Practical English Language Teaching (PELT) Speaking (Bailey Kathleen.)

Practical English Language Teaching

Speaking

Kathleen Bailey
David Nunan, Series Editor

Acknowledgements , Table of Contents

My publisher and I would like to thank the following individuals who AFocrkenwoowrlde.d...g..e..m...e..n..t..s..................................................................................i.v.vi AHRF87..uneeACrlfsptewshofsreueneerrlscnsrWlkciueneesaegsibyd.oi.in..nsn..t..i..eg..t...r.e.s..m.....s.......e........d..........i.....a..........t.....e...............l.....e.........a........r.......n..........e........r.......s................................1.....11111111111367665
reviewed the Practical English Language Teaching and Practical English Language Ch|apter One Chapter Four
cToeamchminegn: tSapryeakwinags miannsutrsucmripentstaalt vinarihoeulspisntaggeussofshdaepveelothpemseentparonfdeswsihoonsael
RreofenoreafnlEcdnegvCliosalhurmtSeteursd,:ieCs,enUtrneiveforsrityEnogflNishottiLnagnhgaumag, eUKEducation, Department HFR4537W621.......ueeCATAWISrlfhptnepeohspftrhaseanepureecaaorrlctnshkotdlsrWciiuaiieinnuesncssaggecsghisbd.toessip.isin.snposen.pp.ie.na.aget.t.oaek..aec.s...k.ikt....as.n....ii.i....pon.ng....k.....en.gg.?........ai..................nk..................i.........ng..................g.........?....................................................................................................................................................................................2....................7.....2.22..1..2..6666322711 Speaking for advanced
Andy Curtis, The English School, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
N icThhoalialasn dD im m itt, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Two RFH3854726l1.e.......ueeATTvSPCtIrSlfotpnesrpyaeehoifstrsaleaneulrnelekcaadcorlscnshkblivsdrWlpciieuiauaennunlesnenasaggegcsscidbdd.tropiea.ieinf.nnmsoddrn.os.oi.vintr.g.tlgeah.na.e..est.nte..nru.ee....a.....ac.sinrc....r.s..c..ei.lnc.....as.had......i.u.e...ls.i....a.s.n.e.l..rs..t......es.rgs......i.ao........o.........r.so........n.n......p...m..........e......e............r..a...........s.........k......................i............n.......................g......................................................................1.11111111111515555422422067965270461
Chapter Five
MFDDCeaooarrnnrVfnoocaaearllrilmHndmnddeeeorolOlngFLytcFe,riocnsUelfeheseSAuniemAulr,,uzqaSMmzunoonioi,yi,nk,a,mgSWSAicayohoGLuronlIaPodAgkaluuNULilnfZoeno,aAiWrvrB,neroirIMansmnzigtoiteely/nSnr,tnc’eSshaveUotioidoonuelinlov,af,eKolrUrsoirTrtIuyenrga,atueiSnareniynnadgtia,oi,nBJaalrpaTattnrlaeibnoinrog,; Speaking for beginning
KBeattIshnyyaPdWadrietrieoidsnh,, ,EDHdaiavtomidrl,iNnTeuEnUSaOnniL,v’tsehEressisstyeenr,iteSiast.leTPdeaiatucolh,re,rM,gGainvenenemesvoeata,h,SeUlwpSiftuAzlefrelaenddb.ack on Key issues in teaching
the draft as well as clear guidelines with which to work and a strong sense of HRF8452376l1.e.......ueeTvPSTCbAlrISlfetpneerpyeaehsoifartgaslesneulnrlerkcieaacrolnncnshskblidrWnslpceiieuuaeinnuilernsnnesaaggesscgsigdbdd..torpi..ibeinf..lnmnsorn..osee..o.iin.tg.rga.tage..hn....iers.ttn.e..n.unree....s.....na.inres..c....s....c.ii.rlc......nas.ah....s...i..u...lg..si....a...s..n..e..s....t........rsg.......i....o.......o............so.........n.........p..m..................e...................a..................k........................i.............n.......................g....................................t............o................................88.8.................565......738273643074926511
vision about the series as a whole. RFH98546372s1........u.peeTlCtRLSrMRssEISlfeaptenppeeptneheeraofuueertcgeaatgsceunrealaidhaerphrltoclkkcknniieknoei-sdrWcliicnniiolninhnunenneulegtnlcdggasasevggoscsei’ibssdeggp.tcaonas.fpsliaiye.tgclicns.on.eyrnesaa..tti..san.isglpktid.sa.t.vteo.v.n..e.e-iss.k.s.i..nl.d.dai.t....sa.o..iit....gki.o..e...n.i.nr.n.......ei.sm.a...g...cgn........s.l.t.u.....igl.i...h......n...naa.e.........e.......cg..a.r.s................lren...s.......a..o........c.....s......u.....r......es...........ss.......e.....e.........i.....s........n..............i...............n.........................................t.............h.........................e...........111111111111188888776765556565048293998
quesMtioyncsr,itaicnadl bsuugdgdeys,teAdncdlayssCrouormtise,xpamropvliedsedtoeinllcuosutrraatgeesmoemnet, oafsktheed igdreeaast Three Glossary.......................................... 188
in my draft. He also pointed out differences among British, Canadian, and
AGmuneTHrdhieceeraernmsaevtenamtr,hibeeLetiirMenssdooonaffteEOtrhne’egRylieoIsdnhkis.tetoAi,trusiaatnealdptoeDefaeaImrnvrtieeadvrtnieAaMwtvicoeeGrnr,arbAalawnSc-dthHuy.diliislestE,hSemLby/eEsftrL!ieTn—dEarnikd Speaking for intermediate
pasrsoiostfarenat,diJnegf,fbiMblaiotgtirsaopnhy, chheelcpkesd, awnidthlibwraorryd repsreoacrecshsi.nHg,isWweobrk sweaitrhchmese,
JMuwStcchoohshaeeauleslecselFSrtoikhscsdiolgiuinteamneeeisapcgdenlMepalpytaonathaur,enrdiaeztrsxdnezaBktmdsarsltseacenra,rcatidntiintnhhlnpsuotsetasrnpscCacin.grannrhsi-ryibusatptecCebpAtrrbd.mthmieiybMaiblrseipysysand3tui.eMogdpbfrnaapyhacdo4euCn,drlltpHetdaieyacerryaeddsedrllDoiwebyrnfvayeieRtestahhMeluloeddw.prdcMIeomMoewran.odepinAnlppnldttrrnaeeaoergnatcecearri,exya,astwnctrsIemtaonionclsrtfylgthtkrei,oeitecnufmiadtrretsieCdsaepJ.ennheombddarsmsypbretleiJeipsRwnreshgieos5o,rsnnwaakiencneatedddoas 45362l1e...... vSTcTiPISnnlpryaeeatitselaenlsrlkacracosmshkblirdpiieoueannulsoednaggcsmiddtrapiienft.nmoroes.o.intr.gaehln..e.ttne..uere.a..a.nriis.r.sn.ci.nc..as.ht...i.euel..i.a.s.rn.er...mt...ssg..i.......o...e....s......nd.....p.......i....e...a..........a....t.......ek..............i.......n..............g.....................t......o.....11..........11..........00.....8999909861
Thank you all so much! Kathi Bailey

iv v

Foreword Overview

Vision and purpose TChheafpirtsetrch1apter provides an orientation and historical overview of the teach­
iansgseossfinspgesapkeinakgi.nTg.he chapter also introduces key principles for teaching and
Twkegsseererhasrecyy,eioae.oatsnPes,rTdrrpPahteaedcrecnataeitcdccpsphtatiuoflhecofraErrpstllnehaoEgiinasgnnlngeingsuphlwiloarsaLegfhanapsegtLnahupgtarieaaounsagatgscisgeubohieaobntigenolTeewagkecaThimhcnieoshiaenitcnmtthghhogeiaonmsgyedec,exrooiotpprlehrorelsooogmdivvrysoeoiadldilyonuetehgsmnsaeyioange.tn,ntTaehewcoahdaccvheveheifeslociresnaorfilgboraplelrtreimoanvtfhcytoarteellsioutcptdsmirneanuaaomegickntteiiititnnoenrtigangivtmchitihiaionnesl­
remaining both comprehensive and accessible. CChhaapptetersrs2-24-4introduce you to the teaching of speaking to beginning, inter­
bmeelodwia.te, and advanced students respectively. Each chapter follows the format
Features
pTCrhhoenaufpinntceailract5ihoanptienr leaxrgpelo, rmesukltei-yleivsesul ecslaisnscelsu,dwinogrkthinegtewaicthhinlegaronfesrpsewakhionghaanvde
• Aovecrlveaierworaienndtaatinoninttorotdhuecttieoanchtiongmoafjosrpeaapkpinroga,cihnecsluadnindg aannalyhsisetsortihcaalt udsififnegretnect hlneoarlonginyg. styles and strategies, responding to learners’ errors, and
AhgaaRtsuaeesvadf,egleesaeetscniaintnditilfeogeoaandrsdcmphqvtreiuaeenadneakgsctiptmeniaeodgendnnladasegtnvioAodnegflvcsyptti,hi.rtoiopennrngtouetvrnaaeicscdakhiidasinntegirgroespnqortufoaaicstrttpiehinecaiagancklkhritneeaogacbfdhoatenhutrietbsqsecuetgreoilistenivcafnoeapillrnpsgi.ltsye,sauictnehhtseeinrinmgideleaaadnnsid,­­
Chapter structure for Chapters 2-4
• ApAilmeSnexruauitggtn“rrlhkrtngacieeeciei-painlytsrestlgteivoidofssesrwen,stloyausnamllecnefssloosda”iarftsauutscpbentaehhrocdtsaaieho,ocpnsnkntttitiisre.niqc,acrtautraelcetorghlsitdailiaelcutstuoslsces.pristtonrrh,ooageamvtintioteddeinaenccWshtfehrnsoreioanubmlcggsotigigtaooeeyfsnsw,ts.ioipodafenefnasedkrrfiainonncgrggatedraeeenrosaidonfliugtpnerrgcxotetonwbsuoifdtnoohickrfifslaaeatdrraigeodnnendi,t­
Atcioonrneeaxllapunapgn-utsoaiv-gdeeagtteeloaiscnshfaiornrygmtthaetaritmonos.f.fers short and straightforward definitions of rGeaodaltsh:eScuhmapmtearriaznesd wcohmatpyleotuedshthoeulRdekflneocwtioannadndbeAacbtiloentotasdkos.after having
Introduction: Gives an overview of the chapter.
Audience Sdiyfflelarebnut sledveelss,iganndisthseuecso:ncOeurntlsintehsatthinefosprmeaksiynllgabisussuedsestihgant. are relevant at
Pspreiankcinipglaetsdfioffrerteenat clehvienlsgasrepeinatrkoidnugc:edA,pdpirsocpusrisaetde, parnidnciilplulestsraftoerd.teaching
Anosvwiciethtethaechoevres.rvIiteswhovuolldumales,othbies obfovoakluisedteostihgonseed wfohroboarthe eaxbpoeurtietoncjoeidnatnhde Tfoarstkeaschainndg smpeaatkeinrigaalsn:dDperoscnruibnecsiaatinodn ialltuesatrcahtelsevteelc.hniques and exercises
ppbryroa-cfsetteiscpsaiolgnua.pidIpatrnowcaielclhouenpsdtthaoeteteptarhacechtieincxgepseoprfieelaankncigneugda.tgTeeahcteehanecrohvoinincgec. uterarecnhterthweiollreftiincdalstaenpd- Ainstsheesscilansgsrospomea. king: Introduces practical techniques for assessing learners
wCiothnicnluthseiochna:pRteerv. iews the goals of the chapter and how they were discussed
Fabuorutthteerachreinagdsipnegask:inLgisatns daprtrioclneusncoiratbioono.ks to enhance your knowledge
HanedlpprfounluWnceibatisoint.es: Provides ideas for Web resources for teaching speaking

Goals WsOpneheaaktinisg?

A t the end o f this chapter, you should be able to:

✓ provide your own definitions of speaking and pronunciation.
✓ describe different approaches to teaching speaking.
✓ understand the relationship between the various com ponents of

spoken language.

✓ explain w hat speech acts are and give exam ples of various

speech acts.

✓ de s c rib e how speaking is taught in three pro m inent language

teaching m ethods used over the past several years.

✓ identify com m unication strategies that language learners can use

when they encounter difficulties.

✓ distinguish between direct, indirect, and sem i-direct tests of

speaking.

✓ explain the differences between objective, analytic, and holistic

scoring of speaking tests.

✓ a p p re c ia te the im portant role of pronunciation in helping

learners increase their com prehensibility when they speak English.

1

1. Introduction 3. Approaches to speaking

ipTwlimcuSnneosaeheaucemrcerlSstdtuwnTntipeoode,hiccoolnfriiotlnivnssintmoe’egh5rnnecrs,eeSvphtawtesii3ecah,ecnqa,hpeetwtikuaitonwoewipiycncnrpseteilkgeolluawlra4mwrd,soy,islkilieov.wlnlwiwlolegFelederksheixvitnwefxswhpiafnaehaieeltillwomolrllwlyesriuaimeon,eslonndmctwfepautsehrebwodseteedheryeitbiewsmraffapeafunismtetelpsnhtwlmraeoadeeskcserionausiotneqmdtnaebnnudngettaseoe.letispnispadnpotipticeisaocfroashrlokuntionaehntec,hfecnsego“ewhpnWaavemrcvbnolsaeaheeodrnpnixattuuohotgtiwntunouoicsrtgdsatfeiiegstaascatsqetpecocpitu.nhoehhmeeIainiaansnnlkp.tktaggiiotinInohhnnnggnassegeuppv?ntpa”eoeehatrgaafsenNokkebdhc.iifteennheoixeriIsggawtstnnss.,,tt For many years, language teaching was seen as helping learners develop
lwbaininotdsrgdacusno,idmsatpnmiicdeucngecirscoaamomtfem.pa aelratnepgnautctaeegr—en,tshsaotutfdEeisnn,gtslhiscehol.puilTndhgeevsiedtnuetdaueanwltlasys pmtuhatasttthbeerymsthtauleldytosiongugenthtdheser,
2. What is speaking?
In the 1970s and 1980s, however, our understanding of language learning
In this section, we will consider what we mean by “speaking.” In experienced a significant shift in focus. This shift was influenced by interna­
lliasntegnuiangge, treeaacdhiningg, waned owftreintintga)lkinabtoeurmt stheoffothuerirladnigrueacgtieonskailnlsd (mspoedaakliintyg., tional developments in linguistics, curricula, and pedagogy, as well as by soci-
Language generated by the learners (in either speech or writing) is considered olinguistic research (primarily in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United
pimsrekodndiouuwmcntiaovsfer,tehacenedpllataninvggeuuaalggaenegdu(iwargehecette(hSdearavtiigttnhoeisnl,eaa1ur9nr9ae1lr)/s.oMr(ainlordeoaardliiwtnygritroteerfnel)ri.sstetTonhintuhgse), Kingdom, and the U.S.). In addition, the numbers of refugees and immi­
speSapkeiankginigs tchoenspirsotsduocftipvreo,dourcailnsgkilsly. stematic verbal utterances to convey grants resettling in English-speaking countries made linguists and language
macetiavneinpgr.oc(eUssttoefrcaonncsetrsucatriengsimmepalynitnhgintghsatpienovpollevessayp.)roSdpuecaiknignganisd “raenceiinvtienrg­ ttoeabcehearbsleretaolizsepetahkatEdnegvleislhopwinegll lainngdugisetticalcoonmgpientesnoccieetayl.one was not enough
and processing information” (Florez, 1999, p. 1). It is “often spontaneous,
open-ended, and evolving” (ibid., p. 1), but it is not completely unpredictable. In the mid-1970s the notion of linguistic competence came to be viewed
aasbialictyomofploanngeunat goef tlheearbnreorsadtoerinidteeraaoctf wcoitmh omthuenr iscpaetaikveersc, otommpaekteemnceaen“inthge,
Speaking is such a fundamental human behavior that we don’t stop to as distinct from their ability to perform on discrete-point tests of grammatical
asonnalyiszeexipt eurnileenscsinthgeraesipseseocmh eptahtihnoglongoytic(eifaablpeearsboonutstiut.ttFeorsr eoxraimf hpilse,spifeaecpheirs­ knowledge” (Savignon, 1991, p. 264). Being communicatively competent
impaired due to a stroke or a head injury), we may realize that the speech is p“r.e2q6u7i)r.es an understanding of sociocultural contexts of language use” (ibid.,
atypical. Likewise, if someone is a particularly effective or lucid speaker, we espeTchiaelrlye Baraechsmevaenr,al1i9m90p,oarntadnCt manoadleelasnodfScwomainm,u1n9i8c0a)t,ivaell coofmwpheictehnicneclu(sdeee
may notice that her speech is atypical in a noteworthy sense. What we fail to asopmpreopforriamteolyf soinciovalirnioguusisctoicntcexotms. pSeotecinoclien,guoirsttihce acboimlitpyettoenucsee liannvgoulavgees
nloogtiiccael,osnocaiald,aailnyd bcauslitsu,rahlofwacetvoerrs,tharaet mthuestmalylrwiaodrkphtoygsiectahle,rmwehnetnalw, epssypcehako.­ gsrcteuoyagmlgAiesepntseesohttrtrehiaften(tedricgeniiegmeg.rs,epIetanoosnrtdtcoaeofrnpmmtofolspeirltemeeonmnfasealsesipttnseyetasfotakorfniarndtcgegoga,impinetsfhmsoi.isrunmnissiackltiaihtltyleisv),leaenaacdpropnmkrenorpo’peswrtieaalnbeticdelegitweyi.sotFrsodotrurcasehetxoealigacminec,­­
It is even a more impressive feat when we hear someone speaking effectively ple, if you don’t know a word you need to express your meaning, what
in a second or foreign language. strategies can you use to make your point?
bgcrooatmmhApmcoeafhtotieeucsnraitlochnean,cado“n/hmdoorpwcoloenhsxeeeincnraettelnncoreceflea(ctLeioolaemnzmsamhreaiunptntosinbc,eaatrt2wei0ve0etei1en,dcptoh.tmoe1gpd0ee4ittf)hef.eenCrrce,e”onthwipeshasircidtohsinsoicnfoicsaluu“srdteshenees­
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What is speaking? 3

I Extract 1 excellent mastery of English grammar rules. She also can appropriately
engage in many different types of speaking, from a casual conversation to giv­
Jeff: Hey, Lindsey, how’s it going? ing a formal conference presentation to a large audience of strangers. Her
speech displays both cohesion and coherence, so she demonstrates her dis­
Lindsey: Wow! I just had a test and it was really hard! course competence as well. If she needs to use an unfamiliar word or struc­
htuerre,mesahneinugs.es her strategic competence and finds a way to convey
Jeff: Oh, what was the test about?
These four components of communicative competence have several
Lindsey: Statistics! A ll those formulas are so confusing! practical implications for EFL and ESL teachers. Since communicative com­
petence is a multifaceted construct, it is important for teachers to understand
Jeff: Yeah, I don’t like that stuff either. the complexities learners face when they are speaking English.
aspbeilaiOtkyenrteoiossfpbtehoaotkhsepflrcuooepmnetprlaleynx-ditthiaeacstciiussr,bastaeell.aenAccticinncggutfrhlaueeccnyocryirneacnthtdiwsaoccrcodunsrtaeacxnytd. rAeexfepprrrsoefstiosciiotehnnest
In this brief conversation, there are several examples of cohesion. In to convey the intended meaning, as well as using the grammatical patterns of
JLwsetiuofnffrdfsd”ssesryeestf’caseotrfinssirtdistcotsttusuatrnranntd,istfthhoiceersmprauernlpodaensfaooatursrmnetuhsPlaeyrsne.wofAenorylrsldmtthooteeutsshste..e IFtneinstaLlsilnhyed, sihenayJs’esjfufss’etscmloanestdnttiutournrnne,d“t.thhIanet dEenngtlliysh, .aFndluaetnacrya,teoncotnhseisotethnet rwhitahndth, eisntohremcsapoafctihtey rtoelespveaankt nflautiidvley,spceoencfih­
devices make the conversation Ccohmapmtuerni4t.y). (We will revisit the concepts of fluency and accuracy in
coofhueCtstioevhreae.nrecneceinalsao dhiasscotourdsoe”wi(tRhi“cthhaerdrse,latPiolantts,hiapnsdwhWicehbelirn,k 1th9e85m, epa.ni4n5g)s.
HFknooorwweexvtahemar,tptclheoe,htetwhreeonfceoevleloonwftsteinangreinesvxcochhlevadenusgleethdiesatsctpoheheaeksreaermnst’ebbteiamccakeu:gsreoutnhde ktwnoowpleeodpglee. An important concept for teachers to understand is that while students
are at the beginning and intermediate levels of language learning, that is,
I Extract 2 while they are still developing their proficiency, fluency and accuracy often
Person 1: Going to the review session? work against each other. Before grammar rules become automatic and while
Person 2: Rugby practice. lseeaarrncehrisngareonsteil’ls amcqeumiroinryg efsosrentthiael vroigchatbuwlaorrydistemcasn, abpeplylainbgortihoeusrulmesenantadl
processes, which slow the learners’ speech and make them seem dysfluent.
peopBloethspceoakhiensgioinn aanndewcolhanegreunacgee,ctohnetrsipbeuctiefictolindgisucisotuicrseelecmomenptsettehnactem. aFkoer Likewise, language learners can sometimes speak quickly, without hesitating
sopfeaecchoncvoehressaitvioenc.an be especially demanding to produce during the pressure rtoacayp(ptlhyatthise, trhuelesnuthmebyehr aovfeerleroarrsnetdh,eybumtadkoeining ssopemakaiyngdemcareyaisnecrtehaesier)a. ccu­

Reflection Reflection

Think about som eone you know who is truly bilingual or multilingual who Think about a time when you yourself were studying a new language.
can function effectively and apparently effortlessly in two or more W hat was more im portant to you— fluency or accuracy? Did you
languages. Can you think of examples of the four components of consistently try to combine the two? Or did your focus at the time depend
com m unicative com petence in that person’s speech? on the context in which you were speaking?

nisenatIsfhuoallfvyec-coaommfmripeuenntdeincnatatbimvileeindcgoLumialllpiaewnteh,nowchereogwiushleaanrlnyashtdieveemspsoepnaeksatskr.aetIrenos ftaeClrlmanfsotouonrfechsoeem.r Slpihone­­ An important concept to keep in mind is that people use language in rec­
guistic competence, she has very good pronunciation, a wide vocabulary, and ognizable ways to get things done. There are many, mthaant ystu“dsepnetes clhearanctths”e
a(oprpfruopnrciattieonwsa)yisntoanaycclaonmgpulaigshe, tahnedir igtoiaslsimwphoerntantht ey are speaking. Some
4 Chapter 1
What is speaking? 5

iampoploorgtiaznint gs,preeefcuhsinacgt,swinarnEinnggl,ischominpclluimdeentthinangk, idnigr,ecrteinqgu,esctoinmgpilnafinoirnmga,tiaonnd, What are the specific differences among the following utterances?
nuscooosenodfoOnunt.snoeieo-mtnoi.ne-oatFennoreermsfetooixnrraegmmti/hspmasluneee,aonminnienatgntehyaiccnoyhgrei,rnaeagrssnpadaongntdhodi,lesenmadcruyena.ilhniTtugyshsbcepaaennseadbcmheaentahdcuettstIseiowrsautenrhrccaeeet potchafacesnkroeimnbieges 1. Pack the silverware.
otEeaaasipannnuontedddrngienLlgIccaaigisehosskshasouaea—auriktwcdemidefntnio.idsnesrreTodoeia,ltc.ahshttt.miThhiecnvIaerheakertamaw,helahtar.opbWeaeedriormvndweuheisginnte,omntnittuddenrhaliriigwedpnfnpf,.yegrefpeaorHaswmtfeleatcleneaodtektrywdaftsthdsohoihiknrtwarseiogemtvndqsiIausniucttlmsgoctvecheaseoefroetnr,omaiawuonrt“blp,nacdDselreweieiapssuvd.esh:aseHcerdyatakdhioelsreutctehhhooqsoepavauaudamesecrcirssciklee,tnvodetgmwtfehrootewnpheradlaalsiisetsreniiedhntlwf.vouethserhppimrhsewecaaaqasadtkaruimoeimenn?npsoge”,,­ 2. Please pack the silverware.
3. Would you please pack the silverware?
231... IAHt’erseycn,o’htldoywoinuahfboeorruge!tetctilonsginsgomtheethdinogo?r? 4. I’d appreciate it if you would please pack the silverware.
raodoomAolrltotoofthatehreopsoeermsuo.ttnTerhwaenhscoeeshseaandrteelnedfcitreetshcwetivodeuoslodursboeedpestnpo.otkUreynndtobeyrgsetsatonsmdoeimnogenoetnhieenssteoiduectltotehsree­ What are the mitigating effects of the additions made to each
ances and acting on them appropriately, however, depends on the context in subsequent utterance?
which they are spoken. The context apparently involves two (or more) peo­
ple, a room with an open door, and a cold day. But would a low-level ItSaendyndntehetIArandecst.otstiyThecpoceahauolelcfnykicdrbisaatttunhscteiuotcstensterepsiealirr,vsnaotecntsprhecwooe,esfsa,oierttnhewiol.ueyentWvtteherhrheareabamvntepca(copeijhnlausiasctsenkgt)tngehteaethesnseisdnsthacmbtmerhaeanerear?ek:sdieiitnrrmhge,ecplpytelseropalaobestejnaiev’,kgceheet,arrs(otwahrbseaencsweiotlnsvomertardmhwdsedaaneraleiddrs)e...­
wtweameionlupllllydo(oynrpeorbeto.ymbTasabhokelmeyseeaoonndnylieyroewfcbttheihvoesesahseiadassrtbaenytoeamslclooecvnnieatcslreyteronqcuaafaosclursoapmwlo-philniaotnefnkyaencpsto,rsweqsciuoodinnteesentrtia?annifAnootltsrmh,meoorasrltq-waucnehitrdoe­ Is“niWlvtoehurewldtahryiero)du,a..tn.hd?e”tbFhaiensaicplloypl,ritoienpnotehsseistifomonuarr(tkthheeurststepareraeankceeemr, wbtheaadntdtseendtthierienhqeauaeqrseutrieostnotiohpnaascfkboertmehne:
has different expectations about politeness). vsdceihemetuyvabnaeeTtegdlihodoeipidsnsnesht.edhmaxesiaeintrnrhcytreihesepedefeiaffrrefdetecodmrtiierotineinfotsdsnwsofaofalturyesssnet.aixtnthApegarms,et ospetsrnheimtnoe,gpi“stliIetagh’mdaeletemaianpsrbgnpea,lrsvettioheccesisapdpatreipeorapeipktrcootisEnfpi.entr.is.igo.as”lntioesElhfcya,tachnithenh ebroveyefaqtrmuhcioeeoususnstes.t­

There are many ways of making spoken utterances more or less polite. 4. Speaking in action
The various linguistic means of softening a message are known as
mofiwtiogradts,iopnh.raTsehsi,s c“lsaoufsteesn,inogr ”enctainrebuettearcacnocmesp.lished through pronunciation “picFtuigreu”reof1tohne pcoagmepo8,newnhtsichofIstphoikneknolfanasguvaagne.LTiehre’sl(e1f9t 9c5o)lupmyrnamlisitds, fiosuar
utmmtthrhsaauaeedstsitcttwetheiarioen)lsl,.ntewpaaTrlsyohrcatreaeorksmealeuatcoishmdugenoneraifsttshl,slaieamnbarg,ertuoelusssoiitsmolttuhfiuftcneeoldtnrauaennnerraesexilttofypsaeuslnrooisrsdlrfeyid(nsi,wnpgwtohoothkihrceeadehnnsetcrltleehoataaonemcrghnhp“ueeleoaerrlnsgvspeeemsnolps(tuu”eswrsahtooklieffucaEnlhsrandpnnlgeoeeglrkraiussserta.hnang.enerWEd.s)neT,mghawliunesislhydlt
6 Chapter 1
What is speaking? 7

Reflection Extract 3
Person 1: Hungry?
Study the labels in Figure 1 and circle any that are unfam iliar to you. Try to Person 2: Yep.
guess at their m eanings and see if your predictions are supported in the Person 1: Pizza?
paragraphs explaining the figure. Person 2: Nope.
Person 1: Mexican?
ciateLdeti’ns tshtaertlawyipthertshoen’psymrainmdidw’sitbhawser.itAtelnthloaungghuatghee, wteoxrtds ctaenxtbeiseoifttheenr awsrsiot­­ Person 2: Mmmhm, nah.
utenndeoterrmspinoekdenl.enHgtehr.eSpthoekentetremxtsrecfoenrssisttoofsutrtteetrcahnecseso: fthliannggsutahgaet poefopalne Person 1: Chinese?
say. In speech, an utterance is not always a complete grammatical sentence, Person 2: Maybe.
as sentences are used in writing. For example, if two close friends are talking Person 1: Sushi!
about what to eat, we might hear a conversation that goes something like this: Person 2: Yeah!

