IB Biology textbook

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Pigs fed on grains and soybean meal produce a lot of phosphate in
their manure. Phosphate causes pollution and eutrophication in the
environment. Genetically modified pigs have been developed with a
gene from the bacterium E. coli. The bacteria make an enzyme, phytase,
which releases the digestible phosphorus found in grains and soybeans.
Genetically modified pigs produce this enzyme in their saliva and so
digest their food better. More phosphorus becomes available to them and
less goes undigested.The pigs absorb the nutrients into their blood, so
they grow better, and much less phosphate is released in their manure.

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Genetic modification of plants and animals is potentially enormously
helpful to the human race but it raises ethical and social questions, which
are the source of heated debate. Some of the possible benefits for the
future are listed below.

r As our population increases and more people need feeding, modifying

plants and animals to increase yield or to be able to grow in places
where they previously could not, will provide more food. Plants can
be made tolerant to drought or salt water so that food can be grown in
difficult areas.

r Crop plants that are disease resistant not only increase yields but also

reduce the need for applying potentially harmful pesticides.

r Many substances, such as human growth hormone, a blood-clotting

factor, antibodies, and vitamins, are already being made by genetically
modified organisms to improve human health.
On the other hand, there are those who are greatly concerned by the use
of genetically modified plants and animals.

r They argue that animals could be harmed by having these genes inserted.
r There is concern that people consuming genetically modified plants

and animals could be harmed.

r The long-term effects of genetically modified crops in the environment

are not known. Plants or animals could ‘escape’ into the environment
and their genes might become incorporated into wild populations, with
unknown effects.

r Human food crops could become controlled by a small number of

biotechnology companies.

r GM seeds/plants may be more expensive, preventing poorer farmers

from buying them.Wealth might become concentrated in a smaller
percentage of the population, which might damage the local economy.

r More genetically modified organisms might lead to a reduction in

natural biodiversity.

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& Keeping in mind that the genetic code is universal, what do you
There is much discussion in the media consider to be the differences between genetic modification and
about genetic modification. On the standard plant and animal breeding?
one hand, some see it as ‘the next
green revolution, capable of saving ' Read about the precautionary principle, which is explained on pages
the world from starvation’, while 108–109 in Chapter 5. How should the precautionary principle be
others are extremely concerned about applied to genetic modification of farmed plants and animals?
‘unleashed genes having catastrophic
effects on the environment’. ( At what level should gene technology be controlled – laboratory,
government or international?

) Is gene technology so potentially dangerous that it should be
banned completely?

Clone a group of genetically 8adc^c\
identical organisms or a group of
cells derived from a single parent Cloning happens naturally – identical twins or triplets are a clone.
cell Cloning is also very widespread in agriculture and horticulture and has
been used for many years to propagate new plants from cuttings, taken
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ZlZ# animal breeders.

I]Z cjXaZjh Cells from a newly fertilised egg are not differentiated and have not
lVh gZbdkZY# specialised into the different cells they will become. Until recently,
cloning an animal from another animal was impossible because the cells
I]Z ild XZaah lZgZ in an animal’s body had already become nerves, skin, muscles and so on.
[jhZY id\Zi]Zg# Differentiated cells have many of their genes switched off, so before they
can be used for cloning, the genes have to be switched back on.
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WZXdbZ Vc ZbWgnd# The first successful clone made from an adult animal was Dolly the
sheep (Figure 4.15).The breakthrough was made in 1997 by Sir Ian
I]Z ZbWgnd lVh eji ^cid i]Z jiZgjh Wilmut and his team at a laboratory at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh,
d[ V HXdii^h] 7aVX`[VXZ ZlZ# Scotland, where Dolly was created. Unlike previous clones, Dolly was
created from the fusion of an ovum with the mammary cell of an adult
9daan lVh Wdgc Ä V XadcZ sheep, creating a genetic replica of the original adult animal.
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i]Z Ò ghi hjXXZhh[ja XadcZ# Therapeutic cloning is used to produce tissue or even organs that may
be needed by a human patient. Human embryos are used as a source of
embryonic stem cells, which are undifferentiated and can become any
type of human cell.The potential value of stem cells is that they could be
used to repair damaged parts of the body, such as liver or kidneys or brain,
because they will grow to become those tissues.

There are many ethical issues that arise when human cloning is
considered and stem cell research has been banned in some countries.
Currently, embryos are not specially created for the purpose of therapeutic

.)

cloning. Embryos that are used come from the in vitro fertilisation (IVF)
process and are surplus embryos that were not implanted into the mother.

In the future, embryos could be created using differentiated cells from
the patient so that the stem cells they produce are genetically identical to
the patient.

