. Practice the speech in front of a mirror to check for
eye contact and distracting mannerisms. Record the speech to gauge volume, pitch, rate, pauses,
and vocal variety. Most important, try it out on friends, roommates, family members—anyone
who will listen and give you an honest appraisal. Because your speech is designed for people
rather than for mirrors or recorders, you need to find out ahead of time how it goes over with
people.
5. Finally, give your speech a dress rehearsal under conditions as close as possible to those you will
face in class. Some students like to try the speech a couple times in an empty classroom the day
before the speech is due. No matter where you hold your last practice session, you should leave
it feeling confident and looking forward to speaking in your class.
If this or any practice method is to work, you must start early. Don’t wait until the night before your
speech to begin working on delivery. A single practice session—no matter how long—is rarely enough.
Allow yourself at least a couple of days, preferably more, to gain command of the speech and its
presentation.
Answering Audience Questions
If you have ever watched a press conference or heard a speaker answer questions after a talk, you know
the question-and-answer session can make or break a presentation. A speaker who handles questions
well can strengthen the impact of his or her speech. On the other hand, a speaker who evades questions
or shows annoyance will almost certainly create the opposite effect.
The question-and-answer session is a common part of public speaking, whether the occasion is
a press conference, business presentation, public hearing, or classroom assignment. An answer to a
question is often the final word an audience hears and is likely to leave a lasting impression.
Preparing for the Question-and-Answer Session
The first step to doing well in a question-and-answer session is to take it as seriously as the speech itself.
The two major steps in preparing are working out answers to possible questions and practicing the
delivery of those answers.
Formulate Answers to Possible Questions
Once you know that your presentation will include questions from the audience, you should be thinking
about possible questions even as you are writing your speech. If you practice your speech in front of
friends, family, or coworkers, ask them to jot down questions. Keep track of all the questions and
formulate answers. Write your answers in full to make sure you have thought them through completely.
If you are giving a persuasive speech, be sure to work out answers to objections the audience
may have to your proposal. No matter how careful you are to deal with those objections in your speech,
you can be sure they will come up in the question-and-answer session.
If you are speaking on a topic with technical aspects, be ready to answer specialized inquiries
about them, as well as questions that seek clarification, in nontechnical terms. You might even prepare
a handout that you can distribute afterward for people who want more information.
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Practice the Delivery of Your Answers
You would not present a speech to a room full of people without rehearsing. Neither should you go into
a question-and-answer session without practicing the delivery of your answers.
One possibility is to have a friend or colleague listen to your presentation, ask questions, and
critique your answers. This method is used by political candidates and business leaders before debates
or press conferences. Another possibility is to record your answers to anticipated questions, play them
back, and revise them until they are just right.
As you rehearse, work on making your answers brief and to the point. Many simple questions can
be answered in 30 seconds, and even complex ones should usually be answered in a minute or two. If
you practice answering questions beforehand, you will find it much easier to keep to these time limits.
Of course, there is no way to predict every question you will receive. But if you go into the
question-and-answer period fully prepared, you will be able to adapt to whatever occurs.
Managing the Question-and-Answer Session
If you have ever watched a skillful speaker field questions from the audience, you know there is an art
to managing a question-and-answer session. Entire books have been written on this subject, but the
following suggestions will help get you started on the right foot.
Approach Questions with a Positive Attitude
A positive attitude will help you answer questions graciously and respectfully. Try to view questions from
the audience as signs of genuine interest and a desire to learn more about your subject. If someone asks
about a point that seems clear to you, don’t respond by saying, “I discussed that at the beginning of my
talk,” or “The answer seems obvious.” Instead, use moments like these to reiterate or expand upon your
ideas.
A speaker who adopts a sharp or defensive tone while answering questions will alienate many
people in the audience. Even if you are asked a hostile question, keep your cool. Avoid the temptation
to answer defensively, sarcastically, or argumentatively. Most people in the audience will respect you for
trying to avoid a quarrel.
Listen Carefully
It’s hard to answer a question well if you don’t listen carefully to it. Give the questioner your full attention.
When faced with an unclear or unwieldy question, try to rephrase it by saying something like, “If I
understand your question, it seems to me that you are asking. . ......” Another option is simply to ask the
audience member to repeat the question. Most people will restate it more succinctly and clearly.
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Direct Answers to the Entire Audience
When you are being asked a question, look at the questioner. Direct your answer, however, to the entire
audience. Make occasional eye contact with the questioner as you answer, but speak primarily to the
audience as a whole. If you speak just to the questioner, the rest of your audience may drift off.
When speaking to a large audience, repeat or paraphrase each question after it is asked. This
involves the entire audience and ensures that they know the question. In addition, repeating or
paraphrasing the question gives you a moment to frame an answer before you respond.
Be Honest and Straightforward
If you don’t know the answer to a question, say so. Don’t apologize, don’t evade, and most important,
don’t try to bluff. Do, however, let the questioner know that you take the question seriously. Offer to
check into the answer as soon as possible after the speech. If a more knowledgeable person is at hand,
ask if she or he knows the answer.
Stay on Track
It’s easy to get diverted or lose control of time in a lively question-and-answer session. Unless there is a
moderator, the speaker is responsible for keeping things on track. Allow one follow-up question from
each person, and don’t let yourself be dragged into a personal debate with any questioner. If someone
attempts to ask more than two questions, respond graciously yet firmly by saying, “This is an interesting
line of questioning, but we need to give other people a chance to ask questions.”
Sometimes, a listener will launch into an extended monologue instead of posing a question. When
this happens, you can retain control of the situation by saying something like, “Those are very interesting
ideas, but do you have a specific question I can answer?” If the person persists, offer to talk individually
with him or her after the session.
On some occasions, the length of the question-and-answer session is predetermined. On other
occasions, it’s up to the speaker. Make sure you allow enough time to get through issues of major
importance, but don’t let things drag on after the momentum of the session has started winding down.
As the end approaches, offer to respond to another question or two. Then wrap things up by thanking
the audience for its time and attention.
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Summary
Speech delivery is a matter of nonverbal communication. It is based on how you use your voice and body
to convey the message expressed by your words. Rather than calling attention to itself, effective delivery
conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly, engagingly, and without distracting the audience.
There are four basic methods of delivering a speech: reading verbatim from a manuscript, reciting
a memorized text, speaking impromptu, and speaking extemporaneously. When speaking
extemporaneously, you will have a brief set of notes or a speaking outline and will choose the exact
wording of your speech at the moment of delivery.
To use your voice effectively you should work on controlling your volume, pitch, rate, pauses,
vocal variety, pronunciation, articulation, and dialect. Volume is the relative loudness of your voice, and
pitch is the relative highness or lowness. Rate refers to the speed at which you talk. Pauses, when
carefully timed, can add punch to your speech, but you should avoid vocalized pauses (“er,” “um,” and
the like).
Vocal variety refers to changes in volume, pitch, rate, and pauses, and is crucial to making your
voice lively and animated. You also need correct pronunciation and distinct articulation. Avoid heavy use
of dialect in situations where the audience does not share the dialect or will find it inappropriate.
Posture, personal appearance, facial expression, gestures, and eye contact also affect the way
listeners respond to speakers. Dress and groom appropriately, use gestures and bodily movement to
enhance your message, and make eye contact with your listeners.
You should practice all these aspects of delivery along with the words of your speech. Start your
practice sessions early so you will have plenty of time to gain command of the speech and its
presentation.
If your speech includes a question-and-answer session, anticipate the most likely questions,
prepare answers to them, and practice delivering those answers. During the question-and-answer period,
listen carefully to the questions, approach them positively, and respond to them briefly, graciously, and
straightforwardly. Direct your answers to the full audience, rather than to the questioner alone, and make
sure to end the session in a timely fashion.
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USING VISUAL AIDS
Diagnosed with high blood pressure when he was in high school, Devin Marshall decided to give his
persuasive speech on the excessive amount of salt in the American diet. On the day of his speech, he
brought to class a large box, which he set on the table next to him. This immediately aroused the curiosity
of his audience. Devin took from the box a container of Morton Salt, a measuring cup, and two plates.
Then he began his speech.
First, he explained the monthly salt consumption recommended by the American Medical
Association. To illustrate, he measured a cup of salt onto one plate and showed it to the audience.
Next, he gave statistics about how much salt the average American consumes in a month. Again,
as he spoke, he measured. When he was finished measuring, the second plate had three cups, almost
two pounds of salt.
Finally, Devin said, “Now let’s multiply that amount by 12 and see how much salt we eat over the
course of a year.” And he began taking out of the box one container of Morton Salt after another, until
he had piled up a pyramid of 14 containers, or nearly 24 pounds of salt!
As the old saying tells us, one picture is worth a thousand words. Can you picture 2 pounds of
salt? Or 24 pounds of salt? You could if you had watched Devin measure out the salt and stack up the
Morton containers. This dramatic visual evidence brought home Devin’s point more forcefully than would
have been possible with words alone.
People find a speaker’s message more interesting, grasp it more easily, and retain it longer when
it is presented visually as well as verbally. In fact, when used properly, visual aids can enhance almost
every aspect of a speech. An average speaker who uses visual aids will come across as better prepared,
more credible, and more professional than a dynamic speaker who does not use visual aids. Visual aids
can even help you combat stage fright. They heighten audience interest, shift attention away from the
speaker, and give the speaker greater confidence in the presentation as a whole.
For all these reasons, you will find visual aids of great value in your speeches. In this chapter, we
will concentrate primarily on visual aids suitable for classroom speeches, but the same principles apply
in all circumstances. For speeches outside the classroom—in business or community situations, for
instance—you should have no difficulty if you follow the suggestions given here.
Let us look first at the kinds of visual aids you are most likely to use, then at guidelines for
preparing visual aids, and finally at guidelines for using visual aids.
Types of Visual Aids
Objects and Models
Bringing the object of your speech to class can be an excellent way to clarify your ideas and give them
dramatic impact. If your specific purpose is “To inform my audience how to choose the right ski
equipment,” why not bring the equipment to class to show your listeners? Or suppose you want to inform
your classmates about the Peruvian art of doll making. You could bring several dolls to class and explain
how they were made.