8 Chapter 1 tcyopniscNiasoltinnoegf ocfoaftshueuastletesurpatotnekcreeasnncletahsnagitsuaaagrceeomannpodltetisetensmetenantkecenescs.es,e(nbYsuoetutthoceaucnso. nuIvsteerissasutaicohtnexiast
ccaonnvseursstaatiinona casonsvpeeraskaitniognptrhaactticcoenisnistcslaossf:ohnalyveonsetu-wdeonrtds usteteerhaonwcesl.o)ng they

Reflection

Listen to people speaking English on a bus or a train, in a restaurant, in a
store— in any public place where people are talking norm ally and where it
is not inappropriate for you to listen to them. Do they speak in com plete
I®*' f gramm atical sentences, or do they use utterances that are not complete
sentences?

To continue our exploration of the next level in van Lier’s pyramid (page
8), a mcalatiucaslesucbonjescist tasnodfaavt elrebasmt two words (usually m ore) that contain a
gram arked for tense (that is, a verb that is not in
ictasninsfitnanitdivealoorne“bianrew” rfiotrtmen). dIinscdoeuprseen(d“Aennntaclwaaussecsooakreinfgulldisnennetern”)c,eswthhilaet
dd(“eeWppeheninldeedAnetnncntlaaucwsleaasumcsuoesostkbicneagantdntiaonctnhee(“rd,WttohheialenteilAne pdnhenopane newdraeasnntgcc.o”lo)auksinegtodbine nceorm...p”)l.eteA.
unTith, ebnuet xutnlleikveel,claaupshers,atshee,ycodnosinstost of two or more words tha t function as
a have a subject or a verb marked for
tense. There are several kinds of phrases, including prepositional phrases (“in
the hospital” or “after school”), noun phrases (“a big black cat” or “the

What is speaking? 9

five-story building”), and infinitive phrases (“to drive” or “to move up”). inioiass(nnnCystafrfgtlt)uoelctiavhcnrofEbmoteenunlsleslarolgwoaosetuliwn,nioon(sgarCiehnddnund.-,ssaVtwsgubDcusenyohltcorugirhieicassrjnthtucaaegVvhmssraeotsidspmew,Vosltwoyuena)lrlrteahliaalmajc(eilnubVmairedmtlel)yesi.pnt,ectoeScwalpodmotpnooe)sno.asasessktoydiFiesersvostosonessmyrmuilEosontloiphanfndtrbei,ejgswsualloekiscotrssrtehoerhrdtaa(na,esC-sts.nfiovo-nisFcVnnoneooa,w-c.anCrlonelv,enictlnseaotorsy(rnroaVtnasscs)eiontc,mi,rmncusoepaa’rpr,lnolslioltorynpsetwfoaaVwssnkraen-tehqCbceneuolo)rni,setnnEhnasgswncsopuogehneiwplsoaait(eessknialnhcesl­t
Clauses and phrases are quite commonly used as utterances when we are
speaking, but they do not typically appear alone in formal writing (unless Reflection
the author is representing speech). Thus, both clauses and phrases can
be uAttserwanecesasw. in the conversation about what to eat, individual words, the Think about a second or foreign language you have studied. (Of course,
next level in the pyramid, can also function as utterances. Words are called that could be English if it is not your native language. If you have not
fmbaBrnooeodutehrnpdmcphormeonefovrimxprepeyehshs,eemsmmduoeeceashsnn..aoiYnsTtoghiuaneptsme(perbea-aaayborryerh, apaulrvanoeepin-t,pesnla.ioonctTfadicthliaesoenudnygf,ftuihaxasraegeetsled,daoutslmhwuraic)an.thygcsaIatnshnceo-sincpntoanrgnneeodcstrstraeuos-drntse, ttohoorbfewio-srepuodoernawadrksdne.­ learned a new language, think about one that you have often heard
incniaagtl,ilvyiet scluaafnnfigxubeaesg—deciofdfnoisceiussltnte’nftotlurys.eETnthgheliisssehprkloeinbadlrensmeorsfismtopoarurpstiheceubmloaeurslnydastrmumeoarripfkhethersemtelhesaa-ternscpeoren’-s­ spoken.) Does that language use primarily open syllables or closed
vey grammatical meaning (for instance Cantonese or Mandarin). syllables? Or does it perm it both open and closed syllables? Think
The top most levels of the pyramid are very important in speaking-espe- particularly about the last syllable of many common words.
ucinailtlyofinsoduenvdelothpaint gdiisnttienlgliugiisbhlees pmroenaunnincgia.tiIonn.wAritipnhg oanbeoumt ephisonaemdievsis,ibwlee
usually set them off with slashes to distinguish phonemes from letters.
Phonemes can be either consonants (like /p / or /b / in the words pear and
pbehaor)neomr veoswedlisffe(lrikeso/mI /eawnhdat/aef/roinm hiot naendlahnatg}.uaTghee stoounadnsotthheart.fuSnocmtioen aosf
tchaen sboeunqdusittehacthaarlleencgoimngmfoonr ilneaErnnegrlisshtoarperounnouusnucael .inFoortheexralmanpgluea, gtehse, atwndo Now test your hypothesis about the syllable structure of this particular language.
English “th” sounds (as in think and the) are not very common in the phone­ Ask someone you know well, who is a native speaker or a very advanced
mic inventory of the world’s languages, but they are pervasive in English. speaker of that language, whether the following are syllables that appear (or are
Students may replace or approximate these “th” sounds with /s/ or / z/ or / d/ even possible) in speaking that language. Circle those that are possible or actual
syllables in that language.

or /t/ instead. This kind of substitution is part of what creates a foreign -tion -sa -stand -fe
acceFnitg.ure 1 is helpful but in real conversations, of course, these divisions of -ding -po -tent -ti
-ties -ly -cat -ku

discourse are not as neat as the diagram makes them seem. Consider the What patterns do you notice in your data? Does this language permit open
command, “Stop!” This is a single word (in fact, a single free morpheme) con­ syllables, closed syllables, or both?
sisting of four segmental phonemes. It serves as a warning (a particular
speech act). It is an utterance, and therefore, a type of spoken text. (It can also
be a complete written text, for example on a traffic sign.) So keep in mind theyCcoannsobneasnetgs maenndtevdoawnedlsmaorveedcaallreodunsde.gHmaevne tyaolu pehveornpermodeusc,edbeaca“sulsipe
that a discourse can consist of texts of any length.
the Yleovuelcsaonf smeeortphhateminetsheantodpplheovneelsmoefs.FiTghuirse i1m(apgaegere8p)r,essyenlltasbthlee ofavcetrltahpast of the tongue,” because you had switched two phonemes? One typical speak­
ing glitch is caatlleOdxafosrpdoUonnievreirssmity, after Dr. Spooner, a famous British orator
a syllable can consist of a morpheme or simply one or more phonemes. who taught in the Victorian era. Unfortunately, Dr.
M acnTlyohsweeosdyrdl(lsae,bnsldeuicnshgtruawscittsuhtorepa,occfoonanssloaisnntagonufta)og. neMliysanoeynitehlaesnrygloluapabegleen.s lSikpeoo“tnheer qwuoeuelrdolsdomdeeatinm”ewshsewnithcehmheisanstegtomseanyta“lthpehdoenaermoelds qaunedensa.”yHtheindgids
or (uesnedtihneg wopitehnasvyollwabelle) this so often that the phenomenon came to be called “spoonerisms.” The fact
tphhaotnseomuensdsarceainn bfaectssweigtcmheendteidn, tihnidsewpeanydpenrotvuindietss. linguistic evidence that

10 Chapter 1 What is speaking? 11

How do the segmental phonemes relate to the syllable structure of The three other labels in Figure 1 (page 8)—stress, rhythm, and intona­
acEsyonnlndglsaloibissflthesb?sooaStfhrotehmfrraeeelseteiomapmnehdsoadnbaeeosmupunoepdskoebmfnucotsoryopmlnhlablebyimnleoeendsise. sjFuosoyusrltnlaidonbsnslete(a.tpnhTehcehos,enetechdmoeinceftdrioe(se/nyoaml/lrayiobnrslpehohokoeawfyms)o.ektBahhyua)itt,t tio nis-ruespedrebseecnatussoemtheessuepprhaosneegmmesen(itnacllupdhinognpeitmcheasn. dTshterewsso) rcdarsruyprmaseeagnmienng-
tftehhidcee)u,rlw,atynwo,dredEnfindinngisedlhipsethahhraothetnnaeietsmdhwieasssaps(tr/hodirns/eoe/cuIasn/lylc/elesldad/b/alahess/“/,dl/ofaiows/u_/rhrpam/hro/-ot1nrn/ped/mhn/.ee/mB-/gduerst/a)ip.f(dhTwiesoem+aaednhdaeclatyoorzrtret+ehisetpefndouin+rf­­­ tal
mEdacolenoonngudccTldieeeshrp.han”etsi(diEwssAineeswggxtslrtriiarinasetyhtcpme.ttnhheiTveledyhemweoifmeoeelsarapdnsisott.’turtaItwafrawletonwhrtieiaEsityynt’aesswntneomeaefurcvanedhetii,csitnnhdhoegissfamthprlheatraeeanolnrlgneweteuudrnaa,nueygfcndoeiiwaw.rt)toiioonIorfunsndslt.sdopaInothathckrareeeeevr,nleapwaltrrfaeooeonsrungdntroouso,usathygntohsleclpwe.aeobTdwaklheneaiisdnnys. differences “above” the segmental phonemes when we speak. For instance,
wleharenreerisn’ athcecemntos.utFhoar seoxuamndplise,ptrhoedudcisetdin. cTtihveesefematiunruetethcaotnmtraasktessc/obn/traibnudte/pto/ the sentence “I am leaving now” can convey at least four different meanings,
sceoprdasrataerephvoibnreamtinegs,inbuEtnwglhisehn is/pv/oiiscipnrgon. oWunhceend/,bt/heisyparroenonuont.ceFdorthleeavrnoecrasl dcoenpteenxdtiwngheorne wthheeurettetrhaencsetrsesosccisurp.laCcoends.idTehrethdeisfeferinentecrepsreatraetiorenlsa:ted to the
whose language does not have this contrast (Arabic, for example), failure to
master this distinction can lead to misunderstandings. (One of my Egyptian stu­ I am leaving now. (You may be staying here, but I choose to go.) am
dents once told me that he had had “green bee soup” for lunch!) I am leaving now. (You may assert that I’m staying, but I insist that
going.)
Sometimes we can see evidence of the distinctive features of a learner’s I am leaving now. (I insist that I am going, rather than staying.)
first language in his writing. One of my advanced writing students, a native I am leaving now. (I am not waiting any longer.)
speaker of Chinese, was writing a composition about a beautiful photograph.
He wrote, “The scene is so lovely it reaches out and craps your eyes.” This Read the four sentences above to two or three friends who are native or
student was not trying to be offensive. He was unknowingly processing proficient speakers of English. First, ask your friends to listen as you read all four
/Ebn/glaisnhd sp/ezl/lining tthherowugohrdthgerabssou/ngrdsesbyzs/tehmadofalhlisbeneantivcehalannggeudagfreo.mThveoi/cge/d, sentences. (Be sure to stress the words that are printed in boldface.) Next, read
segmental phonemes to their voiceless counterparts as he wrote. one sentence at a time and have your friends explain the meaning differences
that they infer from just the changes in the stress on the four different words. Do
Reflection their explanations match the interpretations given above? (You can do this
activity with your students too.)
Think about learners you have taught, or about the students you hope to
teach in the future (for instance, speakers of Spanish, Chinese, Thai, or IInnttooInnnattaoiotninaotnihoenlipssistuhsearnreoecltoahgteinvriezevreiqsrueyesatinimodnpsofar(lt“laInto’tsf sthuep rapsietcghmeinntaaln puhttoenraenmcee..
Russian). What are the typical features you associate with their accents as ten o’clock” versus “It’s ten
they are speaking English? W hat are the characteristics of their spoken osa’crcloacskm?,”)o.rIndtiosbnealtiieof.n also helps us detect speaker attitudes, such as surprise,
English that allow you to recognize it as being produced by a Spanish
speaker, or a Chinese speaker, or som eone whose first language is Thai ^ Read the sentence “He’s a brain surgeon” aloud to a friend. First, read it simply
or Russian? ^w as a statement of fact. Have your friend repeat this sentence. Next, ask your
friend to say this same sentence as if she is surprised. Next, have her say it
12 Chapter 1 1' (using exactly the same words in the same order) as though she doesn’t believe
the statement—that is, she is incredulous. Finally, have her say, “He’s a brain
surgeon” very sarcastically— as a way of indicating that a person is not
particularly intelligent. How do the intonation contours change as the speaker
changes her intended meaning?

wspheoaTkhimnegissEpurnpogrnlaiossehug.nmcFeiernstttaholefmaanlld, csaisnnecgembteehnetmsaelispuphnhodoneneremsmteoesosdc.aarrreSyevmceoernyadn,iinmpgp,roosrdptueaacnkttieoirnns

What is speaking? 13

problems can convey unintended meanings. Research has shown that sec­
ond-language speakers can be misunderstood and even receive poor job eval­
uations because of their misuse of the English suprasegmentals (Gumperz & Most people agree that in the three different pairs of utterances in the Reflection
TannWenh,en19w79e).teWacehwsilpleraektuinrgn, tiot itshiismispsouretainntCtoharpetmerem4.ber that spoken and box above, the first member of each pair seems more formal and may be a
written English differ in many ways (van Lier, 1995). Speech is received audi- written version of speech. The second member of each pair seems more like
itsortieamllyp,owrahreyreaansdwitrsitirnegceisptrieocneibvyedthveisuliasltleyn.eAr sisaurseusaulllty, tihmemspeodkiaetne.mInesscaogne­ casual speech. What characteristics do you recognize as “speech-like” here
(realizing, of course, that these are written renditions of speech)? Ask a
classmate or colleague these same questions and compare your ideas.

trast, written language is permanent, and reception by the learner typically
occurs some time after the text was generated (sometimes even centuries
later). Meaning in spoken English is conveyed in part through Reflection
the suprasegmental phonemes (including rhythm, stress, pitch, and intona­
tion), whereas punctuation marks and type fonts convey such information Consider the following pairs of utterances. Which member of each pair
in wsoAruintniondtgsh.etor seems more like natural, casual speech, and which seems more like
of fbelaetnudre toogf estphoekr,eneslpaencgiaulalgyeinis craesudaul cceodnvseprseaeticohn-.thFoer tiennsdtaennccey, written language? W hat are the specific differences between the two items
tShuechwroerddusc“tgiooninsgarteo”nmotajyussto“usnlodplpikyesp“geoecnhn”a”rewsuhletinngwferoamre tshpeeaspkienagkeqru’siclkalzyi.­ in each pair?
ness or carelessness. They are actually systematic, rule-governed variants that
are natural in spoken English. Set 1
a. I’m going to the store. (Grammatical)
Reflection b. I’m gonna the store. (Ungrammatical)

Consider the following pairs of sentences and utterances. Which member Set 2
of each pair seem s more like casual speech, and which seem s more like a. I’m going to go swimming. (Grammatical)
written language? W hat are the specific differences between the two items b. I’m gonna go swimming. (Grammatical)
in each pair?
Set 3
Set 1 a. Going to the game tonight? (Grammatical)
a. Hello. W hat are you doing? b. Gonna the game tonight? (Ungrammatical)
b. Hey, w hat’re yuh doin’?
Set 4
Set 2 a. I’m going to go dancing tonight. (Grammatical)
a. I do not know. b. I’m gonna go dancing tonight. (Grammatical)
b. I dunno.
Why are items 1-b and 3-b ungrammatical while items 2-b and 4-b are
Set 3 grammatical (although casual)? (Hint: Look at the two different uses of “to”
a. Give me a second, would you? in the phrase “going to” in these utterances. The key is in what follows the
b. Gimme a sec, wouldja? “to” in each case.)

gTpawochhhntrisenasDrawsee.eoixsgtIhaynotmiooinctupgstohltgnseeoetrresaiisatlmolstusrhtmet,sietlaalrinanptpitadcerstoastetelnontrofhtneteuah?anenttcuIcgtefhreaseedymso.1esq.u-ouaIuicncanakndrtledhsyfe,us3sglye-loasyit,cneocgmtoonatnnieossdxfidtuEsteso,nrebtgdhslleeeiisnnnh/tdett/snhtooceimsegsepnetrto2hei-tmeparroeeastsodintuidifnocoten4redma-ra.l­

14 Chapter 1 What is speaking? 15

Speaking English (or any other new language) can be particularly diffi­ pEtitrunenanctngeritsleniilaescahssetii..nofgoInnrsEgenarxlgaoplmiursedhmssolaeirrna-gdtrrnoaoeinnrrsisggl’aifgntliuraoaelnmntchlmeyos,ausorogrnheastxl,sepsrorpcoriesdaepuksecirntosigrooanncll,aoylon. srnTicsehtoesedmrlseamragaunernedliycffaeoetwfeivlrieeonapgcdpsoiomnirng­­
cult, because unlike reading or writing, speaking happens in “real time.” In
wotahietirnwg otrodsta, ktheehiins toerrhloecr uotwonr t(uthren ptoerssopneawkerigarhet ttahleknin. g“Ttoh)isis mlisetaennsintghaatnda The Direct Method and Audiolingualism
variety of demands are in place at once: monitoring and understanding the
other speaker(s), thinking about one’s own contribution, producing its effect, Unlike the Grammar-translation Method’s emphasis on written text, the
and so on” (Lazaraton, 2001, p. 103). In addition, except in recorded speech, lDdaanoindmrgeRiuncoatadtgMegdeee-rtEsth,hneg1ol9dli8ash6nfo,glcupaun.asgg9eeu)d,atagohnenedi“sntelusevtdserseuronycntdtssiaoawynreevirnoetcrtyachiboenungUldatunorcyitlteeeadadnrdSne.tnsaeTttinerhsteeelfnyoDcrieinrmse”tcah(tneRMyticayehretahagrordesdst.
verbal interaction typically involves immediate feedback from one’s inter­
leoxciustteonrt,.wFhiinlealflyee, dbbeaccakutsoe thspeoakuetnhocrsomofmwurnititceantitoenxtsomccauyrsbeinderelaayletdimoer,nothne­ The Direct Method emphasized speaking in that “new teaching points
opportunities for planning and editing output are limited, while in most writ­ were introduced orally” (Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p. 10), rather than in
ten communication, the message originator has time for planning, editing, writing. Also, lessons emphasized speaking and listening, which were prac­
and revision. ticed “in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-
ua1ns9es8dw6,ebrpy.etxh10ce)h.BaMnerglaeintszyblapenetwgoupealeegnebteseccahacomhoeelrss.faamndiliasrtuwdeitnhtst”hi(sRaicphparrodaschansdincReoditgwerass,
5. Teaching speaking _
The Direct Method strongly influenced the development of the
beenInustheids osevcetriotnh,e wyeealrosotko bteriaecfhlylaantgsuoamgees.dAifflethreonutghaptphreoraechaeres mthaant yhadvife­ AstuuddeinotslirnegpueaatlsMenteetnhcoesda. nIdn raeucditieolminegmuaolrisizme,d sdpieaalokginugesisfrtoamugthhtebtyexhtbaovoinkg.
fgreeuvraeigenewt tmeeaaeccthhhoimndgsetihonof dtlha, enfgopcuauassgtiensgitxestapycehcyiienfaigcr,sa.ltlhyIrneoenthmhisoewsthecostpdioesank,hiawnvgeeiswdtoialmlugfiinhrsat.ttebdrielaflny­ Repetition drills-a hallmark of the Audiolingual M ethod-are designed to
familiarize students with the sounds and structural patterns of the language.
The Grammar-translation Method Lessons followed the sequence of presentation, practice, and production (see
In the aGndratmo tmraanrsl-atrtean(ussluaatlilyoninMweritthinogd) ,frsotumdeonntes are taught to analyze tNhuant asntu, d2e0n0ts3)l.eaTrhnetoassspuemakptiboyn purancdteicrpiningnginragmtmheatiAcauldisotlriuncgtuuarelsMunettihlopdrois­
grammar language to another. ducing those structures has become automatic. When this happens, it is
Historically, the main goal of this method has been for students to read the hoped that the learners will be able to carry on conversations. As a result,
literature of a particular culture. According to Richards and Rodgers (1986, “teaching oral language was thought to require no more than engineering the
pp. 3-4), the characteristics of the Grammar-translation Method are that (1) repeated oral production of structures...concentrating on the development of
it focuses on reading and writing; (2) the vocabulary studied is determined by g20ra0m1,mpa. ti1c5a).l and ^phonological accuracy combined with fluency” (Bygate,
the reading texts; (3) “the sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language AudTiohleinbgeuhaal vMioertihstondo. tTiohnisotfhgeooordy hsuagbgitesfotsrmthaattiofnorislethaerntehresotroy bfoerhmindgotohde
practice” (ibid., p. 4); (4) the primary emphasis is on accuracy; (5) teaching is faThonaerbdamictthishn,eegrslabontatrhgdeeuahratagssbetpiutodslek.esenIsnftosenerisrrnroomrcrslsuaassqrtseuimilncevkifgtloyhul,vtneiitnrneftheraertoenqpdauel,esinzitetoifsrthetphporoeseuevtigeteihnorttrn,ionbngaoentoshdtuutsdcheoefnorsrtrsepmcefstari.kooInemnr.
deductive (i.e., grammar rules are presented and then practiced through lgtaheuoaedoryindoealsrripsneegdsaupokaenilan’ktgleihnshasgavo.benistts,otionsttoethpnesaepnodreintphteittnihtkaiotantbhoaeunytdahropewrafcltutoiecnfeot raamnredanuausuetotdtmertaoatnicec,setsawobhltiihslhee
translating); and (6) the medium of instruction is typically the students’native
lisampnepgaTrukohavgeEeen.Ggtlrhiasemhi,rmsaosrp-itetraaiknsisnlnagotitosnekniltMlisr.eeltyhIonadpfpdarocoetp,srinianotet trfheoearllsyGturpdaremenptmsaraewr-hstortuandwesalnanttstiottnoo
tMs(uuHrfeeaftemharoemnddde, rsmlftyruao,dyme1bn9et9ws1th“,hdeapet.avbec1ilol)oi.utpylTeddthoebarneemaineddtt,eehslbolceudrctibtiiusenadslnteuoaantsddceoosrfensctsgaoiansnitdnediinnntgglawonoifgrtalhualangftghleuueeanmggceouyastlittssrhumeocy”f­

16 Chapter 1 What is speaking? 17

iwAinnhugcidlcTtiaohoshlsaeei.numTgdlabhuinooeagtldatuyaMpapegteeshetdehoolsfsapdtnbre.auoeStcrciattvhuuteordsereassynpmteaspianslkadeetrshevrsseoetcutxmaadplbekaeuniicnnlttasgerdthyeienctiaohtsrencsmiorpnilsepotntthgehdeidec,tlaiallmrebeacehraoenrimaneerrpcstsheaoaerdnereelfdaunibslatlt,lyuooldigafsyurtitteenihncsge,­­ rCahthaeprtetrha2.n) speaking themselves. (We will learn more about this method in
umtEhlnaoegtdeIlteiandslpshaeado-nlrfdedeaihctriohonowirengdr,hselelwdyawhrvnoseoaueninrlcdsliete,itazhhwreeendmaiet.rhrssTeollhidnvteotelyteshspesoaherreasontkuronelideonottt.ptruhypNseoutoorlartalusblanpy,reieitartyekitashfltoeioosryftsitcceononuensnctaseodtmsrusnrpeacalprettiiuselnyragaotlgf.tahoftetoheiderr In contrast, Communicative Language Teaching, particularly from the
i2pdeodoME1d0sraobr9neipde0r9wtlgaealt1ee0Alsshnic,ri,nsol-uiiwpehneappdtd.aodl.eliElcra1rosyn2lyfentr0alrre9eie3gsoenr)bid)salssn.mg.iordssftouTMerfhhouoaicodhernllmloractiiagsoenrses.tmxryhselsaaeprocxenloallorepdieotrsscvrrankmrpoeierleitesoofnnlcrltsnsprtesestiuittrnr,agabaashicginlncudhalotetttytlbihhiefyoncit“oreudtegeesciusneprsofogw,cteoonfhreefriwtefgtlncmrreuaeornhltisaathlldedalmitpeenidniorhidsmtgnopenaaiutnpdnaapmearutrdporpatgpaceeorfcoeuctedritiplnntliroliiecmuetenonsielpdagnn.earruwdgaIrnaintion”abcishtneiytsteiaaniisgncccdtgtb.inaed.sgeoruoSiechTuctasvttaitclhnueoleenuuyeddnrsesrae”,secAtclnahemouuwot“(sensLtedsdu,hatamaiitryeosormpzosiiollaelldriieylrrrenn(eeiathEsgzghdptualiotuulornhlpiinaaetsdngessl,l,­
pataitotnersn”s(i“bdidid., npo. t3l0e)a. d to fluent and effective communication in real-life situ­ high beginning to more advanced levels, features more interaction-based
nwacohttiivctiohtietlhes,aerinsruescrpsheamaksuinsrtgoulpesa-eprtlEnaenyrgssl)i.ashnPdatoiriwncoofonrkvremaynadintifgoornromupagwtaioponrktkaansroekwstnyp(taioccattilhveiotmiregsabnuiint­
Communicative Language Teaching Tzaetaicohnianlg.features of interaction-based lessons in Communicative Language

During the 1970s and 1980s, language acquisition research (and dissatis­ Reflection
faancdtiocnurwriictuhluthme dAeusdigionleirnsgureacl oMnseitdheord)sommaedelotnega-cshtaenrsd,inmgatbeerliiaelfss daebvoeulot pheorws,
people learn languages. Apparently people don’t learn the pieces of the lan­ With a partner, make a list of advantages and disadvantages of learning
guage and then put them together to make conversations. Instead, infants to speak when the teacher is using the Gramm ar-translation Method, the
laseucaqmrunmirtaihnreigecstohomefirproefisnreseatnrltcashnogofunlaagniengtuaeanragdcetpitoehonropaulengdhacliqannutegirruianacggtieosenlecwaornintdhinloga,tnhgseeureapgEeeloslipssl,eee.1m9(F9to0or; Audiolingual Method, or Communicative Language Teaching. As a learner,
Gass, 1997; and Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991.) This realization has several which method do you prefer? As a teacher, which method do you prefer?
interesting implications for us as teachers, the most important being that if Why?
people learn languages by interacting, then students should interact during
E(AnsghlIinesrh,soKlemsusesoolndasno.g,Auasangdaerdeteesaulclath,TiCnogrormme, em1th9u9o3nd)si,,cbsaeutgciivhneansiLnTagonltegaaulrnaPeghresyusTinecdaaeclrhgRoienasgppaoernroisoseed. thatYstoruatwegililc rceocmalpl efrteonmceowurasdiosnceusosfioitns foofucrocmommupnoinceantitvs.eIcnoCmopmetmenucneic(apt.iv3e)
of listening to English before they begin to speak it. In such methods, the Lstarantgeugaiegse. Teaching, teachers help learners develop their communicative
focus is on input-based activities. For instance, in Total Physical Response,
learners initially respond physically to spoken commands from the teacher, Communication strategies

18 Chapter 1 When we speak, and especially perhaps when we speak in a foreign lan­
guage, there are times when we wish to say something, but we don’t have the
words or the grammatical structures to say it. Under these circumstances,
ppreoocpeleduoreftsenforusceomcopemnsmatuinngicfoartigoanps sintrsapteeagkiinegs-cvoemrbpaelteanncde/.or nonverbal

Reflection

Think about a time when you were trying to make yourself understood in
your second language or in a foreign language. W hat did you do, verbally
and nonverbally, to convey your ideas when you lacked the vocabulary
and/or the grammatical structures you needed? Were you successful at
being understood? Why or why not?