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As we have seen, there are two types of cloning – & Therapeutic cloning is still at the
reproductive and therapeutic. Reproductive cloning involves an research stage, using unused IVF
embryo that has been created and implanted into a surrogate mother, embryos. Is it appropriate to take it
where it is allowed to develop into a new organism.This has now been to the next stage and create patient-
done for many different species of animals but not, as yet, for humans. specific embryos for therapeutic
In the therapeutic cloning process, no sperm fertilisation is needed nor use?
is it necessary to implant an embryo into the uterus to create a child.
' The creation of an embryo requires
In the future, human therapeutic cloning could begin with the a human egg cell. Some women
extraction of a nucleus from a donated egg.This nucleus holds the are willing to donate eggs but is it
genetic material from the donor. Scientists might then take a body cell ethical to buy them from willing
from their patient and extract the nucleus from it.The patient might donors?
need a stem cell transplant to treat a health condition or disease.
( The embryonic stem cells are
The patient’s nucleus would be substituted into the egg cell so that genetically identical to the patient’s
the egg then contains the patient’s genetic material.The egg could be cells and therefore there is no need
stimulated to divide and soon form a cluster of cells rich in stem cells. to use immunosuppressant drugs
Stem cells could be isolated and infused into the patient where they and no danger of tissue rejection. Is
are needed to restore structure or function. this a useful argument supporting
therapeutic cloning?
One of the major benefits of therapeutic cloning is that the stem
cells are pluripotent, which means they can give rise to almost ) Since embryonic stem cells can
any cell type in the body.Another advantage is that there is no develop into any cell type, how
risk of immunological rejection because the patient’s own genetic can a surgeon be certain that the
material is used.Therapeutic cloning has the potential to dramatically implanted cells will develop into the
reduce waiting times for organ transplants as well as eliminating the desired differentiated cells and not
immunological concerns associated with organ transplants. some other cell type such as cancer
cells? Are these risks worth taking?

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1 Which of the following statements is correct?

A Both men and women can be carriers of a sex-linked allele.

B Mitosis reduces the number of chromosomes in a cell from the diploid to the haploid number.

C All of the genetic information in an organism is called a genome.

D The polymerase chain reaction separates fragments of DNA in a gel. (1)

2 The fruit fly, Drosophila, has sex I '( )
chromosomes X and Y, the same as '
humans.‘White eye’ is caused by a & ' (
sex-linked allele, which is recessive.
In the pedigree shown opposite, II (
which two individuals must be i]^h [an ]Vh l]^iZ ZnZ
carriers of the white allele? &
(1)
A I4 and II3 III
B I4 and II2
C II1 and II2 &
D II2 and III2

3 The karyogram below shows:

A Down’s syndrome
B a sex chromosome trisomy
C a normal human female
D a normal human male

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4 Which of the following describes the behaviour of chromosomes during prophase I and metaphase II of meiosis?

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5 A test cross is carried out on a plant of unknown genotype; 50% of the offspring have the same phenotype (1)
as the test-cross parent.The conclusion is:

A the unknown parent is homozygous recessive
B the unknown parent is homozygous dominant
C the gene is sex linked
D the unknown parent is heterozygous

6 The diagram shows a DNA electrophoresis gel.The results are from a single bdi]Zg
probe showing a DNA profile for a man, a woman and their four children.
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Which child is least likely to be the biological offspring of the father?
X]^aY & X]^aY (
A Child 1
B Child 2 dg^\^c
C Child 3
D Child 4 I

II

III

IV (1)
(4)
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7 Ludovica is blood group AB and is expecting a baby with her husband Mikhail who is blood group A.
Mikhail’s mother was group O. Deduce the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their baby using a
Punnett grid.

8 Discuss the ethical arguments for and against the therapeutic cloning of humans. (4)

9 Genetic modification involves the transfer of DNA from one species to another. Discuss the potential (8)
benefits and possible harmful effects of genetic modification. Include a named example.

10 Outline how a DNA profile is obtained, including one way in which it has been used. (5)

11 Karyotyping involves arranging the chromosomes of an individual into pairs. Describe one application (5)
of this process, including the way in which the chromosomes are obtained.

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12 Outline two positive outcomes of the Human Genome Project. Do not include international cooperation. (2)

13 The diagram opposite shows the pedigree &hi \ZcZgVi^dc
of a family with red–green colour-blindness,
a sex-linked condition. &'

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a Define the term ‘sex-linkage’. (1)

b Deduce, with a reason, whether the allele producing the condition is dominant or recessive. (2)

c i Determine all the possible genotypes of the individual (2nd generation 1) using appropriate symbols. (1)
ii Determine all the possible genotypes of the individual (3rd generation 4) using appropriate symbols. (1)

(total 5 marks)
© IB Organization 2009

14 Potatoes with more starch have a lower percentage water content.This has an advantage in the transport,
cooking and processing of potatoes.

In a strain of Escherichia coli, scientists found an enzyme that increases the production of starch. Using
biotechnology, the gene for this enzyme was transferred to potatoes, increasing their starch content
(transgenic potatoes).The gene was transferred to three potato varieties to create three transgenic lines.
The table shows the mean amount of starch and sugar contained in three lines of transgenic potatoes and
normal potatoes (control), after storage for four months at 4 °C.

