Contemporary Issues on Education and Islamic Education

Contemporary Issues on Education and Islamic Education

Contemporary Issues on
Education and Islamic

Education

Faculty of Education, Yala Rajabhat University
2022

Contemporary Issues on Education and Islamic Education

Contemporary Issues on Education and Islamic Education

Owner : Faculty of education, Yala Rajabhat University

National Library of Thailand Cataloging in Publication Data

Contemporary issues on education and Islamic education.-- Yala :
Faculty of Education Yala Rajabhat University, 2022.

103 p.
1. Islamic education. I. Title.
297.77
ISBN 978-616-8297-19-3

Honour Advisory Board President Yala Rajabhat University

Asst. Prof. Dr.Sombat Yotatip Vice - President Yala Rajabhat University
Asst. Prof. Dr.Bunsit Chaichana Dean of Faculty of education
Asst. Prof. Dr.Runglawan Chantarattana Deputy Dean of Faculty of education
Asst. Prof. Dr.Phimpawee Suwanno Lecturer of Faculty of education
Asst. Prof. Dr.Muhammadsuhaimi Hengyama Lecturer of Faculty of education
Asst. Prof. Dr.Abdulramae Sulong Lecturer of Faculty of education
Asst. Prof. Dr.Muhammadtolan Keamah

Editorial Board Fatoni University
Professor Dr.Muhammadzakee Cheha Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus
Professor Dr.Ekkarin Sungtong Nakhonratchasima Rajabhat University
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Kitipong Luenam Thaksin University
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Rewadi Krahomvong Princess of Naradhiwas University
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Anis Pattanaprichawong Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Ibrahem Narongraksakhet Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Wanchai Dhammasaccakarn Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Niloh Waeuseng

Management and Coordination
Miss Nursula Cheleh
Miss Hanan Chelong

Volume : 1 (2022) Page : 103 pages Price : -

Published by : Faculty of education, Yala Rajabhat University
133 Thetsaban 3 Road, Tambol Sateng, Amphoe Mueang, Yala Province 95000 Thailand
Telephone +66 7329 9626

Contemporary Issues on Education and Islamic Education

Dean's Message

Have created this book for the purpose of students, lectueres, researchers, academics and
interested persons to exchange knowledge and experiences as well as to stimulate the creation of valuable
works that can be utilized and have the opportunity to publish their work to the public in the form of a
chapter book.

This book is part of the articles submitted for presentations to the 4 th National and International
Conference on Islamic Education and Education Entitled: Islamic Education and Education in the Next
Normal: Opportunities and Challenges for Human Development on May 30, 2022. It contains a selection of
content of various articles under the same topic on Contemporary Issues on Education and Islamic
Education by the Faculty of Education. Yala Rajabhat University. We would like to thank all of you for your
cooperation in submitting quality articles.

Readers of this book will learn about the evolution of Muslim world education ideas from past to
present. including contemporary issues in education and Islamic studies. Faculty of Education Yala Rajabhat
University Hope this book will be useful to readers and interested people in the future.

Best Regards,

Asst. Prof. Dr.Runglawan Chantarattana
Dean of Educational Faculty, Yala Rajabhat University

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Contemporary Issues on Education and Islamic Education

Contents

This book It is part of the article submitted for presentation at the 4th National and International
Conference on Islamic Studies and Education, Faculty of Education, Yala Rajabhat University under the
topic "Islamic Studies and Education in the NEXT NORMAL Era. Opportunities and challenges in human
development The content of the article has been removed. variety under the same content a book with
content out on the topic contemporary issues in education and Islamic studies

Education in today's Muslim-majority countries There are two systems of education that are
widely popular. Both of these systems are based on different philosophies. These two educational
systems are (1 ) traditional education system (2 ) modern education system. The traditional education
system is sometimes referred to as "Religious education system". Education in this system focuses on
religion. become a way of life The modern system of education is an education system influenced by
Western philosophy, accepting scientific knowledge based only on scientifically tested hypotheses. Both
of these systems of education play an important role in Muslim countries. Graduates of modern
education tend to work in the government sector. and has held a high position Most of those who
graduated from the traditional educational process revolved around becoming religious teachers. Some
people may take some government service. But it was given a relatively low position. When the situation
is like this, most of the country's population is focused on educational institutions that use the modern
education system. It may be for this reason that traditional educational outputs cannot be compared with
modern educational outputs.

Which in this book Readers will learn about the evolution of Muslim world education ideas from
the past to the present. including contemporary issues in education and Islamic studies, Faculty of
Education, Yala Rajabhat University Hope this book will be useful to readers and interested people in the
future.

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Contents

Subject Page

Dean's Message…………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………..A
Introduction…………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………….……...B
Contents……………………………………………….…………………………………..…………………..…….…………………C

Chapter 1: Integralistic Islamic Education Based On Tauhidic Philosophy……………………………………….1-14
Ilyas Supena, Abdulramae Sulong, Hamdan Yeewae, Areena Hayeehasa

Chapter 2: Islamic Education in the Post-Covid Bangladesh: Challenges and Remedies..……………..15-22
Muhammad Obaidullah

Chapter 3: Making Modern Muslim: A Comparative Study Between The Sir Syed Ahmad Khan And Haji
Sulung Abdul Khadir Al-Patani..……………………………………………………………………………….…………..……….…....23-34

Nasra Mulor

Chapter 4: Political Culture in Thailand Deep South; The Last Sultanate to Ordinary People.......................35-41
Muhammadfatton Dohae

Chapter 5: Takhrij Hadis : Metode Memelihara Hadis Nabi SAW yang Relevan di Zaman Ini………..42-50
A Irwan Santeri Doll Kawaid

Chapter 6: Pendidikan Tafsir Surah Yasin Pasca Covid 19 :Tempuan Kepada Penulisan Osman Bin
Syahabudin..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....51-68

Abdulloh Salah, Amran Abdul Halim, Syed Najihuddin Syed Hassan, Mohd Zohdi Mohd Amin, Adnan
Mohamed Yusoff, Mahsor Yahya, Nidzamuddin Bin Zakaria, Ahmad Kamel Mohamed, Mesbahul Hoque

Chapter 7: Manifestasi Sulam Dalam Projek Emansipasi Ummi Ke Arah Pembangunan Kelestarian
Usim……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….69-86

Noornajihan Jaafar, Norakyairee Mohd Raus, Mohd Nur Adzam Rasdi, Nurul Syala Abdul Latip

Chapter 8: Kajian Tentang Hukum Memandi Mayat Yang Meninggal Dunia Kerana Ditimpa
COVID 19 …………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………..………87-96

Maseerang Aming, Yahya Saema, Mawaradi Nawae, Abdulramae Sulong

References………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………..……………….……97-103

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Chapter 1

INTEGRALISTIC ISLAMIC EDUCATION BASED ON TAUHIDIC PHILOSOPHY

Ilyas Supena1*, Abdulramae Sulong2, Hamdan Yeewae3, Areena Hayeehasa4

1 Universitas Islam Negeri Walisongo Semarang
2 Yala Rajabhat University

3-4 Kolej Islam Syeikh Daud Al-Fathani Yala

Introduction

Education should ideally be able to produce scientists who have intelligence both intellectually and
morally. Education should make scientists who have high credibility and commitment to religious values
and can spread love to all human beings. However, seeing the reality of the nation’s today that are
experiencing a crisis, the level of success of education is questionable. This crisis is marked by the
strengthening of corruption, juvenile delinquency, terrorism, radicalism, increasing drug users, inter-religious
conflicts, ethnic conflicts, and other problems.

One of the causes of the crisis is the loss of divine vision in these educational activities. Education
focuses solely on the physical development of students and pays less attention to their spiritual growth.
As a result, when a child reaches adulthood, maturity is only seen from the physical point of view, while
the spiritual dimension is still a child. As a result, they do not have moral integrity, personality, and
independence as a mirror of their spiritual maturity. In other words, education is still not integrated with
religion and divinity (Nusaibah, Salehudin, & Iksan, 2017).

If the crisis is linked to Islamic education, the root of the problem becomes even more complex.
The source of the problem stems from the formulation of the philosophy of Islamic education adopted.
First, Islamic education is isolated from social life (Hashim & Jemali, 2017) because it considers Islamic
teachings only vertical (habl min Allah ). In other words, current Islamic education tends to be normative-
theocentric and ignores social reality. Second, Islamic education is experiencing a paradigm crisis as a result
of the sacred and secular dichotomy or between the religious sciences (al -'ulûm aldîniyyah) and the
rational sciences (al -'ulûm al'aqliyyah ) (Arkoun, 1986; 13). The relationship between religious knowledge
(al ' -ulûm aldîniyyah ) and rational science ( al -'ulûm al'aqliyyah ), which is essential in the "thinkable"
(thinkable/mufakkar fîh ) area, has turned into the "unthinkable" area ( unthink). able/la mufakkar fîh )
(Arkoun, 1986; 14, Arkoun, 1990; 85). The problem of this secular/profane dichotomy has strengthened
since the development of modernism in the Western world in viewing knowledge, truth, and morality (Kim,
McCalman, & Fisher, 2012). Third, Islamic education is more focused on empowering reason (rationality
dimension) to transfer knowledge and less empowering reason ( ruhaniyyah dimension ) for value transfer

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(Anshari, Yutika, Dede, Rahayu, 2016). Fifth, the learning methodology used tends to be indoctrinated (Tan,
(2011) so that it does not allow the birth of a dialogical critical discourse in Habermas' terms (Habermas,
1971; 95).

From the point of view of the philosophy of science, current Islamic education still inherits the style
of Cartesian dualism (Descartes), which views human nature as consisting of body and soul (Stanford
encyclopedia of philosophy, 2016). According to Descartes, our thinking mind, the res cogitans, is separate
from the body as physical matter or substance, the res extensa (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2015). Descartes'
famous phrase " Cogito ergo sum " (I think; therefore, I am) implies awareness of self-existence. Descartes'
view seems to want to assert human power over the forces of nature (Greek myth) and also God (medieval
theocentric), which later gave birth to views of humanism and anthropocentrism (Arkoun, 1986; 87, Madjid,
2000; 218-234). This humanism and anthropocentrism is the root of secularism's birth, separating the sacred
from the profane. This view is reflected in several schools of educational philosophy, such as progressivism,
essentialism, perennialism, pragmatism, existentialism, and reconstructionism (Momany & Khasawneh,
2014).

When this view of secularism enters the world of education, the human being is the subject of
education is positioned as "the profane" who is separated from his spiritual world. According to Aldieri
& Autiero (2013), religious values are contrary to secular education, although, in religion, there are values
that promote work as proposed by Max Weber in his work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
When religious values are marginalized, the world of education will give birth to humans who are superior
in the intellectual aspect but have a spiritual and moral void.

In this context, it is necessary to formulate an integralistic philosophy of Islamic education originating
from the world view of the Quran, namely monotheism. In the traditional sense, monotheism implies the
oneness of God. But in a broader sense, monotheism contains three meanings; the unity of humans as
theomorphic creatures (human unity as caliph and 'abdullah), the unity of God, man, and nature, and the
unity of humans as multidimensional beings. The three concepts mentioned earlier became the basis for
building a monotheistic philosophy in Islamic education. The first concept (human unity as caliph and
'abdullah) becomes the ontological basis. The second concept (the relationship between God, man, and
nature) will be the epistemological basis, while the third concept (humans as multidimensional beings) will
be the axiological basis of Islamic education. These three ontological, epistemological, and axiological
foundations will strengthen the philosophy of monotheism to develop human nature towards perfect
humans (insan kamil ).

Literature Review

Researchers divide schools of philosophy in various ways. Rush (1929) has divided the schools of
philosophy into naturalism, pragmatism, and idealism. Meanwhile, Mahmood (2017) classifies philosophical
schools into four branches: idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. Mahmood also divides

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branches of educational philosophy into perennialism and essentialism progressivism, and
reconstructionism schools. However, these can be returned to the two primary schools of classical
philosophy, namely the schools of idealism and realism.

First, understand idealism. Idealism in the history of philosophy is one of the oldest schools of
philosophy that can be traced to Plato's thought (428/427 - 348/347 BCE). Plato's ideas were later followed
by Plotinus (204–70 CE), René Descartes (1596–1650), and Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). According to
idealism, ultimate reality is an immaterial entity that the mind can only perceive in the world of " noumenon
" (in Plato and Kant's terms). The ultimate reality cannot be accessed by empirical means because it exists
in an "invisible" and "inconceivable" world (Nikolopoulos, nd). In other words, idealism emphasizes the
human mind, soul, or spirit as the essential element. Therefore, the world in the view of idealism is
understood as a "non-material" essence (Momany & Khasawneh, 2014).

Based on this idealism, spiritualism emerged, which considers the most profound reality the spirit
that fills and underlies the entire universe. Consequently, spiritualism pays less attention to the physical
and material aspects. Therefore, this spiritualism-style education pays more attention to the dimensions of
intuition or inspiration than the potential of the senses and ratios. In other words, the aspects of depth,
content, substance, spirit, and psychology are far more critical than the physical-material aspects.

From the philosophy of science, the ontological basis of idealism emphasizes the mental and
spiritual "reality of the mind" and sees the universe as an expression of " innate ideas " in Rene Descartes'
terms or universal mind. Idealists believe that latent ideas in mind are eternal, permanent, regular and
absolute, and independent of experience. In the aspect of epistemology, idealists use intuition, revelation,
and rationalism to develop knowledge. When individuals examine their minds, they find copies of that
innate idea or universal mind. In the aspect of axiology, idealists emphasize immutable and universal eternal
values. Ethical behavior must reflect these enduring and permanent values. This idea of idealism, both
ontologically, epistemologically, and axiologically, derives its inspiration from Plato's Allegory of the Cave.
(Beatty, Leigh & Dean, 2009).

When idealism is used as a philosophical principle of education, two main concepts are of concern:
the idea of innate ideas (innate ideas) and the idea of immutability and universality of ideas. The first
concept will affect the goals in education. According to idealism, education aims to help students discover
knowledge derived from these innate ideas, thereby providing a broad and integrated perspective on the
universe (Ward, 2010; 23). Idealism views learning activities as "memory" of what is in the "world of ideas."
For adherents of idealism, knowledge is the result of the process of remembering and not discovering
something new because proper knowledge cannot be generated from experience. Idealists believe that the
mind contains ideas or innate capacities that actively organize and synthesize data obtained through
sensations or empirical data. Humans can know intuitively by grasping some truths without using their
common sense, but at the same time, humans can also see the truth through acts of reason by which one
checks the logical consistency of one's ideas.