Some objects, however, cannot be used effectively in classroom speeches. Some are too big.
Others are too small to be seen clearly. Still others may not be available to you. If you were speaking
about a rare suit of armor in a local museum, you could, theoretically, transport it to class, but it is most
unlikely that the museum would let you borrow it.
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If the object you want to discuss is too large, too small, or unavailable, you may be able to work
with a model. For an example, check Video 14.1 in the online Media Library for this chapter. The speaker
is talking about CPR, which he demonstrates on a training dummy he borrowed from the local Red Cross.
Photographs and Drawings
In the absence of an object or a model, you may be able to use photographs or drawings. Neither,
however, will work effectively unless they are large enough for the audience to see without straining.
Normal-size photos are too small to be seen clearly without being passed around—which only diverts the
audience from what you are saying. The same is true of photographs and drawings in books.
The most effective way to show drawings and photographs is with PowerPoint. Notice, for
example, the picture below represents the famous Incan ruins at Machu Picchu in Peru. No other method
of showing the photograph would work as well.
For another example, take a look at the picture below, which shows a drawing used in a speech
about the kinds of problems faced by people who have dyslexia. It allowed the speaker to translate
complex ideas into visual terms the audience could grasp immediately.
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Graphs
Audiences often have trouble grasping a complex series of numbers. You can ease their difficulty by
using graphs to show statistical trends and patterns. The most common type is the line graph.
The graph above is used in a speech about the rising cost of health care. A speaker explained the graph
by saying:
As you can see from this graph, based on figures from the U.S. government, health care
continues to eat away at our budgets. Since 1980, it’s risen from 13 percent of personal
spending to 20 percent. Compare that to what we spend on food. In 1980, 20 percent of
personal spending was on food; today it is 13 percent. That’s right, over the past three
decades health care has completely changed places with food as the largest category of
personal expense.
The bar graph is a particularly good way to show comparisons among two or more items. It also
has the advantage of being easy to understand, even by people who have no background in reading
graphs. The bar graph below is an example of a bar graph from a speech titled “The Politics of Race in
America.” It shows visually the relative standing of whites and blacks with respect to median household
income, infant mortality, unemployment, and college education. By using a bar graph, the speaker made
her points more vividly than if she had just cited the numbers orally.
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Charts
Charts are particularly useful for summarizing large blocks of information. One student, in a speech titled
“The United States: A Nation of Immigrants,” used a chart to show the leading regions of the world for
U.S. immigrants (Figure 14.5, page 264). These are too many categories to be conveyed in a pie graph.
By listing them on a chart, the speaker made it easier for listeners
to keep the information straight. Look at Video 14.4 in the online Media Library for this chapter to see
how the student presented the chart during her speech.
The biggest mistake made by beginning speakers when using a chart is to include too much
information. As we will discuss later, visual aids should be clear, simple, and uncluttered. Lists on a chart
should rarely exceed seven or eight items, with generous spacing between items. If you cannot fit
everything on a single chart, make a second one.
The pie chart is best suited for illustrating simple distribution patterns. The pie chart below shows
how one speaker used a pie chart to help listeners visualize changes in marital status among working
women in the past century. The graph on the left shows the percentages of working women who were
single, married, and widowed or divorced in 1900. The chart on the right shows percentages for the
same groups in 2010.
Women in the Work Force
Because a pie chart is used to dramatize relationships among the parts of a whole, you should
keep the number of different segments in the chart as small as possible. A pie chart should ideally have
from two to five segments; under no circumstances should it have more than eight.
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Video
If you are talking about the impact caused by a low-speed automobile accident, what could be more
effective than showing slow-motion video of crash tests? Or suppose you are explaining the different
kinds of roller coasters found in amusement parks. Your best visual aid would be a video showing those
coasters in action.
Despite its advantages, however, adding video to a speech can cause more harm than good if it
is not done carefully and expertly. First, make sure the clip is not too long. While a 30-second video can
illustrate your ideas in a memorable way, anything much longer will distract attention from the speech
itself. Second, make sure the video is cued to start exactly where you want it. Third, if necessary, edit
the video to the precise length you need so it will blend smoothly into your speech. Fourth, beware of
low-resolution video that may look fine on a computer but is blurry and distorted when projected on a
screen or monitor.
The Speaker
Sometimes you can use your own body as a visual aid—by illustrating how a conductor directs an
orchestra, by revealing the secrets behind magic tricks, by showing how to perform sign language, and
so forth. In addition to clarifying a speaker’s ideas, doing some kind of demonstration helps keep the
audience involved. It also can reduce a speaker’s nervousness by providing an outlet for extra adrenaline.
Doing a demonstration well requires special practice to coordinate your actions with your words
and to control the timing of your speech. You can see an excellent example on Video 14.5 in the online
Media Library for this chapter. After talking about the role of proper breathing in yoga, the speaker
demonstrates three yoga poses. Notice how clearly she explains each pose, communicates directly with
the audience, and maintains eye contact throughout her demonstration.
Special care is required if you are demonstrating a process that takes longer to complete than
the time allotted for your speech. If you plan to show a long process, you might borrow the techniques
of television chefs. They work through most of the steps in making a perfect marinated chicken, but they
have a second, finished chicken ready to show you at the last minute.
PowerPoint
PowerPoint allows you to integrate a variety of visual aids—including charts, graphs, photographs, and
video—in the same talk. Depending on the technological resources at your school, you may be able to
use PowerPoint in your speech class. If so, it will provide training for speeches outside the classroom—
especially in business settings, where PowerPoint presentations are made every day.
Later in this chapter, we will look at guidelines for preparing and presenting visual aids effectively.
In the process, we’ll pay special attention to what you can do to create and deliver high-quality
PowerPoint slides. For now, consider the following factors when thinking about employing PowerPoint in
your speeches.
Pluses and Minuses of PowerPoint
When used well, PowerPoint is a great boon to communication. Unfortunately, it is not always used well.
Too often speakers allow it to dominate their presentations, wowing the audience with their technical
proficiency while losing the message in a flurry of sounds and images. As technology expert Herb
Lovelace states, it sometimes seems that “the fancier the PowerPoint presentation, the less valuable the
ideas being presented.”
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At the other extreme are speakers who throw their presentations together carelessly, assuming
that using PowerPoint will magically produce a superb speech. Plodding through one poorly designed
slide after another with little or no eye contact with the audience, these speakers would be better off if
they had never heard of PowerPoint.
Another problem is that some speakers use PowerPoint to illustrate every point of their talk, so
the speaker is virtually reading the speech to the audience as the words appear on screen. This is no
more effective than reading dully from a manuscript, and it seldom produces genuine communication.
Planning to Use PowerPoint
If you are going to employ PowerPoint effectively, you need a clear idea of exactly why, how, and when
to use it. Rather than putting everything you say on screen for the audience to read, you need to choose
which aspects of your speech to illustrate. This requires careful planning. The first step is deciding where
you can use PowerPoint to greatest advantage. After you have finished developing the speech, think
about where you might employ PowerPoint to clarify or strengthen your ideas. Rather than using slides
to illustrate every thought, look for spots where it will genuinely enhance your message.
One student, for example, used PowerPoint in a speech about puppy mills. After documenting
the number of puppy mills in America and describing their cruelty, he said, “But you can see for yourself
what the dogs have to endure.” He then showed several photographs demonstrating the terrible
conditions of dogs in puppy mills. The photographs provided powerful visual evidence to back up the
speaker’s claims.
For another example, look at Video 14.7, in which the speaker discusses Georges Seurat’s famous
painting Sunday Afternoon on the Island of la Grand Jatte. The speaker uses a series of PowerPoint slides
to show details of the painting that could not have been seen otherwise. He also does an excellent job
of explaining each slide as he goes along.
As you plan your speeches, think how you can use PowerPoint to enhance your ideas. At the
same time, remember that too many visuals—or poor visuals—can do more harm than good. Be creative
and resourceful without allowing PowerPoint to overpower your entire speech.
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Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids
Whether you are creating visual aids by hand or with PowerPoint, the following guidelines will help you
design aids that are clear and visually appealing.
Prepare Visual Aids Well in Advance
Preparing visual aids well in advance has two advantages. First, it means you will have the time and
resources to devise creative, attractive aids. Second, it means you can use them while practicing your
speech. Visual aids are effective only when they are integrated smoothly with the rest of the speech. If
you lose your place, drop your aids, or otherwise stumble around when presenting them, you will distract
your audience and shatter your concentration.
Keep Visual Aids Simple
Visual aids should be simple, clear, and to the point. If you look back at the aids presented earlier in this
chapter, you will see that all of them are clear and uncluttered. They contain enough information to
communicate the speaker’s point, but not so much as to confuse or distract the audience.
When using PowerPoint, limit your slides to a manageable amount of information, and beware of
the tendency to go overboard. It is possible to create a graphic that displays two charts, a photograph,
and ten lines of text in five different typefaces with 250 colors. But who would be able to read it?
Make Sure Visual Aids are Large Enough
A visual aid is useless if no one can see it. Keep in mind the size of the room in which you will be speaking
and make sure your aid is big enough to be seen easily by everyone. As you prepare the aid, check its
visibility by moving to a point as far away from it as your most distant listener will be sitting.
If you are using PowerPoint, make sure your text and images are easy for everyone in your
audience to see. By making sure your visual aid is large enough, you will avoid having to introduce it
with the comment “I know some of you can’t see this, but . . .” What about using all capital letters?
That might seem a great way to ensure that your print is large enough to be read easily. But research
has shown that a long string of words in ALL CAPS is actually harder to read than is normal text. Reserve
ALL CAPS for titles or for individual words that require special emphasis.
Use a Limited Amount of Text
When displaying text on visual aids, follow this general rule: Briefer is better. Succinct phrases containing
only essential key words will help listeners grasp your basic point and process the information as you’re
speaking.
Brevity is especially important when using PowerPoint. One of the biggest mistakes people make
with PowerPoint is putting too much text on a single slide. A general rule for slides that contain only text
is to include no more than a half-dozen lines of type. If you are combining text with images, you may
need to limit yourself to fewer lines to keep the text from getting too small. If you have a number of
important points to cover, spread them out over multiple slides.