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a State which line of transgenic potato has the greatest amount of starch. (1)

b i Compare the levels of carbohydrate between the transgenic lines and the control potatoes. (2)
ii Suggest reasons for these differences. (2)

Potato tubers were harvested from the field and stored in high humidity at 4 °C for three months.After this
period, the tubers were stored at 16 °C, and samples were removed after 0, 3, 6 or 10 days, cut into strips,
and fried.The colour of the fried potatoes was then measured and values reported using a 0 to 4 rating
(light to dark), where a score of 2 or lower indicates acceptable colour.The results are shown in the table.

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c Evaluate the effect of transferring the E. coli gene on the suitability of the potatoes for frying. (2)

(total 7 marks)
© IB Organization 2009

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JO FBDI TQFDJNFO $BSCPO JT VTFE UP TUVEZ NBUFSJBM VQ UP ZFBST
PME 'PS PMEFS NBUFSJBM
PUIFS FMFNFOUT BSF VTFE

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JU JT
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BHP 'PS FYBNQMF
GPTTJM TFRVFODFT TVHHFTU IPX NPEFSO IPSTFT NBZ IBWF
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XF DBO TBZ JT UIBU UIFZ BQQFBS UP CF SFMBUFE m UIBU UIFZ QSPCBCMZ TIBSF B
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OP GPTTJMT IBWF FWFS CFFO GPVOE

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TFFN UP TVHHFTU UIBU UIFSF IBT CFFO MJUUMF TFMFDUJPO QSFTTVSF PO UIFTF DSBCT

0CTFSWBUJPOT PG GPTTJMT QSPWJEF FWJEFODF UIBU MJGF PO &BSUI DIBOHFT BOE
UIBU NBOZ PG UIF DIBOHFT PDDVS PWFS NJMMJPOT PG ZFBST

&&)

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Fb_e^_ffki ' b^aa^dc
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5IF UIFPSZ PG FWPMVUJPO CZ NFBOT PG OBUVSBM TFMFDUJPO XBT QSPQPTFE
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JO B CPPL DBMMFE On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

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jacV gVY^jh ]jbZgjh
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r "T B SFTVMU PG WBSJBUJPO
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TVJUFE UP UIFJS TVSSPVOEJOHT UIBO PUIFST 5IFZ NBZ IBWF LFFOFS
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BOE JU
PDDVST BT UIF ê UUFTU TVSWJWF UP SFQSPEVDF

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JG UIF FOWJSPONFOU DIBOHFT
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UIF SFTQPOTF PG B NPUI QPQVMBUJPO UP QPMMVUJPO
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OFX TUSBJOT PG CBDUFSJB GPMMPXJOH UIF JOUSPEVDUJPO PG BOUJCJPUJDT

>cYjhig^Va bZaVc^hb

5IF QFQQFSFE NPUI Biston betularia
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*O #SJUBJO JO UIF NJE UI DFOUVSZ
B CMBDL GPSN PG UIF NPUI XBT
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PWFSMFBG
5IF BQQFBSBODF PG UIJT OFX DPMPVS

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BUNPTQIFSF 5IJT QPMMVUJPO LJMMFE UIF MJDIFOT UIBU HSPX PO UIF CBSL PG
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XIJDI CFDBNF CMBDLFOFE XJUI QBSUJDMFT PG TPPU

5IF DPMPVS PG UIF NPUI JT EVF UP B TJOHMF HFOF
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DPMPVS 5IF NVDI MFTT DPNNPO EPNJOBOU GPSN HJWFT SJTF UP UIF CMBDL

NFMBOJD NPUI

*O UIF QPMMVUFE BSFBT
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UIFZ XFSF DBNPVë BHFE #MBDL NPUIT TVSWJWFE BOE CSFE BOE UIF QSPQPSUJPO
PG CMBDL NPUIT XJUI UIF EPNJOBOU BMMFMF HSFX JO UIF QPQVMBUJPO

*O
UIF $MFBO "JS "DU CFDBNF MBX JO #SJUBJO BOE SFTUSJDUFE BJS
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DPOTFRVFODF
UIF TQFDLMFE GPSN PG UIF QFQQFSFE NPUI IBT JODSFBTFE JO
OVNCFST BHBJO JO NBOZ BSFBT
BOE UIF CMBDL GPSN IBT CFDPNF MFTT GSFRVFOU
'JHVSF 5.16