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Meanwhile, the second concept will affect the education method. According to idealism, the human
spirit is eternal. Therefore, idealism applies content-centered methods to seek general truths and focuses
on reasoning to find knowledge from within (Momany & Khasawneh, 2014). Therefore, education for idealism
is to provide space for self-realization, ensure spiritual development, strengthen truth, beauty, and
goodness, nurture, promote the ion of culture, and develop students' intelligence and rational capacity.

Second, Realism. Realism is a philosophical school initiated by Aristotle (Plato's student) to react to
idealism. This view of Aristotle was later followed by Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), Francis Bacon (1561–
1626), John Locke (1632–1704), and Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947). Realism emphasizes objective
knowledge and values independent of the knower's mind. Realists believe that every object consists of
perceptible matter. For realists, knowledge is based on sensory data, which is then abstracted and grouped
by the mind to create a typology. In other words, realists believe that people can observe laws that arise
from the study of reality, which contradicts their thinking. (Beatty, Leigh & Dean, 2009).

Further development of this realism emerged the flow of materialism. Materialism is a philosophical
school that understands this natural form solely as matter (physics). The ontological basis of materialism is
the belief that the Real is the material. The material is visible, palpable, shaped, and occupies space
(Musystansir & Munir, 2004; 47). Materialism holds that there are no real things other than matter. Even
mind and consciousness are only manifestations of matter and can be returned to the physical elements.
Therefore, materialism is seen as a form of realism that identifies the real with the matter. A materialist
assumes that matter is the most profound thing. Matter exists on its power and does not require any other
principle to explain its existence. The matter is the source and the most profound information for the
extension of everything that exists. For materialism, empirical experience is not a "wall" that hides reality
but a bridge that connects thought and reality. "What I have" in my mind has a correspondence with reality
through my senses (Nikolopoulos, nd)

Table 1 Comparison of Idealism and Realism

Philosophy Ontology epistemology axiology
Idealism Reality is spiritual or Knowing is the Values are absolute
mental and unchanging rethinking of latent and eternal
Realism ideas
Reality is objective, fixed Knowing consist of Values are absolute
and is composed of sensation and and eternal based on
matter and form abstraction natural law

Sources: Beatty, Joy E., Leigh, Jennifer SA, & Dean, Kathy Lund. (2009).

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Because materialism views empirical data as an essential element, this materialism understanding
epistemologically will give birth to an empiricist view. One of the leaders of the empiricist view is John
Locke. For Locke, the state of the human mind at birth is similar to taboo la rasa, a blank board on which
nothing has been written. With this concept, Locke wants to reject all ideas about innate ideas initiated by
idealists ( Ward, 2010; 10; Yacouba, 2016) ). For Locke, humans will not know something that is not drawn
from the senses because the writing on the board of the human mind is the result of sense writing. Thus,
Locke concluded that the entire content of the reason could ultimately be reduced to sensory experience
(Marshall, 1994; 308).

From this empiricism then developed the notion of positivism. One of the great shops that initiated
the birth of positivism was the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857). Comte has taken a radical
step by transforming the view of empiricism into positivism. As proposed by Comte, positivism is a system
of thought that limits itself to the data of experience and ignores a priori or metaphysical speculation.
Positivism has the primary assumption that all knowledge is based on "positive" facts and experience.
Positivism rejects metaphysics belief about the nature of reality that radically surpasses any possible
evidence that can support or refute claims of "transcendent" knowledge. Thus, positivism in its ideological
posture is worldly, secular, anti-theological, and anti-metaphysical (Green, 2017; Feigl, nd).

Positivism will give birth to the following implications when applied as the basis of educational
philosophy, first, on the aspect of educational goals. Positivism has directed education towards goals more
oriented towards material improvement and welfare as measured materialistically. Second, educational
positivism believes that science is a free value. Science is considered to have nothing to do with metaphysics
and morality. In contrast, scientists should consider moral considerations in making certain decisions in the
context of discovery, in accepting hypotheses, and conducting investigations (Martin, 1986; Del Re, 2001;
Mogilski, 2016). Third, the measures of success are seen from all materialistic calculations based on
increasing the ability of brain intelligence and not on emotional and spiritual intelligence. Educational
positivism will measure everything by empiricism standards by emphasizing the physical and material
aspects. The success or achievement of students is measured by the success that the size of the five senses
can assess. Aspects of spirituality, spirit, or human soul (students) are not used as principles and principles
in education.

Tawhidic Philosophy and Integralism of Islamic Education

With the contradictions and the weaknesses of idealism (spiritualism) and realism (materialism), it is
necessary to have ideas that try to combine and integrate the two. One of them is the notion of integralism,
which tries to develop science that is theo-anthrophocentric. In this Theo-anthropocentric view, the
development of science is not solely based on a systematic, rational, and objective understanding of natural
phenomena but also to know God who created the universe. Therefore, the highest knowledge hierarchy

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is the knowledge that enables one to know God and enables one to perform every action solely in the
name of God ( Othman, & Zaharim, & Yaacob, & Rahim, & Ibrahim, & Nopiah, 2015)

The ontological basis that integralism wants to build is to combine and integrate the material aspects
that concern realism and the immaterial aspects that concern idealism. This ontological view has
consequences for the epistemological perspective of integralism. According to integralism, knowing the
nature of reality is not enough to use the five senses and reason alone, but there are two other elements:
revelation ( revelation ) and inspiration (intuition). This balance between the aspects of reason, five senses,
revelation, and intuition will give birth to humans who can develop their "material" and "immaterial"
potential. The implication is that an integralistic-style education trains students' feelings so that their
attitudes, actions, decisions, and approaches to all kinds of knowledge are based on spiritual values.
Axiologically, this integralistic-style education aims to produce human beings who are both knowledgeable
and moral at the same time.

This view of integralism later became the philosophical basis for the development of education in
Islam. What is meant by Islamic education here is the process of changing attitudes and behavior of a
person or group of people to mature humans through internalizing the values of Islamic teachings (Ibrahim
& Misnan, 2017), or any form of teaching and learning that is based on the principles and values of Islam
(Tan, 2011 ). Islamic education must develop cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects in this effort.
Cognitive elements are related to knowing, remembering, understanding, analyzing, and evaluating the
information that students have absorbed. Affective aspects relate to emotions, attitudes, appreciation,
values, and the level of ability to accept or reject something. While the psychomotor element focuses on
the objectives of training technical skills, manipulating motion, assembling various movements, and imitating
motion. Islamic education ideally maintains the balance and harmony of these three aspects (Nizar, 2002;
26)

The integralistic Islamic education model has a philosophical basis in the Quran. One of the central
teachings in the Quran is the view of monotheism. In Islamic theology, monotheism is understood as
monotheism or the oneness of God (Al-Faruqi, 1988; 15, Shimogaki, 1994; 15). Monotheism means unity,
which means uniting God and distinguishing him from creatures. However, monotheism can also be
interpreted broadly. First, monotheism implies the unity of man as a theomorphic being who has the
function of being the vicegerent of Allah and his servant. Second, monotheism suggests the unity of all
creation – both human and natural – in the relations of life. In other words, tawhîd implies the unity
between God, man, and nature (Madjid, 1998; 276). therefore, Muslims must recognize the oneness of Allah
and the unity between Allah and all of His creation (Nasr, 2001). Third, monotheism implies the unity of
humans as multidimensional beings.

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Unity of Man as a theomorphic being

From a theological point of view, humans are creatures that have two functions. First, humans
function as khalîfatullah fî al-ardl (God's representative on earth). Second, humans function as servants of
Allah ('abd Allah ) (Nasr, 1987; 103-105, Nasr, (Nasr, 2003; 40-43, Madjid, 1998; 276). Therefore, the human
concept is called a theomorphic creature who always longs for God.

As khalfah, humans are managers of resources (resource managers) on earth. Therefore, humans are
obliged to develop science because science is the main factor that makes humans mandated as khalfah
on this earth. With that knowledge, Adam (human ancestor) was superior to angels and other creatures
who were curious to reach the caliphate on this earth, so they took issue with giving this mandate to
humans (Qardhawi, 1996; 106). They (the angels) reasoned that they are the ones who are more consistent
in worshiping Allah than humans who like to make mischief on earth and spill blood. Allah then replied:
Verily, I know what you do not know, and Allah taught Adam several names altogether (Surat al-Baqarah
30-33). By the term" (knowledge) that God teaches, humans are made by God as khalfah on earth.

Meanwhile, humans as 'abd (servants) Allah) means that humans have material-worldly needs, but
humans are also aware of eschatological realities so that they too must be responsible for what they do
before God (Nasr, 1987; 103-105, Nasr, 2003; 40). -43). These two functions of the caliph-'abd are integral
units. This unity of function is then interpreted as the unity of body and soul or the unity of the material-
spiritual aspects (Nasr, 2003; 187).

Unity of God, man, and nature

One of the theological relations depicted in the monotheistic worldview is the unity of God, man,
and nature. This relationship also describes the world view of the Qur'an about God, God's relationship with
humans, and its role in human history and society. The relationship between God, man, and nature
characterizes the paradigm of the monotheistic sciences that distinguishes it from conventional science
because, in traditional science, there is a denial of the entity of God. (Nusaibah, Salehudin, & Iksan, (2017).

Fazlur Rahman has explained this unity of God, man, and nature in the following axioms. First,
everything other than God, including humans and the universe, depends on God. Second, the Almighty and
Mighty God are the Most Merciful God. Third, these aspects require a proper relationship between God and
man – the relationship between the master and His servant – and, consequently, a proper relationship
between man and man (Rahman, 1980; 2-3).

Looking at these axioms, it appears that God is an existence that occupies a central position for the
continuity of human existence and nature. In addition, God in the description of the Qur'an is functional.
He is the creator and sustainer of the universe and humans. He will also judge humans later, individually
and collectively, with compassionate justice. Meanwhile, God is the only existence capable of explaining
the universe's orderliness and nature's dependence on God concerning nature.

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The order of the universe then became the basis of modern science to explain the laws of nature
or sunnatullah. According to Al-Faruqi, without the regularity of the universe, there would be no laws or
theories that could be produced by modern science. (Al-Faruqi, 1988; 43). The order of the universe is the
basis for determining the patterns that apply in nature's laws, which provide opportunities for scientific
research on nature to be developed (Jujun, 1998; 73).

The Qur'an describes the universe as a solid and unified structure. It operates according to its laws
that originate from God. The Qur'an asserts that there is no lawlessness in this universe and that the entire
cosmos is an organic unity (Rahman, 1967; 3). Nature is autonomous but not autocratic because there is no
guarantee of its existence, and therefore, it cannot explain itself (Rahman, 1980; 4). Consequently, nature
can not run by itself by chance, but it is very dependent on who created it, namely God.

As a consequence of this order and dependence of nature on God, God is present as a being who
gives meaning and meaning to this life. God is the meaning for the reality manifested by nature and man.
God also makes other dimensions possible. He gives meaning and life to everything. Without God, wildlife
and humans cannot exist. Thus, God is not a fact among other facts and in coordination with those facts,
but rather God is how these facts operate as a totality. He is the meaning of the universe and how the
totality of facts is regarded. At the same time, God also fills them with the purpose which in the language
of the Qur'an it says; God is the light of the heavens and the earth (Qur'an 24:25). In other words, the
concept of God is functional because God is needed not because of who He is or how He is but because
of what He does.

In short, this functional dimension of God can be seen from two integrally interrelated things. First,
God is said to be functional because He is the only existence capable of explaining the orderliness of the
universe and its dependence on God. Nature does not run by itself by chance, but it depends on who
created it, namely God. Second, due to this order and dependence of nature on God, God is present as a
being who gives meaning and meaning to this life. Without God, nature and humans cannot exist. God is
the meaning for the reality manifested by nature and man.

These two propositions then give birth to another statement. First, the order and dependence of
nature on God show that God is a substance who is both almighty and all-loving. God's love is evidenced
by God's willingness to create nature to be managed by humans with a good purpose. Second, the moral
facts show that although humans have creative knowledge, they are often morally derailed, so the
management of nature may not work with a good purpose. Third, for this reason, and a form of God's love
for humans, God sent Apostles to awaken people to return to the right path.

Unity of Man as a Multidimensional Being

The character of integralism is supported by the world view of the Quran about humans. Humans
are described in the Quran as multidimensional creatures. In the Qur'an, humans are sometimes elevated.
Sometimes they are lowered. Humans were once proclaimed as being nobler than angels, but at the same

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time, humans could be more cruel and misguided than animals and demons. In other words, in humans,
there are positive and negative dimensions. The positive dimensions described by the Quran are as follows:
(1) man is God's vicegerent on Earth (Qur'an 2:30); (2) creatures who have the highest intelligence (Surah 2:
31-33); (3) tend to be close to God (Surah 30: 43); (4) has a set of sublime heavenly elements that are
different from the material elements found in animals, plants and inanimate objects (Surah 32: 7-9); (5)
man is a creature of choice. (Surah 20: 122); (6) humans are free and independent (Surah 33: 72, QS 76: 2-
3); (7) humans are endowed with a noble and dignified disposition (Qur'an 17: 70); (8) humans have a moral
awareness that can distinguish between good and evil through the inspiration of the fitri that is in them
(Surah 91: 7-8); (9) the human soul is never at peace except in the remembrance of Allah (Qur'an 13: 28);
(10) all forms of worldly gifts are created for the benefit of man. (Qur'an 2:29); (11) God created humans so
that they would submit to Allah. (Qur'an 51:56); (12) Man cannot understand himself except in prostration
to God and His remembrance. (Qur'an 59:19); (13) every hidden reality will be exposed to people after they
die and the veils of their souls are exposed. (Qur'an 50:22). But on the other hand, the Qur'an also describes
the negative dimensions of humans, such as the picture of the Qur'an, which mentions humans as vile and
stupid creatures (Muthohhari, 1992; 117-121).

In addition to the dimensions described above, humans also have other dimensions consisting of
physical, spiritual, and spiritual. First is the physical aspect. The physical element is the entire physical-
biological organs and the nervous and glandular cell systems in humans. This physical aspect has two basic
properties; concrete forms in a rough body and an abstract form in a subtle soul, which means the body's
life. This abstract aspect can interact with human spiritual and spiritual elements.