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The image above shows a slide from a speech about Easter Island, famous for its mysterious
statues of unknown origin. Notice that the slide is not bogged down with information, presenting only an
image of the statues, as well as a title and text identifying the location of Easter Island and the date it
was discovered by Europeans. Because the slide is simple and clear, the speaker was able to present it
succinctly and move to her next point.
Use Fonts Effectively
Not all fonts are suitable for visual aids. For the most part, you should avoid decorative fonts such as
those on the left in the table below. Those on the right of the table, however, will help make your aids
audience-friendly.
Using fonts effectively can make a huge difference in your PowerPoint slides. In general, keep
the following guidelines in mind when selecting fonts for your presentation:
§ Choose fonts that are clear and easy to read.
§ Avoid using ALL CAPS because they are difficult to read.
§ Don’t use more than two fonts on a single slide—one for the title or major heading and
another for subtitles or other text.
§ Use the same fonts on all your slides.
§ Put titles and major headings in 44- to 36-point type; make subheads and other text 32-
to 24-point.
If you use one of PowerPoint’s built-in themes, you can be confident that the fonts, which have been
preselected according to the design of the theme, are clear, legible, and consistent.
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Use Color Effectively
When used effectively, color can dramatically increase the impact of a visual aid. The key words, of
course, are “when used effectively.” Some colors do not work well together. Red and green are a tough
combination for anyone to read, and they look the same to people who are color-blind. Many shades of
blue and green are too close to each other to be easily differentiated—as are orange and red, blue and
purple.
You can use either dark print on a light background or light print on a dark background, but in
either case make sure there is enough contrast between the background and the text so listeners can
see everything clearly. Avoid such colors as yellow on a white background or purple on a red background.
Also, stick to a limited number of colors and use them consistently. Use one color for background,
one color for titles, and one color for other text throughout all your slides. This consistency will unify the
slides and give your speech a professional appearance.
Use Images Strategically
One of the benefits of PowerPoint is the ease with which it allows you to include photographs, charts,
graphs, and other images, including video. Unfortunately, some speakers are prone to adding images
simply because it is easy, rather than because it is essential for communicating their message. You should
never add images of any sort to a PowerPoint slide unless they are truly needed. There is a great deal
of research showing that extraneous images distract listeners and reduce comprehension of the speaker’s
point.
In addition to keeping your slides free of extraneous images, keep these guidelines in mind:
§ Make sure images are large enough to be seen clearly.
§ Choose high-resolution images that will project without blurring.
§ Keep graphs and charts clear and simple.
§ In most cases, include a title above charts and graphs so the audience knows what they are
viewing.
§ Edit video so it is integrated seamlessly into your slides.
Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids
No matter how well designed your visual aids may be, they will be of little value unless you display them
properly, discuss them clearly, and integrate them effectively with the rest of your presentation. Here
are seven guidelines that will help you get the maximum impact out of your visual aids.
Display Visual Aids Where Listeners Can See Them
Check the speech room ahead of time to decide exactly where you will display your visual aids. If you
are displaying an object or a model, be sure to place it where it can be seen easily by everyone in the
room. If necessary, hold up the object or model while you are discussing it.
Once you have set the aid in the best location, don’t undo all your preparation by standing where
you block the audience’s view of the aid. Stand to one side of the aid, and point with the arm nearest it.
Using a pen, a ruler, or some other pointer will allow you to stand farther away from the visual aid,
thereby reducing the likelihood that you will obstruct the view.
If you are using a projection screen, check ahead of time to make sure it is not located where
you will cast a shadow on it while you are speaking. If necessary, move the lectern to the side of the
screen.
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Avoid Passing Visual Aids among the Audience
Once visual aids get into the hands of your listeners, you are in trouble. At least three people will be
paying more attention to the aid than to you—the person who has just had it, the person who has it
now, and the person waiting to get it next. By the time the visual aid moves on, all three may have lost
track of what you are saying.
Nor do you solve this problem by preparing a handout for every member of the audience. They
are likely to spend a good part of the speech looking over the handout at their own pace, rather than
listening to you. Although handouts can be valuable, they usually just create competition for beginning
speakers.
Every once in a while, of course, you will want listeners to have copies of some material to take
home. When such a situation arises, keep the copies until after you’ve finished talking and distribute
them at the end. Keeping control of your visual aids is essential to keeping control of your speech.
Display Visual Aids Only While Discussing Them
Just as circulating visual aids distracts attention, so does displaying them throughout a speech. If you
are using an object or a model, keep it out of sight until you are ready to discuss it. When you finish
your discussion, place the object or model back out of sight.
The same principle applies to PowerPoint slides. They should be visible only while you are
discussing them. You can accomplish this by adding blank slides as needed, so the audience’s attention
will not be diverted by the previous slide. It is also a good idea to add a blank slide at the end of your
presentation, so your last content slide will not continue to be exposed after you have finished discussing
it.
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Explain Visual Aids Clearly and Concisely
Visual aids don’t explain themselves. Like statistics, they need to be translated and related to the
audience. For example, the map above is an excellent visual aid, but do you know what it represents?
Probably not, unless you’ve kept up on the latest statistics of U.S. drunk-driving deaths. But even then,
the full meaning of the map may not be clear until it is explained to you.
A visual aid can be of enormous benefit—but only if the viewer knows what to look for and why.
Unfortunately, speakers often rush over their visual aids without explaining them clearly and concisely.
Be sure to adapt your visual aids to the audience. Don’t just say “As you can see . . .” and then pass
quickly over the aid. Tell listeners what the aid means. Describe its major features. Spell out the meaning
of charts and graphs. Interpret statistics and percentages. Remember, a visual aid is only as useful as
the explanation that goes with it.
As you can see from Video 14.8 in the online Media Library for this chapter, the speaker who
used the map of drunk-driving deaths discussed above did an excellent job explaining how each color on
the map corresponds to a different per-capita death rate. Having used the map during her practice
sessions, she was able to integrate it into the speech smoothly and skillfully—and to maintain eye contact
with the audience throughout her discussion of it. You should strive to do the same when you present
visual aids in your speeches.
Talk to Your Audience, Not to Your Visual Aid
When explaining a visual aid, it is easy to break eye contact with your audience and speak to the aid. Of
course, your listeners are looking primarily at the aid, and you will need to glance at it periodically as
you talk. But if you keep your eyes fixed on the visual aid, you may lose your audience. By keeping eye
contact with your listeners, you will also pick up feedback about how the visual aid and your explanation
of it are coming across.
Practice with Your Visual Aids
This chapter has mentioned several times the need to practice with visual aids, but the point bears
repeating. No matter what kind of visual aid you choose, be sure to employ it when you practice. Go
through the speech multiple times, rehearsing how you will show your aids, the gestures you will make,
and the timing of each move. In using visual aids, as in other aspects of speechmaking, there is no
substitute for preparation.
If you are using PowerPoint, don’t just click the mouse casually or rush quickly over your words
when you practice. Make sure you know exactly when you want each slide to appear and disappear, and
what you will say while each is on screen. Mark your speaking notes with cues that will remind you when
to display each slide and when to remove it.
Rehearse with the mouse, keyboard, or iPad until you can use them without looking down for
more than an instant when advancing your slides. Also concentrate on presenting the speech without
looking back at the screen to see what is being projected. There is nothing wrong with glancing at the
screen now and again as you explain your slides, but remember to address your remarks to the audience,
not to the screen.
Given all the things you have to work on when practicing a speech with PowerPoint, you need to
allow extra time for rehearsal. So, get an early start and give yourself plenty of time to ensure that your
delivery is as impressive as your slides.
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Check the Room and Equipment
For classroom speeches, you will already be familiar with the room and equipment. If any of the
technology fails, a technician can make the necessary adjustments. For speeches outside the classroom,
however, the situation is very different. There is wide variation among computers and projectors, as well
as among rooms equipped with multimedia connections. Even if you have used PowerPoint on previous
occasions, you need to check the setup in the room where you will be speaking.
If possible, look at the room and equipment before the day of your speech. Hook up your
computer to make sure everything works properly. If you are using a computer that is installed in the
room, bring your slides on a flash drive so you can see how they work with that computer. If your
presentation includes audio or video, double-check them using the room’s audiovisual system. Arrange
ahead of time to have a technician present so he or she can take care of any problems.
Sometimes, of course, it is not possible to visit the room before the day of your speech. In that
case, plan to arrive an hour early to familiarize yourself with the equipment and to make sure it’s working
properly. Never assume that everything will be “just fine.” Instead, assume that things will not be fine
and that they need to be checked ahead of time. You will save yourself the embarrassment of having
your speech delayed, cut short, or even canceled because of faulty equipment or unforeseen technical
complications.
Finally, if you are using PowerPoint, always bring a backup of your slides on a flash drive even if
you plan on using your own computer during the speech. This may all seem like a lot of fuss and bother,
but anyone who has given speeches with PowerPoint—or any other kind of visual aid—will tell you that
it is absolutely essential.
Summary
There are many kinds of visual aids. Most obvious is the object about which you are speaking, or a model
of it. Diagrams, sketches, and other kinds of drawings are valuable because you can design them to
illustrate your points exactly. Photographs should be large enough to be seen clearly by all your listeners.
Graphs are an excellent way to illustrate any subject dealing with numbers, while charts are used to
summarize large blocks of information. Video can be useful as a visual aid, but it needs to be carefully
edited and integrated into the speech. You can act as your own visual aid by performing actions that
demonstrate processes or ideas.
If you use PowerPoint, plan carefully why, how, and when you will utilize it. Rather than putting
everything you say on screen for your audience to read, use PowerPoint only when it will genuinely
enhance your message.
No matter what kind of visual aid you use, you need to prepare it carefully. You will be most
successful if you prepare your aids well in advance, keep them simple, make sure they are large enough
to be seen clearly, and use a limited amount of text. If you are creating visual aids on a computer, use
fonts, color, and images strategically and effectively.
In addition to being designed with care, visual aids need to be presented skillfully.