egZkV^a^c\ BVcX]ZhiZg 6ci^W^di^X gZh^hiVcXZ
l^cYh 7^gb^c\]Vb
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CFDBVTF PG WBSJBUJPO XJUIJO UIF QPQVMBUJPO
UIFSF NBZ CF B GFX CBDUFSJBM
AdcYdc DFMMT UIBU DBO SFTJTU UIF BOUJCJPUJD 5IFTF JOEJWJEVBMT XJMM TVSWJWF BOE
SFQSPEVDF 'JHVSF 5.17
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BMM PĄ TQSJOH PG
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BOE XJMM BMTP TVSWJWF JO UIF QSFTFODF
VcY bZaVc^X [dgbh d[ i]Z eZeeZgZY bdi] ^c PG UIF BOUJCJPUJD 5IF SFTJTUBOU CBDUFSJB IBWF FOPSNPVT TFMFDUJWF BEWBOUBHF
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BOE RVJDLMZ PVU DPNQFUF UIFN
id a^\]i VgZVh ^c ZVX] X^gXaZ h]dlh i]Z gVi^d
d[ YVg` id a^\]i bdi]h ^c i]Vi eVgi d[ i]Z 5SFBUJOH B EJTFBTF DBVTFE CZ SFTJTUBOU TUSBJOT PG CBDUFSJB CFDPNFT WFSZ
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EJĄ FSFOU BOUJCJPUJDT UP LJMM UIF SFTJTUBOU CBDUFSJB

5IF QSPCMFN PG BOUJCJPUJD SFTJTUBODF JT NBEF NPSF DPNQMFY CFDBVTF
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&&-

PG QMBTNJET
XIJDI UIFZ DBO USBOTGFS PS FYDIBOHF XJUI PUIFS CBDUFSJB
;^\jgZ *#&, I]Z \gZn VgZVh dc i]Z V\Vg
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BOUJCJPUJDT BSF PGUFO GPVOE PO QMBTNJET
TP QPUFOUJBMMZ EBOHFSPVT CBDUFSJB WVXiZg^jb ;iY^[h_Y^_W Yeb_# I]Z l]^iZ
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Vci^W^di^Xh# I]^h higV^c d[ ;$ Yeb_ ^h gZh^hiVci
TP QIBSNBDFVUJDBM DPNQBOJFT BSF DPOTUBOUMZ USZJOH UP EFWFMPQ OFX id i]Z Vci^W^di^Xh Vi i]Z Wdiidb aZ[i VcY ]Vh
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"OUJCJPUJD SFTJTUBODF BOE TP DBMMFE ATVQFSCVHT
TVDI BT .34" BOE
Clostridium difficile
BSF CBDUFSJB SFTJTUBOU UP NBOZ BOUJCJPUJDT 5IFZ
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JODPSSFDUMZ PS UPP GSFRVFOUMZ
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XIJDI UIFO JODSFBTF JO OVNCFST 1BUJFOUT GBJMJOH UP UBLF B DPNQMFUF DPVSTF
PG NFEJDBUJPO DBO BMTP FODPVSBHF UIF TVSWJWBM PG TMJHIUMZ SFTJTUBOU CBDUFSJB
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GSPN UXP EJĄ FSFOU LJOHEPNT GPS FBDI MFWFM

r %JTUJOHVJTI CFUXFFO UIF GPMMPXJOH QIZMB PG QMBOUT
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ê MJDJOPQIZUB


DPOJGFSPQIZUB BOE BOHJPTQFSNPQIZUB

r %JTUJOHVJTI CFUXFFO UIF GPMMPXJOH QIZMB PG BOJNBMT
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QMBUZIFMNJOUIFT
BOOFMJEB
NPMMVTDB BOE BSUISPQPEB

r "QQMZ BOE EFTJHO B LFZ GPS B HSPVQ PG VQ UP FJHIU PSHBOJTNT

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UIBU FOBCMF UIFN UP CF JEFOUJê FE FBTJMZ BOE UIBU TIPX FWPMVUJPOBSZ MJOLT
CFUXFFO UIFN 5IF TZTUFN PG DMBTTJê DBUJPO XF VTF UPEBZ IBT JUT PSJHJOT JO
B NFUIPE EFWJTFE CZ UIF 4XFEJTI TDJFOUJTU $BSPMVT -JOOBFVT m


* :8DAD<N 6C9 :KDAJI>DC &&.

I]Z W^cdb^Va hnhiZb d[ XaVhh^Ò XVi^dc

5IF classification PG MJWJOH PSHBOJTNT JT TJNQMZ B NFUIPE PG PSHBOJTJOH

UIFN JOUP HSPVQT UP TIPX TJNJMBSJUJFT BOE EJĄ FSFODFT CFUXFFO UIFN

.PSF UIBO UXP UIPVTBOE ZFBST BHP
UIF (SFFL QIJMPTPQIFS "SJTUPUMF

m #$
DMBTTJê FE PSHBOJTNT JOUP UXP HSPVQT m QMBOUT BOE BOJNBMT

5IJT XBT VTFGVM BT B TUBSUJOH QPJOU
CVU BT UIF UXP NBJO HSPVQT XFSF

TVC EJWJEFE
QSPCMFNT TUBSUFE UP BQQFBS "U UIBU UJNF
PSHBOJTNT XFSF

TFFO UP CF VODIBOHJOH
TP UIFSF XBT OP VOEFSTUBOEJOH PG FWPMVUJPOBSZ

SFMBUJPOTIJQT .BOZ PSHBOJTNT EJTDPWFSFE MBUFS EJE OPU ê U JOUP UIF TDIFNF

WFSZ XFMM

#JSET XFSF TFQBSBUFE JOUP B HSPVQ EFê OFE BT A'FBUIFSFE BOJNBMT UIBU

DBO ë Z TP OP QMBDF DPVME CF GPVOE GPS UIF ë JHIUMFTT DPSNPSBOU
B CJSE

;^\jgZ *#&- 8Vgdajh A^ccVZjh! Vahd `cdlc UIBU EPFT OPU ë Z #BDUFSJB
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Human physiology is the study of the organs and organ systems of the body and how they interact
to keep us alive. Physiologists examine anatomy, which is the physical structure of the organs, and
investigate the biochemical processes occurring inside cells and tissues to keep our organs working
efficiently.