Second, the nafsiah aspect, namely all human qualities in the form of thoughts, feelings, will, and
freedom. There are three psychic dimensions in this aspect of nafsiah, namely nafsu, 'aql, and qalb. The
dimension of lust has animalistic traits but can be directed to human nature after getting the influence of
other dimensions, such as 'aql and qalb. The qalb dimension has a cognitive function that gives rise to
creativity, emotion, and connotation. The process of creativity will lead to the ability to think, understand,
know, pay attention, remember and forget. The emotional function can generate feelings such as calm
affection, while the conation function will cause an initiative such as trying. The dimension of the reason is
between the dimensions of nafsu and qalb. Lust has the nature of animality, and the heart has the nature
of humanity, so the reason is the intermediary between the two. This dimension has an essential role in
the form of the function of the mind, which is a human quality in humans.

The third is the spiritual aspect, namely the overall high potential of human beings. This potential
emanates from the dimensions of the spirit and nature that originate from God and is therefore spiritual
and transcendental. It is said to be spiritual. It is a fundamental human nature that comes from the spirit
created by God and is said to be transcendental because it regulates human relations with a transcendent
God. Thus, the physical aspect is empirical-mechanistic, the spiritual element is spiritual-transcendental,
while the nafsiah part is between the two and tries to accommodate different interests.

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The physical aspects are empirical, concrete, sensory, mechanistic, and deterministic from the
description above. The spiritual part is transcendent, holy, free, not bound by natural laws and principles,
and tends to goodness. The nafsiah aspect lies between the two and tries to accommodate different
interests. All three are a unit that must develop proportionally.

Implications of Tawhidic Philosophy on Integralistic Islamic Education

The three concepts mentioned earlier became the basis for building a monotheistic philosophy in
Islamic education. The first concept (human unity as caliph and 'abdullah) becomes the ontological basis.
The second concept (the relationship between God, humans, and nature) will be epistemological, while
the third concept (humans as multidimensional beings) will be the axiological basis.

Ontology of Tawhidic Philosophy

The ontology of monotheism philosophy is based on the world view of the Quran, which says that
humans are theomorphic creatures, namely humans as vicegerents of Allah and humans as servants of
Allah ('Abdullah). As the vicegerent of Allah, humans are "earth" creatures who are given a special mandate
by Allah to manage the earth properly. The caliph of Allah here shows that humans have special privileges
in the sight of Allah. Nasr (2003; 336) calls humans a mirror of God's name and nature, like a mirror that
reflects sunlight. In the Qur'an, it is also mentioned that Adam was taught about all names. God has placed
in man a thinking ability to know everything. It also means that man himself is the shadow of God or the
physical manifestation of all the Names of God (Lumbard, 2013; 170). When humans are seen as a shadow
of God or a manifestation of God on earth, this can be interpreted as God's "descending" motion to the
earth. This caliph of Allah fil ardh is a downward movement from "idealism-spiritualism" to "realism-
materialism."

Apart from being caliph, humans are also 'abdullah (servants of Allah). In this capacity, humans are
tasked with devoting their entire life solely to worshiping Allah. God has instilled the character of spirituality
in humans, which causes humans to always long for God. This human longing for God causes humans to
have the ability to escape from their material nature to their spiritual realm. This movement can be said to
be a movement of human "uplift" from "realism-materialism" to "idealism-spiritualism."

These two dual movements, from idealism-spiritualism to realism-materialism and from realism-
materialism to idealism-spiritualism, resulted in both meeting at the middle point. This meeting which later
gave birth to the unity of materialism and spiritualism or other terms, is wahdatul wujud. This wahdatul
wujud shows that there is only one reality in various existences. (Khan, 2017).

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Epistemology of Tawhidic Philosophy

A further consequence of the doctrine of wahdatul wujud is the emergence of an understanding of
the concept of the unity of God, man, and nature. From an epistemological point of view, these three
realities can be viewed as material objects of science. From the three realities successively, they will give
birth to the divine sciences of religious sciences (religious studies), social sciences, and humanities
(humanities and social sciences). And the natural sciences. However, in the context of wahdatul wujud, the
three kinds of knowledge have the same divine vision so that non-dichotomous integrative sciences are
born. As a result, wahdatul wujud will be born wahdatul 'ulum (Unity of Sciences).

This divine vision becomes very important in realizing wahdatul 'ulum because faith and submission
to the revelation of the Quran are believed to reveal all the possibilities that exist in the human mind.
Therefore, purification of the soul is seen as an essential part of the methodology of monotheistic
knowledge. By purifying the soul, a religious and spiritual atmosphere will be created from the Quran and
then made the sacred knowledge or Scientia Sacra (Nasr, 1989).

This wahdatul 'ulum concept, then become the Islamic sciences tend to monotheistic paradigm. Al-
Faruqi explained how this monotheistic paradigm became a pillar of integral Islamic sciences. First is the
unity of God, which means that science is not only applying and understanding a reality separate from God
but as an integral part of God's existence. Second, the unity of creation means that this universe, whether
material, psychic, biological, social, or aesthetic, is an integral unity to achieve the highest goal of God, who
subjugated the universe to humans. The third is the unity of truth and knowledge, which means that all
truth comes from reality, and reality comes from one, namely God. Therefore, what is conveyed by
revelation will not conflict with reality because both were created by the fourth God, the unity of life,
which is realized through trust, caliphate, and kaffah (comprehensive). And the Fifth universal human unity,
which includes all humankind without exception. Therefore, the development of science must be based
on universal human benefit (Al-Faruqi, 1981: 55-96). Thus, Islamic sciences are centered and sourced from
God, both religious sciences, social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences. Because all of that comes
from God's verses, one of which is to know God himself.

Axiology of Tawhidic Philosophy

Another consequence of wahdatul wujud is the emergence of an understanding of the concept of
the unity of all human dimensions: jinsmiyah, nafsiyah, and ruhaniyah. The three elements are balanced
units. If this balance is disturbed, the balance of human life will also be disturbed (Astuti, 2017). Therefore,
Islamic education must touch all human aspects, material and spiritual. At the same time, Islamic education
must also gradually bring students from the lowest level of human consciousness (nafs-ammarah: QS.
12:53) to a transitional level of consciousness (nafs-lawwamah: QS.73:1-2) to the highest level of
consciousness (nafs-mutmainnah: QS. 89:27-30). Therefore, Islamic education aims to create human beings

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with Muslim personalities, both physically and mentally, who can devote all their deeds to seek the
pleasure of Allah SWT, who are both faithful and knowledgeable.

The unity of jinsmiyah, nafsiyah, and ruhaniyah were implemented to develop human nature. Fitrah
is a condition of human creation that tends to accept the truth, even though it is hidden behind a small
heart. Fitrah is also interpreted as the ability that God has created in humans to know God (ma'rifatullah).
This concept of fitrah is different from the tabula rasa theory of John Locke. The tabula rasa theory says
that humans are pure white like paper that has not been scribbled. Environmental and educational factors
will give color to the paper.

Meanwhile, nature sees humans not only as white paper but in that nature; there is the potential to
accept the religion of monotheism. Environmental factors and education have a strategic role in developing
human nature (Ab. Rahman, 2012). Thus, nature requires actualization or further development so that it is
not covered by 'pollution' that can make humans turn away from the truth (Pransiska, 2016; 11). According
to Hasan Langgulung, fitrah has two sides; First, the human potential to cultivate the nature of God in him.
Second, fitrah can also be present in the form of the revelation of monotheism that was revealed to the
apostles. Both types of nature invite humans to goodness (Rahman, Zaizul Ab., 2012).

One of human nature, when he is created or born, is the tendency to the religion of monotheism.
In other words, humankind is held in a state where monotheism is an integral part. The prophets then came
to remind and guide humans to stay in their nature (Muhammad, 1996; 16-17)

Table 2 Tawhidic Philosophy in Islamic Education

Ontological Epistemology Axiology
Unity of the Caliph and Abdullah Unity of God, man, and nature
Unity of Man as a multidimensional
Theomorphism Scientifically Concerned about being
Wahdatul wujud divine sciences, human sciences, Maintaining the balance of jismiyah,
Theo-anthropocentric and night sciences nafsiyah and ruhaniyah
Wahdatul'ulum Developing human nature
Scientia Sacra Giving birth to a perfect human
(insan kamil)

In realizing this monotheistic philosophy, Islamic education has the following objectives axiologically.
First is guiding and directing the growth and development of students from stage to stage to the point of
optimal and proportional ability. The hope is that a generation with good quality (insan kamil) will be born.
Second, the purpose of Islamic education is integrative between a vertical orientation so that students have
faith and piety to Allah and a horizontal orientation so that the faith and piety of these students impact
their social behavior in society. The human-God relationship that will give birth to personal piety must give

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birth to social relations between humans based on religious values. In other words, individual piety must
impact social piety (Rahman, 1980; 37). Third, Islamic education aims to develop all aspects of the nature
of students; spiritual, intellectual, imaginative, physical, scientific, and linguistic aspects, both individually
and collectively, and encourage all these aspects to develop towards goodness and perfection. Islamic
education seeks to integrate the potential development of the human mind, body, and spirit. Therefore,
the development of the potential of 'aql (reason) balanced with naql (revelation) guidance. In other words,
science should not separate itself from religion. Therefore, the Islamic education system brings progress in
the material aspect and builds humans from the psychological point of view. Fourth, the purpose of Islamic
education lies in the realization of a perfect sense of submission to Allah, personally, in the community,
and throughout humanity.

Thus, Islamic education has the following characteristics. The first is robbaniyyah. The robbaniyyah
characteristic seems from the general goal of Islamic education: to worship only Allah and prosper the earth
according to Allah's rules (Surah 3:19). Motivation must be for Allah alone. At the same time, the source of
Islamic education material is God's knowledge, both written (Quranic verse) and unwritten (Universe).
Second, Islamic education makes morals a means (wasilah). Islam requires that the educational process
runs following Islamic norms and morals, both in approach and use of facilities. The Third is syumuliyah
(comprehensive). The object of Islamic education is the whole person. Islamic education seeks to maintain
a balance of growth and development of the potential of the human mind, body, and spirit.

This explanation shows that the axiology of Islamic education adheres to the value-bound principle.
Consequently, the concept of neutrality of knowledge which is considered value-free as developed by the
West, is irrelevant in the view of Islam. According to Islam, the neutrality of knowledge lies only on the
epistemological basis that if black says black, it turns white, without taking sides with anyone other than
the absolute truth. Meanwhile, axiologically, scientists must be able to judge between good and evil, which
in essence requires the scientist to determine his attitude based on the moral reference he adheres to
(Jujun, 1999; 35). God and the moral teachings that He conveys play an essential role in Islam in this context.
Regarding the characteristics and identity of this knowledge, Noeng Muhadjir said that if the dominant
approach in the Greek period was the ontological approach, and the dominant approach in Western science
was the epistemological approach, then the dominant approach in Islam was the axiological approach.
(Muhadjir, 1999; 59)

Conclusion

Tawhidic philosophy is a philosophical model of Islamic education that seeks to integrate two
philosophical views that are considered contradictory; namely, between idealism and realism, between
materialism and spiritualism, and between theocentrism and anthropocentrism. Three main concepts serve
to build a monotheistic philosophy in Islamic education.

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The ontology of monotheism philosophy is based on the world view of the Quran, which says that
humans are theomorphic creatures, namely humans as vicegerents of Allah and humans as servants of
Allah ('Abdullah). The two realities are two entities that are inseparable and inherent in human essence.
Humans are the reality of the sky and the reality of the earth, so the concept of wahdatul 'ulum unites the
theocentric and anthropocentric views.

From an epistemological point of view, the monotheistic philosophy is built on the concept of the
unity of God, man, and nature. The three realities can be seen as material objects of science so that from
the three realities, the divine sciences or religious sciences (religious studies), social sciences, and humanities
(humanities and social sciences) will be born successively natural sciences. However, in the context of
wahdatul wujud, the three kinds of knowledge have the same divine vision so that non-dichotomous
integrative sciences are born. As a result, wahdatul wujud will be taken wahdatul 'ulum (Unity of Sciences).
This divine vision becomes very important in realizing wahdatul 'ulum because faith and submission to the
revelation of the Quran are believed to reveal all the possibilities that exist in the human mind. Therefore,
purification of the soul is seen as an essential part of the methodology of monotheistic knowledge. The
Quran created a spiritual atmosphere that gave sacred knowledge or Scientia Sacra by purifying the soul.

Axiologically, the monotheistic philosophy puts forward the concept of the unity of all human
dimensions: jismiyah, nafsiyah, and ruhiyyah. The three elements are balanced units. If this balance is
disturbed, the balance of human life will also be concerned. Therefore, Islamic education must touch all
human aspects, material and spiritual. At the same time, Islamic education must also gradually introduce
students to the lowest level of human consciousness (nafs-ammarah) to a transitional level of
consciousness (nafs-lawwamah) to the highest level of consciousness (nafs-mutmainnah). He has a Muslim
personality, both physically and mentally, who can devote all his deeds to seek the pleasure of Allah SWT,
who is both faithful and knowledgeable.

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Chapter 2

ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN THE POST - COVID BANGLADESH: CHALLENGES AND REMEDIES

Muhammad Obaidullah

Manarat International University, Gulshan, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh

Introduction

Islamic education in the post-COVID-19 in Bangladesh has got many new features which include
challenges and prospects. As the Covid-19 pandemic has changed almost all the aspects of human life,
education system accommodates many alternatives. Islamic education and its system, thus, got affected
too. Although, Islamic education and its systems in Bangladesh are not out of being questionable, the
private institutions are playing mentionable role. A good number of Islamic educational institutions
(Madrasah) are run by the government fully or partially, it is not sufficient to provide proper Islamic teachings
and inspire the people to be practicing Muslim in true sense. However, the covid-19 pandemic urged many
private educational institutions to be closed permanently due to unable to bear the expenses. The
situation, thus, has thrown the Islamic education to the new challenges in post-covid Bangladesh. On the
other hand, it has opened many other alternatives too. This study, thus, would be able to answer the
following questions: (i) what is the situation of the Islamic education in the new normal Bangladesh? (ii)
what are the challenges of Islamic Education in the present Bangladesh? And (iii) how we can overcome
the present situation and use the opportunities in the befitting way?