Avoid passing visual aids among the audience. Display each aid only while you are talking about it, and
be sure to place it where everyone can see it without straining. When presenting a visual aid, maintain
eye contact with your listeners and explain the aid clearly and concisely. If you are using PowerPoint,
make sure you check the room and equipment prior to the time of delivery. Above all, practice with your
visual aids so they fit into your speech smoothly and expertly.
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SPEAKING TO INFORM
Hayley Walden is the chief designer at a fast-growing company that creates and
sells stylish, innovative knitwear. On a bright Tuesday in October, Hayley begins
her workday by talking to a colleague from technical support about the computer
problems she has been having. She demonstrates what goes wrong when she boots
up and details the problems with the internal backup system.
Later that morning, Hayley has a long meeting with other members of her
design team. They discuss their new line of products for the spring, going over
everything from the manufacturing process to the marketing campaign. As the
other staff members talk, Hayley takes careful notes and asks questions to make
sure she understands every aspect of the spring product launch.
In the afternoon, Hayley rushes to a meeting with company executives,
including the resident, so she can report on what the design team discussed earlier
in the day. She reviews the manufacturing process for the new knits, discusses the
distribution chain for the company’s goods, and explains different options for
marketing a new line of spring jackets.
Afterward, the president compliments Hayley for giving such a clear
presentation. Anyone who can communicate that well,” the president says, “is
going to go a long way in this company.”
Hayley doesn’t consider herself a “public speaker,” but much of her job
involves absorbing and communicating information clearly and effectively.
Although Hayley is just a single person, her experience is not unusual. In one
survey, graduates from five U.S. colleges were asked to rank the speech skills
most important to their jobs. They rated informative speaking number one. In
another survey, 62 percent of the respondents said they used informative speaking
“almost constantly.”
Public speaking to inform occurs in a wide range of everyday situations. The business manager
explains next year’s budget. The architect reviews plans for a new building. The union leader informs
members about a new contract. The church worker outlines plans for a fund drive. There are endless
situations in which people need to inform others. Competence in this form of communication will prove
valuable to you throughout your life.
One of your first classroom assignments probably will be to deliver an informative speech in which
you will act as a lecturer or teacher. You may describe an object, show how something works, report on
an event, and explain a concept. Your aim will be to convey knowledge and understanding—not to
advocate a cause. Your speech will be judged in light of three general criteria:
Is the information communicated accurately?
Is the information communicated clearly?
Is the information made meaningful and interesting to the audience?
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Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization
There are many ways to classify informative speeches. Here we focus on the kinds you are most likely
to give in your speech class:
(1) speeches about objects,
(2) speeches about processes,
(3) speeches about events, and
(4) Speeches about concepts.
Speeches about Objects
· Objects include anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form. It may have moving parts
or be alive.
· It may include places, structures, animals and even people.
· Choose a specific purpose that focuses on ONE aspect of your object.
E.g. Your topic is Seaweeds
Specific purposes from these topics:
ü To inform my audience about the many types of seaweeds
ü To inform my audience about the medicinal properties of seaweeds
ü To inform my audience about the many uses of seaweed
ü To inform my audience about the seaweed cultivation industry in Japan
· Examples of subjects for speeches about objects:
Subways Digital Cameras
Seaweed Comic Strips
Pedu Lake KLCC
Florence Nightingale Osama Bin Laden
Speeches about Processes
· A process is a systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or product.
· Speeches about processes explain about how something is made, done or how something
works
· There are two types of speech about processes:
§ Explain a process so that listeners will understand it better.
E.g. To inform my audience how hurricanes develop.
§ Explain a process so listeners will be better able to perform the process themselves.
E.g. To inform my audience how to perform CPR.
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· Speeches about processes may require visual aids.
· You should prepare a chart outlining the steps or techniques of your process.
· In some cases you will need to demonstrate the steps or techniques by performing them in
front of your audience.
· Demonstrations not only clarified the speaker’s process, but captivated the audience as well.
· Sometimes, rather than moving through a process step by step, you will focus on the major
principles or techniques involved in performing the process.
· Then you will organize your speech in topical order. Each main point will deal with a separate
principle or technique.
· Concise organization is especially important in speeches about processes. You must make sure
each step is clear and easy to follow. If your process has more than four or five steps, group
the steps into units to limit the number of main points.
· Usually in a speech about processes, you will arrange your speech in chronological order.
Speeches about Events
· The Random House Dictionary defines an event as “anything that happens or is regarded as
happening.”
· Examples of events are like:
Bosnian War Gymnastics
Sinking of the Titanic Figure Skating
Therapeutic Massage Citrawarna
· Normally, for speeches about events, you would arrange your speech in chronological order.
· You can approach an event from almost any angle or combination of angles—features, origins,
implications, benefits, future developments, and so forth.
· In such cases, you will put your speech together in topical order. And you should make sure
your main points subdivide the subject logically and consistently.
· Examples of specific purposes:
ü To inform my audience about the four traditional events in women’s gymnastics.
ü To inform my audience why so many lives were lost when the “unsinkable” ocean line
Titanic sank.
ü To inform my audience about the technique of therapeutic massage.
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Speeches about Concepts
· Concepts include beliefs, theories, ideas, principles, etc.
· It is more abstract than objects, processes and events.
· Examples of concepts:
Confucianism Principles of Feminism
Islam The Big Bang
Behaviorism film theories
· Speeches about concepts are usually organized in topical order and focus on the main features
or aspects of your concept.
· Examples of specific purpose:
ü To inform my audience about the basic principles of Confucianism.
ü To inform my audience about the doctrine of original intent in constitutional
interpretation.
ü To inform my audience about different philosophies of education in Asia and the
United States.
· Another approach is to define the concept you are dealing with, identify its major elements, and
illustrate it with specific examples.
Guidelines for Informative Speaking
§ Don’t overestimate what the audience knows
§ Relate the subject directly to the audience
§ Don’t be too technical – avoid jargons
§ Be descriptive
§ Personalize your ideas – give it the human touch
§ Involve as many of the audience’s senses as possible
Major Types of Informative Talks
§ Reports
§ Instructions
§ Demonstrations
§ Lectures
§ Briefings
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SPEAKING TO PERSUADE – THE ART OF
RHETORIC
Ramon Trujillo began that particular school day by stopping at the library to return
an overdue book. “Look,” he explained to the librarian. “I know this book was due
last week, but I was sick with the flu and couldn’t even get out of bed. Do I still
have to pay the fine? I can get you a note from my doctor if you need one.” The
librarian hemmed and hawed. Then, he said, “Okay. You don’t have a record of any
other fines. Just this once.”
With a sigh of relief, Ramon went on to his morning classes. At noon, he
was dashing across campus when a friend stopped him. “How about some lunch?”
she asked. “I really can’t,” he replied. “I have to stand at the table and get
signatures on the petition against higher tuition. I’ll see you later though.”
During the afternoon, Ramon had a free period, and he used the time to meet
with his history professor. “The reason I wanted to see you,” he began,
“…is…well…I think I deserved a better grade on my last exam. I know you don’t
like to change grades, but I went back and reviewed all my notes on the Vietnam
question, and I really think I got everything you were looking for.” The professor
agreed to look at Ramon’s exam. “Well,” she said when she was finished, “it
certainly looks good to me. I’m going to raise your grade from a B+ to an A-.”
At dinner that evening, Ramon asked his roommate to loan him $20 until the
end of the month. “You know,” he said, “it was my Mom’s birthday last week. In
addition to getting a present for her, I had to buy the last book for my biology
class. But I’m working extra hours next weekend at the pizza place, and I’ll be able
to pay you back without any problem.” After checking to make sure he had enough
money, Ramon’s roommate said, “Sure. After all, what are friends for?”
If you asked Ramon how he spent his day, he might say, “I returned a book to the library, I went to
classes, I worked at the petition table, I talked with my history professor, I ate dinner with my roommate.
In fact, he spent a large part of his day persuading – persuading people to do things that they were
reluctant to do or that had not occurred to them.
The Importance of Persuasion
Most of us do a certain amount of persuading every day, although we may not realize or call it
that. Public speaking to persuade is essentially an extension of this. It is an attempt to convert a whole
group, not just an individual, to your point of view on a particular subject. The ability to speak (and write)
persuasively will benefit you in every part of your life from personal relations to community activities to
career aspirations. In a recent study, economists added up the number of people – lawyers, sales
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representatives, public relations specialists, counselors, administrators and others – whose jobs depend
largely on their ability to persuade people to adopt their point of view. The economists concluded that
persuasion accounts for 26 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product.
Understanding the principles of persuasion is also vital to being an informed citizen and consumer.
By age 20, the average American has been exposed to 1 million television commercials – an average of
150 every day. Politicians and advertisers, salespeople and interest groups, fund-raisers and community
activists - all vie for your attention, votes, money, time, and support. The more you know about
persuasion, the more effective you can be in using your powers of critical thinking to assess the barrage
of persuasive messages you are exposed to every day.
Although persuasion has been studied for the past 2,000 years, it is still the subject of lively
debate among scholars. There are a number of respected theories about how persuasion works, a variety
of scientific models of the persuasive process, even a wide range of competing definitions or persuasion.
For our purpose, it is enough to know that when you speak to persuade, you act as an advocate. Your
job is to:
· convince people to take action that you want them to take
· change radically their attitudes and beliefs, and/or
· strengthen or weaken their current attitudes or beliefs
Your goal may be to defend an idea, to refute an opponent, to sell a program, or to inspire people
to action. Because persuasive speakers must communicate information clearly and concisely, you will
need all the skills you use in speaking to inform. But you will also need new skills – skills that take you
from giving information to affecting your listeners’ beliefs or actions.
As with other kinds of public speaking, you will be more effective in persuasion if you approach
it systematically. Let us begin by looking at some of the psychological principles involved in the persuasion
process.
Ethics and Persuasion
Questions on ethics come into play whenever a speaker addresses an audience. No matter what
the speaking situation, you need to make sure your goals are ethically sound and that you use ethical
methods to communicate your ideas. Meeting these obligations can be especially challenging when you
speak to persuade. Would you be willing to shade the truth “just a bit” if it would guarantee a successful
speech? How about juggling the statistics, doctoring quotations, passing off opinions as facts, or
pandering to prejudice and stereotypes?