What is speaking? 19

bEcstlenragagstasIleiennsgsh.itetoshlTeeihanwrecneeoaerbrerrplosyo’xdruoas1btce9eeus8lmot0ohswefe,ncttaoleeipmsdatpc,smlhiieausndnengvdiceloarinsfatoiglcoouonnsimstrtssamttrteeauabgtcneeihgiegcesiaearnststi.hoAaansytnssdntwtueramemstryeaeblgtleiaicefrbiasruolslsiftyniddmssieptspsueciodaugryksntsiaiennenrdggst Identify the communication strategies used in the following examples. Imagine
by Tarone (1981): that these utterances were made by hotel guests calling the front desk clerk for
assistance. Underline each instance of a strategy from Tarone’s list and label it
I. Paraphrase: using her terms. (Hint: There may be more than one communication strategy in
A. A p proxim a tion : use of a single target language vocabulary item or some of the texts below.)

structure, which the learner knows is not correct, but which shares Text 1
enough semantic features in common with the desired item to satisfy “It is, uh, the thing that make the hair hot. You know, when you clean the hair and
the speaker (e.g., pipe for waterpipe) then after— that thing that make the hair hot when the hair has water. It’s, uh, it
B. Word coinage: the learner makes up a new word in order to communi­ use electric to make the hair hot. Is not in the room and I want to use it.”
cate a desired concept (e.g., airball for balloon)
C. C ircu m lo cu tio n : the learner describes the characteristics or elements Text 2
of the object or action instead of using the appropriate target language “So, uh, now, my hair is wet. And I must go to the party. So now, I need that
item or structure (“She is, uh, smoking something. I don’t know what’s machine, that little machine. What is the name? How do you call it in English?”
its name. That’s, uh, Persian, and we use in Turkey, a lot o f”)
II. B orrow ing: Text 3
A. Literal tra n sla tio n : the learner translates word for word from the native “We say in Spanish secadora—the dryer, but is for the hair. The dryer of the hair.
language (e.g., “He invites him to drink,” for “They toast one another.”) Do you have a dryer of the hair? I need one please.”
B. Language sw itch: the learner uses the native language term without
bothering to translate (e.g., balon for balloon, tirtil for caterpillar) Text 4
III. Appeal fo r assistance: the learner asks for the correct term (e.g., (Imagine that this guest is at the hotel’s front desk talking directly to the clerk.)
“What is this? What called?”) “Yes, uhm, please, I need, you know the thing, I do this” [gestures brushing her
IV. Mime: the learner uses nonverbal strategies in place of a lexical item or hair and blow-drying it] “after I am washing my hair. Do you have this thing?”
action (e.g., clapping one’s hands to illustrate applause)
V. A voidance: AbccaooutnxidovAianeocb,ylciointunvhgrgeeauscmaaeylse-saopMtnrrrioaieentbtneghlgte.oeimdedsss,.aapBrwepuortosuewaldechnheevnasise,twhwseuauctyethstaecorahafsinncctgohenesftoicnlGiuukrsieanemgmthmapoahscrea-ostnriizavnenessrtlshcaaeottiimooAnnmcutaainnnodidn­
A. Topic avoidance: the learner simply tries not to talk about concepts for
which the target language item or structure is not known 6. Assessing speaking
B. M essage abandonm ent: the learner begins to talk about a concept but
is unable to continue and stops in mid-utterance abiliAtiems ainjorthceonnceewrnlafnogrutaegaec.heIrns siosmheowrewgaerdcsa,nteasstsiensgs ssptuedakenintsg’ isspenaoktinags
bpwpstarrreoosainciwcgeuihdcnlltrucficriotaeeortrswniioasfaniortd.odrerksacestohetrperiesnietgninamgspppigenrradoakamiacnsmhgweasterestdootser.vavisWossecee,asubswisuniellga,l rosbyrpe. eagIadinknaitpnhbtgiyst,epdsatasissrcwtouefoslfsslpitnahesgeakdtcihihnfefagepfratoeenunrdr,t
V ______________________________________________________ twhhaatFtmitrheseat,ssuwtrueedswewnatnhstawttoaitnmitsatioknetbeesnudlreeeadrtnhtoiantmgw.eeDasoaurirneegtiesssotciianslglfeawdirhaaa“ntvdwaaleipdap”rretoeptsetr.aiacTthehi.enrAgeataenrsdet

(Adapted from Tarone, 1981, pp. 286-287) What is speaking? 21

20 Chapter 1

m any indifafdevreanntcekiwndhsatowf veawliadnittyto, but the central concept is that we deter­ Reflection
m ine measure. We then design items, tasks, or
promSepctsonfdo,r wthee wteasnt tthtoatbme esausruertehatht aat tceosnt sotrruacnt.assessment procedure is reli­ Think about the following questions:
raebcleo.rdRyeoluiarbstiulidteyntiss scpoenackeinrngeidn wEnitghlischonasnisdteansckya. nFootrheinr stteaancchee,r itfoyeovualtuaaptee
the students’ speech using a ten-point scale, you would be unhappy if your W hat is validity and how does it differ from reliability?
colleague ran out of time and rushed through the last several recordings, or W hy is practicality an im portant issue in assessing learners’ speaking
if that teacher got tired and grumpy about the work and was more severe with skills?
tahne elxasatmrepcleorodfinugnsrealsiaabirleitsyu.ltS. pTehceifirceaslulylt,initgischaapngroebilnemtheinte“arcahteerr’rserlaiatibniglistyi”s What are positive and negative washback?
and it is an issue that we must work to avoid or overcome when we evaluate
pscterudaduTcertnheitecsc’aatslnhiptieyroad.nkTliynchgriibstseektreiiulrolmssne. fruielsfeirfosnitteodtowheehsifcanhcottttehmaacathkaeertesusnturoenradsoeotrhnsetaarbnladessdeqseusmmitaeenndwtsperololn-­ Think about an im portant test that you have taken. (It can be any test, but
resources, including time, money, and personnel. Interviewing each student a speaking test would be ideal.) How did you prepare for that test? If you
for thirty minutes might be a very thorough way to assess his or her speaking were taking a language class at the time, what did your teacher do to help
skills, but if you are teaching several classes a day, and especially if they are the students prepare for the test? In other words, did it have a positive or
large classes, then interviewing all your students for thirty minutes apiece negative impact in your case?
wcCohoneucTnledghp,ebteWifsovaouetfrarttyenhnaibmcderep,iftreiaanrcnietoddicnaaClsi.ustrhwtiesa,esf2fhe0bc0ta4a,cktfeosrt(ohmraosinroesntirnteufaoccrtmhiioantngioaanln.)dimlDepoareanscintt)hg.e. T(tSheeisest
encourage people to prepare for speaking tasks, or does it cause them to Another important issue has to do with whether your approach to
study grammar rules or obscure vocabulary items? I am not suggesting that tteesrmtinsgmspeaenak?ing is direct, indirect, or semi-direct (Clark, 1979). What do these
vocabulary and grammar are unimportant. In fact, developing vocabulary pwasicrdiottuehfAriaceollidtyedhndiescrirpryeeesccaitnuttktdteteteerhsnvsettistsetwoaoafrf,ngsdasepptecgealoeaaknnknivenignerguarg.astigainnetgi,vooninnlo,vtveoeersralacaunttiptnuergnroascwncecirdtiehpustr.teehSdeoirntofeolwsert-hpiainlcdashmtyatinchncaeiens,tlrbeaaeantorcnoroeronrasrl­
and increasing their confidence in applying grammar rules are appropriate test-Atankeirns ddiroecntottesspteoafk.speFaokrinegx, aomnplteh,e oththeersthuadnedn,tsismonaye ibnewhgiicvhenthea
and significant ways for learners to improve their speaking ability if those caboonuvtearpsaartaigornaaphl cinloleznegtthesint w(Hhuicghhews,or1d9s8h1a).vAe bceleonzedetelestteids (auswurailtltyenevteerxyt
Wgraamshmbaacrk rcualensbaenedithveorcapbousiltairvye iotremnesgaatrievep, rdaecptiecneddining osnpowkehnethdeisrciotuprsroe.­ tTaseethevseteinnliestthahorenonerecrnowsin’nhjtoetehrxbetwitosohftreodth)ofarialtilgnciidonnnarelveapetcerlhsaxactbteiilsdoanntbh.kyewbtrilatahnnskacrwliinpoetrsdo.ftAhaanctoawnctvoueuarllsdacbtoieonnvaaeplrpscaroltoipozrnei.­
motes the development of the skills or knowledge to be learned (positive
washback) or hinders that development (negative washback). Another example of an indirect test of speaking is the phoneme discrim­
ination task, in which the test-takers hear a single word spoken (for example,
“bat”) and must select the appropriate picture in the test booklet when faced
with a picture of a woman patting a dog, a very fat man, and a boy swinging
taobtaessetbsaplelabkaint.gT, bhuesteanmianydisreeecmt teliskteofstsrpaneagkeinagndaspseesrsheasptsheev“eennainbvlianlgidskwiallyss”
that are thought to underlie the speaking skills. For example, since it is often
assumed that correct pronunciation requires the ability to distinguish
between sounds, that ability is considered a prerequisite to being able to pro­
duce those sound contrasts.

Indirect tests of speaking can be very practical and reliable. (It is much
easier and more time-efficient to administer a conversational cloze passage to

22 Chapter 1 What is speaking? 23

vfdoeifrrftsyeartesitonutndaceloncntsovmearnpsdaettiesocnnocsree.w)thiHtehorwsetseuuvdletersn,twtshiteahnsdatuptdrreaeni-ntssertmaktaeeyrysftethoealnetvhiaat ltiustahttoeeirhthasvepieerafkcoiorntnyg­ One more important question about assessing learners’ speaking skills
skills have not been adequately or fairly assessed (a validity concern). In addi­ has to do with how those skills are evaluated. Are they scored or rated? If
itimonp,ourtsainngt fionrditrheecmt ptroocperadcutriecse mspaeyakseinngd itnheEmngelsissahgseintocesttuhdeeynwtsotnh’attbiet isevnaolt­ they are rated, who will do the rating and what criteria will be used to eval­
uated on their speaking (an example of negative washback). uusaeted.the students’ speech? These are matters of the scoring criteria that are
applWiedhaitn tchoennt,exatrsewsheemrei-sdtuirdeenctts taecstutsalloyf ssppeeaakki(nthga?t iTs,hitshetyerpmrodhuasceboereanl tive Tshceorreinagr,e athnraelyetmicaisncomrientgh,odasndforhsocloisrtiincgssctourdienngts(’Bspaielaeyk,ing19s9k8il)l.s:Wobhjiecch­
language), but they don’t interact in a conversation, interview, or role-play. approach you use depends in part on what skills or knowledge you are try­
rIencoorthdeerd wvooircdes,, athned taelssto-tarkeesrpsonlidstebny totalpkrinogmptots aanredcotardskinsgdedleivviecree.dSbeymia- ing to assess and partly on the tasks the learners do. The choice is also influ­
direct tests have the advantage that they are easy to administer to several stu­ setnucdeedntbs.y (and influences) the washback message you wish to send to the
dents at once (e.g., in a classroom or language laboratory), so they are sacgorreiant gdedaol eosf not involve any judgment during the scoring
practical. Also, students know they will have to speak during the procedure; procOesbsje(tchtoiuvgeh judgment m ay be involved in determining the
fvseooeilsceeamwfirk-odwmiraeracdnt ttaeanslkotsinnmygmatyoougasenptaeeprrasetoenre,pcosoosridttiheverereawniadsshorbfetasecpnko.annHdiaonrwgtieftivoceiara,l mfdeieaslneimnygbpoaebodopieuldet correct answers to compile the key). Truly objective scoring can be done by
semTi-hdeirreectistensotsaobfssopluetaekirniggh. t or wrong choice among direct, semi-direct, or an untrained person using a scoring key. In many cases, objective scoring can
idnudriersecatftteerstscaoreffsuplleyakcionngs.idYeoruinmg uysotucrhoowosne taepapchroinpgriactoentaesxstesssamnedntthperosctue­­ boanenslywdoeonrneeshbceyoertasrewccothmaenrpesuwsteteurrdt(eoen.gtes.a, cmihnaorckbojmtehcpetuiivrteearlny-sdwsecleiorvsree).rdeTdtyesptetiscittaselmloy.rthweirteh isscoannenaabnlde
dents’ needs. The main goal is to devise, use, or adapt valid and reliable tests tmheennItnisacntohdneturdsaiusfatf,ellrayennianclveyotbilcevteswctoerraeiinnngitnhagensrdeathteworlosistatoipcpusrscoeoatrchihneegsa?bssoetshsminevnotlvseysstoemm.e Wjudhgat­
of speaking that are practical for your situation and which generate positive recoIrndehdocloisntviecrsraatitoinn,gosr, aapsapsseaegceh tshaamt aplleea(rsnuecrhreaasdsanaloouradl) iisntgeirvveienwo,nea
washback. odevseirganllateivoanlu(aptaisosnv, ewrshuischnomtapyasbse, oarrtahtein“gad(ava“nsicxe”do”ndeastiegnn-aptiooinntinscaalesy) soterma
Reflection that consists of novice, intermediate, advanced, or superior categories).
the Aabnilaitliyesticunrdaetrilnyginsg, othnethsepeoatkhienrghsaknildl, hinavveolvbeeernatianngalsyyzsetedm(shienncwehtihche
Think about your experience with the assessment of foreign language ivnnaacrmliuoedu,esantshauelby-tciscak)tielalgsno.drFiteohsreoetfexvsatom-ctaapkbleeur,lsasraoyrme, geervpaameloumpatlaeerd,hpoarnvoehnouuwnscewidaetailolnnathl,yeatyincpdesfrclfauoleernmsctyhthianet
speaking skills. Perhaps you recall a test you have taken as a language evaluating speaking. Others include the categories of appropriateness and the
learner, or one that you have used as a language teacher. Was your ability to execute certain speech acts effectively. The analytic categories that
speaking ever tested? If so, were the assessm ent tasks direct, indirect, or you include in your rating system amount to your theory of what speaking is.
semi-direct, or some combination of these approaches? Share your
example with a colleague or classmate. Think about the students you teach or plan to teach. What would be the
appropriate categories to include in an analytic rating scale to assess their
24 Chapter 1 English speaking skills? Make a list of the categories you would use. Share your
list with a few classmates or colleagues to get their opinions.

What is speaking? 25

7. Conclusion References
AshMHLeareenti,hnJgolue.dJasg&.te,hHaJTte.hAiWrno.oleurK,kg:u3hI-sd2Coe1aod.smafo,mraaLnnitddesra:RcT.yhdaenedSleLacaoTnngoudrarFgeeie. Tld1e9aTc9he3es.rts.L(Ie3narJrd.nWiend.g.)O.aiBlSeoers,ctJoornn. d, (MedA.),:
twmbficosooeshocmiueudnteTansptesruihlenogrewtogdeehfegluntao.socctpanaeeeTroldeahhkoaetoenfnosnwutdpfhmteilihraarsssebnekptcageieahnpdruasagaakosp.rgaeifttnbseeWfgsaoortmcfeuhhitstaeoatlhntsrottsetshaobhutrokeocoegfeehewhcdnsaostppmtneahoitnasetaoikeriwdtnxiehendaaermgemcmfwhaaicei.nnnhnotheyeeFmddonitcnpdphowsaosreplmonelecynfepaaoo,unokrrnntewnisccntedeeeignoapeattfccctaisoiohoncdcninfodinos.nsmgimpgpdTmereelhheaarueoieksnnsnwedigetninoucgitsiaatedpogtacdeilmenvaaasndyeeas, BacPhrmessa.n, L. 1990. Fundamentals ofLanguage Testing. Oxford: Oxford University
will be explored in more depth in the next three chapters. BailDeiyre,cKtio.nMs..B1o9s9t8o.nL, eMarAn:inHgeAibnoleut&LaHngeuinalgee. Assessment: Dilemmas, Decisions and
Bygate, M. 2001. Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
•"g g L Further readings CanA1a-p4lep7,.roMac.haens dtoMSe.cSowndaiLna.ng19u8a0g.eTTheesotirnegticaanldBTaesaecshoinfgC. oAmppmliuendiLciantgivueistics, 1(1):
v / Bygate, M. 1987. Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press. CheRnegse,aLrc.h, YCo. nWtexattsaannadbMee,thaondsd. MAa.hCwuarht,isN.J2: 0L0a4w. rWenacshebEacrklbianuLma.nguage Testing:
ClarTBkEri,SeJrO.eLL&.D, F3..51B-94.799H..iDnoifroectitsa(nedds.S),emCio-ndcierpetcstiTneLsatsngoufaSgpeeTaekstiinngg.AWbialsithyi.ngIntoEn.,JD. C:
This book is based on reasonable and realistic tasks for future tea chers to do. It has DouUgnlaivse,rDsit.y2P0r0e0s.s.Assessing Languagesfor Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge
a very helpful chapter on learner strategies of com m unication. EllisO,xRfo.r1d9:9B0.asIinlsBtrluacctkedwSelelc.ond Language Acquisition: Learning in the Classroom.
FlorEeRz,ICMD.Aig.Ces.t 1E9D994.3I5m2p0r4o.viRnegtArideuvletdEJnugllyish7,L2an0g0u2agfreoLmeaErnReIrCs’SdpaetaakbiansgeS.kills.
Pridham, F. 2000. The Language of Conversation. London: Routledge. GasLs,awS.rMen.ce19E97r.lbInapuumt, AInstseoracciatitoens,. and the Second Language Learner. Mahwah, NJ:
Gum3LL0aapn5nge-gu3rua2zag5,geJ.eA. JUbis.leiat.ynIandnWdDL..aWTngaauniarggneaenBnde.hCa1v9.i7oF9ri..llINmnedowirveiYd(oeudraksl,.)a,NnIYdnd:SiAvoiccdiauadalelDmDiiiffcffeePrreernencsceses,sinin
This is an exce lle nt book written in no n-tech nica l language. It explains the regular HamLemarenrinlgy.,CHle.v1e9d9o1n. :FMlueunlctiylianngduAalccMuraatctye:rsT,oLwtadr.d Balance in Language Teaching and
system s underlying conversations in English. I recom m end it highly. Hug3h5(e2s),: D16.11-918618.. Conversational Cloze as a Measure of Oral Ability. ELTfournal,
LarAsecqnu-iFsirtieoenmReasena,rcDh..LaonnddoMn:.HLo. nLgomnagn.. 1991. An Introduction to Second Language
van Lier, L. 1995. Introducing Language Awareness. London: Penguin English.
What is speaking? 27
This little book was written for the general pu blic. It explains a great deal of the
lingu istic b a ckg ro u n d inform ation this ch a p te r focu ses on in an entertaining way,
with many exam ples and helpful figures.

Helpful Web site

Speech, Pronunciation, & Listening Interest Section
(www.soundsofenglish.org/SPLIS/)

This is the official site of the S peech, Pronunciation, & Listening Interest Section
(SPLIS) of the international TESOL association. In addition to inform ation about
the interest section, the site includes discussions of pronunciation issues and
inform ation about teaching pronunciation. There are also links to relevant
W ebsites, as well as resource books, pronunciation activities, articles, and
an “ask the experts” section.

26 Chapter 1

Lazaraton, A. 2001. Teaching OLarnagluSakgiells(.3rIdn M. Celce-Murcia (Hede.i)n, lTee&achHineginle,
Second or Foreign ed.). Boston, MA:
English as a
103-115.
NunTaeanc,hiDng.. 2N0e0w3.YMorekt,hoNdYo:loMgyc.GIrnawD-.HNilulnEaSnL(/eEdL.),TP, ra3c-t2ic2a.l English Language ™ blSTeepwvgeeoialnklneiniangrgnfeorrs
1985. Longman Dictionary ofApplied
Richards,J., JL.oPndlaotnt:, LaonndgmHa.nW. eber. A t the end o f this chapter, you should be able to:

Linguistics. ✓ d escrib e how speaking is typica lly taught to beginning
RichTaearcdhisn,gJ: .AC.DaesncrdipTtio.Sn.aRndoAdngaelyrssis. . 1C98a6m. bArpidprgoea:chCeasmanbdriMdgeethoUdnsivinerLsaintyguPargeess. ✓ level learners.
QSu.Jar.te1r9ly9,1.25C(2o)m: m26u1n-i2c7a7t.ive Language Teaching: The State of the Art.
Savignon, explain the following key principles for supporting the teaching
1981. Some Thoughts on the Notion of Communication Strategy.
TESOL Quarterly, 15(3): 285-295. of speaking to beginning level students: provide som ething to
talk about; create opportunities for learners to interact by
Tarone, E. using groupwork and pairwork; and m anipulate the physical

TESOL ✓ arrangem ents to prom ote speaking practice.
van Lier, L. 1995. Introducing Language Awareness. London: Penguin English. identify several im portant com m unication strategies for
supporting the teaching of speaking to beginning students.
Goals
crea te m aterials and activities based on the following task

and activity types: conversations and interviews; inform ation gaps
and jigsaw activities; controlled conversations; scripted dialogues,
drama, and role-plays; logic puzzles; picture-based speaking
activities; and physical actions.

exam ine pieces of classroom interaction and identify the princi­

✓ ples underpinning the instructional sequences.
explain four different purposes for assessm ent: placem ent tests,

✓ diagnostic tests, progress tests, and achievement tests.
use a classroom introduction activity as a speaking
diagnostic test.

28 Chapter 1

1. Introduction Talk to three beginning level learners or false beginners of English. According to
these students, what are their main goals for studying English? What are their
leveTl hoef pPrroafcitciiceanlcEyngalsisah bLaasnigcuaogrgeaTneizaicnhgingprsienrcieipslea.s Ian wthhisolcehaupsetesr,lewarenwerisll’ current strengths? What areas do they most want to improve upon first? Now
lwaodiolvlkanfaoctcetuhdseletoeanarncheinrinste.grFmoifneasdplilaeyta,ekininsCtguhtdoaepnbtteseg,rin5annwidnegwinleilvlCeclhosantpsutidederenrt4sk,.eIywniesCswuheaislpl tienlortoe3k,acwhaet­ think about your own assessment of these people’s speaking skills? What do
you think are their current strengths in speaking English? What areas should
they work to improve first? Fill out the chart below:

ing Tspheeakciantgegreogriaersdloefssboefgitnhneinlegv,elisn.termediate, and advanced learners are Which person His/Her ideas Your ideas

actually rather loose and cover a wide range of ability. In fact, some language Learner #1

programs and some textbook series use five or six classifications: true begin­
inmnetarey,rmhbieegdhuiaste(eod,r as“nofdmalesaewd”vh)aanbt cedegidifnf.enrHeeron,twllyeovwfereor,rmyinootuneersmhreoedguiilaodtnek,ntooinwatenrtomhtahetedrti,haetaesn,eduteeprvpmeensr
fisrsoumeIsnoinSneetceptairoconhgir2nagmosfpttoheiasakniconhtgahpetotre.br,egwiennwinilgl Learner #2
is, learners who have had some formal Learner #3

fliienrasstrtrncueocrntsisoaindnedbrufsatolwmseheobseycglalnian’btnureesarldslye(stuihgsanet Where your ideas differ from those of the individual learners, what accounts for
the language productively to express their own ideas). We will then look at the differences?

some principles for teaching speaking to beginning students in Section 3
boeffomreatteuriranlisngatnodSedcetsiocrnib4e,s“Taacstkivsiatineds mthaattericaalsn,”bwehiuchsepdrowviidthes beexgaimnnpilnegs
cstluadssernotos.mP”roisnuthnecifaotciouns iosfsuSeescatiroenth6e. tFoipniacllfyo,r“SAescsteisosnin5gabnedg“inSnpienagkilnegarinnetrhse” 2. Syllabus design issues
willWbehtahtedotoepsiict mofeSanecttoiobne 7a. “beginning” or a “lower-level” language learner?
According to the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages There are many differences in teaching English as a foreign or second
(ACTFL), beginning level students can be characterized as follows: language. When we teach a language in the country where it is spoken (such
FtiOcasrsaaomlnslrEteoaendnti“gg,EEtlhninKnseghLgalpizlaisiranhnsekhvghAaasuauslteaassnntagrat,aelllSooia(acreEn,acgFTlCuoLhaalnaa)gn.dinealAgadLnuuandaas,oeg)nt,dNehg”eewfurwoeaawrngZtadcaeyeolakm“(tloEEamannSdbdugiLos,lnci)uis.utcthhsIaenstteaitncaUshogci.shnKa(itd.nesriuxgfeocftmesrhErowetanhtnsehegceeAlrlUiaesirs.nghSEgte.on)unagtaciislgotnisenaiah”s,­
• Oral production consists of isolated words and learned phrases within very (Hammerly, 1991, p. 148). There are important practical concerns to remem­
predictable areas of need. ber in teaching speaking to learners in these two contexts (Bailey, 2003).