Problem Statement

Islamic educationists and educational institutions have been facing many challenges towards
ensuring Islamic education in the new normal Bangladesh after a long, approximately, two-year break in
whole education system. As many of the private Islamic educational institutions were permanently closed,
it has now become a great challenge to re-open those institutions or to establish new one to fulfil the gap.
Learners have become more interested in and dependable on IT devices and equipment and e-learning
platforms. Moreover, new normal education systems have accommodated more IT based education which
have already been more popular among the mass people. However, Islamic educated people including
teachers, entrepreneurs, people involved in management who are representing the authority of Islam and
providing Islamic education in Bangladesh are not sufficiently having of that skill. Insufficient Islamic e-
learning platforms especially in Bengali has become another significant challenge. Moreover, easy access of
weak recourse of Islamic knowledge including books and articles available online, discussion on social
media, video lectures on YouTube has created many confusions and deviations among the believers.

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Therefore, there should be some academic researches to find out the solutions towards overcoming the
situation.

Objectives Of The Study

The present study aims at clarifying the following two objectives:
1. To study the situation of Islamic education system in post-covid Bangladesh.
2. To find out the challenges in Islamic education in the new normal Bangladesh.
3. To recommend and propose the specific suggestions to overcome those challenges.

Methodology Of The Study

The methodology used in this study is descriptive and analytical. It has been conducted based on
the secondary source of date such as books, journals, newspaper articles and information. The available
online sources have also been studied and used to make the argument strengthen in this study. The
information obtained through, moreover, individual meeting and unofficial interview with few
educationalists, academicians, well experienced educational entrepreneurs and thinkers have been another
great source of this study. It has helped to find out the practical challenges and their solutions to overcome
them.

Analysis And Findings

1. An overview of the Education Systems in Bangladesh
The education system of Bangladesh has been categorised into two. Such as: (i) Islamic education

system and (ii) Conventional education system. According to their curriculum, each contains types of
systems. For example, in the Islamic education system, there are two major types e.g. ‘Óliyyah and QawmÊ
Madrasah education. Besides, there are some other types of Islamic education such as ×fiz al-Qur’Én
madrasah, Mosque and Maktab based pre-primary education for learning Qur’an and the teaching of
religion. On the other hand, the conventional education system is based on secularism and it also contains
other types of education. Such as general education, technical and vocational education, professional
education and so on. All of those education systems have some levels and categories according to the
degrees and length of years. In terms of stages or levels, the education system of Bangladesh, in the most
of the cases, is classified into six levels; pre-primary of three-year schooling, primary of five-year, junior
secondary of three-year, secondary of two-year, higher secondary of two-year and higher or tertiary of four-
year/three-year education. The various education systems and its types and level show the multi-education
systems in present-day Bangladesh. However, a new motto of one-way education system has been raising
by the present government in the cause of modernization of the education system in Bangladesh. Although,

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the concept has not been fully developed, it has been discussing widely among the policymakers, thinkers,
scholars and others.

Education System in Bangladesh

Modern Education Islamic Education
(Secular Based)

General Educaiton Technical Professional 'Aliah Madrasah Qawami Hifz al-Qur'an
1. School Vocational Madrasah Madrasah
2. College
3. University Mosque and
Moktab based

Education

It is noted that, there are 38.6 million students in Bangladesh. Among them, 3.6 million students
are in pre- primary, 18 million in primary, 13 million in secondary, and 4 million in tertiary education
(BANBEIS, 2018). Approximately, 3.9 million students are at the University level.

2. Education during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Bangladesh
Because of the covid-19 pandemic, the Bangladesh government closed all educational institutions

on March 17, 2020 and it continued into 2021. On March 8, 2020, Bangladesh diagnosed its first three cases
of COVID-19 (IEDCR, 2020). In a world bank research, it was mentioned that about 38 million students and
close to one million teachers are affected by only this school closures. (See: https://www.worldbank.org/
en/results/2021/04/18/keeping-bangladesh-s-students-learning-during-the-covid-19-pandemic Accessed on
21 May 2022)

All the public and private higher educational Institutions such as colleges, universities were also
closed during the pandemic. However, government tried to reopen the educational institution through
online activities for avoiding the mass loses in this sector. Hence, the private educational institutions, in
most of the cases, started their online academic activities successfully, but the public universities and
government and semi-government other educational institutions were questionable for their role. Although,
the employees of those institutions and so on were the most fortune people in the global crisis of covid-
19 pandemic, their activities were the worst ever. Therefore, whole the education system has been affected
very badly. Now, the session jam has become the most significant challenge of any student at the higher
study level. There were almost no class, no examination at the primary, Junior and namely in the secondary
and higher secondary levels. Therefore, students were so far from their regular study. They were unusually
free for a long time that thrown them down into involving unnecessarily in the social media and game. The
become more engaged on device and become too far from their social relation as well. Total situation
creates a real and unavoidable challenge to the whole nation.

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The government took different types of initiatives to overcome the situation but it was not
noteworthy successful due to lack of cooperation of the people involved in those systems.

A report of World bank shows: “The government’s main response was through TV-based learning
programs. However, within a couple of months of school closing it was clear that student learning, especially
among adolescents, was at risk.” (See: Ibid)

3. Islamic Education during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Bangladesh
As the whole education system was broken down during the covid-19 pandemic, the Islamic

education was affected too. But as compare to the conventional education system, Islamic education
system was more pretentious. Because, many of the private madrasah were permanently closed due to
insufficient of fund. Although the government started the online class program through Shangshad TV, most
of the contents were not according the madrasah syllabus and curriculum especially Arabic and Islamic
subjects. Therefore, the initiative was good but not much suitable for madrasah background students.
Moreover, all the madrasah teachers were recommended to upload the class lecture on the available
social media, it was too weak in contents, lecture quality and other supporting issues. Therefore, it was not
also mentionable useful initiatives for Madrasah background students.

It is noted that “The Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS)
reported that the country has a total of 9,319 Alia madrasas with a total enrollment of 2,409,373 pupils.
According to a recent article in a Bangla newspaper, there are around 14, 000 Qawmi madrasas in
Bangladesh, with 10,58,636 male and 3,39,619 female students and 7351 teachers.

A study shows that: “The prevalent belief was that madrasa education is reserved for the poor.
However, things have changed rapidly, and it is no longer just the poorest members of society who send
their children to madrasas; a considerable fraction of the wealthy also send their children to madrasas.
School closures in Bangladesh due to Covid-19 began on March 17, 2020, and continued until 2021. But in
this pandemic era since last August, the country's Qawmi madrasas was remained functioning — offering
lectures, conducting exams, and providing residential facilities – in response to a petition presented to
Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina. Yet, because of lockdown and shutdown, the learning process was not
consistent. As a result of that learning loss happened in madrasas. However, a large number of Hafezia and
Alia madrasas have been unable to reopen, resulting in significant educational loss. Additionally, no Qawmi,
Hafezia, or Alia madrasa is open and operating its facilities at the moment due to the shutdown, resulting
in learning loss and study gaps. (See: Fayek Al Hasnain, 2022)

4. Mental condition of Students during the Pandemic
Beside physical fitness, mental health is also important for teaching-learning process. However,

during the pandemic situation, almost all students were disturbed in various ways. Among them, anxiety,
panic and so on are mentionable. In a study, it shows that:

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“Students are passing a difficult time due to the rapid spread of COVID 19 virus and vulnerability caused
by it. 16% of students (318) expressed anxiety over this pandemic. It is alarming considering the total
number of students in Bangladesh. Some key informants believed that it was reasonable to feel ‘panicked’.
An Upazila Secondary Education Officer mentioned, “We have 300 students in a school from different socio-
economic backgrounds. It created a trauma among the students of the upper-class family in a rural context.
Their knowledge about the severity caused by the infection makes their children conscious. Besides, they
watch television regularly.” (See: BRAC, 2020)

5. Involvement in the house hold activities
During the school closing period, the students were free from the study, hence, they were involved

in the household activities. It took them so far from the study. Many students left study permanently for
this reason especially in the rural areas. A study conducted by BRAC shows that:

“Besides studying, the students are engaged in various other activities in their day to day life. Most
of the students (55%) assist their parents in household chores. 27% of students pass their time gossiping
with family members, friends, and relatives. 19% spend time on the mobile phone, internet browsing, and
online games. Interestingly, 18% of students spend their time in creative activities or leisure pursuit such as
reading storybooks, painting, singing, making toys and keeping pets etc.” (See: Ibid)

The same study also shows that 13% of the respondents opined that the students become
uninterested about studying. This apathy is more evident among the students with disabilities (23%),
students of secondary schools (14%), and those living in rural areas (14%).

6. Islamic Education in post-pandemic Bangladesh

6.1 School and its activities

After a long break, it was really difficult to re-open the educational institution. It was one of the
most remarkable challenges especially for private institution. However, the situation shows that the people
who are involved in this process have been trying to overcome this challenge. Many of the have been
successful already as they are now unable to accommodate more students at their institutions.

6.2 Curriculum and Syllabus

During the covid-19 pandemic, the curriculum was made short for the final assessment especially
at the primary, secondary and higher secondary level education. The students become habituated with
this. Therefore, it was another challenge to go back to the complete syllabus and curriculum. Now, all the
institutions are following the normal and regular curriculum. Because, without the complete curriculum and
other academic activities, it is not possible to achieve the graduate attributes. According the government’s
instruction, all the institution irrespective of government or non-government, they are following their best.

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6.3 Challenges

There are many challenges for the Islamic education in Bangladesh. The covid-19 pandemic has
created few more to them. The followings can be few examples:

6.3.1 Lack of Concentration

As the students were relaxed from many of their daily study and academic activities during the
lockdown and shutdown in Bangladesh, it is quite difficult to be adjusted to the new normal life. It would
take few more months to be fully concentrated in the study life. The authority of any institution is trying
to take necessary initiatives to overcome this situation as early as possible. It is really appreciable. However,
in the rural are, it may take few more time as the initiatives is not remarkable.

6.3.2 Engagement in Social devices

During the shutdown and lockdown period, students have to use laptop or mobile and TV for their
academic activities like online class and exam. Using these types of devices affected them very badly as
many of them become addicted do so many things on these. Still, students are using these devices although
they are now not required. It wastes their time.

6.3.3 Engagement in social media

Social media have merits and demerits as well. It depends on how we are using it. As during the
online class and academic activities, students used mobile and laptop, they also involved themselves on
various engagement in social media like Facebook, Tok-tok, Chatting on Viber, WhatsApp and so on. They
still using those devices, in most of the cases, and it breaks their concentrations. For example, those who
are memorizing Qur’an need more and absolute concentration on it. However, activities on those media
making them difficult but they sometime don’t understand.

6.3.4 Lack of Skilled IT expert

Covid-19 has changed the lifestyle of human in the world. It has taught us the benefit of using
technology in our life. Most importantly, it has shown how technology can be a good option for learning
and teaching something in the easy way. However, in the case of Islamic education system, the lack of
skilled IT expert people, we are depriving from many things. For example, non can find the well-equipped
and standard Islamic contents in Bengali language as compare to any other conventional issues.

6.3.5 Lack of Teachers

Teaching-Learning process has been changed radically during this covid-19 pandemic situation.
However, we do not have the sufficient religious teachers who can be adopted to this. Most of the religious
teachers have not enough knowledge using technology, making presentation slides, using multi-media
projector, visual effect or editing social medial contents which have now become essential.

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6.3.6 Lack of Resources

Besides, printed book and other sources, the pandemic situation has taught us using other sources
of Islamic knowledge online. However, there are not sufficient and reliable sources to fulfill the demand of
people. E-learning process has now become more effective and easiest way to know anything.

6.3.7 Lack of Training

Training is very much important for developing ourselves and to be adopted with the new.
However, the training for the religious teachers is not remarkable. Only a government institution is
responsible to do so which cannot be sufficient.

6.4 Opportunities

Besides challenges, covid-19 has created many opportunities for the human kind. Many things have
been developed during this period. Among them, following can be mentioned:

6.4.1 Increasing interest in learning Islam

No doubt that the pandemic situation has made us more religious and enthusiast in learning the
religion and practicing them in the daily life. Like any other country, Bangladeshi people have now become
more interested in learning Islamic teachings. As the sources are available online, they can easily access it.
People become more communicative with the learned person for knowing new knowledge on Islam and
contemporary issues.

6.4.2 Increasing religious practice

Like acquiring knowledge on Islam, people are now practicing their religion more. Because, the
Covid-19 has shown the ultimate power of their Lord and the incapability of human being. Therefore, they
are moving to their lord notably.

6.4.3 Increasing online sources of Islamic knowledge

Demand ensures supply. This is the natural rule. Therefore, as the demand has been made, the
online sources of Islamic knowledge are increasing day by day. Many of us has taken various initiatives to
create good and reliable contents on Islam and contemporary issues. It surely helps people to enrich their
knowledge on Islam.

Conclusion And Recommendations

In the conclusion, it can be stated that Covid-19 has brought both good and bad things to the
human being. However, to my humble understanding, it has brought many things good than the bad things.
Specially, there is not chance to be looser for a believer. It is the teaching of Islam. Once a believer in a
trouble, he or she has to be patient. Allah will reward him/her the best. Considering the situation, one can
realize how we have been benefited from this unexpected situation. It has given us many opportunities.