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r Explain why the digestion of large food molecules is essential.
r Explain the need for enzymes in digestion.
r State the source, substrate, products and optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase.
r Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system.
r Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
r Distinguish between ‘absorption’ and ‘assimilation’.
r Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of the products of digestion.

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Digestion a series of biochemical
reactions that converts large When we eat, we take in food consisting of large, complex organic
ingested molecules into small, molecules, which are not suitable to be used as they are. Large molecules
soluble molecules cannot pass through membranes to enter the cells that line the intestine or
pass on into the bloodstream. Digestion is the biochemical breakdown of
large, insoluble food molecules into small, soluble molecules.This process
is essential because only small molecules can enter cells and be used in
the body. Molecules produced by digestion pass through the wall of the
intestine by diffusion, facilitated diffusion or active transport.They enter
the bloodstream and travel to the cells, where they are reassembled into
new structures.

Three main types of food molecule that must be digested are
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.Table 6.1 shows how these molecules
are ingested and what is produced when they are digested.

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Digestion of large molecules occurs very slowly at body temperature.
Enzymes are essential to speed up the rate of digestion so that it is fast
enough to process nutrients to supply our needs.

There are many different enzymes in the human digestive system.
Different enzymes are released in different sections of the digestive system
and each one is specific for one food type. Some enzymes are specific to the
different carbohydrates that we eat, and others work one after another to
digest foods such as proteins in a series of stages.All digestive enzymes help
to catalyse hydrolysis reactions (Figure 6.1) and work most efficiently at
about 37 °C. Examples of some important enzymes are shown in Table 6.2.

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The digestive system consists of a long, muscular tube, also called the
gut or alimentary canal (Figure 6.2).Associated with it are a number
of glands that secrete enzymes and other digestive juices.The gut extends
from the mouth to the anus and is specialised for the movement, digestion
and absorption of food.

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In the mouth, food is broken into small pieces by the jaws and teeth, and
mixed with saliva containing the enzyme salivary amylase, which begins
the digestion of any starch the food contains.

The food is then passed down the oesophagus to the stomach by a
sequence of muscle contractions known as peristalsis.The stomach is a
muscular sac that holds the food for up to four hours while digestion
proceeds inside it.As muscles of the stomach contract, food and enzymes
are mixed – this gives maximum contact between food and enzyme
molecules, and speeds up the digestive process.

Digestion of protein begins here, catalysed by the enzyme pepsin,
which is secreted in gastric juice produced by millions of gastric glands
in the stomach wall. Gastric juice contains pepsin in an inactive form.

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Hydrochloric acid activates the pepsin and maintains a pH of 1.5–2.0 Absorption the process by which
in the stomach.This pH is the optimum for protein digestion and also small molecules are taken through
kills many of the bacteria present in the food we eat. Goblet cells in the the cells of the intestine and pass
stomach lining secrete mucus to protect the interior of the stomach from into the bloodstream
the acid and enzymes, which might otherwise digest it. Assimilation the process by
which products of digestion are
Food is transformed in the stomach to a semi-liquid called chyme and is used or stored by body cells
then ready to move on to the next stage of digestion in the small intestine.
Egestion the process by which
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in the first section of the small intestine, (Figure 6.2). Digestive juices are
secreted from the liver, gall bladder, pancreas and the intestine walls. Bile is
added from the liver and gall bladder, and the pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice containing trypsin (a protease), lipase, amylase and bicarbonate ions.
The acidity of the chyme is reduced by these ions, allowing the enzymes to
work at their optimum pH.

The inner surface of the small intestine is greatly folded to form
thousands of tiny villi (Figure 6.3, overleaf ). Each villus contains a network
of capillaries and a lacteal. (A lacteal is a small vessel of the lymphatic
system.)Villi greatly increase the surface area of the small intestine and
improve its efficiency as an absorbing surface.As small molecules such as
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, come into contact with a
villus, they are absorbed, either passively or by active transport, into the
single layer of epithelial cells that cover it.Amino acids and glucose then
enter the capillaries and are carried away in the bloodstream. Fatty acids and
glycerol are taken into the lacteal and travel in the lymphatic system.

After digested food has been absorbed, it is assimilated into the body
and enters cells to become part of the body’s tissues or reserves. Glucose
is transported to the liver, which maintains a constant level of blood sugar.
Amino acids form part of the reserve of amino acids used to build new
proteins in cells all over the body, and fatty acids and glycerol enter the
bloodstream from lymph vessels near the heart to be used as an energy
source or to build larger molecules.