Unfortunately, there is no shortage of speakers – and other persuaders – who are willing to take
ethical shortcuts to achieve their objectives, yet, as Martin Luther King stated years ago, it is not possible
to bring about a truly beneficial result by using unethical methods. Maintaining the bond of trust with
listeners is also vital to a speaker’s credibility. As in other kinds of public speaking, the ideal of effective
persuasion is the good person speaking well.
When you work on your persuasive speech, keep in mind the guidelines for ethical speaking.
Make sure your goals are ethically sound and that you can defend them if they are questioned or
challenged. Study the topic thoroughly so you won’t mislead your audience through shoddy research or
muddled thinking. Learn about all sides of an issue, seek out competing viewpoints, and get your facts
right.
But knowing the facts is not enough. You also need to be honest in what you say. There is no
place in ethical speechmaking for deliberately false or deceptive statements. Also be on guard against
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more subtle forms of dishonesty such as quoting out of context, portraying a few details as the whole
story, and misrepresenting the sources of facts and figures. Take care to present statistics, testimony,
and other kinds of evidence fairly and accurately.
Keep in mind as well the power of language and use it responsibly. Show respect for the rights
of speech and expression, and stay away from name-calling and other forms of abusive language. Finally,
if you engage in emotional appeal during your speech, make sure it is appropriate to the topic and that
you build your speech on a firm base of facts and logic before appealing to your audience’s emotions. In
this regard as in others, aim at the highest standards and construct your speech so it will be both
convincing and ethically sound.
The Psychology of Persuasion
Persuasion is a psychological process. It always occurs when two or more points of view exist.
The speaker believes that doctor-assisted suicide is immoral, but some in the audience think it
is justified in certain circumstances.
The speaker wants everyone in the audience to sign up immediately to learn CPR but most
listeners are inclined to procrastinate and will do it “some other day”.
The different points of view might be completely opposed, or they may simply in different in degree.
Whichever the case, there must be a disagreement, or else there would be no need for persuasion.
The Challenge of Persuasive Speaking
Of all kinds of public speaking, persuasion is the most complex and the most challenging. Your
objective is more ambitious than is speaking to inform, and audience analysis and adaptation become
much more demanding. In some persuasive speeches you will deal with controversial topics that touch
on you listeners’ most basic attitudes, values, and beliefs. This will increase your listeners’ resistance to
persuasion and make your task that much more difficult.
It is much easier for example, to explain the history of capital punishment than to persuade an
audience either that capital punishment should be abolished or that it should be reinstituted in every
state. In the persuasive speech, you must contend not only with you audience’s knowledge of capital
punishment but also their attitudes toward crime and justice, their beliefs about whether capital
punishment deters people from committing violent crimes, and their values about taking human life.
Lines of argument that work with one part of the audience may fail with – or even upset – another part.
What seems perfectly logical to some listeners may seem wildly irrational to others. No matter how expert
you are on the topic, no matter how skillfully you prepare the speech, no matter how captivating your
delivery – some listeners will not agree with you.
This does not mean persuasion is impossible. It does mean that you should enter a persuasive
speaking situation with a realistic sense of what you can accomplish. You cannot expect a group of die-
hard Democrats to become Republicans or a steak lover to turn vegetarian as a result of one speech.
In every persuasive speech, you will face some listeners who are strongly in favor of your position,
some who are neutral, and some who are adamantly opposed. If listeners are neutral or only moderately
committed one way or another, you can realistically hope your speech will move at least some of them
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toward your side. If listeners are strongly opposed to you viewpoint, you can consider your speech a
success if it leads even a few to reexamine their views.
When thinking about the range of persuasive responses, you may find it helpful to visualize
listeners on a scale such as shown in the figure below. Persuasion involves any movement by a listener
from left to right on the scale, no matter where the listener beginners and no matter how great or small
the movement.
DEGREES OF PERSUASION
Strongly Moderately Slightly Neutral Slightly in Moderately Strongly in
opposed opposed opposed
favor in favor favor
Persuasion involves any movement by a listeners from left to right
How successful you are in a particular persuasive speech will depend above all on how well you
tailor your message to the values, attitudes, and beliefs of your audience. Persuasion is a strategic
activity. Just as a businesswoman or a military commander plots a strategy to gain a big sale or to be
victorious in battle, so a persuasive speaker must have a strategy to win the audience to her or his side.
In previous chapters, we considered the general principles of audience analysis and adaptation.
Here we need to emphasize two additional principles that are crucial to the psychology of persuasion.
The first deals with how listeners process and respond to persuasive messages. The second pertains to
the target audience for persuasive speeches.
How Listeners Process Persuasive Messages
We often think of persuasion as something a speaker does to an audience. In fact, as a great
deal of research shows, persuasion is something a speaker does with an audience. Although audiences
in the United States seldom interrupt a speaker while he or she is talking, they do not just sit passively
and soak in everything the speaker has to say. Instead:
· They actively assess the speaker’s credibility, delivery, supporting materials, language, reasoning
and emotional appeals.
· They may respond positively at one point, negatively at another.
· At times, they may argue (inside their own minds) with the speaker.
· This is what we call the mental give-and-take.
· It may be highly vigorous when listeners are involved with the topic and believe it has a direct
bearing on their lives.
In a sense, the psychological interaction between a speaker and audience during a persuasive speech
is similar to what happens vocally during a conversation – as in this example:
Jordan: The federal government really needs to clamp down on hate speech. Publications
Keisha: that demonize homosexuality are inciting violence, sometimes even murder.
I agree that violence against gays and lesbians is wrong, but I’m not sure
Jordan: censorship is the right approach. There’s no proof these publications actually
cause violence. Besides, doesn’t the First Amendment guarantee the right to free
speech, even for people who support detestable causes?
Free speech is important, but people have a right to live without being
persecuted. Doesn’t our government have a responsibility to do what it can to
keep people safe from discrimination?
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Keisha: We can’t compromise on free speech. It’s a very dangerous idea to let someone
Jordan: in the government decide what is acceptable speech and what is not. Once we
ban hate speech, we might start banning other forms of expression, too.
Not necessarily. We already outlaw some kinds of speech because they are
dangerous to the community – such as threatening the life of the President or
shouting “Fire” in a crowded building. Why is banning hate speech any different?
Much of the same kind of interaction might occur during a persuasive speech except that listeners
– in this case, Keisha – would respond to herself rather than out loud.
What does it mean to you as a speaker? It means you must think of your persuasive speech as a
kind of mental dialogue with your audience. Most important, you must anticipate possible objections the
audience will raise to your point of view and then answer those objections in your speech. You cannot
convert skeptical listeners unless you deal directly with the reasons for their skepticism.
As you prepare your persuasive speech, put yourself in the place of your audience and imagine
how they will respond. For this to work, you must be as tough on your speech as your audience will be.
Every place they will raise a question, answer it. Every place they will have a criticism, deal with it. Every
place they will see a hole in your argument, fill it. Leave nothing to chance.
The Target Audience
Unfortunately, no matter how carefully you plot your speech, you will seldom be able to persuade
all your listeners. Some will be so opposed to your views that you have absolutely no chance of changing
their minds. Others will already agree with you, so there is no need to persuade them. Like most
audiences, yours will probably contain some listeners who are hostile to your position, some who favor
it, some who are undecided, and some who just don’t care. You would like to make your speech equally
appealing to everyone, but this is rarely possible. Most often you will have a particular part of the whole
audience that you want to reach with your speech. That part is called the target audience.
Concentrating on a target audience does not mean you should ignore or insult the rest of your
listeners. You must always keep in mind the ideas and feelings of your entire audience. But no matter
how noble your intentions or how hard you try, you can’t persuade all the people all the time. It only
makes sense, then, to decide which portion of the audience you most want to reach.
Advertising gives us an effective model. Successful commercials are aimed at particular segments
of the market, and their appeals are picked to fit the target audience. Mutual funds are now directing
many of their advertisements at women. Why? Because more and more women are investing in the stock
market. Beer commercials, on the other hand, are directed at men – especially blue-collar men – because
they drink the most beer. Soft drink commercials? They are meant to hook young people, so they feature
teenagers, play their kind of music, and echo their values.
For your classroom speeches, you don’t have the sophisticated research capability of a large
advertising agency. You can use observation, interviews, and questionnaires to find out where your
classmates stand on your speech topic. This is your equivalent of market research. From it, you can
identify your target audience and the issues you will have to discuss to be convincing. Once you know
where your target audience stands, you can tailor your speech to fit their values and concerns – aim at
the target, so to speak.
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Here, for example, is how one student, Amy Shapiro, determined her target audience for a
persuasive speech urging her classmates to pass on the gift of life by signing organ donor cards.
There are 22 students in my audience. My audience-analysis questionnaires show that 3
are opposed to donating their organs under any circumstances. I cannot persuade them
no matter what I say. My questionnaires also show that 4 have already signed organ donor
cards. I don’t need to persuade them. The other 15 students could be persuaded if they
knew more about the need for organ donors and about how the process works. They are my
target audience.
Not only did Amy pinpoint her target audience, she also knew from her audience-analysis questionnaire
the issues she would have to discuss to be convincing:
The members of my target audience break down this way: 7 give “fear of being
pronounced dead prematurely” as their main reason for not signing organ donor cards; 5
are concerned about their body being “cut up or disfigured”; and 3 cite religious reasons
for their opposition. The questionnaires also show that 10 of the 15 don’t fully understand
the need for organ donations.
With all this information, Amy was able to put together a first-rate speech that focused specifically
on her classmate’s attitudes and beliefs about signing organ donor cards. In the speech, she showed the
need for organ donations by explaining that there are thousands of people whose only hope for life is to
receive a heart, liver, or kidney transplant. She also took care to answer her classmates’ fears and
objections. She showed that there are strict safeguards to prevent doctors from pulling the plug
prematurely to make a heart or liver available for transplant surgery, that donated organs are removed
as carefully as if the doctor were operating on a live patient, and that almost all religious leaders approve
of organ donation as a way to help save lives. As a result, she was able to convince several of her
classmates to sign organ donor cards.