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However, new situation always creates some challenges. New normal Bangladesh is not out of that. In the
case of overcoming the challenges of Islamic education in present post-covid Bangladesh, we can do the
followings: (i) Government should subsidize the private educational institution to reopen it. (ii) There should
be counselling session in each and every institution. (iii) Counselling session should be conducted for both
students/learners and their parents. (iv) parents should be more conscious for using the IT devices by their
beloved children. (v) spending time with the surrounding people can be another way to overcome the
situation. (vi) Education system can be updated with the IT and other equipment. (vii) Online resources
must be increased intuitionally rather than individual. (viii) Video contents should be created using high-
technology and by prominent authority

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Chapter 3

MAKING MODERN MUSLIM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN THE SIR SYED AHMAD
KHAN AND HAJI SULUNG ABDUL KHADIR AL-PATANI

Nasra Mulor

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India

Introduction

Islam and modernity is a topic of discussion in contemporary sociology of religion. The history of
Islam chronicles different interpretations and approaches. Modernity is a complex and multidimensional
phenomenon rather than a unified and coherent one. It has historically had different schools of thought
moving in many directions.1

In the 18th century Europe was undergoing major transformations as the new ideas of the
Enlightenment, which stressed the importance of science, rationality, and human reason, and the new
technologies of the Industrial Revolution swept across Europe, giving Europeans great power and influence.
In the last quarter of the 18th century, the gap widened between the technical skills of some western and
northern European countries and those of the rest of the world.2

The rise of modern Europe coincided with what many scholars refer to as the decline of the
Ottoman Empire, which by the 18th century was facing political, military, and economic breakdown.3 While
prior to the 18th century the Ottomans had regarded themselves to be either of superior or, by the mid-
18th century, of equal strength to Europe, by the end of the 18th century the power relationship between
the Ottoman Empire and Europe began to shift in Europe’s favor.4

Islamic modernists argued that Islam and modernity were compatible and “asserted the need to
reinterpret and reapply the principles and ideals of Islam to formulate new responses to the political,
scientific, and cultural challenges of the West and of modern life.”5 The reforms they proposed challenged
the status quo maintained by the conservative Muslims scholars (ulama), who saw the established law as
the ideal order that had to be followed and upheld the doctrine of taqlid (imitation / blind following).

1 The responsibilities of the Muslim intellectual in the 21st century, Abulkarim Soroush 23
2 Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples (1991) p. 259.
3 Esposito, Jonh L., Islam: The Straight Path (Oxford University Press, 2005). p. 115–116.
4 Hourani, Albert op. cit., .p. 258–259.
5 Esposito, John L., John L. Esposito, ed. "The Oxford History of Islam". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Retrieved 12
November 2014.

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Islamic modernists saw the resistance to change on the part of the conservative ulama as a major cause
for the problems the Muslim community was facing as well as its inability to counter western hegemony.6

This paper mainly focuses of global modernity on the Muslim community (Umma) in terms of
theological, juridical, political, and social issues. To this end, I will examine views of vigorous thinkers of
Islamic modernism, including Sir Syed Ahmad khan and Haji Sulong Abdul khaadir al-fatani and so on. With
this study, I aim to illustrate Islamic modernism with its general episodes (origin, growth and end) and
transformations in the Muslim world and then align the approaches towards modernity. And finally, I shall
offer to present what changes took place in Islamic theology (kalām) and jurisprudence (fiqh) in terms of
Islamic sectarianism in the light of these thinkers’ views

However, these efforts were not successful because they were superficial and not in a position to
compete with the western counterparts. For example, instead of changing the classical curriculum in
education, students were sent to the West or teachers were brought from there.

Islamic Modernism

“Modernity is that which has created fundamental changes in behavior and belief about
economics, politics, social organization, and intellectual discourse.”7 For the last three centuries, the notion
of modernity has been a crucial component of various discourses, from politics and economy to religious
issues, developed around intellectual milieu. Global modernity has a deep influence on Muslim community
that, apart from the entrance of Greek Philosophy, coincided with Islam’s Golden Age between the 8th and
12th centuries, to Islamic theology (kalām), Muslims have never experienced such a big challenge that
produced a variety of responses from Muslim intellectuals in different parts of the world. It should be
useful to look at political and sociological events which established grounds for the birth of Islamic
modernism.

When Islam’s expansion in Europe was stopped at the frontier of Vienna in 1648, and moreover
Napoleon landed in Egypt at the end of the eighteenth-century, it was a strong indication of the impotence
of the Islamic world in international politics and military matters. Some attempts were made in the areas
of military and education by Muslim rulers and intellectuals to reclaim the past and close the gap between
the West and Muslim World. For example, the Ottoman Sultan Selīm III (r.1789-1807), introduced the
Niẓām-i Cedīd (the New Organization) mainly in the military and administrative fields; it was followed by
the Tanẓīmāt of 1839-1876 which included economic, social and religious affairs.8

Modernist thinking was thus transformed into a process that included both ‘western secularist’
thought and ‘revivalist’ attempts challenging each other since that time. Abduh and Aḥmad Khān can be

6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_and_modernity 24
7 Andrew Rippin, Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London & New York: Routledge, 2005), p.178.
8 Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p.599.

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seen as pioneers of revivalist attempts for modernization. However, this line was blurred with more
fundamentalist approaches later. Westerners on the above quote refers to certain segment of society that
they generally took roles in ruling posts. The secularist approach roughly rejects the claim that Islam is a
total way of life: “Most or all areas of public life are to be governed not by the Islamic Sharia but by human
reason and initiative.”9

In this approach, religion is accepted as an obstacle for development, and it is accused of having
held back Muslim societies. Consequently, the method of the West should be borrowed in order to confine
religion to rituals and private life. Thus, if Muslims follow the path of the West, they would progress in the
way in which the West has. It “seems an absurd suggestion that we are talking about different cultures,
religious background, historical experiences, context, worldviews, and so on. The Muslim world did not
experienced what the West did with the Church or religion against its scholastic thought and abusive role
in social life. Therefore “secularism came as a relief from the encroachments of the Church on the State
[establishing] it’s philosophic basis, not only in reason, but in the earlier Christian formula of a division of a
labor between Caesar and God.10

By the eighteenth century, Muslims in different parts of the world managed to live as a community
with their religious and social institutions by composing the Islamic civilization and having a number of
different understandings as well as various implementations of Islam to social life. There was a
representative of all Muslims: the Ottoman Empire. However, the empire had been experiencing splits and
divisions in the military and social institutions, such as the Janissary institution. Not only had the decline of
the Ottoman Empire but also European intervention in diplomatic and commercial spheres had detrimental
results for Islamic civilization. Colonialism followed European intervention and as a result the majority of
Muslim countries came under the direct influence of the West: the Dutch invaded Indonesia; the British
established its rules in India and took the control of some parts of the Middle East and Africa; the French
seized North Africa and western part of the Middle East; the Russians and Chinese absorbed inner Asia. The
political and economic stagnation in the Islamic world and/or institutional inadequacy could be accepted
as major reasons for why Muslims missed the modernization train. However European colonization and its
profound effect on Muslim societies disabled Muslims to engage with modern developments. Instead, they
challenged colonization, independence, struggles among groups (religious or ideological) politically,
economically, and so on. In fact, European colonialism has two stages: one is geographical imperialism; the
other what is called “cultural imperialism,”11

9 AYDIN BAYRAM,” Modernity and the Fragmentation of the Muslim Community in Response: Mapping Modernist, Reformist
and Traditionalist Responses”( İstanbul university, AÜİFD 55:1 Modernity and the Fragmentation of the Muslim
Community,2014):p.86.
10 Fazlur Rahman, “Islamic Modernism: Its Scope, Method and Alternatives,”( International Journal of Middle East Studies
1:4 ,1970):.332.
11 William Shepard, “The Diversity of Islamic Thought: Towards a Typology,” in Suha Taji-Farouki & Basheer M. Nafi (eds.),
Islamic Thought in the Twentieth Century (London: I. B. Tauris, 2004):61-103.

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New Theology and the Reconstruction of the Shari’a

In modern age, Muslim intellectuals such as Sir Syed Ahmad Khān convinced that Muslims needed
religious reform, especially in theology and jurisprudence. Khān criticized the old theology and argued that
“old theology founded on Greek metaphysics was no longer sufficient, because, unlike the old, the new
sciences relied on experiment and observation.12” Khān’s Principles of Exegesis (1892) proposed a new
theology that discarded the notion of conflict between science and the Qur’an, because science stands for
nature and its laws, which are the creation of God. The Qur’an as the word of God cannot be in conflict
with the nature as the work of God.Khan inspired new issues in Islamic theology, like whether miracles are
supernatural or not. He held that miracles may be extraordinary, but they are not supernatural: “first,
because the Qur’an declares specifically that Divine Laws do not change; secondly, because modern
scientific discoveries have demonstrated that these events were not supernatural13

This paper highlight the comparative between Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Haji Sulomg al- Fatani as
a part of Muslim thinkers in India and Thailand.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was eminent political figure and a great visionary. He was renowned Muslim
reformer of the 19th century. He had a dream to make the community and country advanced and take
them forward on modern shapes. His main interest was intellectual development of the people through
modern education. He was the first Indian Muslim to contribute to the intellectual and institutional
foundation of Muslim modernization in Southern Asia. Sir Syed had made magnificent contributions for the
improvement and empowerment of the Muslims. His position in the judicial department left him time to
be active in many fields. He was also a good writer and began his career as an author in Urdu at the age of
23. In 1847, he brought out an important book "Monuments of the Great" on the antiquities of Delhi. Even
more important was his pamphlet "The Causes of the Indian Revolt". His interest in religion was also active
and lifelong. He wrote on the Life of Prophet Muhammad (Sal-am) and dedicated himself to write several
volumes of a modernist commentary on the holy Quran. In these works, he enlightened how the Islamic
faith could go with advanced scientific and political ideas of his time.14

While struggling for Independence, he saved the lives of many Englishmen. The Government
centred the title of Sir on him. Thus, he won the confidence of the British Government. After the war of
Independence, the Muslims undergone a critical phase. By rebuffing to acquire western education, they

12 AYDIN BAYRAM, op. cit., p.92.
13 Ibid.
14 Filza Waseem,” Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and the Identity Formation of Indian Muslims through Education”, Vol. 2, No. 2,
ISSN: 2333-5718, (Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development, Review of History and Political Science
, , June 2014):p.132.

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were not moving parallel with modern times. The Muslims hated English language and culture. They kept
their children away from the schools and colleges. Their unfamiliarity of the English language and lack of
modem education kept them away from respectable government posts. On the other hand, the Hindus
acquired modem knowledge and obtained high level government jobs. Syed Ahmed Khan was the first
Muslim leader to realize the seriousness of the situation.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was very upset to observe the depressed condition of the Muslims
everywhere. He decided to take extreme efforts for the welfare of the Muslims. He realized that there is a
need to the exclusion of mistrust about the Muslims from the minds of British rulers. For this purpose, he
wrote Essay on the causes of Indian Revolt in which he proved that there were many factors which led to
the rebellion of 1857 and that only the Muslims were not to be held responsible for it. Additionally, he
wrote "Loyal Muhammadans of India" in which he shielded the Muslims against the charges of
unfaithfulness. These works restored confidence of the British in the Muslims to a large extent. Then, Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan focused on the upliftment of educational part of his co-religionists. He told the Muslims
that without obtaining modern education, they could not compete with the Hindus and other communities.
He pleaded that there was no harm in accepting western sciences and in learning English language. He
issued a magazine named "Tahzib-ul-Ikhlaq" which projected adoptable European manners. Afterwards,
Syed Ahmed Khan wrote an interpretation on the Holy Quran. In this important work, Syed Ahmed Khan
interpreted Islam on logical and scientific basis. Syed Ahmed Khan was one of the pioneers of the Two
Nation Theory.15

Although the Muslims remained aloof from British administration, the Hindus, Parsis and other
communities forged forward in education and social development. The replacement of Persian by English
as the language of the higher courts (1835) was disliked by the Muslims but was welcomed by the other
communities. They embraced English education much more enthusiastically than did the Muslims. In 1878,
there were 3155 college educated Hindus as against 57 college educated Muslims. In a country, growing
poorer by the year due to Company practices, government service was a major career path for poor people
and the Muslims missed these opportunities. The situation was particularly acute in Bengal and Uttar
Pradesh. Since the fall of Bengal in 1757, all of the higher positions in civilian, military and judiciary service
were reserved for the British. The more educated Hindus filled the lower positions that were open to
Indians. The Muslims were practically shut out.

When appraised his contribution to his community, it is recognized that Syed Ahmed Khan sensed
the dangers in this isolation. As long as mutual suspicion and hostility persisted between the Muslims and
the British, the former would be excluded from participation in the political and social life of the country.
Sir Syed visited England in 1870 and came back with a conviction that English education was necessary for
the progression of the Muslims. In 1877 he established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College" at Aligarh.

15 Ibid. p.133. 27
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The name of the college was self-descriptive and its orientation was decidedly western. It faced immediate
hostility from the Muslim religious establishment.

Sir Syed supported the British during the 1857 revolution. This effort of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan had
been condemned by some nationalists such as Jamaluddin Afghani. In 1859, Sir Syed published the booklet
Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (The Causes of the Indian Revolt) in which he studied the causes of the Indian
upheaval. In his most famous work, he rejected the concept that the conspiracy was planned by Muslim
leaders, who were insecure at the weakening influence of Muslim emperors. He accused the British East
India Company for its belligerent expansion as well as the ignorance of British politicians regarding Indian
culture. Sir Syed suggested the British to appoint Muslims to assist in administration, to 'haramzadgi', (a
vulgar deed) such as the rebellion.

When the government of India received the book translated and presented before the Council,
Lord Canning, the governor-general, and Sir Bartle Frere accepted it as a genuine and friendly report. The
foreign secretary Cecil Beadon severely criticized it and said that it is an extremely rebellious pamphlet. He
wanted a proper inquiry into the matter and said that the author, unless he could give a satisfactory
explanation, should be severely dealt with. Since no other member of the Council agreed with his view,
his spasm did no damage.

The political career of Syed Ahmed khan began after 1857. He provided political leadership by
uniting the people under a banner of Islam. He wrote various notable works in order to remove the mistrust
of the Britishers towards the Muslims. To the Muslims, he advocated loyalty to the government and to the
British he asked to review their policy, which would win the support of the largest minority in the country.
This two-way policy resulted in the settlement of the Muslims.

Major contribution by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan.

The Causes of Indian Revolt: Syed Ahmad Khan was so overwhelmed by the trouble of the Muslims
in the sub-continent that he decided to make efforts to save the Muslim Nation from total ruin. To remove
suspicions of the British officers and bring them closer to the Muslims, he wrote his well-known pamphlet,
The Causes of Indian Revolt, which Graham describes as 'true and manly words'.

Pamphlet "The Loyal Muhammandans of India": In this pamphlet, he drew their attention of the
critics to the services of Muslims families who had saved the lives of many Englishmen, women, and children
at the risk of their own lives. He also pointed out that Muslims are not opposed to Christians.

Indian National Congress: Sir Syed had known about the intention of the Hindus and advised the
Muslims not to join it. He thought that Congress was mainly a Hindu body which worked for the protection
of the rights of the Hindus. He requested the Muslims to get modern education first then come in the field
of politics in order to protect their rights. He believed that the political activity would divert the attention
of the Muslims from the constructive task and revive British mistrust.