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By the time food reaches the end of the small intestine, most useful
substances have been removed from it.Any remaining undigested material
passes into the large intestine, which also contains mucus, dead cells from the
intestine lining and large numbers of naturally occurring bacteria. Bacteria
living here are mutualistic organisms, gaining nutrients and a suitable
habitat, while synthesising vitamin K for the benefit of their human host.

The main role of the large intestine is reabsorbing water and mineral
ions such as sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−).Water in the gut contents
comes not only from our diet, but also from the many additional litres that
are added to the intestine in digestive juices.What remains of the original
food is now referred to as faeces and is egested, or eliminated from the
body, via the anus.

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r Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the route of

blood through the heart.

r State that coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients.
r Explain the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood and opening and closing of valves.
r Outline the control of the heart beat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the

medulla of the brain and adrenalin (epinephrine).

r Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins.
r State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets.
r State that the following are transported by the blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea

and heat.

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Our circulatory system provides a delivery and collection service
for the whole body.The heart, blood and blood vessels make up a most
efficient transport system that reaches all cells, bringing the substances
they need and taking away their waste. Humans and other mammals have
what is known as a closed circulatory system with blood contained inside
a network of arteries, veins and capillaries.

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In the human circulatory system, blood is kept on the move by the
pumping action of the powerful heart muscle. It has been estimated that a
normal human heart beats more than 2.5 × 109 times in a lifetime, sending
a total of more than 1.5 million litres of blood from each ventricle.

A human heart is about the size of a clenched fist. It is double pump
with two separate sides (Figure 6.4).The right-hand side receives
deoxygenated blood from all over the body and pumps it to the lungs
to pick up more oxygen.The left-hand side receives oxygenated blood
from the lungs and pumps it to cells all over the body where the oxygen
is unloaded. On any complete journey round the body, blood will pass
through the heart twice.

The heart has four chambers – two smaller atria (singular atrium)
at the top and two larger ventricles below.The right- and left-hand
sides are completely separated from one another.Atria have thin walls
as the blood they receive from the veins is under relatively low pressure.
Ventricles are stronger and more muscular as their job is to pump blood
out of the heart. Both ventricles hold the same volume of blood but the
left ventricle wall is thicker than the right as it must generate enough
pressure to pump blood all round the body.The right ventricle pumps
blood a much shorter distance to the lungs.

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dmn\Zc id i]Z ]ZVgi bjhXaZ# in the aorta and pulmonary arteries – the semilunar valves – prevent
backflow into the ventricles as they relax after a contraction.
Cardiac muscle will contract
rhythmically in tissue culture if it is Heart muscle works continuously, beating about 75 times per minute
supplied with oxygen and glucose. when a person is resting, and so it has a large demand for oxygen. Coronary
Its normal resting rate in culture is arteries extend over the surface of the heart and penetrate deep into the
about 50 beats per minute. muscle fibres to supply oxygen and nutrients for this unremitting activity
(Figure 6.5).
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parasympathetic nerves I]Z XVgY^VX XnXaZ
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerves are part of the autonomic The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that takes place during one
nervous system, which controls heart beat (Figure 6.6 overleaf ).As the heart’s chambers contract, blood
activities, such as heart rate, that are inside them is forced on its way. Valves in the heart and arteries stop the
not under our conscious control. blood flowing backwards.

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Heart tissue is made of a special type of muscle that is different from
other muscles in our bodies. Cardiac muscle is unique because it
contracts and relaxes without stimulation from the nervous system. It is
said to be myogenic. Natural myogenic contractions are initiated at an
inbuilt pacemaker, which keeps cardiac muscle working in a coordinated,
controlled sequence.The pacemaker, or sinoatrial node (SAN), is special
region of muscle cells in the right atrium that sets the basic pace of the
heart.The rate set by the SAN is also influenced by stimulation from the
nervous system and by hormones.

At the start of every heart beat, the SAN produces an impulse that
stimulates both atria to contract.A second structure, the atrioventricular
node (AVN) at the base of the right atrium, is also stimulated. It delays the
impulse briefly until the atrial contraction finishes and then transmits it on
down a bundle of modified muscle fibres – the bundle of His and Purkinje
fibres – to the base of the ventricles. Impulses radiate up through the
ventricles, which contract simultaneously about 0.1 seconds after the atria.

The natural rhythm of the pacemaker is modulated by the nervous
system so that the heart rate is adjusted to our activity levels. It speeds up
when we are exercising and need extra oxygen and nutrients, and slows
down as we sleep. Changes to our heart rate are not under our conscious
control but result from impulses sent from a control centre in the part of
the brain stem known as the medulla. Impulses to speed up the heart pass
along the sympathetic nerve, which stimulates the pacemaker to increase
its rate. Impulses sent along the parasympathetic (vagus) nerve cause the
heart rate to slow down.The medulla monitors blood pressure and carbon
dioxide levels using information it receives from receptors in arteries.