Analyzing Your Audience
You need to ask yourself certain questions before drafting your persuasive speech:
· What is your specific purpose in speaking?
· How does your audience feel towards your purpose and position?
· What emotional or psychological appeals will move these people?
· What logical reasoning will “reach” them?
· Are they willing to accept new ideas?
· Why should this audience listen to you?
· Do you know anyone who has had previous experience with this audience? Can this person help
you answer these questions?
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Methods of Persuasion
Persuasion is big business. There are literally thousands of authors and consultants who promise
to teach you the one key secret to persuading people to do what you want. Scott Moldenhauer will help
you unlock “the science of persuasion” to get the business results you crave. Kevin Hogan will draw on
“the science of influence” to give you persuasion techniques “the experts do not want you to know”.
Roger Dawson will tell you “everything you need to get anything you’ll ever want”. Dan Lok promises to
reveal “forbidden psychological tactics” that will “give you an unfair advantage in dealing with people”.
These people all charge thousands of dollars for their seminars, hundreds for videos and motivational
books. Companies and individuals flock – and pay – to read and hear what they have to say.
It sounds good, but can any of these people really have the “one key secret” to persuasion?
Probably not. Persuasion is too complicated for that. Yet asthe number of books, seminars and videos
on the subject shows, there is a perpetual fascination with the strategies and tactics of effective
persuasion.
What makes a speaker persuasive? Why do listeners accept one speaker’s views and reject those
of another speaker? How can a speaker motivate listeners to act in support of a cause, a campaign, or a
candidate? People have been trying to answer these questions for thousands of years – from the ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle to modern-day communication researchers. Although many answers have
been given, we can say that listeners will be persuaded by a speaker for one of these four reasons:
Because they perceive the speaker as having high credibility.
Because they are won over by the speaker’s evidence.
Because they are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning.
Because their emotions are touched by the speaker’s ideas or language.
According to Aristotle, rhetoric is "the ability, in each particular case, to see the available means
of persuasion." He described three main forms of rhetoric: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos.
There are several principal methods of changing people’s attitudes or actuating people to do what you
want based on Aristotle’s ideas which are:
· Persuading through evidence and reasoning (logos)
· Persuading by appealing to emotions (pathos)
· Persuading through speaker credibility (ethos)
· Persuading through Monroe’s Motivated Sequence (MMS)
In this chapter, we will look at each of these. We will not discover any magical secrets that will you an
irresistible persuasive speaker. Persuasion is a complex activity that cannot be reduced to snappy
formulas or simple techniques. But if you learn the principles discussed in this chapter and apply them
astutely, you will greatly increase your odds of winning the minds and hearts of your listeners.
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Persuading through Evidence and Logical Reasoning (Logos)
Evidence consists of supporting materials – examples, statistics and testimony - used to prove or disprove
something. Most people are skeptical. They are suspicious of unsupported generalizations. They want
speakers to justify their claims. If you hope to be persuasive, you must support your views with evidence.
Whenever you say something that is open to question, you should give evidence to prove you are right.
Evidence reasoning is also referred to as “logos” by Aristotle.
Evidence is particularly important in classroom speeches because few students are recognized as
experts on their speech topics. Research has shown that speakers with very high initial credibility do not
need to use as much evidence as do speakers with lower credibility. For most speakers, though, strong
evidence is absolutely necessary. It can enhance your credibility, increase both the immediate and long-
term persuasiveness of your message, and help “inoculate” listeners against counter persuasion.
Evidence is also crucial whenever your target audience opposes your points of view. Listeners in such
a situation will not only be skeptical of your ideas, but will challenge them at every step of the speech.
They will mentally argue with you – asking questions, raising objections, and creating counterarguments
to “answer” what you say. The success of your speech will depend partly on how well you anticipate
these internal response and give evidence to refute them. The following case study illustrates how they
work as evidence in a persuasive speech.
How Evidence Works: A Case Study
Let’s say one of your classmates is talking about the harmful effects of repeated exposure to loud music
and other noises. Instead of just telling you what she thinks, the speaker offers you strong evidence to
prove her point. As you read the case study, notice how the speaker carries on a mental dialogue with
her listeners. At each juncture she imagines what they might be thinking, anticipates their questions and
objections, and gives evidence to answer the questions and resolve the objections.
She begins this way:
As college students, we are exposed to loud music and other noise all the time. We go
to parties, and concerts where the volume is so loud we have to shout so the person
next to us can hear what we are saying. And we seldom give it a second thought. But we
should, because excessive noise can have a serious impact on our health and well-being.
How do you react? If you already know about the problems caused by noise pollution, you
probably nod your head in agreement. But what if you don’t know? Or don’t agree? If you enjoy rock
concerts and listening to your iPod at high volumes, you probably don’t want to hear anything bad about
it. Certainly you will not be persuaded by the general statement that exposure to loud music and other
noises can have “a serious impact on our health and well-being.” Mentally, you say to the speaker, “How
do you know? Can you prove it?” Anticipating just such a response, the speaker gives evidence to support
her point:
The American Medical Association reports that 28 million Americans suffer from serious
hearing loss, and that 10 million of those cases are caused by too much exposure to loud
noise.
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“That’s unfortunate,” you may think. “But everyone loses some hearing as they grow old. Why should I
be concerned about it now?” The speaker answers:
In an alarming trend, more and more victims of noise-induced deafness are adolescents
and even younger children. According to Newsweek magazine, 5.2 million children in the
U.S between ages 6 and 19 have some hearing damage from amplified music and other
sources. Audiologist Dean Garsetcki, head of the hearing-impairment program at
Northwestern University says, “We’ve got 21 year-olds walking around with hearing-
loss patterns of people 40 years their senior.”
“These are impressive facts,” you say to yourself. “Luckily, I haven’t noticed any problems with my
hearing. When I do, I’ll just be careful until it gets better.” Keeping one step ahead of you, the speaker
continues:
The problem with hearing loss is that it creeps up on you. Sierra magazine notes that
today’s hard-rock fans won’t notice the effects of their hearing loss for another 15 years.
And then it will be too late.
“What do you mean, too late?” you ask mentally. The speaker tells you:
Unlike some physical conditions, hearing loss is irreversible. Loud noise damages the
microscopic hairs in the inner ear that transmit sound to the auditory nerve. Once
damaged, those hairs can never recover and can never be repaired.
“I didn’t know that,” you say to yourself. “Is there anything else?”
One last point. Repeated exposure to loud music and other noise does more than damage
your hearing. The latest issue of Prevention magazine reports that excessive noise has
been linked to such problems as stress, high blood pressure, chronic headaches, fatigue,
learning disorders, even heart disease. It’s easy to see why Jill Lipoti, chief of Rutgers
University’s Noise Technical Assistance Center, warns that “noise affects more people
than any other pollutant.”
Now are you convinced? Chances are you will at least think about the possible consequences the next
time you are set to pump up the volume on your iPod. Maybe you will use earplugs when you sit in front
of the speakers at a rock concert. You may even begin to reassess your whole attitude toward the
problem of noise pollution. Why? Because the speaker did not just spout her opinions as if they were
common knowledge, but instead supported each of her claims with evidence. You should try to do the
same in your persuasive speeches.
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Tips for Using Evidence
Any of the supporting materials – examples, statistics, and testimony – can work as evidence in a
persuasive speech. There are guidelines for using each kind of supporting materials regardless of the
kind of speech you are giving. Here we need to look at four special tips for using evidence in a persuasive
speech.
Use Specific Evidence
No matter what kind of evidence you employ – statistics, examples or testimony – it will be more
persuasive if you state it in specific rather than general terms. In the speech about noise pollution, for
instance, the speaker did not say, “Lots of people suffer from hearing loss.” That would have left the
audience wondering how many “lots” amounts to. By saying “28 million Americans have some degree of
hearing loss,” the speaker made her point much more effectively. She also enhanced her credibility by
showing she had a firm grasp of the facts.
Use Novel Evidence
Evidence is more likely to be persuasive if it is new to the audience. You will gain little by citing facts and
figures that are already well known to your listeners. If those facts and figures have not persuaded your
listeners already, they will not do so now. You must go beyond what the audience already knows and
present striking new evidence that will get them to say, “Hmmm, I didn’t know that. Maybe I should
rethink the issue.” Finding such evidence is not always easy. It usually requires hard digging and
resourceful research, but the rewards can be well worth the effort.
Use Evidence from Credible Sources
There is a good deal of research to show that listeners find evidence from competent, credible sources
more persuasive than evidence from less qualified source. Above all, listeners are suspicious of evidence
from sources that appear to be biased or self-interested. In assessing the current state of airline safety,
for example, they are more likely to be persuaded by testimony from impartial aviation experts than by
statements from the president of American Airlines. In judging the conflict between a corporation and
the union striking against it, they will usually be leery of statistics offered by either side. If you wish to
be persuasive – especially to careful listeners – you should rely on evidence from objective, nonpartisan
sources.
Make Clear the Point of Your Evidence
When speaking to persuade, you use evidence to prove a point. Yet you would be surprised how many
novice speakers present their evidence without making clear the point it is supposed to prove. A number
of studies have shown that you cannot count on listeners to draw, on their own, the conclusion you want
them to reach. When using evidence, be sure listeners understand the point you are trying to make.
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Using Logical Reasoning
The story is about Hack Wilson, a hard-hitting outfielder for the Brooklyn Dodgers
baseball team in the 1930s. Wilson was a great player, but he had a fondness for the good
life. His drinking exploits were legendary. He was known to spend the entire night on the
town, stagger into the team’s hotel at the break of dawn, grab a couple of hours sleep,
and get to the ballpark just in time for the afternoon game.
This greatly
distressed Max Carey, Wilson’s manager. At the next team meeting, Carey spent much
time explaining the evils of drink. To prove his point, he stood beside a table on which
he had placed two glasses and a plate of live angleworms. One glass was filled with water,
the other with gin – Wilson’s favorite beverage. With a flourish Carey dropped a worm
into the glass of water. It wriggled happily. Next Carey plunged the same worm into the
gin. It promptly stiffened and expired.