• Vocabulary is sufficient only for handling simple, elementary needs and Reflection
expressing basic courtesies.
Think about the differences between EFL and ESL contexts for learners of
• Utterances rarely consist of more than two or three words and show frequent English. W hat would be some contrasts in listening— that is, in the
long pauses and repetition of interlocutor’s words. opportunities for hearing English in EFL and ESL settings? W hat might be
the different expectations for learners to speak English in EFL and ESL
• Speaker may have some difficulty producing even the simplest utterances. situations?

udnodteTorhshteeolopAdCboeTngFliynLnwigniutghidsgetruleidnaeetnsdtisaffldsicoeuvlsetyalo.ypGthtihvaeetnirattEhntehsgielsisllihemvsieptaletaisokonimnsg,ewsskhpialeltsa?ckaenrstewaiclhl ebres

30 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 31

If you are teaching EFL (or plan to teach) in your home culture, you Make a list of at least five more formulaic expressions that would be useful for
are probably already aware of the challenges that learners face when their beginning learners of English to know. Compare your list with that of a colleague
exposure to English outside the classroom is limited. But if you come from a or classmate. You could combine your lists as the basis for a students’
country where English is the dominant language (or is widely available out­ worksheet.
side English classrooms), you may need to develop skills and strategies for
hideelapsinign ythoisurboEoFkLasretuidnetnetnsdgeadintoahceclepssytoou tchreeattaergaentdlainncgrueaagsee. oMppaonrytuonfittihees b“He goiLwnenaidnrongiynleogaursnsoepmreslelfothkr aeaytt? ”lfeowarshmt etunhlraeeicen croeeuxasnpotrenerssis.nigoFnirasstn, ceuawsninvgboeceaxbvpuererlayssryiohnewslposfruudlchinfoaasr
for yLoikuerwsitsued,einftysoiunaEreFLteascithuiantgioEnFsLto, ysopueawkilEl nngeleidsht.o be particularly creative wssscsapulpcoooestenwurtaavadakkieslnetelrhyrrstsseahthhtaimcewetoolnaphtnihyonvctetheayebnrear’esvrmaaheecteetilinolraeopecnapnaorlp.deunaaarTrabrbtehnhgeinetefaetortdlasnryneeiuts.dwo),ntrdytnScwheiaoenerotcnsgirovttdsainepn.ntdeoud(,lseAlpitucnshecsokgaeiominknmomgegmnrmasgsuhyuuonoocniiwhnhrciecgalaaptepeitxrniw.opntlferogeiTercarashdirwcseniitrniieoidsttorhn,snssnp,bfroecoeeanlacgrnl-mneoidnndgaunhmntlciieainvaazlipngcyee
binegdiensniginnginlgeaarnsyerllsaboursfaalnsed bpelagninnninegrsleinssaonnsEtFhLat cpornotmexott,eitspceaankbinegdsikffililcsu.lFt otor dexopesretshsiisonmseamna?y provide input for the language acquisition process. What
find opportunities to listen to and speak English. In these situations, the class­ whicAhnwotehemretaenrmthaftorth“efolermarunlearisc aecxqpurieresstihoense”xipsre“susnioannaalsyzaewd hcohluenwksit”h-obuyt
room is extraordinarily important in providing input and practice opportuni­ lwbclitaenheaneoaafanfaorrrtolndAnryr“mmseezdm,rwiauawn“kowtnogdierhornheodeinootnbnsa”o’eobtactifg”hrsocoicequnmkaiasutnnlupepihiorrhtanoeeiwoorogcnswnnlnoeeetolgnhdrteilnshtigoaisieseprgnzn.parieelceerahdeItaarntrdssldag.alemysyusdTae,-aaphrthgyhemhpeeeedeebarfucaweeyocacr.roonesmsTrmdnoekahutemsfonrel.oaaraetrchelamy“tatpeiIztfmtdelodupueftueefsh“onnoebedrtpnemoo“loftenufoh”’nrfoatuieoanfsksrnetnma“ahtodlihegutywoeolzwaly,oeen”ihcdadoaaretncenecn.tx”xdheupartuaIlhmrnanlreeltekpysyea”oslrleitliaaosah.zrntnceeieAdlkssr,l
ties for the learners. Classroom lessons can become safe havens where low- w“oNfhotihcuhesmcaa.vnoAnlsseabadesstotouidntheednietr.io.n.f”teb(rwelogecihnuantovinresgnheFaervdeinnocgfh),ubnIercelaoaulvisseetdicitathclleoyufhlodirgmbheueflxaopilcleocwpthaetrdiaosbneys,
level learners can make mistakes and take risks in a supportive environment bwraanoanyusttngeinioolilunLengod,steoaAvnmnidnagI”ke—leteoasaltdwwrehhhqiiemucnehsttthph.aoeYtinloditunaagycunawineseatirmhIbawyadgawislneaweaitrimentrheyhdaeas“mnkNdebodeaudrhsrmoaawsvesomtmnheseynbwFteirisnneoenaicnlrhisedtsc’uatlaannsudes­
with a helpful teacher and classmates who are at approximately the same pro­ prbsissniatpeezadeoJgetliaapadyokpnl,neaJc)qsna.hruppe,uUiesantIanepnkkfohesotianrsnruvedotgeu.ef)tnrAoJaoaiapsfmtmpteiedoalyny-fInft,qeeiuirtnnsuseheeeetosdihdtvldieaiteoeonhrncrmge-ilrguaiJainrhadataigJtdpctaeeiapponFnlanIarenicesntaeenehms?came”het!qyIu(tuposdliioivnosmiatgnneel,t’eni.tnneasLgtrnpsidoek’toafemkwa“mibJEinasoyxdepuc,sattuiwnbcsheekhyaseimlelttefhei(enttw,hrameIhavidecetthmrloimianniiosneg’,­t
ficieInncyElSeLvecl oanntdexwtsh,obmegaiynnhianvgelseiamrnilearrscaonndcefranlss.e beginners can get ample
input (that is, a great deal of English is available to be heard and read), but Speaking for beginning level learners 33
they can also get discouraged by the need to communicate in English, and by
people’s expectations that they will be able to do so. In ESL situations then,
lessons can help learners prepare for the kinds of tasks they must be able to
gdioveiSnnyEcllnoagubrluissseh.deoWsuithgsneidniestsetuhaeecshcailnraegssrsreoploaemtaek.dintgo tdoecloiswio-nlesvaebl osututdwenhtast, tiot itseaicmhpionrtaannyt
not to overwhelm them with unreasonable expectations for oral production.
At the same time, we shouldn’t underestimate what they can do given the
righTt ghueidAaCnTceF.L guidelines describing novice speakers of a language refer to
the use of “learned phrases.” These phrases are also sometimes called “fixed
eaxnpdredsosionnost” cohra“nfgoermduelpaiecnedxinpgresosnionthse” bsepceaeucshe cthirecyumfosltlaonwceas.fixInedcfoonrmtrauslta,
English verbs must be conjugated for person (/ speak, you speak, but he, she or
it speaks) and nouns must be marked for plurality (one shoe, two shoes; one child,
tlsthewioaeonrmnsc.ehraiNslrdeurmenunea)smneofou(rr2lip0zao0ens5as,despsea.sfifso1ii7ncn3ig)e(lneJdtoefhfbuinenn’scecasthiuaoastn,efaotlhtrhe‘cmeshtuuulendlaakern’ntawses’rib“thodaooopkuesi)ste..nc..’Fetboohrrefmaavluakelniangtigocuaiecgtxhedpaotnrhwegasnet­
into its different grammatical elements.” Some useful formulaic expressions
for beginning learners include, “I dunno,” “A little more slowly please,” and
“How do you say...?” (Be careful though! A British friend tells me that “I
dunno” might be considered rude in England or Canada.)

32 Chapter 2

scpoemaTmkhinoegntyfispoertmsauoagfthsftoyrlalnatebdaucpshrdianecgstiigcspendseauiknsienmdg aaisnroythudenidfcfotehnreevnewtrsocarutlidrorinacruecllaaqsrusi.ctoeTnhvtiaesrxiotesfd.f,eOrainnndeg 4. Health Care
iitsneavcleohroeysrseployapnusdtlraluercaitrnunreleardsngacucoatnigvveeelrsyscahitnoiovonelsss.tiIwgtaitttyehptiahceatlelsaytcrumhceetrua. rneIst otshfeaEltdnolgemalirsnhmercesoannesnvgetrahsgaaet­ a. Speaking tasks: discussing complaints, discussing health advice
tionsS,poerakainnaglyizseahlsoowtatougphatrtiincicpoatmebsiuncacteiossnfuwlliythinotthheemr .skills, most typically and habits, talking about body parts, role-playing problems and
lgoifrsateimnAntimennnogas.trihvOseetrrrutEcchunteurgrrrelieicsswuhltiahllprebryooegfhfsraeeavrpmienasrgs,attiuiesndstiphewdeehaiipkncuihnobgtlsihtcceulardssepcsnleeatasssksinieunsst.gehectohbuerrosavedo, eciranbcwuulrhariirccyhulautnhmde advice, discussing exercise
tstaa3a((oryrsnc6aeultt)dnlfsiac.avlpSshbeabiTpeolctdueiaaohtmevsiskrensaetoggrantfeisoostncpdtiyehceoeusalodtelnacuhanbk”tdbelpit)eieoiuernyevabinnsgnneoneetsclscsn)dgst,eiadirpsotnspeth.lkrhnvceaasSeoiorlnnttiunlhnalvgyccvtrgaehheheutleoareaipsbycnspvraoteaoteitaeousscluirreporpenstcdenleedteaewaixsttpclteltnieheabtagiehxsrnrooeteattlorbbdceayikeomterrsaegsosoofcoikn(ontr(bmssiecene.oa.tueegiosnIcnst.enph,pogdaiioamwctnnhsngsgotdomeeunrp(dtfodhs5ohoeune)tolnf.coltlanptahopaTsmsolwti.kchalitlioslseheniageaegb“fpsirtoco)nerai.aronuxlelkOtntrcde-isuepnsritrshnrmegppocecerucetrieaaesdsfppbsrstiaaiooiasaoogremtruneneeest b. P ronunciation: reductions
based on typical trouble spots, such as pronouncing “teens and tens.”
5. Men and Women
I Example 1 a. Speaking tasks: discussing dating etiquette, discussing
invitations, discussing celebrations
1. N eighborhoods, Cities, and Towns b. P ronunciation: reductions
a. Speaking tasks: talking about days and dates, saying dates,
talking about transportation, role-playing personal information 6. Sleep and Dreams
b. P ronuncia tion: contractions a. Speaking tasks: interviewing peers about sleep and dreams, role-
playing disagreement, discussing a lecture, telling your dreams
2. S hopping and e-com m erce b. P ronunciation: teens and tens
a. Speaking tasks: comparing prices and stores, identifying
clothes, describing clothes, interviewing peers about shopping 7. W ork and Lifestyles
habits, role-playing returns to a store a. Speaking tasks: interviewing peers about jobs, talking about
b. P ronuncia tion: reductions future plans, interviewing peers about the future
b. P ronunciation: majors vs. job titles
3. Friends and Fam ily
a. Speaking tasks: discussing appearance, leaving voicemail 8. Food and N utrition
messages, describing people, interviewing peers about keeping a. Speaking tasks: discussing nutrition and food, role-playing
in touch with friends and family, interviewing peers about ordering in a restaurant, talking about recipes, presenting a recipe,
conversation topics, role-playing greetings discussing nutritional contents of food, comparing food labels
b. P ronuncia tion: reductions b. P ronunciation: reductions

34 Chapter 2 9. Great D estinations
a. Speaking tasks: describing vacation destinations, asking about
and discussing flight information, getting trip information from a
travel agency, talking about sports
b. P ronunciation: word families

10. Our Planet

a. Speaking tasks: discussing environmental messages,

discussing reasons for species being endangered, researching

endangered species, debating environmental goals

b. P ronunciation: emphasis

2002,Adapted from Thrush, Blass and Baldwin, pp. viii-ix

of cYoonutemntasyahraeverenlaotteicdedtothraetdmuacntiyonofs-thpehoprnoonluongciicaatilonprtoocpeiscsseisn itnhiswthabiclhe
rseoduuncdtsioanrsealroesvt eorry mcoumffmleodn(ien.g.s,powkheennElnitgtlleishis. pronounced as “lil”). Such

Speaking for beginning level learners 35

Review the table of contents in Example 1. Choose a chapter that sounds tliis(a(sene“niuoHraotnnnqhruatnuanptoebte!)rnr”setai)ehtiscicn’eoatsooginnclnauedeuolwatd.nnh”rsotneuqtuemhdu(lredndisicgoektwbhnualetlnbyoycp)lue.ooa”lw,dmsnIseadnfeinobwfdrelaaymefucfsrtthooe,oharmatavoalnbeelnalosi.ttsittcsTclhhyh.hterahoreAunrunosistgdieaunhaemggtahhraeeioentsflfhiouspaicrltsaths,“otpuotsfserburauruesbncpsvtsti,petitaicuort“beyutsTi,oetohimduaonenltnuyddtn(rdhntidtrhleholiae,leunlhosnelas”fa)ttnrcpisuoogoocf“uufstpsraummseagrestyyee,­­
interesting to you. With a friend, brainstorm some speaking activities you could When the students in the French class had mastered many common
try in class if you were using this textbook with a group of beginner or false
beginner students. rfmvnsoeiaonpyrrugielnalet(etsinait,ooirtohnnutniinshnn)ewgogniaFsass“bryUeTsolnlohuaNcbetuhDuna.(srnnEeoyRadulion,ctf)tshaomoetfeuydm(nncmyolpauor(snentsi)pomv”uoa-ansbttei)eutdisiots, nosIwsroN,htbhotaohenreicirdan(rigndew!odeuae?Isnd,)Awo”alneaslrp’ntetidhrraiess“tcoTiaopohlnlrneasl,ce(tcanoihrcornaeuginnnota)igannoldgasf
bpaeonenonjdeiosnPoyitssemestortaheivptletillhctehhecinoestoa,lgmdbltksoeop:gftaioPiinnnnefycntoleouiponremelfgnesmoctonetuthreonpeefraidetcshlo.satepeotmAelebt—d.a,etmlghktoiianatttcbneioodesn,rulyvttlo,eesyvtoehemxmelspseeertoaehfnsaisnirlnaegtng,hcgseahumnaaadnlsgldeeeildnvmlegeeaieasnls,rlgsnytaiogtgnhoeggaas,etl,tsbsaguhwnotodhouthedltdnoes
There are many different ways to organize a syllabus, and commercially pteraocvThiedhruess,scoaomnneentohkimneyginafpotrerinltceoiapprilnceesr-isnnototteaatact lhakilnl!agbToseupatec.ahTkeirhnsigsshdisoouetlhsdna’tbt etmeaoecpahenenrtshtoasththooounslldye
yporouduacreedwtoexrktbinogokwsitmh.ayOoftremn ayyounowt iflilt tnheeedneteodssuapnpdlegmoaelnstotfhtehetelxeat rwneitrhs vwstoopenhperesiapcankasteiignovtehgnears9lte7atpshnsooedosfnsldieCsbiashlprecanr.upeesprts(esSiaorerwnee3sda..)nthwtBetiouthtdtiaiistlncktdueaosrsbeeisosotunimnt,geoaafntnodppteiihcnrasscotoonyrrapoloiuidzreaasattheisootntuholedamsstgimoianutiopnlarttloieenscysciooopnunlesr­
creative speaking activities of your own.
Reflection
3. Principles for teaching speaking to
beginning learners Think about a beginning language class you have taken. What were the
sorts of topics you talked about in class? Were the discussions enjoyable?
infoIrnmthoiusrsdeecctiiosnionwseaws iwllecotenascidhesrpteharkeiengprtioncbipelgeisnnwinhgichancdanfailnseflubeengcinenainndg Memorable? Did you enjoy discussing some topics more than others, or
learners. These principles are: speaking with some of your classmates more than others?

• Provide something for learners to talk about. hmaontdiIvnlea,tisopmneoafvkoeirntgaolrklienmsgsa.onMnisp,aunlpaiitpcetuuilrnaesbsloeamsndeis jwu“msatya.anfiFaponurclyaebwxleaosmr”dpflceoa,rntyhoipnurgosvciyadoneu bctuhayne
• Create opportunities for students to interact by using groupwork or pairwork. Cuisenaire Rods™ or Legos™ and use them as the basis of many
• Manipulate physical arrangements to promote speaking practice.
Speaking for beginning level learners 37
Wpraecwticilalldiimscpulsiscaetaiocnhsoffotrhteesaechpriningcisppleeaskiinngtutron,beagnidnnhiingghlisgtuhdt esnotms eanodf tfhaelsier
beginners.

1. Provide something for learners to talk about.

ttiodoepsaiApcsesooarkwr,ieenimtcnioiodstteeiuondsntusiian.nltlToeyurhearesbrlteooinougikts asuaontsmduEeawxtlhlaiaynmngstp.otlTomehec1eoyc(mpowpmm.ame3nn4tut-ns3ooi5cnm)a,itetit.wvhTeihnhengene,yepodweroittsphhhlaeetytocmfhsioonhovdasereeas
ptheeopcloemtomutanlkic.aAtivsePneneendinsgatonnd (p1u9r9p5o,spe.s xo)f plauntsguita,gteealcehaernrserssh. oSuoldmeattitmeneds iton
loafntgaulkaignegcalabsosurot osmoms,ettehaicnhgeirnstesreeesmtintgo,foorrgaectctohme pnlaitsuhrianlgjoaygaennduinenethpuusripaossme
for cIormemmuenmicbaetrinsgeewmitihngoltyheersn.dless substitution drills in my audio-lingual
Fofremncyhaculansts,bweiinthg tohen stthuedetanbtsler.epTehaetningthtehetetaecahcehrerw’sosuelndtecnucee aanbootuhtetrhenopuenn

36 Chapter 2

coofmvamryuinnigcalteinvgethacs,tivfritoimes.a(bCouuitsetnhareiree iRnochdessartoe bornige-hqtluyarctoelroirnecdhwlooongd.enLerogdoss relinSqoumisehtimtheesfnlooovricteo ttehaechsetursdewnotsrrdyuarbinogutathspeecahkainosg tahcatitvcitayn. oItc’scutrruief tthheayt
afdcctrrraeuioesanrmirngeagsnnsmlsbkec.oa,)yslalBtaarudnudpgdtelraygneesoaetvtsmnuiectencorsaebb,bncuitrttiaasihlnnldesoggiofnlefsguco)uosucelbcrhoalorotnsethchmdkiebnaspreglaltsehtpthshitetonaergtdcs(bleasaatnnssrhoseaias.pdmtDoaisntrefqoecaumgktaciesrohatenhneo,ayefaprcpioblontailortnuyeseeirnvfecoigsenirtnrimccnafalgerred,scesstao,pr,uuyeopcnaeritkletuylrcioryoneaw’ugssl ggcarreonauctpokwniontrrdokloatfhnnedoaipscaetiivrthwitayotrtekoncsthuaeens!ebxeHtenenorteistyahr,aetbysuootmuifeftehteiepl scleofaomrrnfmoerratsakbainlreeg: osunretasthka, tity’soua
macatinvyitireessoiunrcleasn,gcuoangseidcelrasussrionogmdsi.ffeIrfeynot ukinadres owr osirzkeisngofilneaavessc, hsoheolllsw, sittohnoeust
or sUeesdinpgodpsi,coturrdeisffaesretnhtelebnagstihss ooff ssptieckask.ing lessons also gives the learners 1. boSonetasrtldhipeosrtoaofskvpeacrplheeearardlfyotrrfaitrhnsest.psaEtruietdnhecenyrt.sproorvpidoest wthreitmtenonintshtreuccthiaolnks­
tscaoailmnetneydthawirnistg,hatotdhvetearlnktieswaebmolaeunnt,gtsusaocgumet e.ftrWhoimnhgemtthoaegfroayzciuonsuesou,nsoeor tcphoielcroturtehrdeasnpyhtohouetoilrgoorcawaptneh sounnfrcotehmre­ 2. tuShstraeerdet,wtoaintphdapitrhaieinrngilnuatpteerraqcuutsiiceoknllasy,rgaaennrddgrqtohuueipentslwyif,hyemonouvthweeatnsottugtdore.onutpssaroef
pInletetronestp,epahk.otIongSraepcthiosnad4dofinthteisrecsht atoptsepr,eawkeinwgilllecssoonnssidaenrdsocmane mpiocttiuvraet-ebapseeod­ 3. thAaonatgvdefeitrshsotehtreog, niasv,tneudadinnesdsnottrtsouhnces)tan.iyofnnosurmmabbogeurrotsuhpaoslowbudytoihngaevotirnidngetrot,hgr1er-oe2u-3“p,ls’1s(-”e2.-gs3i.,t,
activities to use in speaking lessons. 4. iSnetpsapiresciofircgtriomuepsli.mits for how long students will be working
5. hwmpGeariiliivnprteuewttdceohlsorae,kwtaepronaergcyrguhsorioudognraurnoplsicpuwsetepololarsfkstefh.nateoFdvosowwrrooihetnreaxdetafsomipscoepoderlrsxser.op,eAnecyctlollttyuoet.hd”mtehaieggt rhtcohthuesapaleykmn,bde“oImaonrfbdfteihvrtoees
2. Create opportunities for students to interact by using willAdsevyeoluopgayionuerxopwerniegnrcoeuipninwgoarknidngpawiriitnhggrsotruaptesgaiensd. pairs of students, you
groupwork or pairwork.
3. Mspaeankipinuglatperapchtyicseic. al arrangements to promote
Sometimes students—perhaps especially those at the lower levels—can be
anxious about speaking out in class. One way to overcome their reticence guagIet ,cbanutbtehadtifdfiicfufilctutlotygiest ostfutednenetsxatcoertablaktewditbhyotnhee atnraodthiteiornianl aclnaeswsroloamn­
and increase their opportunities to speak is to use pairwork and groupwork. arrangement of desks facing forward toward the teacher’s zone. Changing the
According to Pennington (1995, p. x), using pairwork and groupwork can physical environment can encourage speaking activities, partly because it
improve learners’ motivation and promote choice, independence, creativity, tpaoraeretsniaoclmolyueraawlgtaeeyrsssptthoeeawkpionorgwk.ewristhtruthcetusreeaotifntgheantdraoditthieornaalspEencgtslisohf tchleasesnrovoirmo.nmHeernet
and realism. Pairwork and groupwork also provide feedback to the learner btou irleTdphfeelauitennascicydoaenn-vodeursctaostniidofinedeocnricreicn. lteFeroivsrmiaewttewcwhointchiqounseecvefenortrarilgcinvceiinwrgclpsetseuodopeflnest,tsuidtnheenotrcsdh. eaTrnhctoee
fromPasioruwrocerks aonthdegrrtohuapnwthoerkteaarechceorn(fii.geu.,rafrtoiomnsthoefiprepoepelres)f.or doing activities, people on the outside face inwards while the people on the inside face out­
rtwatohesrtutdheanntsacwtiovriktyintgyptoegseptheerrsteo. Pcoamirpwleoterka,taasskthoer enxaemrceisseugugseinstgs,thinevtoalrvgeest ward. Thus, each person is facing a partner. The students interview these
lgeaxennpgeeurraaiegtenec.meG,otrrheoruethepawnstuoodnrekenctisos nptvheerrergsearotoiuor pnm, iosasriedfoesautlur, dsbeteuncdtsaeunwstesorctkhainrne,gesotsotwugdeittehhnettrsh.rceIanensmntouyt­ partners for two or three minutes to get the answers to preset questions
dentPsapirewr ogrrkoupanidt isgeraosuieprwtoorkkeehpavtheembefeoncuswedideolny thuesetadskbayt htaenadc.hers in t(owgheitchhery)o. uAcftaenr daefveiwsemyoinuurtseesl,f othrewshtuicdhenytosucahnadngtehepastrutndeernst,sfcoarninbsrtaainncseto, rbmy
rCeosemarmchusnhiocwaetidvethaLtasntugdueangtsewToerakicnhginingp(aCirLsTg).etInmtohree eianrdlyivdidauyaslotfaClkLinTg,
time than students working in teacher-fronted classes. Early classroom Speaking for beginning level learners 39
rsepseeeacrhchacrtesv, einalceldudtihnagt tshtuodseenntsortmalkalilnygpinerpfoairrms eadlsobypeterfaocrhmersa (wLiodnegr,rAandgaemos,f
McLean, and Castanos, 1976).