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Aligarh Movement: According to Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, "Syed Ahmad Khan's contribution to
Muslim renaissance in India can be summarized in one phrase, that it was the inculcation of self confidence
in his people" (The Struggle for Pakistan).Throughout his life, Syed Ahmad Khan remonstrated against the
practices of purdah, polygamy, easy divorce and many other fallacies in his community. His main priority
was advancement of modern western education, in Muslim society. He believed that his community can
only enhance their status and progress when the Muslims accept western scientific knowledge and culture.
In AD 1864, he established the Translation Society at Aligarh. It was later renamed the Scientific Society.

Sir Syed was condemned for inspiring communal divisions between Hindus and Muslims. He is
recognized by historians as one of the earliest supporters of the Two-Nation Theory that Hindus and Muslims
were distinct and incompatible nations. Historians debated that Sir Syed was emotionally incapable to
accept the prospect that an independent India's Hindu-majority would come to rule Muslims, who had
been the former colonial rulers. He also dreaded that Hindu culture would weaken the Perso-Arabic nature
of Muslim culture, which had enjoyed a dominant status under Muslim rulers for centuries. His disapproval
of Indian nationalists and profession of the incompatibility of Muslims and Hindus expanded the socio-
political gulf between the communities that had emerged with the Urdu-Hindi controversy. At the same
time, Sir Syed was strongly disparaged by religious Muslims who regarded his liberal reinterpretation of
Islamic scripture as irreverence.

Followers of Sir Syed argued that his political visualization gave an independent political expression
to the Muslim community, which helped its goal to secure political power in India. His viewpoint guided
the creation of the All India Muslim League in 1906, as a political party separate from the Congress. Sir
Syed's ideas encouraged both the liberal, pro-British politicians of the Muslim League and the religious
ideologues of the Khilafat struggle. The Muslim League remained at odds with the Congress and continued
to support the boycott of the Indian independence movement. In the 1940s, the student body of Aligarh
committed itself to the establishment of Pakistan and contributed in a large measure in the activities of
the Muslim League. Sir Syed's support of Urdu led to its extensive use amongst Indian Muslim communities
and following the Partition of India, its adoption as an official language in Pakistan.

To summarize, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was great Muslim crusader and political leader of the 19th
Century. After receiving education in Persian and Arabic, he joined the Government service. Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan took daring step to guide the fortunes of his co-religionists and help them to survive in community.
As a social reformer, a political leader, a religious thinker and as a moralist, a rationalist, a humanist, and a
jurist, he made immense contribution in the field of theology, philosophy, religion, history, literature,
education, and politics. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, one of the creators of the freedom movement of the Indo-
Pakistan, was the main player in imparting modern scientific education to the down-trodden and illiterate
Muslim.16

16 https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/Political-Science/notes/indian-political-thought-sir-syed-ahmed-khan.htm

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Political religious in reformers ; Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

A reformer and visionary, Sir Sayyid, can be regarded as the pivotal figure for regenerating the Indian
Muslims at a time when they were economically, morally and educationally at their lowest. Nazrul Islam
says:” Sayyid Ahmed Khan, was one of the leading spirits of (this) Muslim revival” (1990). In order to truly
appreciate his achievement one has to see Sir Sayyed against the background of the time in which he
worked and lived. Following the British control of India, the Muslims had been vanquished by the combined
might of the British and Hindus. They wallowed in poverty, cultural stagnation, illiteracy and self-pity till
the time that Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, who had observed with anguish the Muslim’s plight, appeared as a
savior on the scene. He resolved to help the Muslims out of this quagmire. For this, he had to face many
challenges - the combined hostility of the British and Hindus, the criticism of his political and religious
detractors, and most of all the extreme backwardness of the Muslims. Anyone with an average level of
commitment would have backed off in the face of such formidable odds, but though Sir Sayyid shared the
Muslims’ sense of deprivation and injustice, he did not agree with their pessimism, despondency or fatalism.
He resolved to face the challenge of emancipating his community from their educational backwardness,
moral decadence and defeatism.

The British East India Company had been operating in India for almost a century before the British
government officially took control of the Indian subcontinent by taking over power from the last Mughal
Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar. The decline of the Mughal Empire had given a chance to the company to
increase their strength in 1764, and by 1818 they were firmly in command of India17

After the War of Independence of 1857, which the British termed a revolt, and the bloody reprisals
which came in its wake, the condition of the Muslims had undergone a drastic change. From the position
of rulers they had been reduced to the position of paupers (Hunter 1876). Their fiefs had been confiscated
and they were deprived of their position as leaders and landowners. The British were openly hostile and
suspicious of the Muslims and deliberately kept them out of government jobs. Although the Hindus had
fought alongside the Muslims to cast off the colonial yoke, the British regarded Muslims as their sole enemy
since they had wrested power from the Muslims.

The Muslims had been in power in India for almost two centuries and had evolved a system of
education which worked essentially on a system of self-help and addressed the needs of the people. Every
influential person used to hire teachers from his own pocket for the education of his children and the poor
children of his community. Adam says: “It was rare thing to find an opulent or head of a village who had
not a teacher in his employment for that purpose. That class, however is alleged to have dwindled away
and scarcely any such schools are now found to exist” (in Thorpe 1965). The British after gaining control of
India from the Mughal Empire had abolished this system, which was suited to the genius of the people,

17 Filza Waseem,” Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and the Identity Formation of Indian Muslims through Education”, , op., cit.,
p.132.

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saying in the words of the President of the Board of Control, of the East India Company, “we have a great
moral duty to perform in India.

Gradually Western style education was implemented and English was made a prerequisite for
certain kinds of jobs. After the replacement of the official language Persian with English as the official
language, in 1837 by Lord Bentinck, the Muslims had become virtually unfit for any government jobs.
Rahman says that “Along with Persian, the cultural ascendancy of Muslims too melted away”. Persian was
not only the elite language; it was also a symbolic of Muslim identity. Stripped of its elite status, power and
cultural ascendancy, it dwindled into oblivion. Its economic utility as a language of employability was
finished in a single ‘crowning stroke’ As McCully remarks: “When economic trend and official policy join
together they are formidable indeed”. These measures added to the economic and cultural downfall of
the Muslims, which had deteriorated steadily after the War of Independence, so that this indigenous system
of education went into oblivion. 18

As a reaction against the ruthless policies of the conquerors, the Muslims withdrew into a self-
induced isolation, refusing any contact with the British. The educational reforms introduced by the British
were regarded with suspicion as attempts to anglicize them. As the traditional system of education was
abolished by the British under the plan to reform Indian education, they gradually fell into a state of
ignorance and cultural backwardness. It seemed that this once highly literate community would be lost in
ignorance, despondency and pessimism. Sir Syed shared their sense of deprivation and injustice, but not
their pessimism, despondency or fatalism, and linked the Muslim malaise to their educational inferiority.
He was convinced that education was the only panacea for the problems of Muslims. Sir Syed felt the
plight of the Muslims and resolved to convince the Muslims that their survival lay in embracing the
education offered by the British. This was an arduous task as distrust ran deep on both sides.19

Background Of Haji Sulong

Haji Sulong was born in 1895 in Kampong Anak Ru (now a thriving commercial district serving as
agate way to Pattani Town). He came from a line of eminent Alim, the most renowned of whom was his
grandfather, Syeik Zainal Abidin bin Ahmad Al-Fatani, who is even today fondly remembered by the
Malay-Muslims in Southern Thailand as “Tok Minal”20. In family tradition, Haji Sulong was schooled in
Arabic and Islamic texts. He was a gifted and intelligent student who had memorized the entire Qur’an by

18 Ibid. p.133. 31
19 Ibid. p.134.
20 Muhammad Kamal K.Zaman, Fatani 13 Ogos [Patani 13 August] (Kota Bharu, 1996), p. 1.

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the tender age of eight21, for his early education before proceeding to Mecca Ma’had Dar Al-Ulum, a well-
known institution popular among Malay-Speaking students in the vicinity of the Holy Ka’bah22.

Hajji Sulong ; Religious and Political Activism

Hajji Sulong bin Abdul Kadir bin Muhammad Al-Fatani, a religious teacher and President of the
Provincial Council for Islamic Affairs (Majlis Agama Islam), and other Muslim leaders in the Pattani region. In
Pattani Haji Sulong, Haji Wae Semae Muhammad (President of a Muslim association of Pattni called
‘Semangat’ (‘Zeal’), and 100 other Muslim leader mobilized to the Pattani Muslim under the banner of the
(PPM). The PPM was linked with GAMPAR and Semangat and was supported by different groups of Muslims.
This was the first time that the leadership of a resistance government of such magnitude was dominated
by the religious elite. It marked an important change from the earlier struggle, which was led largely by
former aristocrats.23

Support for Hajji Sulong educations reform initiative was, however short- lived. As anticipated, his
efforts were undone not by elements from within the state but by the member of the very community he
sought to uplift. Haji Sulong effort in Patani were resisted by the traditional religious elite. The reservations
of the Tok Guru towards Haji Sulong reformist agenda persisted despite his attempt to win them over.24

Given that Haji Sulong had become a prominent scholar with a wide following and had a political
base a chairman of the Patani Provincial Islamic council, a whisperings campaign of this nature resonated
with his detractor.

Despite the closure of Madrasah al- Marif and the caution reaction toward Haji Sulong attempt at
reform, the momentum of change had already began to introduce the reform curriculum about education
by Haji Sulong, thereby transforming the Pondok into an institution of systematic education. He reasons
that Pondok were compelled to change or face the threat of irrelevant and extinction. Haji sulong
contribution in generating the Islamic education in the southern province with the creation of Islamic private
school.25

Islamic education in Thailand has been built around the institution of the Pondok, The study of
traditional Islamic institutions in Southern Thailand has not received much systematic and scholarly
attention. Institutions such as the Pondok (private Islamic boarding schools) are historically important to
the Malay-Muslim community in Thailand. They perform a key role in providing religious instruction and

21 Ibid. p. 2.
22 Numan Hayimasae, “Hj SUlong Abdul Kadir (1895-1954): Perjuangan dan Sumbangan Beliau Kepada Masyarakat Melayu
Patani [Hj Sulong Abdul Kadir: Struggle and Contribution to the Patani Malays]” (M.Sc. Dissertation, Universiti Sains
Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2002), p.83.
23 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/127211/6/chapter%204.p
24 Numan Hayimasae, “Hj SUlong Abdul Kadir , po.cit., p.145.
25 Ibd., p. 142.

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also in deepening the community’s understanding of Islam. Moreover, they are closely associated with
Malay-Muslim identity and often act as a pivot for Malay social life.26

As the structure of Islamic Education is concerned, the level of Islamic education in Thailand can
generally be divided into six types: Sekolah Anuban (nursery), Rendah (pre-primary),Tadika (Taman Didikan
Kanak-Kanak or Primary), Pondok, Islamic private school or private school teaching Islam, also known as
Madrasah (Arabic), Sekolah Ugama Rakyat or Sekolah Ugama Swasta (Malay) and Rongrian Ekachon Sorn
Sasna Islam (Thai), and the last is Institute Pengajian Tinggi (University and Tertian Education Institutions).27

Islamic Education to serve as an important key to integration and development, as most Pondok
have been transformed into private Islamic schools under the government’s jurisdiction. The competition
for students between traditional, private Islamic schools and government-run public secular schools that
include Islamic subject matter is also a pertinent issue not carefully examined here. At question is whether
the Pondok can adapt to conform to the Thai national educational curriculum and continue to exist
alongside secular schools. Certainly, the Pondok is under increasing pressure to redefine its role in Thai
Muslim society.28

Conclussion

Modernity in the Muslim world has been a central phenomenon for all contemporary scholars
interested in Islamic issues ranging from politics to theology. For the last three centuries, Muslims from
different parts of the Islamic world have interpreted modernity within different ways and sought to
implement it in societies in which social life is based on religious tradition. Modernity initially came to the
fore, as we will see, as a realization of the backwardness of Islamic society in spheres such as politics and
military. However, it soon came to encompass all areas of social life as an ideology. It can be considered
to be a turning point in terms of a great deal of religious and social transformations in the Muslim world.

Muslims mostly perceive modernity in terms of Western modernity and vary in their views on its
relevance and compatibility to Islam. There are at least three orientations towards modernity. The first is
the modernist discourse. This orientation is divided into two groups: modernists and secularists. The former
group argues that modernity is compatible with Islam and call for a new Islamic theology in order to justify
this compatibility. In the past, Islamic theology was a methodological framework to deal with intellectual
challenges. However, this old theology could not respond to challenges which modernity posed. It should
be replaced by a new theology that can respond to the needs of modern times. As for the latter group,

26 Hasan Madmarn. 1999. The Pondok and the Madrasah in Patani. University Kebangsaan Malaysia.p2 33
27 Liow , Joseph Chinyong. Islam Education and reform in southern Thailand , (Singapore,2009), p.49.
28 Ibid.,p.3-4

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sometimes they are called ‘western modernists’ as they adored Western values and culture. They argue
that the main cause of backwardness in Islamic community is its adherence to the tradition and religion.29

The second orientation is the Islamist discourse. It refers to revivalist and reformist thinking that
calls for the reform (iḥyā) of the practices of the Ancestors (al-salaf al-ṣāliḥūn), the first three generations
of Muslims, and reform (iṣlāḥ) of religious practices such as visiting graves for intercession, fertility, health,
and prosperity, celebrating birth and death anniversaries of saints, and adherence (taqlīd) to schools of law.

And the third orientation is the traditionalist discourse, which refers to those who give less priority
to modernity and at the same time have strong loyalty to religious faith and practices inherited from the
past. For them, there is no need to change social institutions and existing methodology in jurisprudence.
For example, the gate of ijtihād is closed as Islamic Law has reached its peak with four schools of
jurisprudence (Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiī, and Ḥanbali).30

By recommendation, both reformers between Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Haji Sulong especially
about education are brightness of the much changing in tradition Muslim world and they are the chosen
one as political thinkers was played for the new world order from the last three decade has imagine through
to the globalization world.

29 AYDIN BAYRAM,” Modernity and the Fragmentation of the Muslim Community in Response: Mapping Modernist, Reformist
and Traditionalist Responses, op., cit.,p.72.
30 Ibid. p.73.

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Chapter 4

POLITICAL CULTURE IN THAILAND DEEP SOUTH; THE LAST SULTANATE
TO ORDINARY PEOPLE

Muhammadfatton Dohae

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.