Emotions such as stress, as well as increases in activity level, can cause
an increase in heart rate. During periods of excitement, fear or stress the
adrenal glands release the hormone adrenalin, which travels in the blood
to the pacemaker and stimulates it to increase the heart rate.

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Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.They
branch and divide many times forming arterioles and eventually the
tiny capillaries that reach all our tissues.Arteries have thick outer walls
of collagen and elastic fibres (Figure 6.7, overleaf ), which withstand high
blood pressure and prevent vessels becoming overstretched or bursting.
Just beneath the outer covering is a ring of circular smooth muscle that
contracts with each heart beat to maintain blood pressure and keep
blood moving along. Inside an artery, the lumen is narrow to keep blood
pressure high.The lumen’s lining of smooth epithelial cells reduces
friction and keeps blood flowing smoothly.

Capillaries are the smallest vessels – the lumen of a capillary is only
about 10 Nm in diameter and some are so small that red blood cells must
fold up in order to pass along. Networks of these tiny capillaries reach

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Plasma that leaks out of tiny almost every body cell. Blood flow here is very slow, at less than 1 mm
capillaries bathes the nearby per second, but capillary walls are only one cell thick so the distance for
tissues and supplies oxygen and diffusion of materials in and out of them is as small as possible. Some
nutrients to the cells. Once out of capillaries have spaces between their cells enabling plasma and phagocytes
the capillary, the fluid is known as to leak out into the tissues.
tissue fluid.
Veins carry blood back towards the heart from body tissues. Small veins
Lymphatic system called venules join up to form large veins, which can be distinguished
The lymphatic system collects from arteries by their much thinner walls, which contain few elastic and
tissue fluid that leaks from the muscle fibres. Blood inside a vein does not pulse along and the lumen
capillaries and returns it to the is large to hold the slow-moving flow.The relatively thin walls can be
large veins close to the heart. compressed by adjacent muscles and this helps to squeeze blood along
and keep it moving. Many veins contain valves to prevent blood flowing
backwards, a problem which can arise if flow is sluggish.

Table 6.3 summarises the differences and similarities between the three
types of blood vessel.

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Figure 6.8 shows the appearance of blood when examined under a light
microscope.

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Blood has two important roles: it is a vital part of the body’s transport
network, carrying dissolved materials to all cells, and it helps to fight
infectious disease.Table 6.4 (overleaf ) summarises the important
substances the blood carries. Its role in infection control will be explored
in the next section.

L^aa^Vb =VgkZn &*,-Ä&+*, believe this doctrine and sought evidence to produce
and support his own theories. He carefully recorded all
Harvey, an English physician, is widely his observations and carried out dissections on which to
acknowledged as being the first man to describe base his conclusions. He calculated the volume of blood
accurately how blood flows in a continuous circulation that might pass through the heart in one day to disprove
round the body. Before Harvey, few people questioned Galen’s suppositions. In his famous publication, Exercitatio
the classical writings of authors such as Aristotle (384– Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (‘An
322 BC), Hippocrates (460–c.370 BC) and Galen (AD Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the
c.130–c.200). Galen believed that two types of blood Blood in Animals’) in 1628, Harvey proposed that blood
existed. Darker, venous blood formed in the liver and red, circulated in two separate, closed circuits. Illustrations in
arterial blood flowed from the heart. Blood was thought the book also showed his demonstration of the existence
to be ‘consumed’ by different organs and converted and function of valves in veins.
to ‘vital spirits’ in the lungs. Harvey was unwilling to

Sir William Osler (1849–1919), a famous Canadian physician, later wrote of Harvey’s book:

‘It marks the break of the modern spirit with the old traditions … here for the first time
a great physiological problem was approached from the experimental side by a man with
a modern scientific mind, who could weigh evidence and not go beyond it …’

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& Why did people in the 1600s still believe writings of Greek and Roman kZ^ch ^c i]Z [dgZVgb#
authors from more than 1400 years earlier?

' Harvey proposed the existence of capillaries but was never able to prove his
theory.Why not?

( Harvey would not accept doctrines without evidence. Can doctrines ever be
accepted if the evidence is provided by authority?

) 21 years after the original publication of his book, Harvey produced a volume
of responses to those who had made comments and criticisms of it.Why was
this important?

* What did Osler mean by the phrase ‘a modern scientific mind’? How could
this be defined today?

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r Define ‘pathogen’.
r Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses.
r Outline the role of the skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens.
r Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissues.
r Distinguish between ‘antigens’ and ‘antibodies’.
r Explain antibody production.
r Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.
r Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS.

EVi]d\Zch XVjhZ Y^hZVhZ

A pathogen is a living organism or virus that invades the body and causes
disease. Most pathogens are bacteria and viruses (Figure 6.9), but protozoa,
parasitic worms and fungi can also be pathogenic.