38 Chapter 2

the people in the outer circle moving three partners to the right. This step is 4. Tasks and materials
rpdeerpaowepTaliatenengdtogpaousicsoetsufetoreearnsat,liancsfogotlmhloeimswauicanntgiivsciiammtytipaocplneos,ndstuioenrariutniecngsrgeitanoatfiobrnrregamnuadgsteeeifsomuingle.nngstapodrteasssiktgrsnuetchdtuartteoisnvffoorolrvcmee
vsteyrlbe.alTdheescwriopmtioanns’s. lPeifctthuarenda icsoounpltehedamncainn’gs riinghtht eshcolauslsdiecr.AHrgeernrtiignhetthaanngod mTtaanhsadketesTerahixaiameenlsrdpc.iisuTesrenxhpeoeotrytscpRetioseeesofgfltteehytcnhapteiitesrosacnstaeetnahcnaatbindtoenyeAuoxiscushetaidtocouantsondtibevtouseecsxaerelciishbsate,spspbramoeunvaotdikdrdieaeenxltgsheyemtotroouptblodwiefeyogivtfihefnaelnoorripapnynpgoygouoelretusuaorarnfmniotetapwireslsneks.
is in his left hand. His right hand is on her back, and they are facing in etoxearncaisleyzteyptehsesaereacdteivscitriiebsedanadnddeevxeelmoppliyfoieudr: own examples. The following
totally opposite directions. Now picture the couple sitting down in desks fac­
ing the opposite directions, with their right shoulders together. They can 1. LIiSCnncootfregoniriprvcvmteieperdaswutazidstoziinloaelnsogsga,upecaso,nnddtrrjoaiglmlseaadw, a(anocdrtivrgoiutlieied-spedla)yicnognversations, and
speak to and hear one another, but neither can see what is on the other 342...
ptlaaelnrkgsiFuoniangng’aseltlodylee,ssnstkehoweonsrc.lpoIaanpcr.ktunTsteaihnriisgsl tpiahsanetdractnoygtcookttesabecirlahetpainnakigrqt.yuupteectihhsneaiqrquoueui,ctitknheewtaeoyafcthosietgrtiesntegtsstduaudberrininetgsf 65.. PPhicytsuircea-lbaacsetidonasctiinvistipeesaking lessons
speaking task first. Make sure the instructions are simple and clear. (It will
help if you write them on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency pro­ acteRrizegedardaslemssooref thoer lceosusrisnetefroaccutsivoer. lAeverel,caitleldspmeaoknionlgogacuteiviistiespsockaennbbeychoanre­
jected on a screen, so students can consult them as needed.) In this person without others contributing to the discourse, whereas a conversation,
procedure, the learners talk briefly with different people and then move on by definition, is highly interactive. A lecture can be largely non-interactive,
tcoomtaplklettoedsotmheetoansek,ntehwey, assitidfothweny awgearien.aTt haesopchiyasligcaalthaecrtinogf.sAittfitnegr gthiveeyshyaovue, but a seminar discussion is more interactive than a lecture. Different kinds of
as the teacher, an easy way to see when the activity is coming to an end. itsenoxtmetsre)a.wcLthioeacnttspurreoedcsiccautnradbilnseemdgieifnnferaerressnoatfresspptwoekeoecnehxlaaemnvgpeulanegstesoaf(sssspioteuceaicatehtded,evwiedniettnhst.icfeiartbalien, caonnd­

Think about two or three speaking activities that you would like to try with your Likewise, the speaking activities in various speech events can involve
own English students. (If you are not yet teaching, think about when you do more or less original language. At its most creative, language is generated
become a teacher.) Share your list with a classmate or colleague and explain entirely by the speakers (as in a spontaneous conversation in which
why you selected these particular activities. the speakers choose what to say to one another as the discourse continues).
pInrodouthcetironcso,noterxints,colnatnegxutsagwehecraenspbeeaklearrsgerelyadreacloitueddw-inhatristoumalse,onine etlhseeahtares
wheInn tesaucmhminagrys,pewaekinhgavteo beexgaimnnininedg sthturdeeenktseyanpdrifnaclsieplbeesgtionnkeeres:p in mind wserlivtetesnh. a(vOefwcroiuttresne.,) students can also recite or read aloud what they them­

21.. wPCMrrooaervnakiitdpeoeurolsappotapemiorwtrehttuoehnriknipt.ghieyfssoifrcoalrel asertunndeverisrnottsnomttoaelinknttaetboroaucpttr.obmy using group- Activities for teaching and practicing speaking range along a contin­
3. practice. ote speaking ucoummplfertoemly ntootvaellly, seslcfr-idpitreedctesdpeoeucthp,ut.toOgf ucoiduerdse,otuhtepruetisbayrotlheefolerarrenpeertsit,iotno
and reading aloud as part of practicing speaking skills and building confi­
imminpIdon,rthathonewt iecnvhwearpo,tretkrhsianttghthwaetirtfheolialnortewe,ramdwdeeidtiiwaotinlelalabnuimdildpaodorvntaannthcteepdsreilnepcariripnnlecerisps,ltehtsoa.ot .ThKhaveeyeepnaroinet dence and automaticity. But it is important to remember that our students are
been addressed here. not learning English just so they can repeat after others or read aloud from
pthreeiprafreeedlintegxs,tse. xTphlaeiyn atlhseoirwoawnnt tiodebaes,aabnled tgoetcathrriyngosndcoonnevuesrisnagtioEnnsg,liesxhp.rFeossr
pthreasceticreeacsorenast,iviteisusceruscoiaflthfoerltaenagcuhaegres.to provide opportunities for students to

Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 41

ity sItnrutchtiusresesctthioant,cwane wbeillaedxaapmteidnefosrevsteuradlentatsskattyapneys. lTevheelse(aanrde, biansifcacat,ctfiovr­ I Example 2
lseuabrsneeqruseonftacnhyaplatnergsuaogfet)h.eWbeowokillarsevwiesitcosonmsideeorftthheesteeatcashkinsganodf sapcetiavkitiinegs tion
learners at more advanced proficiency levels. I: Robert, why such a sad face?
Reflection You:_______________________________________________________ _
/: Where did you lose it?
Think about a time when you were taking a language course. What were Y o u : __________________________________________________________
some of the activities your teachers had you do in class to practice I: What is it worth?
speaking? W hat about activities that were used to learn and to practice You:__________________________ ______________________ _________
the correct pronunciation of the target language? Which of these activities I: Why didn’t you buy another one?
were successful and which were not? Are there any patterns in term s of You:_______________________________ ___________________________
those that you found to be helpful and those you thought were not so /; To whom are you going to tell what happened, your mother or your
helpful?
father?
1. Conversations and interviews Y o u : ___________________________________________________________
/: Why?
Conversation is one of the most basic and pervasive forms of human inter­ You: ^__________________________ ______________________________
action. But carrying on a conversation in the target language can be very I: Will your parents give you the money you need?
difficult for beginning students and false beginners, for many reasons. For You:__________________ ________________________________________
example, carrying on a conversation in English involves selecting vocabulary, I: Well, what are you going to do?
applying the grammar rules, pronouncing the English sounds, and under­ Y o u : __________________________________________________________
standing the other person. Doing all these things at once is quite demanding. Adapted from Allen and Valette, 1977, p. 233
an oAldgtuecihdneidquecofnrovmertshaetaioudnio(lailnsgoucaal lelerda tchoant itsrostlillleudsecfoulnfvoerrlsoawteior-nle)veisl
students. In a guided conversation, “the students are given a framework with­ Write a one-sided conversation using the example above. Try it out with a
in which to build their sentences, but the actual choice of what they will say classmate or colleague.
is left up to them” (Allen and Valette, 1977, p. 231). Here is an example of a
guided conversation using a one-sided script: True conversations are unscripted, free-ranging discourses involving two
Actdoaoirlkfntfmehveoreoteururnsgerathntpssipoe,oeonnwap, eklthewei.rcsosphI’neocaaroakrnmeectrrooicbnrioeuvs nteiinrsotsodinanmistvi)geoi.detnBiunmyattheldsese(cftthmioonampiotitmricoeisunc, a,ntantichclokaecnathevtaui.evntrtegseaerattihanonacnndesstaahrbneeuoiiitnnlhdtdeeirrvoa, incdtiuinvtaheleas:
42 Chapter 2
Some textbooks just give topics for conversations, but others deal
specifically with HOW to participate in conversations. An important part of
rceaprrayirincgomonmaunciocnavtieornsabtiroenakidsotwo nuss.eIcnoCmhmaupnteirca1ti(osneesptrpa.te1g9ie-2s0t)o, wpreevceonntsiodr­
ered several communication strategies. For beginning learners and false
beginners in particular, it is very important to have some strategies for
gsatdeatvntiidcniegngfho:erllpeawrnheerns athbeoyutdhoonw’t tuonadsekrsftoarncdlawrihfiactatsioomn eaonndecosanyfsir.mHtehreeirisunsodmere­

Speaking for beginning level learners 43

I Example 3 abmnuedidldiparttahecetpiircroecfotihcneifeinqduceyensclteeiovanensldboerhfeololrpwe eethra,ecyiht aiosctthiumearlp.lyoIfritntathneertvtsioteuwhdeeplnpetostphaleerem. Faibtnrtaahlilenys,itnwotriemtrh­
bknegowin,nrinagthestrutdheanntst,ailtkiisngbetost sttorahnagveersthinemEnsgtlairsth.by interviewing people they
Asking for repetition cpoascoonaounnmdrttdi,Ibegnunboeattceenietnvrgrievnvei’cisnrigeoeynowwniinpcnfsstiih,gendariaaeslvornnltineeucdesndew.cgcesioCiannnnntfosgrdtnohp-uaedemrncsautdppcecaetrtdfiocitcanceileategsxoelsttlsabhybg.noeeefEiogiortnkxirEntsaeflpnnmooreegvwrcprliiihs-elfseliwihecgcv,4ahieniunpnlbsbrfleeaooeegvarscivmreinodnecnmaeeroitysrnnmisodgs.sunouHnsomctirocouceerwdfasoegtsetirnofuoveutiniesdlgl:sreain,nanswlrtcacrneianatthrgaearugbbysaiooiuenguupsget,t­

1. C o uld you repeat that, please? | Example 4

2. W o u id you m in d repeating that, please? interviewing
Sometimes you’ll need to interview people. In an interview, you generally ask a person a number
3. I'm sorry, I d id n 't catch that. of questions about one topic. (In a survey, you generally ask many people the same question.)
To begin an interview, you can say the following:
4. _______ ______________________________________ __ __________________ f • Excuse me. Could I ask you a few questions for a class?
* Hi. I’m doing a project for my English class. May I ask you a few questions?
5. ______________________________________ — ---------------------------------- * Hello. My name’s ____________ . May I ask you a few short questions for a project in my

Asking for explanation English class?
During the interview, do the following:
1. i d o n 't understand w hat you mean by (rehearse). C ould you e xp la in that? * Listen to the answers.
. Show interest. (Say “Oh?” “Really?” “That’s interesting.”)
} ;2. i'm still not sure w h at you mean. W o u ld you m in d e x p la in in g that again? • Take notes. (Remember to bring a pen and paper.)
. Don’t be shy. If you don’t understand something, ask the person to repeat.
3. I'm afraid I d o n 't understand. D o you th in k you co u ld exp la in that?
To end the interview, you can say the following:
Springboard to Success: Communication Strategies for the Classroom and ♦Well, thanks a lot.
Beyond (Skillman and MacMahill, 1996, pp. 30-31) • Thank you for your time.
. Thanks for your help.
It is important for teachers to create tasks that encourage learners to
speak English. Two ways to get learners to talk to people in English are Quest: Listening and Speaking in the Academic World, Book One
caorentCtaacostknsatsaisnicgtnwmahsiecsnhitgstnhamendelainnnttgesuravagireeewlase.atrynpeersoaf rsehoorbt,ligfoedcutsoedhainvteercvoienwta.cTt (Hartmann and Blass, 2000, pp. 52-53)
hese
with
speakers of the target language. For example, in a second language environ­
ment, an information scavenger hunt is a useful activity for getting new
students acquainted with the school, the town, or the university campus. A
chaunnctoilsleactkiandspoefcpifairetdy game in which teams of people compete
stocasveeenwgheor assortment of odd items most quickly-
umsiugahlltyinbcyludaeskainrgednbeuigtthobno,ras cfaonrctehlelemd.aiFromr aiinlsstatanmcep,, aa nsecwavsepnagpeerr hthuanttisliastt
least three days old, a piece of chocolate candy, and so on. None of these
items is valuable; the fun is in asking strangers for peculiar items. As a
language practice activity, in an information scavenger hunt, teams of two or
three students each can be sent out to gather specific information that they
cannAotsgpeetcisfiimc pklyinbdy orefacdoinngtascitgnasssoirgnmmeennuts.is to have students interview
pinetoepnldeedintoEnelgilciisthp.aIrnticteurlavrieinwfosrmaraetiosenmfrio-smtrutchteurpeedopsleequaennswceesrionfg qthueesqtiuoenss­
tions. Typically one person takes the role of the interviewer and the other
person answers the questions. However, with low-level students it can also be
worthwhile to have them conduct the interviews in pairs. That way they can

44 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 45

2. Information gap and jigsaw activities for beginning Another natural information gap involves giving directions. For example,
level students one student has the directions to a class party and the other has a map. The
first student must give the directions to the second in English. Meanwhile the
iunddinnsaregfeamnowtTaAErecmthsnota.neigavtalItefiiiitfadtslouylmhyenraoaaiitsnllauooyobtrifhsntothshtafruhteoaetuterrerodemeaineanabtnaechnoftthsidaopuotertpanlrimhreansegirbofssaaoenaopfltrlanmsihmtooaahaacnsiesltlteiyiiovwgan.pnirafeIetnoynopliilrnpntmfah(logoeesear.rgttadlopii.onno,erwonwrootcecrthrteoircghats-ueaatlsaepnt,citvaitnraczehtenoiileeEonomcngnltwiophsgsc,uleiltiotierrshhssnnhhloecia,tbsnacehbgtkpiehtsisatsee.sftfasykuooT,p.drrchpleiaaeroknonynestpespwmmreiasraauuntiktutssdeet­t­ second student traces the route on the map and asks clarifying questions to
lldssssiiotppissastetenleebaiadknnekkieieeennsrsrrg,gu’ssssarhhesnvtoothdiuwteuaodwlsstdeomuhnonsoitafeomnytct)ht.alahteoWnhnaoegdvkhaorefaseaakwonsmtceihftincahiolutsgyerir.nprtsgrHreapeedrepee(t.pnraee.Takteinoret4i’isdr0som)ahwntanao,ooksgrerecefkxlistatanhowhrmieimeshfrhipieacletlecahedottetiifthvodyhrieneoetss,ymrdocrmarrwatianbwoaodtiyreunienxtgeogtixabfnhpinoitsbaseyoilnrnfokamsaccipmtkotihrisniiovanul.gyetgnr,,uTdetttseshhhhesreeees,­ make sure he has understood the directions and is marking the map correctly.
the family as a topic of conversation: Iann dthtiys paicctailvietyxpirtemssaioynbs efohrelgpifvuilngif dyioruecptiroens-te(taucrnh some of the vocabulary
right, turn left, go straight
three blocks, at the corner, and so on). Here are some useful expressions for
faaslksienbgeagnindnegrivsitnugdednitrse:ctions from a textbook designed for beginning and

I Example 6

Put It Together

A. Asking for snd Giving Dirsctions. C29 Use the map on page 3 1to ask for and give direc­

tions. You can look back at the sample conversations on page 30 and use the expressions in this box.

Go down (or up) one/two/three blocks.*

Example 5 Turn left/right. Make a left/right.
Go oast the It’s rig h t there.

Your Turn!© It’s rig h t there on yo u r le tt/rig h t. It's across from the

Talking about your family It’s on Thorn Drive/G areth Avenue/Third S tre e t.**

Sample Dialog It’s next to the

A: Here are my mother and father and down here are [ [ Useful ons It’s on the corner of and
my sisters and me.
How many people are there in your It's in the m iddle of the block.
B: Are you the oidest? family?
A: No, both of my sisters are older. Caitlin is 25 and blocks,* In English, people count not streets.
is this your brother’s wife?
Vanessa is 22. the* * Notice that in English, street names don't have before them.
B: So these are their husbands? What's your nephew’s name?
A: Yes, Caitlin is married to Steve and that's their son Are you the oldest or the youngest? Quest: Listening and Speaking in the Academic World, Book One
(Hartmann and Blass, 2000, p. 35)
Jamie. I'm the middle child.
B: What about Vanessa? I have one older brother and two benloccoAMkusfyntetreraBrtsrhsitetuoirdsmhetenhftarsrenieghniasodtvnreeapelotpsvir,naatrcssitoaictoibeoudent tstahhusiarstethaeitcnyotiuvAtesitemlyl tehyirneoicsucearlnaessxstE,punrdyegeoslnisustishocnatsphn.eaothpatlvheeeycthoweuminllt
A: Vanessa is married but she and her husband d on’t younger sisters. gldeirnvaegwinidngigreuocntridogenerssttuhorovisneegr .cthirecutmelestpahnocnees,. sTinhcee stpheeaykicnagn tnaoskt cboencvoemyems emaonriengcshbaly­

have any children yet.

Try this . . ■ Make a rough sketch

of your family tree. Show a partner your sketch
and answ er questions about your family. Now,
switch roles.

Listen In, Book 1 (Nunan, 2003, p. 19) Speaking for beginning level learners 47
Chapter 2

Reflection When it is clear that the students understand the procedure, put them in
twtSctpihiaaotnieuirtnarhddtsnisteoeota-nhxnpntihtesdiBwrsrnghorioieiaunvtrxptneettshdhnoe,rtenoeroteunphnpnaemafiidortrste.rnemos(ceaiYftorbtc.otinelhnuadregswosmttfioaoleelsftakmnhtc,heebhhieierrpadtryvartoieiogsrfthtu(pehtSdaretee(cumonphdrtasepcrp.ne)laaotisWcsrAske)dhvwtehaeeisnernscaeirril)tni.hbdddeIeieenfsssxfttetaiuhrcndeianasnerotdntiwvotdwsenaelyiastc,drthaiedenrasudadtrstdoiiineonntasngoe­­
Find a map that would be suitable to use in a direction-giving task with wilaaincgmistlailtivietOnlieaatdyndsin.,etohmftmahuuveosceirhfneutghtltuoepiprnees:gnt.ueIIodrffreiyynfpootyesuunojcuuahirslaec.tvaTtewnrhaoacalcaretkcmweitnhisansgeyatrtiyoeonouatuathelecscamaomonnnibtrneeetaxuhftotseinerwmegthhaymeeporaspuechwhupoiishtnteohoect,ttoohhycpeeoomiieurpdryfiinimmnnggtaaehppriisssss
your beginning or false-beginner students. (This might be a map of the
cam pus if you are teaching at a university, or a map of the surrounding
neighborhood. It can also be the map of a shopping area or a single
building if the building is com plex enough.) Select several locations on the
map that could be used as destinations, so students can give one another
the directions for finding a particular site. W hat sorts of language
(vocabulary, grammatical structures, speech acts) will learners need to
complete this activity successfully?

Create an information gap activity for student pairs using the map you found. Sometimes civic organizations or schools will provide maps for free. Visit a
(Each member of the pair must have a copy of the map, but only one member tourist information center in your town or the student center at your school to see
knows the intended destination and he or she is not allowed to say specifically if they have appropriate maps that you could use for information gap activities in
what that is.) Write the procedures for the activity, including specific instructions your class.
for the learners to follow. (For instance, you must decide if the listening student
may ask clarifying questions, making the task more interactive, or if the listener llaacttkeW,r wtheeermntatlwckoomaoberosmuftrooarme“sttwthueod-eiwdneatsyaeoianfcfhpourhmtativanetgioutnnoiggqeuatpeh”eirnofarojri“mjgisgaastwiaownputahzczatiltveti,htybe.e”octaThuehsriess
should remain silent— which puts a greater burden on the direction-giver to be thtctorhoaouevmlrleievbsyatianrciameaotdrtuasrspa,(ucwbstoiihifontisnglSesaEo.nafnnTgFoihlnrtiaeshfhone)rcrsmitthsuocaadotsedionobwntrstiohttchemhharutuotarssuettktshe.peswSoioaodt,hnliffdftothehrsreeceiinhhnrseottduiasnurntfslucoedeasr,emnfndooatnsrtpieorthihnscaetevustbedoouesfnmpsvtleuaamssnrtiiaognabuhndest
clear and precise.) Try out the activity with a classmate or colleague before using tichtoienmeabrcaitnriyvinitgtyhaaitntsdwjiugossuealwdoflnteawttuothr(eeo.mr msoeree)sidxifdfeifrfeenrtesnettssiogfhitnsfoinrmtwatoionda, ywsh. iIcthigsivthees
it with a class.
3. Scripted dialogues, drama, and role-playing
Here are some tips for managing map activities. If your students have not
idonondnievaintdhuisaolvkceionrhpdeieaosdfotafpstrkhoebjeemcftoaoprre.,Btirteafionsrshepeaylrpoefunuclstyiafrtyaotnhude pprgaoiivdrweucoetrhkea, dccoolpatywssoofmrotheuemndmbsearopsf Different forms of drama can be very useful in teaching speaking classes
itfitcnhhnrhoseeteetmcrncmukldtacahwestpiesdoitmnshdtaaseemossmkanteniebnwdpeaalirtnahtishcooaeanvth.trehemeGertfoihovdcreleuellaorscsiowtsnlureigdanaleersgthnsasittanshstdeowffigorsshsletioltemtolhprewpoes.lurey,tInhondedeuvi.mrteegThn.ciehvtMiteeohfyinaotrhksssut,ehegmoprhsoua.uuutlhrdHsneeidaanyevl,glvewyeetooentrhyrudmeeoungawspkeitvuoeaedrstktseautitnrhnhrttegeess for language learners. When actors are performing a play, they typically
iHndavivFeiodorunatehlleys.tnuedxent trocuomnde, two rtihtee sferovnertaalnpdoscshiobolesedaesdtiensattiinoantisononbethhiendboyaorudr. troectihteis liidneeas.)wTrihtteencrbeyatsivoimtyeoofnetheelaster.e ((Iimn pterormvissaotfiotnhael atchteoartsr’esipseaankinegx)celipetsioinn
back (i.e., so the learners all know ytaohsueydcoihrueocsttreianocnedsetahsbteionruaottuiohteno wob nutot thygeoeut ofvdroeomrhneotaht)de. how the play is staged and how the actors deliver their lines. Of course, the
Tstharetninhgapvoeinthtetoclathsse mseelmecbteedrspgliavcee original playwright’s work is highly creative-but here I am using the term
projector transparency, thereby giving the class a common visual point of “creativity” in the linguistic sense of the speaker generating novel utterances.
reference as they guide you through the map task. wasAitss museentoiof nwerdittiennCdhiaalpotgeur e1s,, awhhailclhmathrek ostfutdheentAsuwdeiroelitno gmueaml oMrizeethaondd

48 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 49

frtUieoencrsiftotetorh.teuuTnsheavetatehraliyesoss,ueutshmdoipnsateoliooudgnniuaswe,losagasiundetjhescacosttneivvsldeteusord,smaetnairtnoesndsew, mmvobeuarllkebdidsnegavicenatnuptaptuhlraoecllpoynrmivhaeetaemrvseaosutrioibozpsnetpsidot,uratttinueodnxntisI.­ Servant: What do you want?
rssetcumrdipBeetmneetydbsoetneerdxnttchstoehiumnenttaAeesarucddwheiioaonldrgidlnyssgpudaeaunallkdl.iMngger.athmOonmde,aarhdosvwtareunvctaetugr,reetsohfeinuresiannagreescnmrtiepartntsayiinsuitnshegastatfnhoder
lmtoeaerwannoeinrrrsgyfcuaalnbocfouonct uteascxtotu.naAltlhylseog,feonwrmehrseanttihnetghyeoarrsiegpiepnarakolidnlugacnigtneugxatgbeiesctaoaulsrceeoantdhvyeeyywdrtiohtnteei’nrt ,hoatwvhnee Knight: I’ve come to rescue the princess.
mtedhreesav?ateHnIliifoosnpywgeiosna.ucgsaycnthhtoweooiersfeusopslaeleoaswakim,isncpgyrlioepsuktberiuldltsspteiulnnadtyteehnrwettasipitnhrmoinbcageeysgssic.enrnnHipjioentyrgwe oipitsrheraffsanohlsroeemrxtbainlemiggnpienlsaenaiopnnflgdaaylaeshaparolnnordt­t Princess: Oh, my hero! (The knightbows, theprincess curtsies.)
pthlaeys,owurhciechoIf thhaivs eteuxst.edI fwiristht slaoww-tlheevepllaleyarwnheersn. I(Iw’massoarcryhitldhaatnIddhoanv’tekbneoewn Villain: Curses! Throw him out!
using the idea ever since.)
Servant: (He turns to face the knight.) He says I must throw you out.
Knight: Ha! Not on your life.
Servant: My life?

Knight: Out of my way, you fool.(Hedrawshis sword.)

Servant: (He steps back outof theknight’s path.)

Princess: (She clasps her hands and bats her eyelashes.) Oh, my hero.
(The knight bows.)

Villain: Just what do you think you’re doing?

Knight: I’m rescuing the princess.

Villain: Over my dead body!

A Three-Act Play Knight: Whatever you say. (He lunges at the villain, who steps aside.
The knight accidentally stabs the princess.)
Cast of characters: The Princess
The Knight Two Doors (two students who stand facing Knight: Oops!
The Villain each other with their arms outstretched straight Villain: You fool!
The Villain’s Servant in front of them, hands clasped) Servant: Oh dear!
Princess: (Dying) My hero....
Doors: Crrrreeeak....

(Knocking is heard.) nmdtoeiecwbatiOanowtinfnooacgrnrodyeu(s’sero.stgoeer.y,,eegtlwaahucseehhhsreeessno,mttthhahaneeeyrmdbkosenrforiasgoosohmkmnt )ye.lcouounSunngtteuafesabdxmaoett,nuiltttieshatserhpceveavmocniilclaaalaloiblsnyouw)kl.iaefTrlulyy.hpoehuyenreedcwae(nmcwuoaroslnesrssod,tsrteaoxitcnepulrattthhsiynee,
ptchaeenrifrWohraamhcvyt.eioitnshsethaisnstudtdetxehntetcisraplslpeeerdfe,oc“rhAm. TTthhheereppel-laaAyyctatatPkaleasyre?ag”buoTluahrtetswfpioersetodtr,imtihneretetehrmrmosuingouhft,ebysootthou
Villain: Go see who’s at the door. gexeprarTteehsdseiosslneoscw,onnbedosdstiymacmet,uoaevlvleeymrygetinvhteisns,gtahinseddsotsunpdeeeeincnhtss.laoPnweromfoporpmtoiriontnugn-hithtayentdloingfeeossctuuwsrietoshn, eftaxhcaeigairl­
pronFuinnaclilayt,iotnh,einthcilruddirnegndthiteiopnitcish,pestrrfeosrsm, aenddaitnhtoignhatisopneecdo.nMtouorvse.ments are
Servant: Yes, master. (Opens the doors.) raapfeiwd atinmdejseraktyvaenryd tshloewspsepeecehdsis, hstiugdhe-pnittschfienddatnhdeyvecraynfasspte. aAkftEerngplriaschtivceinryg
quickly when they do not have to concentrate on what to say. My students
Doors: Crrreeak....

Servant: Who are you?

Knight: (Bowing) I am the hero of this story.

Servant: Oh. (He closes the doors.)

Doors: Crrreeak....

Servant: He says he’s the hero of this story.

Villain: Curses!! Well, find out what he wants.

Servant: (He opens the doors.)

Doors: Crrreeak....

Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 51

have had fun performing this play for their peers and have gained some hIhbtefoaeayvemconeheuieencxaxgorppueioennsrtteeiraeaidnencscthE.oeiFndrLgorlieoen-nlpeva-lniapryloaEsnySmisnLeitnnchtoe,enitrdtheupexcrtaes, ttvtuiihodoeneunslsetysEasrnmtnegeamlriyssshnmoocaftlayhtshsaneevosier.t
valuable speaking practice in the process.

The script above contains several lines that beginning learners could use as 5. fHaCiurrasdevtiaeebtneetcfhoeaeroecsflthiutmahdvaeeitinnertgscilntdahsoeysmmothuaerdteorsco.ltlahese-sprrlooaoylme-ipnilnapyagiirensneforrroanlsmtwoahflleargelraorougrpeasrl
unanalyzed chunks. In the script, circle three to five formulaic expressions that 6.
might be helpful for low-level learners to know. Compare your choices with those
of a classmate or colleague.

otheAr rpoeloep-lpelaayndis iantsepreaacktinugsiancgtivtihtey icnhwarhaiccthertihsteicsstuodfentthsotsaekeptehoeplpeart(foorf nmoofistltmaapkosetesisvaairtneedjs.uedeng masenntatourrael vliedaernncine g thoaptpothrteunsittuiedsenintssteaarde
instance, age, gender, occupation, and so on). Or the students can be
tchoemmmseulnviecsateinvaecttiansgk,a snuocvhelassitunaetgioonti.aOtinftgenaapruorlceh-palsaey, isnocllvuidnegs aa pparrotbicluemlar, This last point cannot be over-emphasized: How you as the teacher
mexackeilnlegnta prreoscerevdautrieosn, fgoretthineglpiinngforsmtuadtieonnts, alenadrnsoanodn. pRraocleti-cpelayismpcaonrtabnet rtaeksepornisdkstoanodraslpeerarokrsEnwgillilsphroinfoculansdsl.y influence your students’ willingness to
speeIcthisaicmtsp, ovrotcaanbt uthlaartyy, oaun,dasgrtahme mteaatcihcearl,sstreutcutpurerosl.e-plays that are realistic, wordIts wanildl aplhsroasbees thheelpsftuuldeifntysomu apyren-eteeadchduarinligstthoef ruosleef-upllasyit.uYatoiuonc-asnpeecvifeinc
pismplaepuaoskirbtEalenn,gtalifnsodhr rtioemlaomtfefiidgcirtaaolnstthaeftatsrhtmeuid-rwecnohtrsikl’dinnregeendp’ssa.srFechnootrsoelxi,nathmCispalsleii,ftuowarnhtiiioalentiwot wobuiellldbanebolvetebrtyoe rgleouauivsnteidcsthsoeufmptphowerrrtiotaltese-ntphloeanyy. ttThryehitbsoorueassredouEwrnchgeillwiesihtlhliepnrsoatvunidedewenttsshietpursaettuipodaner.ne tsanwdithdosothmee fliirnst­
a realistic role-play for college students in China or Russia. Likewise, being
able to give directions in English to tourists would be a realistic need for col­ Reflection
legeWstiuthdebnetsgiinnnHinognagnKdofnagls,ebbuetgpirnonbinabglystundoetnftosr ifnarpmarwticourklaerr,syinouCwaliilflonrneiead.
to set up role-plays very carefully, to make sure you don’t embarrass the In Example 1 on page 34, role-play ideas are provided for all the chapters
lbeearanerirssk.yAbftuesrinaells,su! sMinagnEynlgelaisrnheorsraflelyel(tehsepyecwiaillllyaipnpferaornftooofliosnhe—’essppeeecrisa)llcyainf except 5, 7, 9, and 10. Choose one of these chapters and design a role-
they make mistakes. Here are some suggestions to help learners overcome play related to the theme of the chapter (for instance, a role-play of a job
these worries: interview for Chapter 7). W rite the instructions for two to four participants.
W hat sort of language (vocabulary grammatical structures, speech acts)
1. MIafllatyhkeaerbeiat nicsdlenoaonr twthhaaeytiretvroeelaruyvcootaindnecpwea.irltlidciopathtieonac, tpiveiotyplaet wsoilml eevpeonintut.­ would you expect the learners to need in order to do this role-play
successfully? W hat language would you pre-teach in setting up the role-
play task?