Introduction

The ongoing situation in Thailand’s deep south started in 2004, the post-conflict after the
termination. As we know, any conflicts have their roots in the problem. The study will focus on the main
reasons for Political Struggles in Thailand’s Deep South (Patani, Narathiwat, and Yala provinces). These
border Malaysia’s north region(Kedah, Perak, and Kelantan). The people also have the same ethnicity,
religion, and culture. The Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 separated the region from their Kingdom. The region
became provinces of the Kingdom of Thailand, as it had done in other parts of the world during British
colonisation.31

Moreover, the late Sultan Abdul Kadir Kamaruddin Syah was forced to flee because of the Siamese
fugitives on charges of rising against the authority, and the country lost a leader or a king. Finally, it had
reported that his government died in 1933 in the State of Kelantan, Malaysia. But there was good news for
the Farmers of the time after Sultan Sultan Kadir Kamaruddin Syah died. Patani’s struggle continues with
his son living in Kelantan, Malaysia. He realised the fate of the Patani state ruled by his father, Tengku
Mahmood Mahyideen Bin Sultan Abdul Kadir Kamruddin Syah, son of former Patani Malay King and a Major
Rank officer in Force 136. He has appealed to the British authorities in India to take over the surrounding
Farmers and Territories and combine them with Malay land.32

Also, during the Siamese involvement in World War II, the Japanese provided hope for the Patani
people to liberate their homeland from the occupation of Siam. According to Wikipedia, Siam(Current
Thailand) is the most powerful country in Indo-china and the oldest Thai country, including its followers,
like Cambodia, Lanna, Laos, Pegu, & parts of Malaysia. It had established by the Raung Phra Dynasty and
lasted until 1932.33

31 Scupin, R. (2013). South Thailand: Politics, Identity, and Culture. The Journal of Asian Studies, 72. 35
doi:10.1017/S0021911813000065
32 Wan Mohd Hazim. “Tengku Abduk Kadir Kamarudin ibnu al Marhum Tengku Sulaiman Sharifudin Syah.” (2012)
http://radenahmadpattani.blogspot.com/2012/03/tengku-abduk-kadir-kamarudin-ibnu-al.html
33 Ibid.

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The hope had heightened when the allied forces in the San Francisco Declaration of April 1945 adopted
the principle of self-determination to free the colonies from the occupation’s shackles.34 At the same time,
several other leaders were involved in the fight to liberate the Patani homeland, such as Tengku Abdul
Jalal, Guru Haji Sulong, and other leaders. Besides the Thailand revolution in 1932, the change of the
Siamese name to Thailand, and a democratic way of ruling (Monarchy) under the heads of state by a King
and the Prime Minister’s rule. Haji Sulong, in his struggle to the summit, met with members of the Islamic
Religious Council, Ulama, and prominent Patani people to formulate any wishes and suggestions of the
Malay Muslim Patani community to the Siamese authorities. Hajj Sulong decided and filed the claim known
as the “Seven demands to the Siamese Government of Thailand” in April 1947. The Patani people want to
rule their territory or special autonomy area by making such a claim to the Thai Siamese authorities. But all
of this is notorious to the Thai Siamese government.35
However, nowadays, various organisations are struggling on their way, including violent–arms groups and
non-violence groups or organisations like social society organisations in social, political, human rights etc.,
in southern Thailand. We can say that the political development in the area has an evolution from transition
generation by generation through their aspiration.

(Map of Southern Thailand and Northern Malaysia)36

Background of Conflict

The conflict started in 1786 when the government successfully conquered the Kingdom of Siam
Patani Sultanate through a series of wars. The conquest changed the government structure, and the
government of Siam used Divide and Rule policy in Patani. Patani was divided into seven regions, with a
vassal ruler appointed for each nation to weaken the Malays’ power.37

34 Declaration on Principles of International Law friendly relations and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the
Charter of the United Nations. Un.org. Retrieved 26 May 2022, from https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/3dda1f104.pdf.
35 Ibid.
36 McCargo, D. (2013). Understanding the Southern Thai Peace Talks | Asia Peacebuilding Initiatives. Asia Peacebuilding
Initiatives. Retrieved 26 May 2022, from http://peacebuilding.asia/understanding-the-southern-thai-peace-talks/.
37 Yaacob, C. (2013). Aggressive Conflict in Southern Thailand: Roots of Hostility and Aggression. Journalarticle.ukm.my.
Retrieved 26 May 2022, from http://journalarticle.ukm.my/8250/1/Che_Mohd_Aziz_Yaacob_Jebat_2_December_
2013no_2.pdf.

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Chulalongkorn, the king of Siam, formed the Thesaphiban to centralise power in Patani. The Minister of
Home Affairs approved the District Administration Policies in 1897. Phraratchabanyat Pakkhrong
Thongtin(Local Administrative Act.). This act was reinforced two years later. By introducing the regulations
on the administrative region known as Kho Bangkhap Pokkhrong Huamung(rules governing districts), these
acts were intended to weaken the Patani provinces and the Malay kings’ sovereignty. As the Malay rulers
of the Kingdom of Siam became aware of their declining control over Patani, they rose in opposition. The
strife reached heights in 1902 when the Malay kings in Patani arrested and deposed Tengku Abdul Kadir, a
king in the region of Patani.38

As Anand Panyarachun, former Prime Minister of Thailand and also the director of the National
Reconciliation Commission (NRC), argues that: “The main problem in Southern Thailand is political, while
social, economic, identity is relatively minor.” Political developments in the Thailand Deep South were
plagued by oppression, discrimination, murder and corruption.39 At the same time, the cause of problem
or conflict in Thailand’s deep south or Patani cause of Political justice.40

Thai political culture, which draws on polysemic symbols of nationality, royalty, and religion, has
had significant consequences for ethnic and religious minorities such as Muslims. Over time the Thai state
developed a complex ethnic management programme that combined assimilation policies without openly
denying pluralistic tendencies.41 When the government implemented the Thai policy, the Malays Muslims
in Thailand’s Deep South underwent assimilation in history, identity, and culture. The Thai-Buddhist culture
demands that all people participate in it. The Thai Buddhist government applied policies against the Islamic
religion and Malay culture.42

In the Rattanakosin era, Thai identity revolves around the concepts of “Chat, Sassana, Pramahakasat,”
or Nation, Religion (Buddhism), and Monarchy. Although Buddhism is the majority religion in Thailand, it is
not the official religion, and the Thai king is considered the patron of all faiths.43 As a result, The Malays
Muslims in Thailand’s Deep South suffered numerous challenges and hardships due to Thai government
regulations incompatible with their Islamic traditions. The Thai government had no regard for their life
values, which influenced the Malays Muslims in Southern Thailand to stand up in defence of their rights as
Muslim Malays. From a historical perspective, this assimilation started during the regime of Phibul
Songkhram when he introduced the Rathaniyom, which subsequent leaders continued. Under this policy

38 Ibid. 37
39 Ibid.
40 McCargo, D. (2010). Autonomy for Southern Thailand: Thinking the Unthinkable? Pacific Affairs, 83(2), 261–281.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25698454
41 SCUPIN, R. (1998). MUSLIM ACCOMMODATION IN THAI SOCIETY. Journal of Islamic Studies, 9(2), 229–258.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/26198063
42 Yaacob, C. pp.27
43 Yusuf, I. (2007). Faces of Islam in Southern Thailand. East-West Center. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06480

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of the Thai government, the Malay language and culture were to be abolished, marriage laws and fear were
put to the side, Malay costume was prohibited, and western clothes were conducted.44

The Last Sultanate of Patani

On the other hand, the Malay rulers did not accept their loss of autonomy without a struggle.
Tengku Abdul Kadir Kamaruddin, Sultan of Patani, gained the support of Sir Frank Swettenham, Governor
of the Straits Settlements, in August 1901, in response to the new challenges to his authority. Tengku Abdul
Kadir stated that, despite the Siamese appointing a Commissioner for Patani five years earlier, he had not
interfered considerably in the administration.45

Although Tengku Sulaiman, the ruler of Patani, died in 1896, the advantage of the situation was
taken to impose drastic changes. The heir was initially only given provisional recognition as a successor.
Despite being confirmed two years later, the Raja was limited to a mere official’s status. Moreover, the
Raja’s authority had dropped significantly. Customs dues collection at Patani port had stripped away from
him.46

Swettenham replied to Tengku Abdul Kadir’s appeal by advising him to be patient and avoid
violence. Concurrently, Swettenham made private representations to King Chulalongkorn of Siam in the
optimism of moderating his policy. However, the Siamese government held that the Sultan had been
deliberately seeking trouble, and in this way, he had persuaded to go by his interests in British Malaya.
However, because their appeal ultimately resulted in no action to “relieve them of the oppression and
unfairness by the Siamese,” the Malay rulers began to plan on their own, with Patani’s ruler, Tengku Abdul
Kadir Kamaruddin, as their leader.47

When the French learned that the Siamese had attacked in the south, the Malay ruler hoped they
would attack in the east and divert the Siamese forces away from Patani. In late 1901 and early 1902, Siam
government measures were taken to further tighten control in Saiburi and Rangae, including the
appointment of two Siamese officers to rule alongside the Malay rulers in each state. Tengku Muttalib of
Saiburi and Tengku Samsuddin of Rangae used passive resistance to consider complicating the actions of
the Siamese government. The Bangkok government ordered the take of force immediately in reaction to
the Malay Rajas’ potential revolt. Tengku Muttalib and Tengku Samsuddin had taken their action without
any notice. All of the displaced Rajas were less effective than the Sultanate of Patani. Surin Pitsuwan, former
Asian secretary, argued that due to the history of Patani, its respected religious establishment and economic

44 Ibid.
45 Hazim, Wan Mohd, (2022). Tengku Abduk Kadir Kamarudin ibnu al Marhum Tengku Sulaiman Sharifudin Syah.
Radenahmadpattani.blogspot.com. Retrieved 26 May 2022, from http://radenahmadpattani.blogspot.com/2012/03/tengku-
abduk-kadir-kamarudin-ibnu-al.html.
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.

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status. And the principality of Patani had been recognised as the capital of Malay states under Siamese
suzerainty. Thus Tengku Abdul Kamaruddin, the last Sultanate of Patani, was considered.48

On 21 February 1902, Tengku Abdul Kadir was arrested and later imprisoned in Phitsanulok
province. Tengku Abdul Kadir was charged with ‘gross disobedience’ against the king’s order. Tengku Pitay
or Kadir, the ex-Raja of Patani’s elderly uncle, was officially proclaimed as the new Raja of Patani.
Throughout the Malay Peninsula, his arrest was greeted with sympathy. As in Straits Settlements, mainly
the Singapore Free Press, the press attempted to raise an agitation for the Siamese action was a setback
for those interests that had hoped to embody the whole Malay area in a British protectorate. Still, the
Siamese was too firmly established to be displaced. The British government advocated the Raja’s
restoration in 1903, feeling indebted to him because he had taken Sir Frank Swettenham’s advice not to
organise a mutiny. Still, according to the Siam Government, Tengku Abdul Kadir would have been reinstated
if he had not refused to sign a commitment to keep the peace. On the other hand, Tengku Abdul Kadir
was released two years later and allowed to return to Patani because he did not engage in political activities.
Tengku Abdul Kadir and his family had moved to Kelantan after spending some time in Patani in 1905.49

The successor to His Son

Tengku Mahmud Mohyideen, a son of the former sultan, Tengku Abdul Kadir Kamaruddin, led the
fight to have Patani united with Malaya by the British government (Current Malaysia).His request was refused
by the British because the British were more pro-Siamese. As a result, the British backed Siam by combating
Malaya movements such as the Gerakan Patani Raya (GEMPAR- the Federation Prosecutor Malay Kingdom),
which aimed to help Malays Muslims in Patani. Tengku Mahmud Mohyideen was urged not to participate
in any actions related to Patani’s separation. The government pressured the Malay leaders because of
British support, which reduced the resistance.50 Haji Sulong and Tengku Mahmud Mohyideen are amongst
the Malay leaders who went missing or were assassinated in secret.51

And likewise, The Kingdom of Thailand was in charge of the disturbance, which was suppressed by
insurgent efforts. The turmoil emerged by the end of 1960 and the beginning of 1970. Groups of separatist
movements led this agitation to gain independence as per the aspirations of Malaya in 1957. Most of the
separatist movement’s leaders had earned higher education both inside and outside the country. In their
struggle for Patani’s independence, they employed violence and aggression. Their effort is still active today.
The government of Thailand and the separatist movement is suspected of involvement in the murders and

48 Yaacob, C. p.26-27
49 Thabchumpon, N.(1998). Grassroots NGOs and Political Reform in Thailand: Democracy behind Civil Society Rauli.cbs.dk.
Retrieved 26 May 2022, from https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/cjas/article/download/2164/2160.
50 Ibid. pp.27.
51 Ockey, J. (2011). Individual imaginings: The religio-nationalist pilgrimages of Haji Sulong Abdulkadir al-Fatani. Journal of
Southeast Asian Studies, 42(1), 89–119. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23020304

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burnings of public property.52 It can be seen that political bargaining is the negotiation of political power
between the ruler and the ruler who had the power of political legitimacy at that time. After 1909 Patani’s
political power has been confined to other forms of bargaining until the present.