A murmur ran
through the room, and some players were obviously impressed. But not Wilson. He didn’t
even seem interested. Carey waited a little while, hoping for some delayed reaction from
his wayward slugger. When none came, he prodded, “Do you follow my reasoning,
Wilson?”
“Sure,
skipper,” Wilson answered. “It proves that if you drink gin, you’ll never get worms!”
What does this story prove? No matter how strong your evidence, you will not be very persuasive unless
listeners grasp your reasoning. You should know, therefore, how to reason clearly and persuasively.
Many people think of reasoning as an esoteric subject of interest only to philosophers, but we all
use reasoning every day in practical life. Reasoning is simply the process of drawing a conclusion based
on evidence. Sometimes we reason well – as when we conclude that ice particles forming on the trees
may mean the roads will be slippery. Other times we reason less effectively – as when we conclude that
spilling salt will bring bad luck. Most superstitions are actually no more than instances of faulty reasoning.
Reasoning is the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence. You must use
reasoning carefully because reasoning are often faulty and misunderstood. Reasoning is an important
component of critical thinking, and it permeates all areas of our lives. We are bombarded daily with
persuasive messages ranging from television commercials to political appeals. Sometimes the reasoning
in those messages is sound, but often it is faulty – as when we are told that drinking Pepsi will make us
more youthful or that using Nike golf clubs will let us play like Tiger Woods. Unless you know how to
reason clearly, you may be easy prey for unscrupulous advertisers and glib politicians.
Reasoning in public speaking is an extension of reasoning in other aspects of life. As a public speaker,
you have two major concerns with respect to reasoning. First, make sure your own reasoning is sound
and foolproof. Second, try to get listeners to agree with your reasoning. Let us look then as four basic
methods of reasoning and how to use them in your speeches.
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Reasoning from Specific Instances
When you reason from specific instances, you progress from a number of particular facts to general
conclusion. For example:
Fact 1: My physical education course last term was easy.
Fact 2: My roommate’s physical education course was easy.
Fact 3: My brother’s physical education course was easy.
Conclusion: Physical education courses are easy.
As this example suggests, we use reasoning from specific instances daily, although we probably don’t
realize it. Think for a moment of all the general conclusions that arise in conversation: Politicians are
corrupt. Professors are bookish. Dorm food is awful. Where do such conclusions come from? They come
from observing particular politicians, professors, dormitories, and so on. The same thing happens in
public speaking. The speaker who concludes that unethical banking practices are common in the United
States because several major banks have been guilty of fraud in recent years is reasoning from specific
instances. So is the speaker who argues that anti-Semitism is increasing on college campuses because
there have been a number of attacks on Jewish students and symbols at schools across the nation.
Such conclusions are never foolproof. No matter how many specific instances you give (and you
can give only a few in a speech), it is always possible that an exception exists. Throughout the ages
people observed countless white swans in Europe without seeing any of a different color. It seemed an
undeniable fact that all swans were white. Then, in the 19th century, black swans were discovered in
Australia!
When you reason from specific instances, beware of jumping to conclusions on the basis of
insufficient evidence. Make sure your sample of specific instances is large enough to justify your
conclusion.
Also make sure the instances you present are fair, unbiased, and representative. (Are three
physical education courses enough to conclude that physical education courses in general are easy? Are
the three courses typical of most physical education courses?)
Finally, reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony. Because you can never give enough
specific instances in a speech to make your conclusion irrefutable, you should supplement them with
testimony or statistics demonstrating that the instances are representative.
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Reasoning from Principle
Reasoning from principle is the opposite of reasoning from specific instances. It moves from the general
to the specific. When you reason from principle, you progress from a general principle to a specific
conclusion. We are all familiar with this kind of reasoning from statements such as the following:
1. All people are mortal.
2. Socrates is a person.
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
This is a classic example of reasoning from principle. You begin with a general statement (“All
people are mortal”), move to a minor premise (“Socrates is a person”), and end with a specific conclusion
(“Socrates is mortal”).
Speakers often use reasoning from principle when trying to persuade an audience. One of the
clearest examples from American history is Susan B. Anthony’s famous speech “Is It a Crime for a U.S.
Citizen to Vote?” Delivered on numerous occasions in 1872 and 1873, at a time when women were legally
barred from voting, Anthony’s speech reasoned along the following lines:
1. The United States Constitution guarantees all U.S. citizens the right to vote.
2. Women are U.S. citizens.
3. Therefore, the United States Constitution guarantees women the right to vote.
This argument progresses from a general principle (“The United States Constitution guarantees
all U.S. citizens the right to vote”) through a minor premise (“Women are U.S. citizens”) to a conclusion
(“Therefore, the United States Constitution guarantees women the right to vote”).
When you use reasoning from principle in a speech, pay special attention to your general principle.
Will listeners accept it without evidence? If not, give evidence to support it before moving to your minor
premise. You may also need to support your minor premise with evidence. When both the general
principle and the minor premise are soundly based, your audience will be much more likely to accept
your conclusion.
Causal Reasoning
There is a patch of ice on the sidewalk. You slip, fall, and break your arm. You reason as follows:
“Because that patch of ice was there, I fell and broke my arm.” This is an example of causal reasoning,
in which someone tries to establish the relationship between causes and effects.
As with reasoning from specific instances, we use causal reasoning daily. Something happens and
we ask what caused it to happen. We want to know the causes of chronic fatigue syndrome, of the
football team’s latest defeat, of our roommate’s peculiar habits. We also wonder about effects. We
speculate about the consequences of chronic fatigue syndrome, of the star quarterback’s leg injury, of
telling our roommate that a change is needed.
As any scientist (or detective) will tell you, causal reasoning can be tricky. The relationship
between causes and effects is not always clear. For example, the fact that one event happens after
another does not mean that the first is the cause of the second. The closeness in time of the two events
may be entirely coincidental. If a black cat crosses your path and five minutes later you fall and break
your arm, you needn’t blame your accident on the poor cat.
You also need to beware of assuming that events have only one cause. In fact, most events have
several causes. What causes the economy to boom or bust? Interest rates? Gas prices? Tax policy? Labor
costs? Consumer confidence? World affairs? All these factors—and others—affect the economy. When
you use causal reasoning, be wary of the temptation to attribute complex events to single causes.
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Analogical Reasoning
When arguing from analogy, a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for one
case is also true for the other: For example:
If you’re good at tennis, you will probably be good at Ping-Pong.
Although playing Ping-Pong is not exactly the same as playing tennis, the two are close enough
that the speaker is on firm ground in concluding that being skilled at one significantly increases the
odds of being skilled at the other.
Analogical reasoning is used frequently in persuasive speeches—especially when the speaker is
dealing with a question of policy. When arguing for a new policy, you should find out whether it has
been tried elsewhere. You may be able to claim that your policy will work because it has worked in like
circumstances.
Here is how one speaker used reasoning from analogy to support her claim that controlling
handguns will reduce violent crime in the United States:
Will my policy work? The experience of foreign countries suggests it will. In England,
guns are tightly regulated; even the police are unarmed, and the murder rate is trivial by
American standards. Japan has even fewer guns than England, and its crime rate is lower
than England’s. On the basis of these comparisons, we can conclude that restricting the
ownership of guns will control crime and murder rates in America.
By the same token, if you argue against a change in policy, you should check whether the proposed
policy—or something like it—has been implemented elsewhere. Here, too, you may be able to support
your case by reasoning from analogy—as did one speaker who opposed gun control:
Advocates of gun control point to foreign countries such as England and Japan to prove
their case. But the key to low personal violence in these and other countries is the
peaceful character of the people, not gun control laws. Switzerland, for example, has a
militia system; more than 1 million automatic rifles and military pistols are sitting at this
moment in Swiss homes. Yet Switzerland’s murder rate is only 8 percent of ours. In other
words, cultural factors are more important than gun control when it comes to violent
crime.
As these examples illustrate, argument from analogy can be used on both sides of an issue. You
are more likely to persuade your audience if the analogy shows a truly parallel situation.
Fallacies
A fallacy is an error in reasoning. As a speaker, you need to avoid fallacies in your speeches. As a
listener, you need to be alert to fallacies in the speeches you hear.
Logicians have identified more than 125 different fallacies. Here we look at 10 that you should
guard against.
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Hasty Generalizations
Hasty generalization is the most common fallacy in reasoning from specific instances. It occurs when a
speaker jumps to a conclusion on the basis of too few cases or on the basis of atypical cases. For
example:
Throughout American history, military leaders have always made excellent Presidents.
Look at the examples of George Washington, Andrew Jackson, and Dwight Eisenhower.
Washington, Jackson, and Eisenhower are widely regarded as outstanding chief executives, but
are these examples enough to conclude that military leaders always make excellent Presidents? In fact,
they are not. James Buchanan and Ulysses S. Grant were both highly decorated military leaders during
the 19th century, but they are usually rated among the nation’s worst Presidents. An accurate statement
would be:
Throughout American history, military leaders have sometimes made excellent
Presidents—as with Washington, Jackson, and Eisenhower.
This statement is factually correct and avoids the fallacy of hasty generalization.
False Cause
The fallacy of false cause is often known by its Latin name , post hoc, ergo propter hoc, which means
“after this, therefore because of this.” In other words, the fact that one event occurs after another
does not mean that the first is the cause of the second. The closeness in time of the two events may
be entirely coincidental—as in this case:
When a team from the NFC wins the Super Bowl, economic growth during the next year
is stronger than when a team from the AFC wins the Super Bowl. Therefore, if we want
economic growth, we should root for a team from the NFC to win this year’s Super Bowl.
There may be a slight correlation between economic growth and which conference wins the Super
Bowl, but there is no causal connection between the two events. Whether the American economy rises
or falls is not dependent on who wins the Super Bowl.
Invalid Analogy
When reasoning from analogy, a speaker concludes that what is true in one case is also true in another.
An invalid analogy occurs when the two cases being compared are not essentially alike. For example:
Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to get them to work, so
must employees.