2. wIpnlaacrylnu,idntehgetayimnwdeicflloarnbaethplielnasksnnaliibknoegulypt hwtaohseag.teItthfveseyturywdeannnettsrvthooausvsaeyuaindndvaearnroctlehede- Have some students complete the role-play you designed. Record and review the
ptBDositrtouuehenidmseldserpousnhnirtinaessnstweroapa,filtplsaelsoanpuitnetrnhhwaidenakoegtiarrnlcskteghttaiaeovErninrinrdteyggrrwlorsitoshlhcehueaa-.ptpnfwliiasriosnyetrtxekttoirpmagsecteceetttphewyedodirt.uuohrfuaitnsnhegdemitbth.esenoIfeptfyrhieotapuftraotarhmraee­ role-play. Did the learners use some of the language you predicted? Given what
3. you learn by listening to the tape, how would you set up the role-play next time?
4.

52 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 53

demRanemdienmg bsepreatkhiantgytoauskr ss.tuFdoernitnsstmanacye,neitedmatokews omrkoruepsegnrasedufaolrlysttuodemnotsr—e Before reading any further, please try to work this logic puzzle, either by yourself
iiedannsnirtpdeeEercncattigicaaoltkliinlsviysnhe.gtiThcfoohdtsnhoierteseeeyacxttathictooahtnvifevseailtoairbeowlesrlfeeewo-arprdilelleylavyptde.hroloesnvy-eitdohaedamsvoteuaadpetrootnaltsespk-weparlifabtohyorumsatobmfootuhellteopgwriaaviccnittngiigvcaeitdnyiidnreiggcniitvviotiihnnngges or with a classmate or colleague. That way you will have first-hand experience of
the thought processes involved. As you work on this, be aware of the many
4. Logic puzzles linguistic processes involved in trying to solve the puzzle.

WtpstahhocueaentziytzvLmwltieohatiuisrgleelseiysatcerpdaexpfreroauoredrmezpuazceicbslhnreeoelaesyngloliitaetpnnhhrnrgneeegeirtipntuanafagssasgerkkcestsasdsotn,t,iufhdntdaytahewtspdneticaihyctmapsianctmluehlhblyd,aaeektgtrlioeeoidnvgogceiiondancamenesapadbpltuhylczemfeezotorealrbntetaaaeseisinrnnpiiasaitesnnelrfsurfstomohmorfrenoembg,rdberabijoaraitusugitooietpssfnawIwfolhgoaefarcraaitvksdrscp.en,.teieWTafvaroihskptuhieieenensisrndneg.­ tchhearWtavlhiakeielnatbyhloeeuoinanrefeobrwmelooartwkioi,nnogrtwhyeiotmuh scaealcnvleahsssa.,vHyeoetuhreec’msanwdpehrcaoitdveiwdheeotwkhenbosewtsutditenonittoisarglwlayinthibzyea
iCsnphgeaaKppkrteiaenecrgpti3cai.nectimavsiitnsietdusdtaheranitstsetshreeinacdltuhteehsenmoefglaooltgoiiauctdipo. unTzshztelhesetrpugreroovvuaipdlueoeroonpflayliorlgiumicseitpseudtzozslpseoeslavakes­ s(nimegpaltyivteabinufloartminagtiothneisingfiovremn aintiopnarefrnotmhesseos)m: e of the eleven clues above
ntthheeegmaptu,ivzpzelaesr.taaTptoehmrsaoeslnevtestiot(,asbctohuuedtcekwnthsfoamtr uisusntudrneekprnseotaawtnandnindogrr,eavbaiosekuwt tqwhueheasftaticoistnsksg,nivoaewnndn, rnemostatakttoee
byyssaspposeooemeuuwtaaThemkkhhehiaacnaEetcvuygnaepflsgtowaeeullact)iirl.sstoeeidhhwsvaiistctitcooncyhougginfspneolssettoiirhrrdogosepenidorcaruniaaprc“bnuwloeaodzwostuzhtrnflt”kieesg.dnuco(iaBDrofrmefneeeglfceorlore,esourpn2eutatt0pstrd0hcweoo0euofi,“lntrff“puukgigr.rl.siletv5thTs”n)ei’hanscnnmeaapnanmeutamaszmbesizeksnoelegfsuii,s”nescieaaftoodocninthrsdhavtseipe“hmrnestehurtpcisersouoontlnbrunattsuadma.sraeneisenWstsst.wsto”hhfSeotaalooarltt r Person #1 Person #2 Person #3 Person #4
family names.” Alice (not Bette) (not Bette)
Given Name Ms. Black Ms. Brown
Clue #1: Four people all own different pets: Alice, Ms. Black, Family Name (not the dog) (not the dog) the fish J
Brown, and the fish’s owner. \ Pet

Clue #2: The cat doesn’t belong to Bette. Auaadbhooldlneanrlsagidnd,koncaudenUteknhkdcwosipeenw.zdrtyoeoiotnttTwhoeimttnahsph,htguneteeefhMs’rrtfittsioosaansouomnn.bfnspwstolBe.weoronClmSilaewbnolocrtueatgnshklteifsoe’itcosothwt#hrgneahd7eineeoivyg,nxsdgeiftat,viunhwhdsmedhaaainonse,pnntacunldtdmuiBelhtnwdss,eeesMrtnttwtihhcmtetshoeetii.lhnuemldmegsfiBoritehrlodfebsaaoossotuevcpnntgktepttB’hio:tomiedvsnwnotioeutgmswierestt.htisnptnhTnclbyelt’haeftuhyirilelebsoeolsmienwi.nfnepgiigBnsfngrhotihuoon,rtuttuhmtssMtefneoiradotnoshtdtg.inmieobocoBneEgerwrtlenhohoimagiswawwsnslatniedhpsib.nihaoencWittienahntnniogeeatf
Clue #3: The dog doesn’t belong to Alice.
Clue #4: Ms. Grey doesn’t own the cat. r Given Name Alice B e H -e (not Bette) (not Bette) ' ^ \
Clue #5: Ms. Grey lives next door to Chloe. Family Name (not the dog) Ms. Black Ms. Brown the fish J
Clue #6: Bette isn’t Ms. Brown. (not the dog) H \e
Clue #7: Bette doesn’t own the fish. i^Pet
Clue #8: Ms. Black doesn’t own the dog.
Clue #9: One woman’s family name is Ms. Green. the dWoeg coarnthaelsfoisdh,etbeertmwieneenththaetmsinthceeynoeiwthnetrhAe lcicaet annodr tMhes.bBiredt.teTBhelasctkudoewnntss
Clue #10: One woman owns a bird. itnhethgEerxidagmraopnuldpe dp8ertoiescremaenidnieinndfoterhamicsahmtipoaennrsngoeanrp’ustngatisivkle,tnhbenaysaemhdaev,oenfafmtihlliielsydlnoinagmiaclelp, tuahznezdlceep.lelItst. in
Clue #11: One woman is named Ruth. is

54 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 55

dcsihemsairpgtlnyoerbdedefroanrwdtiwtvhoied escdthuabdreetntwotsne. etGhneitvhceeh aetwlakcobhoppaarardtinr feoorrsf,tshstouemdthenatottstchaoepycyom.pTuyhstoeuf cstlehueeEsnbhglaalinvskhe 5. Picture-based activities for teaching speaking
to share information and solve the puzzle. learnPehrostowgirthapmhsanfyrotmhinmgsagtoaztianleks,abcoaulet.nPdahrost,osorfrothme cIanlteenrdnaerts cwaonrkprpoavrtiidce­
vhpucaealaalsrperselinayordnsfawmsorersaollulaflsrbtveeheeeiscrnesapaiucolhslenoaedstoostirhnfsoetcohayemneldalporaeimpccthtioouavfurnitteneeientfsfoto.phrrreeosmaadclueho,cnetmhdieonnidbnteahxca. kYclaoaorfrugdteshceafonocrrasmslaoeavmnte.detaAhroelsttsyhoepeiirscfmasttlahillfyelf
I Example 8 ten T(ahdearpeteadrefrmomanCy urretaissoannsdfoBraiulseiyn,g2p00ic1t)u:res in language lessons. Here are

STUDENT A

Look at the information below. Then share your information with your

partner. Together fill in the chart with as much information as you can

about the people’s names and what kind of pet they each have. 1. Pictures provide something to talk about. They can take the

Clue #1: Four people all own different pets: Alice, Ms. Black, Ms. dfoisccuusssoefdft.he language learner and put it on the picture being

Brown, and the fish’s owner.

Clue #2: The cat doesn’t belong to Bette. 2. cPliacstsurweshiccahnairnetnroodtudceealatnwditihlluinstrthateetetoxptbicosoko,f ainstwereelsltatsotothpe­
ics beyond the teacher’s own expertise (e.g., engineering
Clue #4: Ms. Grey doesn’t own the cat.

Clue #6: Bette isn’t Ms. Brown.

Clue #8: Ms. Black doesn’t own the dog. 3. pPricotbulreems sp,rocovmidpeuvteisrutaelcshunpoploogrty,fosroclecaerrn, ianggr,icauslttuhreey). activate

Clue #10: One woman owns a bird.

STUDENT B Pma ipecanturtrtaielcsuimalararegsemtsroutrchetautcreocanonvrehvneoilecpnattbhutehlaalrnaynsgiotuemamge.erleeaaliran etor remember
bring into
Look at the information below. Then share your information with your

partner. Together fill in the chart with as much information as you can 4.

about the people’s names and what kind of pet they have. tohuetdcoloasrsarcotoivmitie(es.,ge.,tcp.)i.ctures of animals, burning buildings,
5. hPexeicaetvrucyri.esessawddithcooulot rbeainndg inextepreenstsivtoe doirsctuescshionnosloagnicdallwyrittoinpg-
Clue #1: Four people all own different pets: Alice, Ms. Black, Ms.

Brown, and the fish’s owner.

Clue #3: The dog doesn’t belong to Alice.

Clue #5: Ms. Grey lives next door to Chloe.

Clue #7: Bette doesn’t own the fish. 6. gmfvPeariercaretitphounhorutesdccs,aolencncsatlseenaovxsnotbssske..seiuTzmsehe,eadynoiyrnardpmeirfonafefnoirycteintewitneakdcyiynstodlbesayvnoedyfl.ilfapfTnaeghrrteueincatugsalteaemrauecstheepaeicrhnshodiftnioofgr­­
7. Pictures are convenient. They are easily transportable, light­
Clue #9: One woman’s family name is Ms. Green.

Clue #11: One woman is named Ruth.

Adapted from Dell Logic Puzzles, 2000, p. 5

Reflection nwaetiegdh)t., flat, and long-lasting (if properly mounted or lami­
8. pPenricovtjiuerrcoetnesmda,reeonrtvue(sreye.gda.,dwtahhpeetyraeblceeavnteonbteehleesctcetarcinhcninteoydliosignuy,noarefvwathiolearbkteleead)c.hainndg
Predict the sorts of language that students will need to solve the 9. FgrfdP(ierfnuiioosfcaafromtlgeuluierynrre.,secantesHpnatineitchncnutcieucanna,renugeicssnsaoutpnadaoprtrelieeosdcxcmtaintufrnofiorwgbeettrliheeenlfie,ngimrlteecaoiptrnrcseeeaedoaevncptvtielloevobreraeue)yul.ddsasleaaanvynwwgadoliuhutbahiacjgcebhaerclisetptaipaacdphrraeeptolipecttaoaautrurglhtagrmirahtnopetlk.anhintneba­dgel
information gap puzzle in Example 8. That is, what sorts of grammatical 10.
structures, vocabulary items, and speech acts will students need to use to
solve the puzzle? W hat concepts and vocabulary might you want to pre­
teach before having your class of beginning learners or false beginners try
this task?

56 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 57

Reflection bftiTacgnhlhoryhceceao’elmsrankuYratgesdecoeyokisuianeenveirgt,ndceeaaraoaLfpnnlfoaiaopdbunatspitrrldchesasAtosrooruoenyntrtvco,gosereogenleoriflro.ageaffltashpIiet,gntthhhnahetaesheiisasnnecve.gtieoehntapmEaacrhuidrtatlpaohscrecafeithioetkrtdniaedsltssikithnoahmeuogennnenfeudstrwtadehfenrt,crliohtaopohaametuineunycgptdttasuohiaaicprmrnebteaterushuscoiraeletbtealww,i-mnhlbvieaeiataigil,hvnevsbhaweaeeotgtdoperscsootdkemae,fuyacrsabc,pttaoialoisvalrifcnitdrptmhokeishefa’esassotowibp.mftnIeoeaIiogaycglahfatiarhnraianIwinentvptarituiiehe,elrnsyessrgeaa,,,.­
ssitmudileanrtistieasndbeftawlseeebnetgwinonpeircstutoresd.oHaetraeskarien twhehisctheptsh:e students must find the
Do you agree or disagree with the ten statem ents above? Put a plus (+)
next to those you agree with, a minus (-) where you disagree, and a 1. You may want to pre-teach phrases of comparison such as “X
question mark (?) by the ones you’re not sure about. Can you imagine is like Y because....” or “X looks like Y” or “X and Y are
other reasons to use pictures in a speaking class? Think about working both...” or “X and Y are similar because....”
with beginning learners in particular.
2. Put the students in groups of three or four, and give each
studHenetrse. Cishoaossiemspelveerpailctduirfefe-breanstepdhaoctotigvritayphthsatthawtoarrkesqwuietell swimitihlabr ebguitnhnainvge group a sheet of pictures. Each group must have the same
tsceoaamlcehenddtahirsetipvnhogocutaiosbshuilnoagfrybfeetahatauuttriewfsu.oluFslohdreblilness.tuaWsnecidteh,toIbhdeagevsincerniaibnesgetthsoteuf dstwheeneltllsvseyalnoadurgwec-arfinoterpmtrheaet­ pictures. (If you don’t have a set of identical small-format
pkwehhoteaaciiyvvt.nh)eetwenadtsoshu,aremvsdwmhesbeadelrholprtinshdafeseotahrbitsenhosmedhvbaiaieorvlplaintedrhpusdue,hm.maoalYbtn.oelodPegruxsars.isaoccsp(aaIohnolfnsuyiu)tto.fserunePmoulamcsamracete[btebhwegiagerool,slrrbsykttamhoicnehatkgelhpla,ewohdftoiiiinntntthoghdygesicvfraoai(cldsrpeaiuznhlseaedsin,zlaedossr;hantuprar,dhtpoheouepentn,aotdsbscs,s,oofalablooanruurtdd,t,t photographs for each group, you can use large-format photos
thpsthhhiiecedestldulenerianensmm,hfberaiosullmtpoedrifctovtthunheer’eritesri,rsoecwtnvluahsedsiasetlloemntttahihnteweedsriho.iv)ogtihshdTeetuhraaseplnnigscsuwttoueunesdrrseeesnwbutthyhsnietcaoilhnncedeloav,nsheseearayvihcsoehanbsteehstigehunmuadgesesdknhseeteasedddcpreaiastbhcbcereohdivba.peneWhscoterthtihottaoeest posted around the classroom or set in the chalk tray, as long
dtheescFbrooibraeradh.siseTcohowinsndsptreoipcutnuedrne,c.yoouuragceasn sctouvdeerntosr teoratsrye tthoerevmoceambublearrythweowrdosrdfsro. mIf as all the students can see every photograph.)
they have (ter.ogu.,b“lpeorienc_a_ll”iniogrsppoeicnitfeicd)v. ocabulary items, you can put up parts of
the word 3. With the class as a whole, locate some of the obvious com­
parisons and practice using the structures in comparing the
Create a picture description activity using large-format photographs from photos-for example, “The map of Italy looks like a boot.”
calendars or magazines. Write the procedures for the activity, including specific
instructions for the learners to follow. Try out the activity with a classmate or 4. Give the groups about five minutes to brainstorm several
colleague before using it with a group of learners. similarities in the photographs.

5. Wsceaqnhuebenengcthiene. tEshtaeucdwhehngotrsoleuhpaclvaiesssaidatecentaitmvifi,tiyeadbnydsectvhaeelrlaitnlegacmoomns pgthaeertisogonrnoesup,poysioniunt
for every novel, legitimate comparison they make.

6. The point about novel comparisons is important. It forces the
groups to listen to one another’s contributions. In fact, I have
even implemented the step of subtracting a point if a team
raenpoetahtesr ttehaem.same comparison that was given earlier by

7. The game ends when you run out of time or when no teams
can offer additional, novel comparisons.

astoIunnudseidngatthtihseacclteivvietry-ceovmepnawriistohnvsetrhyeloswtu-dleevnetsl lmeaarknee.rFs-oIrheaxvaemopfltee,n sboemene
mnhfoliafynev’bnsgeotefonoyokoefrsk.ttehiTidnenhgtcehtaoyhacmetrhoptalhsievbseterittaphisroaeaynti.td)sekArctynhan.audoTtsnehtihnetteehhbveeciimrrtpdaaecbstakolcoysoanistcnhktkhet’vessheoefwcecdaairobrteihmueeladparraremiyrsilusiaqnodnueneldessoytoui(eokap-nnslsldiiikmkseteohiltetathhhreeeetxyloricogcitwhthaentes­­

58 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 59

eaxbporuTethstsehsetehveaomrecsajebuluvstleasaryafenfwodr owlifgitnhhtnepinosgipn,etmaskuifdno,grwtaihrceet,iivrpiettaieecasomcyk,ofu(efaoctrhaenerx,daaomndwpliesto,h otahne)c.yollaesck­ 8. Ttc(hIurritaomtceutrguthhawellitytwehdehgnaaetvyssehyoasefroaptmrhsebeolmafmdcoeolu.aunsnAstterfeodtdeorpmpitcircutiutsmuerer.m)essinugtshi,nagct hhaeaclvkaergfhoerepldsatpruaepyr
ttTtsiheiohnaengecmlyheoeaofrprsuheptothaootoofvtbgeoreerrggaycrpiyanvhcpalhblecusudaainlbimdnlbeiaenga(gauaczsnaliedandscecsosfh,loeolreoafcpumtb!ti-)aeoongnrfeyi-nsdoodnafuiitfencrfocgecelroaelflreneofvtunreladplcaprtrsoihstvmuo,itdtooioeertsnsi,.nftrsgwIo. meshInpencetthhoaaekeudrirdnIanyiggttoieeiounrnnntg,eehwetea.t fasipnnodgtescrtaoinpf sr.euabsbileyr bceemroelnlet.dBoyffthtihsetipmicetuitrew’sillsubrefadcreywbiutht tyacokuyr
ecsla, shsIenroreocamasr.eeytoenu swteopusldtolibkueitlodincogllaeclatnsgoumaegephleoatrongirnagphpsicttouruesfeilein: your class­
9. Fmialelst,haecptiiocntursehsotasc, cbouridlidninggtso, tfoopoidcaal ncdatebgeovreireasg: epse,ovpelhe,icalensi,­
1. FplaCiniltociedpltrluaemrtcteuhtasrrgeloaatuharzgrgaieneth,eayslh.toshiougTehrqlauimvkqieetuaelagflhbaoietzrryolipnctfcehhuoseulli.rorearsnec,ddolcopacrti,aaclltoaeucgnrtesdi,soanrafs,nr,odcmoteamadcrpvaioenlersgtniitdsiooiannrugs,t eatseclnsaedecn.h)ecironyng,trueatsscet.,s,y(Isofuucyhomuaasyfimlneoattshsiemvmsa.gaicncoecuonurtsdiinnnoggutnhtosemothr efcoiror miannptyaetrnhidsionendg
2.
10. IiTcndkfnooeohtshmetnipesip’isestrseiftauaseebpeopanoltwwohcuthtoetiieltermlhwbythomehcehoaraulaekcptnvahtaetpenhilrvreebespeayevirtecieobhdntnyuaettmvrareyawseacfhoodcdilefuieoedrttnetehtoteonehttirebweareiealprioctoewuhchvasoenettelr.hrldlsleeeaasbpcsvgya,oaunnsmreoisso.ra’tuenhIicstdyeoempspraitdaescuyotdoubpearrrlnleiestest,oos.f
eInmteortnioent.aTl haeprepeisaln, oentce.edOtor cpurtitnhtemouotr cpaicretufurellsy tfrriommthethme
gaitCBsOs(seCpttruofanematfoyltyhdcilircueoieorsetccunconsithpgaenetfloarrchiadystsighlaenmtblhoetdtota.asrauwaaptlpcslograeaeejdreirarreg.tmdrswhtabMhaatfhonnatscaeeaotdyannrrmrdiocpadlboaenaboiftmepseofiumeiwaleglsraertherudypigsftern,oreidaonliyrgdncdps,ibecau.av)rulnbccesultkukdosaat.iftrgtnhTerhiegtuerhdamobtteahwbbkseseitemttraashswttaciieonolueaslognmpeyjlaeefeartrlnifowysmoctoha,orsegywnymeo,tfthoasrauaieidnnccnoesdhdhs..f Adapted from Curtis and Bailey, 2001
3.
4. j8e.ctYiInofguyopauhlsoohtaocvgaernaapwchcosersk(sfowtroiitanhsltPaamonwcinee,artPwinoigitnhmtcpaorcleohsrienpneht,aoyttioooucnoscpaoinerssokatihspetrrsatmenpsespaa3nrsethnorcfoieupsgr)oh. ­

5. tWtlactPhaooparregerphgmdseleesytbaonhpocuetaypanahrnolrteid.a.uctn,hahsdittanaoincsvrmkdecyboostraoehustvtesihdehnoreoafstualontrpoudaitfcbnhtbyeucthearreerbnispapccpbaeklineecmdstourewlefrnoefitttitshlhlaefeoiyndfrospdctuieacrarttthdsouhiebrlaeyonacadyfarsprodroidouemsbrcaoewwvateiihrsdtodhhe,f 6. Physical actions in speaking lessons
6.
wmTsatdihheldleeaiAyitntnhiicopentcnrirgovlativoosotiirsfedrswsoenpoooeaimrntadwkvsssioatnfulaygovdn)rifed.nolngTorstsntlhropgeuhwhycpay-tevulscereiraivceonaesudll.naslSldaesouceoafctrrishnbtoiternmoaersocsaetdk.itcvoauidtnrpiieeresshtpchehtoelieponlpndposlews,yasoitirutabnhs,leokearsusst,tetsdrohepireumetmcaeeokammiocnhbfmgeesar(rio,tntrtisdhneisngee.
7. ypTPasuoirhcreruioftssualswlcretseeahrts..neeptPfR.prrioeescmesptsaueilranssetgestpshottaheevrepaesrtrpuinnib1icggbtthuehftrrrreouosmcnuedgthmehtihrsee6nawtmlfaaoaryorgnuedhanesbtleiopnmnosgsakutnmoroyeraspthpreeiaercavitavsuelmynreltobasoottehtxarhes..
Reflection

When you have studied a new language, did your teachers use physical
activities to help you learn? If so, what was your reaction to those
activities? Did they make learning memorable?

60 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 61

physIincaTl oatcatilonPshwyisthictahle Rlaensgpuaognestehe(yTParRe )h,esatruindgen(tAs slheearr,nKbuysodasas,oacniadtindge you feel the students are getting the idea (or if the classroom is so big or so
la Torre, 1993). It is a comprehension-based approach to learning, but it can itycnorogoud.w)ehdsSacetvrudeidbtmeehneoittyv,Aawcbabhlneui’litedldesSessektuasydosoeerunqcrtuhBeeaxnirbacsmue,itlpohdlfisesptiaahsnpeayenwsreiasdqyheu)aa,eplnheacasce,vtieuSvsittituhyndegfemonsritwmuAsopirlnikesgicdtnaoensmpcgamroiirbassi.nenad(gtIs.­f
be utilized in teaching and practicing speaking as well. The “total” in Total trAiooflnteessr,waanagdradiSsn,tuutdshieennygt Bctaongmgivopeassreetahtetihncegoi.rmpmaapnedr sswhahpilee sSetquudeenncteAs. foTlhloewnstthheeyinsswtriutcch­
Physical Response refers to the idea that students retain in memory those ideaWofhehnowthtehestuadcteinvtistyhwavoerkms,agsitveeretdhetmhe ananmewessoetf othfepashpaeprse-sfoarndinshtaavnecet,hea
things they use their whole bodies to do. Indeed many TPR activities involve grtbesaehllrkauseabepeepToonetarhunsntaerdrtdneiieaansaynccgageghtsliiltlvveoyoii,inownttsyughqfseoudthlmuhiaeakrers,peec.e(c,irotsoiWcrbimiasremshcmdpilwoelraerti,enhmelay)uld.naossrddE,uiiflvifraytafeerericnsaerhtteaubalngniasostiglvttljlhecyuienno.saelgitWonasbrgcipsnhhe.esaeeatpcYnnrkteuioiyvrcunusiotsgtoiyueocna,danfnnwsebtdeuoiamlltllntitahhwsedktaeaehevytcnheheinaetnhrfageeostnhtuarudearecdcatdpseitdviitnrvufyiatftid,sycetye.traianedcrantdeesst
students standing and moving. In other activities the students remain seated, imotcnhafsaenttnhanyebnacemm[en,ueoossaruelelnofu]ovf”lfecrotofhborlesor“rPecstaxeicanaakncmbdhupeipnsluehgtssahepaaedebns[odin.nvoBeptuhurnuait]ssc.te”theiitcxBshienuekrgtcicnisosmedemvaoeamnrsfayacwlnodeodmlitslfh.,mfee“rarPenutndhtt-itnbphgareesspe[ndoaossupitwnrioo]ecnloles.ndaFutnoropder
but move objects as they follow the commands to do the task.
Make a list of at least eight prepositions that would be useful for beginning and
A typical TPR activity resembles the children’s game of “Simon Says,” in false-beginning students to know, and which could be used in a TPR activity like
wsahyischstaanldeaodneryogiuvreslevftefroboatl, cSoimmmonansadyss(cSliomseonyosauyrsetyoeusc, hetyc.o)utrhnatosthe,e Sliismteonn­ this one. Here are a few to help you get started;
aecrstivariteiessudpopno’steidnctolufdoelltohwe zo/balnigdatoonrlyy z“/Sthime olenasdaeyrss”aoyps,en“Serim, bount saalyesa.d..e.”r TdoPeRs
giveTvheerbkaelychoemremiannudssintog oTtPhRersactotivfiotlileoswi.n a speaking class is for the teacher 1. o v e v
to quickly get the students into the role of giving the commands. After
demonstrating the activity with a round of commands, the teacher can turn 2.
the leader’s role over to the students and have them give the directions. TPR
activities can be used for practicing many grammatical structures and vocab­ 3. A b o v e
ulary items in the oral mode. But activities don’t have to include total body
movHemereenits ian boergdienrntiongb-elevuseelfpuhl yasnidcaml reemspoornabsele.activity using colored paper. 4.
You can begin with a very simple set of materials and then build on them.
gtsGeoleiamv.ceheEeelsiractucirthudtenhsnntetuisndn,geawnmtrthieetaserafeicotdtriovtenriatiyacthn,hegyslobheu,aop’aallerrd.heIadnfvetcehxiretactlvsoeoe, tcaaaodbrferuatdlhwaesriqynsugaaamproepef,etmaahrneasdtsetohariaarbpelesed.ntrhAeeewsc tstafthonuer­­ 5. "To VUe le-tH* o-P
dentSstahratvwe.ith simple commands with your pieces of paper showing, so the stu­
dents can see them. As you give the commands the first few times, you do 6.
gwtsheleheq.aiurPteyunuotcneutdh: eea“rrPsseqtuatutenaltdlrhieinengogrnethdoteoftprsittahuonedfgetlhnteaetssockntiorctahdlneeo.d Pdineuthstpketl.haiePlnaurnvetgcituehtawaenggcesoi.lrectHhloeeneorlteenoaptriosnopefartosnhfectaehsnxeqauctmarhirepaecln.ek”­
(Check to see if everyone has followed these directions.) “Okay, everyone? 7. Iv\ o-P
Please pick up the rectangle. Now pick up the square. Next pick up the circle.
Pagicakinu. pPutht ethteriraencgtlaen.”gle(Aollnththeepdaepsekr.s Psuhtotuhled cbiercrleemoonvtehde nreocwta.)ng“lLee.t’Psuttrythiet 8.
ssqquuaarree. oNnotwhepruetctthaengrleec.taNnogwle PoInCtKheUtrPiatnhgeler.e”c(taHnagvlee.thPeutsttuhdeetnritasncghleecoknwtihthe
their neighbors to see if they have done the sequence correctly.) Can you think of others? It may be helpful for you to manipulate the paper
pieces while a classmate or colleague describes what you are doing. Together
At this point you can build in a step where you repeat the commands list­ you may come up with prepositions that you have not thought of yourself.
echdeacbkotvhee,ibr uutnwdeitrhstyaonudrinogwbnypacpoemrspahriidndgenthferiormpatpheerstsutadceknststosoytohuerys.caOnrn, oitf
Next make a list of verbs that could be introduced in this activity. Choose
62 Chapter 2 high-frequency verbs that would be useful for beginning and false-beginning
students to know. For example, you can start with put, but gradually add new
vocabulary, such as cover or hide: “cover the circle with the rectangle.”