Transition into Ordinary People

Historically, the power negotiation between the ruler and the ruler makes a deal and agreement
of legitimacy on the ruler, and people follow the ruler. However, the people in Thailand’s Deep South
have been a struggle for a long time since 1909. Almost all of their struggle is to protect to maintain their
identity, such as religious, ethnic, linguistic, economic and Political grievances.53 In response to the increased
political representation of Muslims, the Thai government has also adjusted its policies to accommodate
the religious-cultural demands of the community. Malay Muslim women are allowed to wear the hijab in
pictures for official documents, such as identity cards and passports, and at official places of work.54 In 1992
Islamic Administrative Bill was passed by the Thai parliament as introduced by almost of Malay Muslim
members of parliament became the 1992 Islamic Administrative Bill.55

However, on 28 March 2013, Thailand’s government formalised its first-ever peace talks agreements
with Muslim rebels in the south, seeking to end a decades-long conflict. The National Revolution Front
(BRN) signed the deal in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and Thailand is the state of various groups. Since the
political conflict started in the Muslim-majority region in 2004, more than 5,000 people have been killed.
The influence in peace is no one as the rebel leader is the person from a southern Thailand community
who had fled or sought asylum abroad seek a vital role in gaining “Political Justice” in the area. This
circumstance made political cheerful better than the violence happening until now.56 The peace talks
caused people in the area to become more alert and want to be more involved. Besides, the government
has opened a space for political activities. However, special law enforcement in this area still results in the
establishment of various networks in civil society in various fields.57

52 Thabchumpon, N. pp.27
53 Farrelly, N. (2016). BEING THAI: A Narrow Identity in a Wide World. Southeast Asian Affairs, 331–344.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/26466934
54 Yusuf, I. (2009). Ethnoreligious and Political Dimensions of the Southern Thailand Conflict. In A. Pandya & E. Laipson (Eds.),
Islam and Politics: Renewal and Resistance in the Muslim World (pp. 43–56). Stimson Center.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep10936.9
55 YUSUF, I. (1998). ISLAM AND DEMOCRACY IN THAILAND: REFORMING THE OFFICE OF “CHULARAJMONTRI/SHAIKH AL-

ISLĀM.” Journal of Islamic Studies, 9(2), 277–298. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26198065
56 Head, J. (2013). Thailand signs peace talks deal with Muslim rebels. BBC News. Retrieved 26 May 2022, from
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-21611764.
57 International Crisis Group. (2015). The Kuala Lumpur Process. In Southern Thailand: Dialogue in Doubt (p. pages 3-Page
11). International Crisis Group. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep31765.6

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Such as a legal organisation or a lawyer. Human rights protection organisations protect children and
women. The organisation heals those who are affected by violence. The childcare, Media organisations,
etc., currently have more than fifty organisations. These organisations can reflect the people’s political
participation, and access to government services or claims of various justice will bring more strength to the
public sector.58

Conclusion

In the state of Political culture in Thailand’s deep south, from the last sultanate to ordinary people.
We can understand that any area has its unique development of Political Participation; there has been a
development in the battle between the Kingdom of Siam and the Sultan of Patani. The followed by a
reduction in the legitimacy of Raja Patani in the region by external and internal factors. Furthermore, it
entered a period of influence, and the San Francisco Declaration of April 1945, the principle of self-
determination and liberation of colonised states by the United Nations charter. The struggle through the
former Sultan of Patani through the parliament and seven political demands led by spiritual leader Haji
Sulong, Islamic reformists and Malay nationalism during the transition period of Thailand’s first democracy
and a coup by General Phibu Songkram. The result of Thai nationalism in the present day has a negatively
accused by the Thai government. Until now, political struggle bargaining through the parliamentary system
of the ordinary people in Thailand’s Deep South was accessible by any means conditions Thailand
centralised.

However, which represents the political culture in the region. There is a political struggle between
violence and non-violence. Where there is injustice and resistance, depending on the political will. In
general, all citizens need peace in Thailand’s Deep South conflicts or worldwide, but what kind of peace
do we want to see and feel? As well as being able to inherit sustainable peace and stability. Therefore,
peace must be assured like a safe life, not being badly threatened, non-discrimination, receiving the welfare
they should be getting, gaining political rights, and being treated equally and somewhat like honest
citizenship. That is the peace that ordinary people like a researcher could realise.

58 Madakakul, S. (2018). Phak̄ prachā sangkhom sam̄ sippæt̄ ʻongkon̜̄ læ nakwichak̄ ān thalæn̄ g kan̄ thuā ngting rat yutti kān
khukkham̄ læ pit pak̄ prachāchon.[38 Civil Society Organizations and Academics have Voiced Protests Against the State to
End Harassment and Silence of People.] Chaidantai.com. Retrieved 26 May 2022, from http://www.chaidantai.com/?p=8865.

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Chapter 5

TAKHRIJ HADIS: METODE MEMELIHARA HADIS NABI SAW YANG RELEVAN DI ZAMAN INI

A Irwan Santeri Doll Kawaid

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM)

Pendahuluan

Ilmu takhrij merupakan satu cabang ilmu baharu dalam ilmu Islam malah dalam ilmu hadis itu
sendiri. Ia mula berkembang sekitar tahun 1950an.59 Meskipun begitu, ini tidak bermaksud bahawa takhrij
hadis adalah satu perkara baharu dalam dunia keilmuan Islam. Aktiviti takhrij hadis telah wujud dan telah
berkembang sejak kurun ketiga hijrah lagi.60 Namun takhrij hadis yang terdapat pada zaman dahulu adalah
lebih kepada berbentuk amali dan tiada apa-apa penulisan pada zaman itu yang berkaitan sudut teorinya.61
Pada zaman ini, ilmu ini banyak berkembang dari sudut teorinya dan penulisan berkaitannya juga banyak
dilakukan.Dari sudut etimologi, istilah ‘takhrij’ berasal dari kata kerja kharaja (‫ ) َخ َر َج‬yang berarti keluar.62
Dari sudut estimologi pula ia bermaksud menunjukkan tempat hadith pada sumber asalnya yang
mengeluarkannya dengan sanadnya dan menjelaskan statusnya ketika diperlukan. 63

Takhrij hadis amat diambil berat oleh banyak pihak di zaman ini. Bukan sahaja dalam penulisan
akademik, malah dalam penulisan umum, teks khutbah dan sebagainya diwajibkan agar para penulis
menyatakan sumber setiap hadis. Hal ini bagi memastikan hadis-hadis yang dinyatakan dalam mana-mana
penulisan mempunyai bukti kewujudannya dalam mana-mana kitab. Meskipun dengan menjelaskan
sumber-sumbernya belum tentu menunjukkan sesuatu hadis itu sahih. Tetapi dengan bukti kewujudannya
sekurang-kurangnya ia boleh dirujuk agar dapat dikaji dan diteliti. Berbanding jika sumbernya tidak diketahui
lansung.

Pemeliharaan Hadis di awal Islam

Selepas kewafatan Rasulullah SAW dan setelah berlakunya pembunuhan Saidina Uthman RA umat
Islam telah berpecah kepada beberapa kumpulan. Perpecahan yang berpunca daripada masalah politik ini

59 Deraman, Fauzi. "Ilmu Takhrij Al-Hadith: Pengertian, Sejarah dan Kepentingannya. Jurnal Usuluddin 14 (2001): 55-64.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
62 'lsmail bin Hammad al-Jawhari, al-Sihah. Tahqiq: Ahmad 'Abd al-Ghafur 'Attar. Beirut: Dar al-Mafayin. (1982). j.1. h 310, Abu
al-Hasan Ahmad ibn Faris. Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lughah. Tahqiq: 'Abd al-Salam Harun, Kahirah: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi. (1970).
j. 2. h. 175-176, Majd al-Din Muhammad bin Ya'kub al-Fayruz Abadi. Al-Qamus al-Muhit, Beirut: Muasasah al-Risalah, (1987). j.
1. h 192.
63 Al-Tahhan, Mahmud. Ushul al-Takhrij wa Dirasah al-Asanid. Beirut: Dar al-Qur‟ an al-Karim (1978). h. 12,

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bukan sahaja mengakibatkan timbulnya masalah-masalah luaran, seperti peperangan dan kekacauan tetapi
juga mengakibatkan timbulnya hadis palsu. Dalam kesempatan itu, terdapat beberapa pereka hadis yang
muncul dan berani mereka-reka hadis untuk kepentingan dirinya atau kumpulannya. Apabila fenomena ini
berlaku, para sahabat mula bermulalah berhati-hati dalam menerima hadis. Antara tindakan yang mereka
lakukan adalah tidak menerima apa-apa hadis kecuali yang mereka tahu.64 Sejak itu jugalah mereka memberi
penekanan yang begitu kuat kepada kredibiliti perawi dan kesahihan sanad. Ibn Sirin sebagai salah seorang
tokoh ulama hadis dari kalangan tabi‘in berkata:

"Sesungguhnya mereka (periwayat hadis) tidak bertanyakan tentang sanad sesuatu hadis, tetapi
apabila setelah berlakunya fitnah (pembunuhan ‘Uthman RA) mereka berkata, nyatakanlah kepada kami
nama rijal (periwayat hadis) kamu, maka dilihat kepada (periwayatan) dari kalangan Ahli Sunnah, dan kata-
katanya diterima, dan dilihat kepada (periwayatan) dari kalangan ahli al-Bid‘ah, maka kata-kata mereka tidak
diterima".65

Penekanan terhadap kredibiti perawi dan persambungan sanad antara setiap perawi yang terdapat
dalam sanad diperdalami lagi oleh para ulama sehingga timbullah ilmu-ilmu seperti Ilmu Rijal dan Ilmu al-
Jarh wa al-Ta’dil. Kedua-dua ilmu ini memberi fokus kepada aspek perawi hadis. Usaha-usaha seperti ini
dapat memelihara hadis Nabi SAW disebabkan kebenaran penisbahan sesuatu hadis kepada Nabi SAW dapat
dikesan melalui wujudnya persambungan periwayatan antara setiap perawi yang terdapat dalam sanad dan
perawi-perawi yang meriwayatkannya diketahui identiti dan kredibiliti mereka. Justeru setiap perawi perlu
menyatakan siapa orang yang menyampaikan kepadanya atau gurunya. Jika terputus, kebenaran penisbahan
hadisnya kepada Nabi SAW diragui dan boleh ditolak atau mereka didapati tidak berkredibiliti atau kredibiliti
mereka diragukan, maka penisbahan riwayat mereka kepada baginda Nabi SAW juga diragukan dan akan
ditolak. tambahan beberapa garis panduan berkaitan matan. Iaitu yang berkaiatan dengan masalah al-Syuzuz
66 dan ‘Illah.67

Setelah ilmu usul hadis mula disusun dan syarat-syarat hadis sahih menjadi garis panduan
penerimaan hadis, perkara ini telah menambahkan lagi ketelitian pemeliharaan hadis. Iaitu dengan

64 al-San'ani, Muhammad Ibn Isma'il. Tawdih al-Afkar li Ma'ani Tanqih al-Anzar, Kaherah.
65 Muslim, op cit. jld 1, hlm 13.
66 al-Syuzuz ialah suatu percanggahan periwayatan di antara seorang perawi yang thiqah dengan
periwayatan perawi-perawi thiqah yang lai. Abu Syahbah. 1403H. al-Wasit fi ‘Ulum wa Mustalah al-Hadith.
Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabiyy. hlm. 228.
67 ‘Illah ialah suatu kesilapan halus yang terdapat dalam sesuatu Hadis yang menyebabkannya dianggap
bermasalah. Ibid. hlm. 228.

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tambahan beberapa garis panduan berkaitan matan. Iaitu yang berkaiatan dengan masalah al-Syuzuz 68 dan
‘Illah.69

Pemeliharaan Hadis di Zaman Ini

Metode menilai kesahihan hadis dengan melihat kepada persambungan sanad, krediliti perawi dan
matan adalah metode memeliharaan hadis yang digunakan dari zaman ke zaman dalam Islam. Di zaman
ini pun metode ini masih lagi relevan. Namun disebabkan perubahan zaman dan kitab-kitab hadis yang
dikarang mulai kurun ke 5 hijrah lagi mulai tidak menyatakan sekali sanad-sanad hadis maka metode
pemeliharaan hadis sudah berubah. Ia ditambah dengan metode baharu iaitu dengan takhrij hadis.Inilah
metode yang digunakan oleh ulama hadis sejak kurun 7,8,9 dan seterusnya. Meskipun sanad tidak
dinyatakan, tetapi dengan menyatakan sumbernya, iaitu apa-apa kitab, sudah cukup untuk menjadi bukti
kewujudan hadis. Dengan membuktikan kewujudannya dapat dipastikan bahawa hadis tersebut bukanlah
rekaan. Walaupun hadis tersebut belum tentu benar, kerana terdapat hadis yang bersumber tetapi palsu,
tetapi dengan membuktikan kewujudannya, sekurang-kurangnya dapat mengelakkan setengah daripada
hadis palsu.

Ini bukan bererti penekanan terhadap perawi tidak lagi penting, tetapi ia tidak lagi relevan dalam
zaman yang hadis-hadis tidak lagi dipaparkan sanadnya. Tujuan sanad dibuang selepas pengarang asal
adalah kerana mengelakkan ia menjadi panjang kerana ia akan terus bersambung ke banyak generasi. Namun
persambungan itu tidak akan ada apa-apa kesan terhadap kesahihan atau kedhaifan hadis.

Maka melalui takhrij, hadis Nabi SAW dapat diketahui kebenaran penisbahannya kepada Baginda
SAW, iaitu melalui bukti kewujudannya dalam mana-mana sumber ulama Islam. Dengan metode ini, hadis
Nabi SAW dapat dipelihara daripada dimanipulasi dan didakwa berasal daripada Nabi SAW sedangkan tidak
ditemui dalam mana-mana sumber ulama Islam kewujudannya. Dengan mengetahui ketiadaannya dalam
sumber-sumber itu, dapat diketahui bahawa hadis tersebut adalah rekaan dan palsu.

Metodologi Kajian

Kajian yang dijalankan ini adalah berbentuk kualitatif sepenuhnya dan melibatkan pengumpulan
data melalui kajian perpustakaan. Oleh yang demikian, karya-karya utama khususnya dalam disiplin ‘ulum
al-hadis dan ilmu takhrij akan dijadikan sebagai rujukan untuk mendapatkan data-data primer. Justeru, antara
karya penting yang membincangkan tentang ilmu takhrij adalah seperti Ushul al-Takhrij wa Dirasah al-Asanid
oleh Mahmud Al-Tahhan dan Ta'sil li Usul al-Takhrij oleh Bakr bin 'Abd Allah Abu Zayd, Selain daripada itu,
beberapa sumber lain turut menjadi rujukan pengkaji iaitu antaranya al-Talkhish al-Habir fi Takhrij Ahaadith

68 al-Syuzuz ialah suatu percanggahan periwayatan di antara seorang perawi yang thiqah dengan periwayatan perawi-perawi
thiqah yang lai. Abu Syahbah. 1403H. al-Wasit fi ‘Ulum wa Mustalah al-Hadith. Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabiyy. hlm. 228.
69 ‘Illah ialah suatu kesilapan halus yang terdapat dalam sesuatu Hadis yang menyebabkannya dianggap bermasalah. Ibid.
hlm. 228.

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