Relatively few bacteria and fungi are pathogens, but no virus can
function outside the cell of its host organism so all viruses have the
potential to be pathogenic.A virus takes over the nucleic acid and protein
synthesis mechanisms of its host cell and directs them to make more
viruses.

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Most bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics.Antibiotics are
natural substances that slow the growth of bacteria. Since the discovery Prions
of penicillin in 1928, many antibiotics have been isolated and about 50
are now manufactured for medical use.These antibiotics work in different In recent years, new infectious
ways but are effective because prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have particles called prions have been
different metabolic pathways. Some antibiotics block the protein synthesis discovered. Prions do not contain
mechanism in bacteria while not affecting the process in human cells. nucleic acid. Prions are proteins
Others interfere with the formation of the bacterial cell wall and prevent that convert normal proteins
bacteria growing and dividing. into infectious prion proteins.
They are not destroyed by normal
Viruses are not living and have no metabolic pathways of their own. sterilisation techniques and have
Since they use their human host’s metabolism to build new viruses, been spread on surgical instruments
antibiotics have no effect against viral infections. and in contaminated meat. Prion
diseases include scrapie in sheep,
I]Z WdYnÉh Ò ghi a^cZ d[ YZ[ZcXZ bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE) in cattle, variant Creutzfeldt-
Despite the fact that we come into contact with many pathogens every Jacob disease (discovered in 1996)
day, we are seldom ill.This is due to our effective immune system, and kuru in humans. Prions are
which both prevents pathogens entering the body and also deals with any produced by mutations in genes
that do. coding for a cell protein called PrP.

The first line of defence against infection is our skin. Unbroken skin is
a tough barrier to any potential invaders. It is waterproof and its secretions
repel bacteria. Openings in the skin, such as eyes and nose, can provide
entry points for pathogens but these are protected by various secretions.
Tears, mucus and saliva all contain the enzyme lysozyme, which attacks
the cell walls of bacteria. If pathogens are swallowed in food or water, the
acidic environment of the stomach helps to kill them.

Pathogens that do enter the body are soon recognised by phagocytic
leucocytes, which form a vital part of the body’s immune system.These
specialised white blood cells circulate in the blood system and, because
they are easily able to change their shape, can also squeeze in and out of
capillaries. Phagocytic leucocytes respond to invaders by engulfing and
destroying them in a process called phagocytosis (Figure 6.10).

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& Inductive reasoning is a
The discovery of antibiotics began by accident. On
method of thinking that involves 3 September 1928, Professor Alexander Fleming was examining a batch
using a set of specific facts to of culture plates on which he had grown Staphylococcus bacteria. He
come to a general conclusion. noticed that one of the plates had a green mould growing on it.The
Was the discovery of penicillin an mould was Penicillium notatum.The mould was circular in shape, and
example of inductive reasoning? If the area around it seemed to be free of Staphylococcus. On other areas of
not, why not? the plate, the bacteria were continuing to grow well. Fleming deduced
' Why did the discovery of that the bacteria around the circular mould had been killed off by a
penicillin have such a profound substance produced by the mould.
effect on people at the time?
( Why was the collaboration Fleming discovered that the mould could kill other bacteria and that it
of three scientists vital to the could be given to small animals without any harmful effects. However,
discovery of penicillin? he moved onto other research and it was not until ten years later that
) What are the ethical issues Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, working at Oxford University, isolated
involved in using a new drug for the bacteria-killing substance, penicillin, produced by the mould. Chain
the first time? Was Fletcher right was a German chemist and Florey an Australian pathologist. It was
to use penicillin on his patient? Chain who isolated and purified penicillin and Florey who tested its
safety to use on animals and humans.
6aZmVcYZg ;aZb^c\#
One of the first uses of penicillin was in 1941, when Dr Charles
Fletcher gave it to patient at a hospital in Oxford who was near to
death as a result of bacterial infection in a wound. Fletcher used some
penicillin on the patient and the wound made a spectacular recovery.
Unfortunately, Fletcher did not have sufficient penicillin to clear the
patient’s body of bacteria and he died a few weeks later as the pathogen
regained a hold.

An American brewing company began mass production of penicillin
and soon sufficient was available to treat all the bacterial infections
among the troops fighting in World War II. Penicillin was nicknamed
‘the wonder drug’ and in 1945 Fleming, Chain and Florey shared the
Nobel Prize for Medicine.

6ci^WdY^Zh VcY Vci^\Zch

Antigens (antibody generating substances), are proteins found embedded
in the plasma membranes or cell walls of bacteria or in the protein coat of
a virus.These antigens enable the body to recognise a pathogen as being
‘not self ’ – that is, not a part of the body – and they give a clear signal to
switch on the immune response, with the rapid production of antibodies.

Antibodies are protein molecules that are produced in response to any
antigen that enters the body.There are millions of different antibodies and
each one is specific to an antigen. For example, the antibodies produced
in response to infection by an influenza virus are quite different from
those produced in response to a tuberculosis bacterium. Even fragments of
pathogens, or their toxins, can stimulate the release of antibodies. Figure
6.11 explains how antibodies are made.

&)'