Speaking for beginning level learners 63

wdoithwAaituhlissfetofeulnlloinwTgPineRgxevareccrtiibsveailtfyodrfiroterhcebtieowgnhisnonflerioncmglassostnuaednepdnltatshceeanntdocoafannlvoseethrbet eri.tgtYiononauerscspaenhaaksstiantrogt Reflection
mbupagtdfdhocpaihievaevtuc,nyineirvkstdBllndiweimogetcessyotiaagsi.hvtknolroihiendnfuneld,a.gtswpoeycgpoPcswilooatsar-ohuciansumttestc,ointothmoiitilntnniceofhl:aeoeyyhsink“tttooaduTwhaluusdlfepueirrentrpfaoTnntdccen,tlolPaedsalalewraoRssssfchsso,tthr,rtaakcohogvntohoooauedrmamtmiriltgntanfom,h,h.lglettryYat,hihtbnoghtoeetywdhueuanstkdot,smchueotfafehumouoanitadrscrwrble,tewv”aedonderenotabessssorncorktkfarieidfsaedtrphcwsefeossteoupircw(tfdeeoohtooaharerurnisrbnatwtote.hwltt,decsaeDwa,sstrl.orodiewyadlu,fpSlnh,mtewttdhtoaiwan,amlroktdetithwretciekwhenhge-ogtiristopnthhotnh)nogoerue;eeinpcnbtlesho,osetttemothesooouitpkerrr,­­f
pghroyuspicsalofacthtiroenes ttoo ftihvee pveeorbpalel.cOomnemastnuddse.nTt hgeivneshathvee cthoemmstuadnednstswgheilteinthtoe Based on what you have read so far in this chapter, think of three
rhIooSeteesaeftfrntintukf,hmnayveoderehdoeYrtaersoetulaissnwtoorwnunhtiupaaiisndeuatnecnchgvevmgtsdaneeu(shonrtsbeoopin,at.esotmgunpudrrut.deoe,erheotiefnrlneetfitanoshnomsttmtsftahnrishetv.ttit’ashqetshielineuleknltToytsentoorePenloosbfeorRcmtiwofjkwwneeemeadcaroewbrletcrltysftthah(cioelsvinwcelearcuaidofmhctsiaptyutshhrtsonmdihi(—zafnthrseiiesoaahtinn.osywniaougs,Ienedatettaecfdrhgvflew.looiarneTornooursrvttfshruysdusekmii.mptlososthoToanrbetppwthhefefeeoaeeeistr)rfnewltensladhatdoihershciinetfrdahahsseytsvhietues-utocereupad’uaetlsdnphtpennhedoehnidvenn-brateesttssgevessileeno)kveeetaegp)rekkyna.yeeneosdtai.rDhifutcn.lowTeyyhiuHcvohhmsphaisuieiednridtcbedeuewhesksedvdeeireetetaeesnehhrnnrhnk’ddeee.s.tt­ speaking activities you would want to do in a language class if you were a
himWfrhomen fitnhedinsegetkheer hried-denetnerosbjtehcet.room, his classmates begin to give him true beginning learner. Next think of three activities you would enjoy and
itrbfscttenhheotoaelseweolcuptstmkrlatdu(hthraooctwiebsttfmtoiaroahotsy,ruhe,ntttei“stanfthLh,korrgaaoeobotlnooumsfittekmtdauaaoyerkic.mfnon”hecstueAha,ttchsenensouierenrrm)tseohe.taledeeomySrftmmotthtatoehend,fiai”nodrsncargecbghwtoclueseiaumnxtersnp,agrnpumyocoesoocohttnpfilum“lutltayieWheomse,seniah“nuglltfivsrkoesirtosoooatculcmcokfvlanhaaeltodsielhrssurmeoumr’tusanpottanlephdettpdaieoeesoecssronstwhtkhcoepe.ioria”lrnntseut’hdsFlatfwdeoodhrtvwroeeisnetsmahi”orksnyypo.s,o”oacatr“larnncTuTo“neeeehfuacasksoenogcies,fdmeefertytosopttwoonhhmlunoyeeea benefit from if you were a false beginner. W hat difference, if any, is there
chance to speak. between these two sets of activities?

64 Chapter 2 5. Teaching pronunciation

One key to success in learning to speak a foreign language is having good
ipocsmporfoemEpanonpkurgrentelracishnsiehat(ntttiahsoorionebuu.lngpe.hIdrtoeIsdnriossumtocanerneodddtem. rsaaottyomahhellaeivlnmpeepclteoehasrarsttnaangeryortsaifnli)omf.roIprtsmrtoiusavdtieiemontnpthsoeairbtrtoaopnusrttoo, hnuhounowdnwceiltaihvkteeeiors,nnot,auotinitbvdieess
menItnalCphhaopnteemr e1s(po.f E11n)gwliseh.saVwowthealst tahree vporowdeulsceadndwhcoennstohneaanitrs satrreeatmhepsaesgs­­
giEnrngagmtlhisrhoshuwogwohrsdthstehwevhoiscciahxltecexehenomrdkpseliyifsysvthohawepeepldarpbtihucotunnlaeormt voeobswsteorlufcinEtentdhg.elTisbhhoexaf.onldlowcoinmgmdoian­

1 see / iy / 14 about /e / 13 tw o / uw /
2 it / I / 12 b o o k s /U /
3 say / ey / 11 no / ow /

4 yes l e i 10 boy / oy /

5 fa t / ee / 6 m y / ay / 8 cow / aw / 9 law /O /

V 7 stop J
/a /

Figure 1 Symbols for 16 vowel phonemes and key words (adapted from
Murphy, 2003, p. 123)

Speaking for beginning level learners 65

Reflection Say the following words aloud to yourself: rug, the, above, done. You can see

Say the words in the vowel chart in Figure 1 (p. 65) aloud in order of their that regardless of the spelling, each of these vowels (except the silent E’s at the
numbers. That is, start with (1) see and finish with (14) about. As you
speak, pay attention to where in your mouth each particular vowel sound end of above and done) are pronounced as the schwa sound (a). Now say the
is being produced. Having done that, what do you think the layout of the
vowel chart is supposed to represent? following phrases aloud:

the apple the pear the airplane the ship

the ant the bug the idea the thought

As you can see from the above Reflection box, different vowel sounds are How is the vowel sound in the word the pronounced if the following word begins
psuropderuicmepdoasteddioffneraenptropflialeceosf ianfathcee, mlooouktihn.gItno ftahcet,letfhte. Tchhearvtoawbeolvseoiusnodfsteinn with a consonant? What if the following word begins with a vowel?
bvmusapsaeetebnoeeincrtw-o,dhvstauiT-eetetaucr,tdlhsesesfstiees”nrahvasoyteesatser,nhaondy/tsseleudaocoyssnhvu,/yftdohwanaltilwrohndnaaiesendbeeismpllnfmoe,tarihsounosoit,essnpduatlrdouaftrveihepkwcegrf.sheer,aoctynTodrrabdsnlholliylalyaeemeeetl,nmadlsvatnprgshibntooouche,loewareerbftgbsesaoye“oaalnosf.mocfktrwkfsioabn,ionEbnooarotmnlnfduEvgydts’toh,lnsyiiwegstsssswthltopeimeco.pselmas,hlToall”alsriuhenb.enbtidgehdseTc.c.ctahiachasHliouulesweaessder“esvaesotretcihuehtirhsenyecwodyaa“cia,nbmlcal.awu”erpecerdhIxosktpitprchivitrlnhsaeoaonndwrm“iteasumeptaaciltrinnsoehde,dydne”­­
pmaosusTethsh.ethWrcoohunegsnhonctaohnnetsvoponhcaoannltsecmhaoreersdpsarroiesdouabclsesotdr,upcurtonedldiukacenevddoiwasteslvtsra,orntihogeulysaiipnrlfaslcutreeesnacmiendtthbhayet
the different parts of the mouth. When that happens we talk about the place

o f articulation.

Reflection

| Example 9 Look at the following chart of the consonants in Figure 2. Underline any
words you do not know and cannot guess. Some of the sym bols in the
consonant chart look like regular English letters, while other symbols are
not so familiar. Can you figure out what sound each symbol represents?

PRONUNCIATION The /s/ Sound in Unstressed Syllables
A c tiv ities b^loeus.*lYaovuc klenaorwnetdhatthasttreEsnsgeldisshylwlaobrldess hhaavvee lsotrnegseser,dloaunddeur,nastnrdeshseigdhseyrlla­
sounds than unstressed syllables. When native speakers of English pro­
nounce the sounds in unstressed syllables quickly and quietly, the vowel
sound in these syllables often changes to the sound /a /. This sound is

called the schwa sound.
This sound is made by relaxing your tongue in
the middle of your mouth. It sounds like the
sound “uh.” The / a / sound occurs in most
susotnumsfft.ereIssntsretehdsissseydlellssasybolllenas,b,hlebosuwitneyvwoeuro,rcydaosnulaiwklseiollbfpuirgna,dcmtiiotcnieeny,
/ a / only in unstressed syllables.

Talk It Up! Oral Communication for the Real World (Kozyrev, 1998. p. 29)

66 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 67

State of the Glottis: Voiceless Voiced surface on the roof of your mouth just behind your upper front teeth. The
palatal sounds are made at the hard palate, the smooth area behind the
Figure 2 Place and manner of articulation (Stewart and Vaillete, 2001, p. 46) alveolar ridge on the roof of the mouth. Finally, the glottal sounds are made
at the glottis, in the very back of the mouth.
The place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract speech sounds
fwarroietmhactlhteueftalltilopysrpiagrnohddt,uwycoeoudrk.wiIniflglytsooeuwe ratehradadttththheeeythcrroeolfauetmr. tSnoohpmeaeartdsoinfogtfhsyeoovunortcmhaebouuclthahar,rytstiaanbrtotihvniegs These are the phonemes of English, but other languages have important
tcohathrteclaipnsbaenidntdeernptraeltteodtihfeyoteuetkhn)o, wantdheloboakseatwtohredpsh(ofonreimnsetsanicnet,hleabcioallurmefnerss. wsohuincdhsatrheantoEtncgolmishmolanckisn, oatnhderElnanggliusahghesa.s some sounds (like /0 / and /&/),

Reflection The left column of the consonant chart lists several different ways in which
pcohnrassoena“nmtsananreerporfodarutciceudl.atTiohnis” issimcaplllyedretfheersmtoahnonwesrouonfdas ratriecpurloadtuiocend..TFhoer
Try to figure out the meanings of bilabial, labiodental, and interdental by instance, in some English sounds (/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/) the air stream
making the following sounds. is temporarily stopped. In others, the air stream is partially obstructed, creating
/aahnk/d)i.ntdhIneontfwfrreoilceotaitohsenedrs(a,wstihitnhe tfahrfiefcrtfiicroaintce.as—ti/vce/ sa-n/fd/,//Jv//,—/t9he/, a/ir6i/s, m/so/m, /ezn/,ta/rsil/y, /szto/,papnedd
IV, Mbilabial: /pi, lb/, /m/, /w/
In making other sounds the air stream is not so firmly obstructed. For
labiodental: example, there are two “liquid” sounds-/l/ and /r/-w hich are produced at
interdental: /0/, ibl, the sides of the mouth and the back of the mouth, respectively, giving them
the points of articulation we call “lateral” and “retroflex.” And in producing
(Hint: 70/ is the first sound in thought and lb / is the first sound in that.) the “glides”—/w /, /w/, and /y /—the articulators glide from one sound to
another. You can understand the meaning of “glides” if you say “away” and
bstertewtcehenotuwtotvhoew/ewl /sosuonudns.d.WGhelindgelsideasrearesopurnoddsuctehdatthesevrvoecalastratcrtanissi“toionnlys
slightly more constricted than that for vowels” (Stewart and Vaillette, 2001,
p. 494). Throughout this book we will talk about the place of articulation and
mtheainrnperroonfuanrctiiactuiolanti.on as we discuss how teachers can help learners improve

Another important group of segmental phonemes are called
j“aufadfgrfifecr,aitacenasdtceotshn”es—is/ttchoa/ tfsaios,ustntohdpeaf/ot Jltlh/oewsoebduengidminmnatientdghieaatnbedleygeibnnyndianogffritachnaetdivweeo.nrdTdhoecfh/uthjr/cehs.woTuonhrdde
i/s1/refaollllyowaeqduqicukicckolymbbyin/asti/o. n of /d / and /z/, while the / j / sound consists of

Say the following words aloud to yourself slowly and analyze the affricates as
you produce them. Be aware of both the place and manner of articulation as you
do so.

Some of the other vocabulary items in this chart are not so easy to figure Chapel Birch Jest Knowledge
mouatd, eb uwt htehneythaell tidpeaolf wthiethtownhgeuree tsoouucnhdess athree produced. rAidlvgeeo,latrh esouunnedvsenare Check Batch Jury Ridge
Cheek Thatch Jet Budge
alveolar

68 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 69

Cheese Crutch Just Grudge AprsodaIutrciesisnougfltt,eunnifgthlreaeamrcnamesaersttihcmaalitsupptrrtooennrauonnuccneicsae.tiokneyisssuoeusndinst,eirtacctawn istheegmralmikme atrheisysuaerse.
Chest W itch Jewelry Refrigerator bfn-reeoodgum.inOnDcnaneeeetdrpesexvinntoebdrftoythienorngeikmewfopodonorirfrkbftteeahorgneenitnnsitgnsuwrirtnahramgoeyusmsp.ntuadaHsdritneeprgtneeotnsisisnsoaetunanandthdnefasdaxt,lposbteltheahebgneeiarng-tcienioandinsnnegeesanrnlwdesditaenursrgdneoeemvncrseeatsrn:beaxsnbadeemnfppdalrlesoines­

You can see that in some instances the word’s spelling accurately reflects the
way these phonemes are produced. In other words, it does not.

Tth(eeohx.gwet.bAy, owftaofhrrhkeieecfanapotlersr“osoWbceapehgpsrasoipntdenoduaiofrcnegayrdesosduitpunuhdwcroeeaanndpnetitsmd?s,”paenecissedacsipnfuhraaolwlsinessoopbruedeenxesgcp,ciehlnaad,nsienwasresshhd:eo“nWwannwadtoicnrhdeasxthwebimsalenpAntl?idcf”tii)teo.odnHgeebitnrohexe’ar.s I Example 11

r i M -etf endings

I Exam ple 10 A. Q Listen to the examples. Listen again and repeat them.

Reduced Forms in Questions with Do and Did CUD walked Itl dreamed /d / started /ed/

When people speak quickly, some words become reduced, or short. Here are some examples. B . Do you hear jtj, /d/, or /ed/? Listen and check [/].

Long Form Short Form ni /d / /ed/
Why do you want that? W hy’dya want that?
What do you mean? W ha’dya m ean? 1. listened
What did you say? W ha’ja say?
Where did you say you were going? W here’ja say you were going? 2. stopped
Who did you speak to? W ho’ja speak to?
When did you leave? W hen'ja leave? 3. watched
How did you get here? H ow ’ja get here? 4. needed
5. played
Quest: Listening and Speaking in the Academic World, Book One 6. checked
(Hartmann and Blass, 2000, p. 133) 7. exercised

8. wanted

Say the following sentences aloud quickly, without trying to be precise or careful C . Practice the conversations below with a partner.
as you speak.
1. A: Did you drive here?
1. What do you want to do? B: No, I walked.
2. Where do you want to go?
3. Why did you choose that place? 2. A: What tim e did you start?
4. When did you get home?
5. How did you like the movie? B: I started at about 3:00.

As you say these sentences, listen to the way the sounds get reduced. In the 3. A: What did you do last night?
space to the right of each sentence, write the utterance as it is pronounced in B: Oh, I ju st listened to music.
casual speech.
4. A: Why did you go to the store?
B: I needed some bread.

i5. A: What did you do last night?
B: Nothing special, watched a boring movie on TV.

6, A: Did you have fun yesterday?
B: Yes! I played baseball w ith my friends.

ICON Intro International Communication Through English (Freeman, Graves,
and Lee, 2005, p. 90)

70 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 71

ly foArltshoo,speawrthicoulhaarvlye fhoardbmegoisntnlyinrgealdeianrngeerxspionsuErFeLtosiEtunagtliiosnhs,(aannddneostpmecuicahl­ T: Very difficult, eh? [Laughter.] OK, the next task, the next task is
iloctiorstrwe“renpecirunetllglyeaedsxa”spyyaol“slsahub“urpleneu)t,len-dtlohe”edamr”esabtitwsetecosraousmwysleehltaeitbmrhleeeessi,stapboeutlcetlcnitnuhdgreesnn.scuaFyglosgtoreossitpnasrysottah“nnraooctupen-,eecddse”tiutsahdseae“n-rstoeysd-llpmaaebsadliye”f slightly more difficult. One of the things, er, we practice in this
to bFeosrailde.arners whose native language doesn’t use consonant clusters (see course., is., or some o f the things we practice are learning
Canhdapottehrer1,-pedageend1i1n)gast the end of words, pronouncing the English past tense strategies. And one of the learning strategies that will help you learn
can be very difficult. It will take some practice on the new words is the learning strategy o f “classifying.” Do you know
learners’ part and some explanation on yours. what “classifying” means?

If you work with (or plan to work with) students from a particular first-language Ss: No, no.
background, it can be very helpful to know what contrastive analysis predicts T: Have you heard this word before?
those learners’ challenges will be— particularly in the area of pronunciation (and Ss: No.
especially for adult learners). Go online or visit a university library and look for T: Classifying means putting things that are similar together in groups.
any contrastive analyses that have been written about English and the native
language of your students. (If you have, or will have, students from varied first OK? So if I said, er, I want all the girls to go down to that corner of
language backgrounds, choose a language that you are not familiar with.) the room, and all the boys to go into this corner of the room, I
would be classifying the class according to their sex or their gender.
6. Speaking in the classroom What I'd like you to do now in Task 5 is to classify some of the
words from the list in Task 4. OK? [Ss carry out task as T writes
classInroothmis. sTehcetiofno,llowweinwgilltrcaonnscsridipetr ihsofwromteaacnhearcstudaelalleswsiotnh wspiethakainggroiunpthoef headings on board.]
fvHaelersbeaalblseosgtrhianatnseigntiheges ststoutudcdehenentcstks itnwheoarnsktuEidnFeLnptasci’orsun,ntedaxnetrd.stTtahhneedittnaesgakcahinnedr tghueestesbthoaeomknutpmorobsvpeierdaekos.f Adapted from Nunan and Lamb, 1996, pp. 259-261
them with something to talk about. In Extract 1, T stands for teacher, Ss
stands for students. Reflection

I Extract 1 Study the instructional sequence in Extract 1. W hat is the main point being
taught? How is it being taught? How old do you think the learners are?
T: Have a look at Task 4 on page 3. You'll see some words. Two lists of
words that're used for describing people. Just look through them, bpeaigriwTnhsoerkwl,ehisensnownhthwicehhitctehhaecyshtaecrlratesadssifkiinsedEtthxheterawsctutord1desnctofsrnotmiifnuttehhseeybliesthl.oawveinfiEnixsthreadct t2h.eiIrt
and ju s t put a check mark next to the words you know as I read
them through. [T reads list as Ss check words they know.] OK, just, | Extract 2
ju st compare with your partner to see if there are any words that
you didn't know there. T: Finished?
Ss: Yes.
Ss: [Inaudible.] T: OK. Someone like to call out the color words for me please.
S: Dark.
T: Yeah, interesting. Is “dark” a color?
Ss: [Inaudible.]
T: Is dark a color?
S: [Inaudible.]

72 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 73

T: Let’s put it in anyway. [Writes on board.] OK. Next one? Reflection
Ss: White, white.
T: [Writes on board.] Next one? W hat is the point being taught in Extract 2? How is it being taught? Which
Ss: Blue. of the principles from Section 3 is the teacher using?
77 [Writes on board.] And?
Ss: Blond. In Extracts 1 and 2, the students speak mostly in single-word utterances, while
T: Blond. [Writes on board.] What about the “age” words? the teacher uses longer, more complex utterances. Yet it appears that the
S: Eld....... students understand the teacher’s speech. What evidence can you find in these
T: How do you say that word? How do you pronounce that word? extracts that the students do understand and are following the lesson? What are
Ss: Elderly. the different ways the teacher helps the students understand and do the task?
T: Next one? What are three strategies the teacher uses to encourage the students to speak?
Ss: [Inaudible.] Underline those strategies in Extracts 1 and 2.
T: [Writes on board.] Next one?
Ss: Old. lHiseteItnhnienEngxflteoraradckste3yth, wethosertdutsedaeacnnhtdserpinhetxroapslteahsienisnnetahxetrepdcaiofrfrtedroeedfntccheoenblveeetswrssoeaneti,nowne.hldiecrhlyiannvdolvoleds.
T: [Writes on board] Next one?
Ss: Middle aged. I Extract 3

T: [Writes on board.] And the last one? T: If I said that, urn, that Mr. Smith was elderly, but Mr. Jones was old, I
S s: Teenage. think that probably I would imagine that old, someone who's old, is
T: [Writes on board.] OK. And the last list? Size. Big? slightly older than someone who is elderly. Elderly also is slightly
Ss: Short. more polite. To say that someone is elderly it doesn’t sound quite as,
T: Uh-huh. quite as very direct as if you say that somebody is old.... Although I’m
Ss: Tall. not sure. I'd have to check with some other native speakers
T: Uh-huh. [Laughter], How would you describe yourself? How would you
Ss: Small. describe yourself? I would say that I'm, well in my culture, I guess I'm
T: Right. What’s the difference between this word [points to “elderly”] short. I'm fairly short. I used to like living in Asia because I was very
big there. I was tall cause most people in [Asia] are about that tall.
and this word [points to “old”]? Elderly and old? Does anybody know [Gestures.]
the difference?
S: I know in Japanese. Ss; [Laughter.]
T: You can’t explain in Japanese, because I wouldn’t understand.
Ss: [Laughter.] T: I wouldn’t say I was elderly. I guess I’m middle-aged. I used to have
Adapted from Nunan and Lamb, 1996, pp. 261-262 blond hair, but now it's gone a kind of dirty brown, and is going gray.
OK. Over the page, then. These are some of the things we’re going to
Chapter 2 be practicing this morning. I’m going to ask you to listen to another
conversation now. And I ’m going to play the conversation three or four
times. The first time, I ju st want you to listen and to check off the
words in Task 1 when you hear them. OK? Just listen for these words
and I ’m going to ask you if you actually hear these words, ’cause they

Speaking for beginning level learners 75

may not all be on the tape. So the first time you listen I ju s t want you 7. Assessing beginning learners
to check off these words. Do you know the meaning o f all these
words? “last name,” “first name,” “address,” “telephone number,” “date There are many different reasons for assessing the speaking skills of
of birth,” “occupation,” and “marital status.” Do you know the meaning bpwsesutnreuhocgtdiehgicenrrhnpanatmilcspnao.rgacuorerlgesemreatarrmesuntneeuortdbsfeetionegntrsissnttfrasnsulhisccnoetagiunbollendebgvtetioeanlkvnseseeeterruaysdws. euOhtnshaetfesttfyeulsneltbvaiseerntgltuiincpdnlgreaonstwvostsiitdsthahtieurneytdghygseihinEvvofenoeungrrlydmlaisjfaohtiteriissnoittn.ncaUaosanubtnlhroeesesuewys,t
of all of those words? nulesoaersdnOtidnciuncrteitenessrgttmusadstecoonotfusserthseaeerwetsoheyanlsltreaoesbltulhuesoddweonifntwstchelaalalltsrssepteauasdd,ryteiincnkdutnsilvaohirwdacvuaoeanulmdrtseaewas.cthhPearerterosdthgoperfyaetrestsnistciulutlselenasretdespidaaargrttoes­
S: What word is “occupation”? ionfstthruecmtioantertioals,ewehiiflestaucdhenitesvheamveenletatrensetds tahree suksiellds aatntdhecoenntdenotf acocvoeurresde ionf
T: Sorry? that class. Diagnostic, progress, and achievement tests are used by some inde­
S: What is “occupation”? pendent learning, centers as well.
T: Occupation. Can anybody tell, explain what “occupation” is?
S: Work. In this section, we will first see how a fun introductory activity can be
S: [Inaudible.] used as a diagnostic measure of students’ speaking abilities. We will also look
T\ Sorry? at a text that was written specifically to elicit particular phonemes, as a way
Ss\ [Inaudible.] Work. of locating students’ pronunciation difficulties. Finally, we will consider
T: Yes. What sort o f job that someone does. What sort o f job. Or what propositional scoring for determining students’ skill at conveying meaning.
work that somebody does. What about “marital status”? Do you know
that word? That phrase? 1. aCslsaessssminetrnotductions: Icebreaker and speaking iton
Ss: No, no. fsepeelaHAkconienmrgeicfoceislbratarsaesbvaeleske.reytrasliskimianpngleatocdtiioavngitenyoasuntsiocetdhpertroo.cgIecedetubprreeeoatkphelaertsI(ecusaspneecbfioearllvtyheersytfriahrnsetglpedfrausy)l of
T: That simply means are you married or single or divorced or widowed. ibctleamasusotrnyeooomfr altehttseesredwxifehfriacctuisllete,voeislr sttohtuadatceicntotsfmuInmacomtidoatnetseaclahasirngagen.r Ioitcrecsbamnreabalekleearrdcaalapnstdsedshizetoelpsm.sTathkheee
astsusdesesnitnsggtehteitro skpneoawkinogneskialnlso.thHeerr.eT’syhpoicwalliyt wthoeryksh: ave no idea that you are
OK. Do you have a husband or wife? Or are you single? Or are you
divorced? So if somebody asks you your marital status. So if some­ 1. pGaipveer.every student a 3" x 5" index card or similar piece of
body asks you “What's your marital status?” You would say “I’m .. ? .... 2. EaRnaedcdhiystosrtuiubdtuheteenntthnceoeallctelaycrtdpasrllitnotthsethhceiasrsdotusrd. henerts,fumll ankaimnge on the card
single. I’m single.” OK, let’s listen to the next conversation. 3. sure no one
Adapted from Nunan and Lamb, 1996, pp. 262-264 thachamaersdophneifgsrosrtoohrynoohswueerhrysooeoslwuef ncdaanicsrdatdrridihbn.uecItldoeu.erdaselhlyea,rctehaceredivstweusid.tehKneyteospuhroounnleadmsnt’eut dkoennnotw’ist

opconaruetlTnsdehturia.sdlesIlonifstttehbinneetisenetrghvqeieeuxwebesasrtsciaoiisnsneosotchfaoeruaerladccnoucdnlltetfuaairlcrlasltlyloyalusetsaaiapdgpfntormoormpearniwstaptiieetnhakiinwninfhygoiorcamuhcratiytvcioooitunnyrteainxbletoaw,urhtnthiehcerihyss Speaking for beginning level learners 77
interview people other than their classmates.