This statement is obviously fallacious. No one in his or her right mind can seriously think that
employees, which are human beings, can be compared with inanimate objects such as nails. But what
about the following statement:
In Great Britain, the general election campaign for Prime Minister lasts less than three
weeks. Surely we can do the same with the U.S. presidential election.
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At first glance, this analogy may seem perfectly sound. But are the British and American political
systems enough alike to warrant the conclusion? Not really. The United States is much larger than
Great Britain and its party system operates much differently. As a result, the factors that allow Great
Britain to conduct campaigns for Prime Minister in less than three weeks are not present in the United
States. The analogy is not valid.
Bandwagon
How often have you heard someone say, “It’s a great idea—everyone agrees with it”? This is a classic
example of the bandwagon fallacy, which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore
good, correct, or desirable.
Much advertising is based on the bandwagon fallacy. The fact that more people use Tylenol than
Advil does not prove that Tylenol is a better painkiller. Tylenol’s popularity could be due to clever
marketing. The question of which product does a better job reducing pain is a medical issue that has
nothing to do with popularity.
The bandwagon fallacy is also evident in political speeches. Consider the following statement:
The governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show
that 60 percent of the people support him.
This statement is fallacious because popular opinion cannot be taken as proof that an idea is
right or wrong. Remember, “everyone” used to believe that the world is flat and that space flight is
impossible.
Red Herring
The name of this fallacy comes from an old trick used by farmers in England to keep fox hunters
and their hounds from galloping through the crops. By dragging a smoked herring with a strong odor
along the edge of their fields, the farmers could throw the dogs off track by destroying the scent of the
fox.
A speaker who uses a red herring introduces an irrelevant issue in order to divert attention from
the subject under discussion. For instance:
How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when
we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States.
What does the speaker’s concern about the quality of life in the United States have to do with
whether he or she is guilty of political corruption? Nothing! It is a red herring used to divert attention
away from the real issue.
Ad Hominem
Latin for “against the man,” ad hominem refers to the fallacy of attacking the person rather than
dealing with the real issue in dispute. For instance:
The head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals,
but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.
Page | 146
By impugning the commissioner’s family background rather than dealing with the substance of her
economic proposals, the speaker is engaging in an ad hominem attack.
Sometimes, of course, a person’s character or integrity can be a legitimate issue—as in the case
of a police chief who violates the law or a corporate president who swindles stockholders. In such cases,
a speaker might well raise questions about the person without being guilty of the ad hominem fallacy.
Either-Or
Sometimes referred to as a false dilemma, the either-or fallacy forces listeners to choose between two
alternatives when more than two alternatives exist. For example:
The government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor.
This statement oversimplifies a complex issue by reducing it to a simple either-or choice. Is it true
that the only choices are to raise taxes or to eliminate services for the poor? A careful listener might ask,
“What about cutting the administrative cost of government or eliminating pork-barrel projects instead?”
You will be more persuasive as a speaker and more perceptive as a listener if you are alert to the
either-or fallacy.
Slippery Slope
The slippery slope fallacy takes its name from the image of a boulder rolling uncontrollably down a steep
hill. Once the boulder gets started, it can’t be stopped until it reaches the bottom.
A speaker who commits the slippery slope fallacy assumes that taking a first step will lead
inevitably to a second step and so on down the slope to disaster—as in the following example:
Now that the TSA is allowed to use full body scanners and invasive pat-downs before
letting us through security, it’s only a matter of time before they strip-search every man,
woman, and child who wants to fly on a plane.
If a speaker claims that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a series of disastrous later steps,
he or she needs to provide evidence or reasoning to support the claim. To assume that all the later
steps will occur without proving that they will is to commit the slippery slope fallacy.
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Appeal to Tradition
Appeal to tradition is fallacious when it assumes that something old is automatically better than
something new. For example:
I don’t see any reason to abolish the electoral college. It has been around since the
adoption of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, and we should keep it as long as the United
States continues to exist.
There are good arguments on both sides of the debate over abolishing the electoral college.
However, to conclude that the electoral college should be kept forever solely because it has always been
a part of the U.S. Constitution commits the fallacy of appeal to tradition.
Just because a practice, an institution, or an idea is old does not automatically make it better. Its
value should be based on its contributions to society, not on its age. If tradition were the sole measure
of value, we would still have slavery, women would not be able to vote, and people would undergo
surgery without anesthesia.
Appeal to Novelty
The fallacy of appeal to novelty is the opposite of appeal to tradition. Appeal to novelty assumes that
because something is new, it is therefore superior to something that is older. For example:
Our church should adopt the 2011 New International Version of the Bible because it is
400 years newer than the King James Version.
The fact that the New International Version of the Bible is newer than the King James Version
(completed in 1611), does not automatically make it better. There are many reasons why a church might
prefer the New International Version, but the speaker should explain those reasons, rather than assuming
that one version is better than another simply because it is new.
Advertisers often commit the fallacy of appeal to novelty. They tout their latest products as “new
and improved,” yet we know from experience that new does not always mean improved. As always, we
need to look carefully at the claim and make sure it is based on sound reasoning.
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PERSUADING BY APPEALING TO EMOTIONS (PATHOS)
One year before rising to speak at the 1992 Republican National Convention, Mary Fisher learner that
she had contracted the HIV virus from her ex-husband. Resolving to do all she could to fight the disease,
she became an outspoken advocate of the need for public understanding and resources to battle against
AIDS. After telling her story to the Republican Platform Committee in May, Fisher, a former staff assistant
to President Gerald Ford, was invited to address the party’s national convention.
Feeling, as she said later, like “the only HIV-positive Republican”, she was deeply concerned
about how her message of compassion and awareness would be received – especially since most
Americans, at that time, were still in a state of denial about the seriousness of the AIDS crisis.
Speaking with great emotions and conviction, Fisher presented one of the most admired speeches
of recent years. The Houston Astrodome fell eerily silent as she spoke, and many of the delegates were
moved to tears as they listened. Across the nation, millions watched on television, captivated by Fisher’s
powerful words and heartfelt delivery. Afterward, most listeners attributed the success of the speech to
its emotional power. The New York Times deemed it “exceptional for its deep emotion and sharp
message” and it has since been recognized as one of the top 100 American speeches of the 20th century.
Effective persuasion often requires emotional appeal. As the Roman rhetorician Quintilian stated,
“It is feeling and force of imagination that make us eloquent.” By adding “feeling” and “the force of
imagination” to her logical arguments, Mary Fisher produced a compelling address. Although your words
may never change the course of national opinion, you too can use emotional appeal to bring your
persuasive speeches home to your listeners.
What are Emotional Appeals?
Emotional appeals - what Aristotle referred to as “pathos” – are intended to make listeners feel happy,
sad, angry, guilty, afraid, proud, sympathetic, reverent or the like. These are often appropriate reactions
when the question is one of value or policy. Few people are moved by to change their attitudes or take
action when they are complacent or bored. As George Campbell wrote in his Philosophy of Rhetoric,
“When persuasion is the end, passion also must be engaged.”
Below is a list of some of the emotions evoked most often by public speakers:
§ Fear – of serious illness, of natural disasters, of sexual assault, of personal rejection, of
economic hardship, etc.
§ Compassion – for the physically disabled, for battered women, for neglected animals, for
the unemployed, for starving children, for victims of AIDS
§ Pride – in one’s country, in one’s family, in one’s school, in one’s ethnic heritage, in one’s
personal accomplishments.
§ Anger – at terrorists and their supporters, at business leaders who act unethically, at
members of Congress who abuse the public trust, at landlords who exploit student
tenants, at vandals and thieves
§ Guilt – about not helping people less fortunate than ourselves, about not considering the
rights of others, about not doing one’s best
§ Reverence – for an admired person, for traditions and institutions, for one’s deity
Obviously this list is not complete. There are many other emotions and many other subjects that might
stir them. However, this brief sample should give you an idea of the kinds of emotional appeals you
might use to enhance the message of your persuasive speech.
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Generating Emotional Appeal
Use emotional language
One way to generate emotional appeal is to use emotion-laden words. If you want to move your listeners,
use moving language. Here for instance, is part of the conclusion from a student’s speech about the
challenges and rewards of working as a community volunteer with young children:
“The promise of America sparkles in the eyes of every child. Their dreams are the
glittering dreams of America. When those dreams are destroyed, when innocent hopes
are betrayed, so are the dreams and hopes of the entire nation. It is our duty – to me, it
is a sacred duty – to give all children the chance to learn and grow, to share equally in
the American dream of freedom, justice and opportunity.”
The underlined words and phrases have strong emotional power. By using them, the speaker hopes to
produce an emotional response.
There can be a problem with this approach, however. Packing too many emotionally charged words into
one part of a speech can call attention to the emotional language itself and undermine its impact. When
a sudden barrage of passionate language is inconsistent with the rest of the speech, it may strike the
audience as ludicrous – obviously not the desired effect. Remember, the emotion rests in your audience,
not in your words. Even the coldest facts can touch off an emotional response if they strike the right
chords in a listener.
Develop vivid examples
Often a better approach than relying on emotionally charged language is to let your emotional appeal
grow naturally out of the content of your speech. The most effective way to do this is with vivid, richly
textured examples that personalize your ideas and help pull listeners into the speech emotionally.
Here is how one speaker used a vivid example for emotional appeal. The subject was illegal
trapping of wild animals. The audience was a group of citizens and the village board in a semirural town.
The speaker was a representative of the Humane Society. Here is what she might have said, stripping
the content of emotional appeal:
Trapping wild animals on town property is not only illegal it is also dangerous. On several
occasions, domestic animals have been caught in traps set for raccoons, squirrels and
beavers.
What she actually said was something like this:
“Tina was found dead last week – her neck broken by the jaws of a steel trap. I didn’t
know Tina, and most of you didn’t either. But John and Rachel Williamson did and so did
their children, Tyrone and Vanessa. Tina had been a beloved member of their family for
10 years. She was a Samoyed – a handsome, intelligent dog, pure white with soft, dark
eyes. When she died, she was only 200 yards away from her back door. Unless we crack
down on illegal trapping within town property, this tragedy will be repeated. The next
time it might be your family dog. Or your pet cat, or your child.”
Page | 150
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