Design a form with topics and blank lines that your beginning students could use
as a guide for interviewing one another during in-class pairwork.
Next, write the instructions for a contact assignment in which learners (perhaps
working in pairs) would interview other people in English and write down the
information they learn.

76 Chapter 2

4. WtHmcuhthhaepaiierrnlvidlatgcimeesnatshgrapoahdeyaln.eayl)rr/tttshoThnhhhaueaheevervnissebedsl..oitpkuFa(aJheTdoronasdehsrds,n:eeeettythNxsaorGankfaesmeemteathsearpeetdnchal,ideaiatn,nwoc’uasgtyhtimpsaoviclkiuheetaaey,ernhtd/aosdgas,iehpvnbfneeeceiaenneJndrdcodaoitasnhtrltleeglihJpskeyoeedeKasnsaepi.ilcrnmoeeitlrh’cssnoaaloalfoscnosttasnar,Mpwlgdkta,hhwiiaeorbrinkeesutddoheet ondefersuscsEriixnabtgneraddtchatisbl4ooawvcptereio.vr-viTitiynhd,teeerssraemtshdoeeamdrtiaeathtaeearxenascmftoruopmdmleepsnitltreosadfnssdftcrouoridimnpegtnsmtsoty’hfemsapceetimuencatohrlroaifdeursuodcmiootfiomfraenlacsnoeayrcdbtyieinevggaiistrnys.­
5.
| Extract 4
6. EFfhanuAootdhtoihhnnoefnuaefnasierdvnwtecsnittishthhetlarcphhsaieetebanertfehssrhauttovadytteeedtsuepeccoairro,hmrrdtefvsifyiaimakdeivtbn’ebtounsnuisihrawtontsrditircyekhtnheuee.aiiedmf,nitrcntfhsydootlto3gsoaaeh.wdp)rsvhsritebrnevsonceaabratilvwswieeea5akoeterwsesuhiifnvmnnsndotsinnrggheetioooionitewnnoshtttayuotetmetcsdetosdhfetarorpiieorsvmonvneice,bniniireslersateeaouishwnndtesaoimh.yeasvenneneTexg.iteddsetwethIwc.erotmwtiahdvhshTntariiihheeodlslceahesneices.ewcreonuetmtW:saeissbaontasndYeatrcainaa,dheponotttmicwaaunsadsvhhk.thr.iehiactnsottisT(tiayhgiIcwhctsnehcuhhelscyoaaioleehkoasynntnvanentrmoddieuvetshpuurdiueoe,inhtcespdsnhaisuatintaonteneoestutriodtndgesssrt­­
7. 1. Jong K im ’s speech: Uh, okay. Good morning. Uh, this Jose Garcia.
He like Jose. Uhm— in class [pauses], he name Jose. He like eat
8. NWwbTlondmiodaneynouunhtaatxehytccrneket.stoeeenthsaeosssndHyyefJouotJnieaMoosnncbouolingleadstbJtitgs,eeetctooiehanskke“nPkegKcoGGsgoe.oaan)si’anonlfFmtJs’lruJtioeouctcotdlddasnihiacseakeJaeroen.Nmoe’dbms’tnbsaiAsosmaegacstcrsabhsuca.niarokirndJieHr.tdnuoiydotosegTtin,fenfathagrlathgebiokihitkvets.omeee”seeudapEsfrM,ptbJeryntJooeyoaeogoinkronnunelssstiuntgkeosei!ohoMn’bsaKs’f,eTbssiwsimgtopehmhpcieukhionaeesaootvraaktsd’JikrihsnsieeooinedsJnfEosg,rcogeimnoanman,sgmrnatkgdralysdaiioklsJonlKhdshesosudhe.ulisemeacneiimestonn.phiatoattsiaHerrnnknhdosodegese,­­ [pauses], he like to eat, and, uh, sleeping, like me [laughter from the
class], and uh, he like car. His car. No, no [pauses]— he want to have
9. his car. And he not like people talk English. Uh, no! He not like
10. people talk English fast.

and so on. 2. Jose G arcia’s speech: Okay, so, hello, and this my friend Meko. Is
right, Meko?” (Mieko laughs and shakes her head.) “How you say?”
(Mieko says, “Mi-e-kol”, stressing the three syllables; [laughter from
the class].) Jose continues, “Oh, yeah, okay, Mi-e-ko” [stressing three
syllables— more laughter from the class]. “Mieko, she like chopping,
chopping the clothes” [laughter from the class as Mieko shakes her
head], “no es right chopping?’’ (Mieko and others say “ssshhhhh” and
“shopping”) Jose says, “Oh, yeah— I know. Chopping is [gestures
chopping with the side of his hand] es ‘ch.’ Okay, she like
ssshhhopping [exaggerated /s / sound] the clothes” [laughter from
everyone, including Jose]. “And she like also the, the, ic o m o se
dice? the food of Japan, the food Japanese, the sushi, and she like
the dancing. And no like study the grammar of English, uh, the
English grammar. That is all.

3. Mieko F unabashi’s speech: Good morning, everybody. I am Mieko
Funabashi. I am introduce Miss Panita Niminit. But she like her name
is ‘Nan’ in class. So please say ‘Nan.’ Is her short name and friendly
name, ‘Nan.’ Nan like many things. She like cooking Thailand food, so
for class party she make Thailand food. And she like, uh, how can I
say, she like shopping, and me too! I like shopping. And Nan, she is
like, I mean she like play piano. But she not like, she don’t like get up
early in the morning. She like to sleep. So this is Nan.

csvstcsoteuaaiuorcngnydlogaIehnaefttneasddhyttvdasoeaeqryunfyumiytnhehssodsatsceatrvohimeoyoecounioqpiatfsnluillw)n.eettdhnwhasItetbathiyoytooiiuconcsoathossfty.wuttiaeionnFmhrnuteoadrtrehytreaejadgpetonh,eaxcb-derwuati/amlrtohtoonucarpfdrltlaseatetechs,rswlsoeameminihcnncattaeeilttrlsaxeqyetncstau-lytteaaahiEossopreStseunpiioLrorfatonrfhcrospclelemoalryaisww(.saosusoetImr,esnrrekahyla,atieaoennnovvusgdreeE.llwcwiFvstahhLthenuieiccdcihnhhlesaa,ntsdvudtwsoseod,hreyymntinoohcotiuuhest­ What can you determine about these three students’ speaking skills from the
brief extracts printed above? Based on just these speech samples, which of the
three do you consider to be the least proficient speaker of English? The most
proficient speaker? Write some comments about each student’s strengths and
weaknesses in spoken English. Include comments about their pronunciation,
their grammar, and their apparent breadth of vocabulary, as well as their fluency
in speaking English.

Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 79

comHmeernetsarweemreywnriottteesn aobnotuhte ebaacchk ooff tah3e"sexs5t"udceanrtds.asRtehme eemacbherstuthdaetntthwesaes shpmaciforemteoluepmfprrTisclbtheysiheeitesufanrossdcicrk’nyelnnt.yaqratsooIusmsnudersoeuraatesocidsmotmadintoniehstndmieinosabbtntbryeue,oooairduilcutduthowccetnahatireilnesolteonihaanndensgfaledooepctrttoahimyvfaeqoiacrtuqut’oysiiumoc(icknnacmankalntdmuihsindebteteihesetsney.ati.uunAsosdAgtfeuseldadnesnoaEetsacn,dxthtpitsfsrtr)phasyotecetovuoatuidkbdl5eiheeenngdaagtsrvi:’hnnseaoncstwtipthinimseevgaietcykoyloliafenutsfogsa,t
introducing his or her classmate, so they are necessarily brief.
I Extract 5
Notes on Jong K im ’s speech: (S v e e fs c \<a s s . Ho coptO<?v " b e . ” No
T: Who likes to play the piano?
pevsov\ ^ ov\ \\<w\e. Jose Ss: Mieko! No, no— Nan!
T: Mieko told us that Nan likes to play the piano. Okay, who likes to sleep?
( I v \ s f e ^ u A o-P ' V i s n<?u*\e is J o s e " ) . ’S e l-P c o w e c f s " H e U U e e.c*Sr] Ss: Nan! No, Jose!
T: Right! Nan likes to sleep. Jose likes to sleep. Nan and Jose both like to
f o " U e UV-e f o B u f M A s ^ y " U is c < w ” (iv \s fe *n < A o-P " U e
sleep. Who else likes to sleep? Someone else likes to sleep. Who was
c w " ) . U se ^A " U e n o f U V e w— v n ^ \y n o f U < * v e *nv\<?0yz.e<A " < A o + _ it? Do you remember?
Ss: Jong Kim! Jong!
\ \ c W ' ^ p e e c U s o m e w U ^ f U esifg nv\V > b u f o V ^ v y -Pov ) e v e ) o-P T: That’s right. Nan and Jose and Jong all like to sleep.

cl^ss. ________________ ususemNcmooartrriieczceetsEthwnaghtlaitsahsth. etShyheehatuevsaeecsshtaehirde,ishntuerdthesinpstese’ecxihdtrepaacrsot avncidodeaseclhmaebsoodrtaehtleeuststuteuprdoaennncttehssemtahn.adt

A 2. A pronunciation diagnostic test

Notes on Jose G arcia’s speech: O e e f s c l^ s s . L ^ c V s c o p u la as aAredaidaginngosatilcoutedsttafsokr ewvhailcuhatiinngcoarpsoturadteenst’tshperopnhuonnceimateiosnthcaatncboentwrarsittitvene
analysis predicts would be troublesome for students from a given first
" b e . w C U e c V s pvov\uv\cic>vHov\ o-P "M 'le U o /1 (Soo^A s e v \s e o-P loafntghueagsteudbeancktsg’rfoirusntdl.an(gAucagoentwriathstEivneglaisnhatloysdiesteisrmaisnyesttehme adtiicffecroemncpeasritshoant
— ^ — ’zr™:...... . — — - .................. , i\ I will need attention during instruction. It can be conducted at the levels of
flpoahmwoininloigalropgwaysi,sthamgSeoprwpahnasioslhwo,griyytot,eulnexwfioiclrloSnse,peasnytnihstahatxsm,poearankydeisrocsfoltuehraesrenc.i)onnFgsooErnneagxnlaitsmshpa. nlIedf,ytvohouewfaeorlles­
U iA in o v . < , e e ^ \ s c o v \ - P i^ e v \ f . ‘S e l - P - c o w e c f s " c U o p p l v ^ " f o " s h o p ­ iEnngthliissh.text are those that are often problematic for Spanish speakers of

p in g ." Tv^nv\s-Pevs e c H v e ov<Aev -Pvovn ^ p < ? w s lv . " f U e -Poo<A

J<?vp^v\ese.w U n c U s p e v s o n s ih ^ iaI ^ v ^ <AV\<j>0yz.e<A "<Ao

+- v \ o f . w ^ d n y s 'V o U V e sViA<Ay.,; R v u s U e s w i f U " T U < a V Is £ v |V _

M * n y b e £\>\ uv\<*v\<?0yz.e<A c U u v \V ? ’S p e e c U g e n e v ^ N y -P lu e v x f

<?w\A c o v \-P i^ A e v \f. K<sny U ^ v e LA e < *. o-P i\s iv y q co vn w o yv\ic< ? vH o v\

s H ^ f e g ie s (vIsV-fcnViH^ pevsov\<?\Ufy?).

Notes on Mieko Funabashi’s speech: G re e fs c W s . Uses U1

lv\fv<5<AiAclv\2 sel-P. B u f <?0s(5 s^ys, v'l w iv\fro<Ai\ce../* <nv\<A %<s>vt*\e Is ’

(m^y U^ve copula ewevqivyq). l^cUs pey-son smquW € ov\
$ooA"
"U U e.w Uses piuv<?0 ^ ow fUlvygis."

f m s f e ^ o-P " T t W -P<3<5<A"). Uses "Uou> ccnv\ 1S<?\y?" ( V ^ y b e <n £ ov^ ma_

1<?uc e>cpvessiov\). Uses "so" o\v\<A "vne foo." ^ y s 'UVe p l^ y pl^vvyo

(wissi'^g IvyPwHve 'Vc" envHcle "VUe"). “S ^ys ' sUe v\oi* HWe bi*V

cU. ^v v ^e s f. o «" sIU e <.Aov\h'V U V e "» — .i.*.v*.yI U ^ v e. ________ ____ - - J ""^JAo" <?vh«1A ne.qg’v

Hov\ e^ev^lvv^. l<v\ows "geV up" "e^vly IvvfUe wow\ivv^.,; ^peecU

v\oi" U€siV^.v\V. PveH^/ o\A\i<7\yiCe.A Pov VUls cl<?vss?

80 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 81

I Exam ple 11 studIenstus’ggpersotnuthnactiatyiooun. nWothiuleseth“etotnegxutse-otwf tiostnegrsu”e-taws isttheers bcaasnisbeforfuntes(tainndg
Buddy always pulled up a chair to watch his father wash and shave. funny) as in-class exercises, even native speakers have trouble saying them
laeealaosruinldyera(stnhdoantw’seatllht.easkwhthoalet npoatiinvt!e),osropirtoifsicnieonttanpopnro-npartiiavtee tsopesackoerres locawnenro-ltevdeol
He saw him spread the hot lather with a wet, yellow brush and then zip tdaeepnnatcIssfs.eayLgorieuekepaaletorhetueidwt,rioeoyranokduiinancgngadnwdieiattsshpckrrptiorhbveeelimdidteeatsrboaoctrevoeemps,tepuhaadotrewaanfbettsleve,reirydn,oasiutttea.caTaadchnroiosbfsethsaaastvkhbieinistgvcimatahrlpileoermduacssrteiesctanaudl­­
off the whiskers with a cheap razor that looked just like tin to him. Buddy if you have to administer the task to individual students-especially in large
would wait to see if the thin blade cut his father’s face, yet it never did. tchlaesmses(.orBaenasluyrzee ttoheamud) iloa-treer.coItrdcatnhebestduidsternatcst’inugttteoraynocuesansdo vyeoruy icnatnimsicdoarte­
Sometimes his father would even sing in his gravely voice as he pulled yinogutaorethteesletianrgnethrsemif.you are obviously scoring their speech at the same time
the sharp razor across his skin. Once Buddy thought he spotted blood
and was thrilled. But later he felt bad because he was sure it was a sin 3. Propositional scoring for assessing meaning in speech
to have these thoughts.
Galvan, Pierce, and Underwood, 1976, p. 20 Propositional scoring is a procedure for assessing the meaning conveyed
by an utterance (see Bailey, 1998) rather than grammatical accuracy. A
learWnerherenaydosuthuesepaasspaagsesaagleoulidkeintthoisattoapaessreesscoardleear.rnLeart’esrpyroonuucnacniastcioonre, tthhee pplreo, MpinoytshfiretiiefonondlloSiwscoitnhttgetesbeaancshtiecensmcEee,natgnhilenisrghe(sia)nreoRffooamusraenpnirtaoe.npcoesitoior nust:terance. For exam­
rpsEppseptharnuaoasogddscnnTleaieiunensghdnmhgteescsfrbeipoeiasymhartmsaiotmoprhnaetrnaaeeto,,trmssvktotwyeiheimnonseetgug.ehnreeTtapcteihmhraoxceinitlpsinsesr.tatwpoiesnnrnxFroftituicootnreonsirottkmpcs,iueiyenaaneiltftfcoptiihoeofswdienhntnhh..osaewumIotflipudliylanynsodnodssuh,uosaotghwptweobhriweeifsnyohedotlrveeutteeaomharrse,ncaoaheinsmpfrsdasyeeistssnoususwgadubg,eaisusenytrsitestt,eiluhnatcteroteieiardvaclheeddlefia-onoltarpougrnlobettttulhhhhresdeeee­’
lbiaenneavcdroanlupvesreroessn’. tuhpYneroocutfieaicxtsiihteooninsuclyomd,feaaiannnnysttwetnoreemrwbstehwoeaof strtetdhussetdbeovnefoftsaoc’craecbqeuutnheltaesertydyionrneoessarsda—sbyntohnoeuttatcpowtafiscorserasadgtdremuincoegtnaunsrtekiansiplglesis,.t 321... MHI heyatvfereaiecanhdefrs’iseEnnndagm.lieshi.s Scott.
Aprloson,ubneciaawtioarne athccaut rpaecoyplwe hceann sthoemyetairmeesrebaedimngoraelocuodnscthieanntiowuhseanbothuetythaerier 4. He teaches in Romania.
trying to generate novel utterances of their own.
Determine the number of propositions in this utterance:
Write a brief paragraph that incorporates the vowel and consonants sounds of The EFL listening textbook is for advanced learners.
English that pose particular problems for your learners, if you are already
teaching (or for those students you hope to work with in the future, if you are Compare your ideas with those of a classmate or colleague.
not). The text should sound natural and should include only words and
grammatical structures that your learners are likely to know. (This is a abiliTtyhetoccoonncveepyt mofeapnrionpgoswithiiolnesspceaankibneg Eusnegdlisihn. Ftaosrksinsfotarntcees,tiynogu sctaundegnivtse’
pronunciation task— not a test of reading or of how students interpret new words wHttihcheekraeestttstuiismdcaoeensntti.set Txbtahhemgee ipnstatlsues, kdwoeofnhfwtosfhiicsnaadtsnitanatrgshrteiuonndugettiennwltehimpta,hithgofohniwltemsalaoinysnd: gplleiatayvliaensgtas,avatonaidcechmeoratwailinmmtuehcsehsaattgrheee.,
in context.) Type the text in double-spaced format so it will be easier for the
learners to read (and for you to mark later) than if it were single-spaced. Have a Speaking for beginning level learners 83
few of your colleagues or classmates read it aloud for you on tape before you try
using it with students.

82 Chapter 2

I Extract 6 psoromveideexsadmiapglensosotifcsitnufdoernmtsa’tisopneeacbhoudtutrhinegstaudcelanstss.introduction activity that
Uh, hello, Ms. Bailey? This is Julio. The, the movie is Gone with the uwsoerdkTiahntegthnwaeitxthltevcinehlta,eprstmoerelodwniagiltleascsotthvuedeyrensatisrme. iMaladraanptoytepdoicfsa,tphpberuotspartmhiaeetreeplyrw.oceedwuilrlesfoccauns obne
Wind. Is star in it Vivien Leigh. I think is Leigh, spell L-E-l-G-H. Is start at
8 o’clock. Is a, uh, a movie of three hours. Uh, is a three-hour movie. I Further readings
think is an old movie, not a new movie. Is cost six dollars for one, uh,
one people, I mean, uhm, one person. I think this is all. Bye. VBAa:ilTeyE,SKO.LM. . and L. Savage. 1994. New Ways in Teaching Speaking. Alexandria,

ustnuudsIeunhatlasvfwielmofn,o’turabntedheatrbhltaehtattonhirsseolmyaceotitnvhiiftnrygeqwtuhoearntktissrabcdeuitortreeornrtiltfyelyepovouipsuicolhanro.aodTsvehearattnisweoamlydetnhotesr This book is a collectio n of short tea chin g ideas written by tea chers for teachers. It
tpgnorreoaelmecdPaeemrrddonuapirrtonehsf,eeiortyirraomoonnrusasaw.twlieoIsirnnlcsls.otntre(oieOanetdgfhd,ecottofohquteurhcesehfesoet,siccottukuonsdswu.eissintethosa’nthataenwsshktwheleetihraksteerrdetohtfheiissersontlneoaeatnrddnaesemdrauansckutaepsppssoeluiisrnesedtmsthtefhonaertt includes activities for learners at various levels.
you know the answers to the questions the learners are trying to answer.)
CSpaerakteerrs,oRf.OathnerdLDan.guNaugens.aCna.m20b0ri1d.gTeh:eCCaammbbrriiddggeeGUunidiveetrosiTtyeaPchriensgs.English to
Score Julio’s recording in Extract 6 using propositional scoring. Write the
information he provided on the blank lines below: This helpful reference book has short, readable chapters related to many issues
What film is pla ying ? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- discussed here.
What time does it b e g in ? --------------------------- -----------------------------------------
Who is starring in it ? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- NPruesns.an, D. 2004. Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University
How long does it la s t? -----------------------------------------------------------------------
How much do the tickets c o s t? --------------------- -------------------------------------- This book provides m any ideas for language learning and teaching tasks that can
Julio’s score = _________ out of five points possible. be adapted for different levels of speaking proficiency.

8. Conclusion Helpful Web sites

lsobseeseyptxxfeualeetglrtdrarahniIaecnkbnrecniienusrtnttsesseeshg.rifdaisrStmseanoytcsetdumppihcgdetotafhniesaparointlstinlastesfesensrols5.,uetrsbTvewodpesehneiegrlnieai.inwnthnlnrtcSa,noShivweedpeeSecrrcuilestteetcicch.isooitotinnAphnnotghernsf2o4taie.tdn7taerTed,unanrenhaocdeeshcendebcinedarpratriithrsSbeiwatseoeoefeccandtstitsebinsiciaioeatsfnirconsnnoghukcgdd3eiuelnusepspi.gsaciltrnplrtSouoingieoevnsfaecntoiskrrtdm,pnsaiieo’netwiedsnsgandpepkda6eeiwlnatbaopewkgkriocrtiiihhohtenknoevfngegniiddb,bdqwieeituesangiegcdettcaiihusnnlcstsunnhhfosaadiiriimlnnnoneesddngegege The American Council on the Teaching o f Foreign Languages
(ACTFL) (www.actfl.org)
84 Chapter 2
The rating guidelines from the Am erican Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages (ACTFL) are used in C hapters 2, 3, and 4 of this book to d e scrib e the
speaking of beginning, interm ediate, and advanced level learners. Please visit the
ACTFL W ebsite (w w w .actfl.org) for more information.

The Sound Systems o f English and Spanish
(www.uiowa.edu/ ~acadtech/phonetics/)

The University of Iowa maintains an excellent W ebsite about the sound systems of
English and Spanish. It provides cle ar dem onstrations and explanations of how
sounds are produced, including an anim ated profile of the vocal tract. The W ebsite
also produces the phonemes, so learners and teachers can actually hear the
various sounds of spoken English.

Speaking for beginning level learners 85

References PenP1ne3in5nn-g1in5to4g.tno,nM(e.d.1)9, 9N5e.wA Situated Process View of AGlreaxmamndarriaL, eVaArn:inTgE.SIOn LM,.
Ways of Teaching Grammar.

AlleEnn,glEis.hDa.saanSdecRon.dML.anVgaualegtet.eN.e1w97Y7.oCrkla, sNsrYoo:mHTaercchonuiqruteBs:rFacoereJiognvaLnaongvuicahge,sInacn.d SkilRSltmeragateenngti,se,sPf3.o0ar-3nth1de. CCla. sMsrocoMmaahndilBl.ey1o9n9d6..USpprpiengrbSoaadrddlteo RSuicvceers,s:NCJo: mPmreunntiiccaetioHnall

American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) StewtoaLratn,gTu.aWge. aannddLiCng.uVisatiiclsle(8ttthe.e2d0.)0.1C. oLlaunmgubaugse: FTilhees:OMhaitoeriSatlastfeorUannivIenrtsriotdyu.ction
AshLearn,Jgu.Jag.,eJT.Ahr.oKuguhsoCdoam,maanndds:RT.hdeeSleacoTnodrrFeie.ld19T9e3s.t.LIenaJr.nWin.gOailSeer,cJorn. d(ed.),
Methods that Work: Ideasfor Literacy and Language Teachers (3rd ed.). Boston: ThrLuisshte,niEng.A/S.p,eLak.iBngla(4stsh, aedn.)d. NRe.wBYalodrkw, iNnY. :20M02cG. Irnatwer-aHctiilol.ns Access:
Heinle & Heinle, 13-21.
1998. L earning About Language Assessment: Dilemmas, Decisions and
Bailey, K.M. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
2003. Speaking. In D. Nunan (ed.) Practical English Language Teaching.
Directions. McGraw-Hill, 47-66.

BailNeeyw, KY.oMrk.:
Curitnist,hAe .LaanngduaKge.MC.laBsasrioleoym..2E00S1L. MPiacgtuazrieneY,JouulryS/Atuudgeunstts: T1a0l-k1in2g. : Using Pictures
Dell. 2000. Dell Logic Puzzles. Norwalk, CT: Dell Magazines, Crosstown Publications.
FreeCmomamnu,nDic.a,tiGonraTvhreosu,gKh E.,nagnlisdh.LNeeew, LY.or2k0,0N5.YI:CMOcNGIrnatwro-HInitlelrEnaStLio/nEaLl T
GalvSaelnec,Jte.dLE.,dJu.cAa.tiPoniealrcVea,riaabnleds Gof.NTe.aUchnedrsetrowthoeoirdA. t1t9it7u6d.eTshTeoRwealredvaMnecxeicoafn
American English.Journal ofthe Linguistic Association ofthe Southwest. 2: 13-27.
CHle.v1e9d9o1n. :FMlueunlctyilianngduAalccMuraatctye:rsT.oward Balance in Language Teaching and
Hammerly,

Learning.
HarWtmoraldn, nBo, oPk. Oanned. BLo.stBolna,sMs.A2:00M0c.GQruaewst-:HLiilslt.ening and Speaking in the Academic
KozMyrAe:vH,Jo.uRg.h1to9n98M. iTfaflliknItCUomp!pOanrayl.Communicationfor the Real World. Boston,
Lonwgi,thMW.Ho.r,dLs-.VAedrbaaml Isn,teMra.cMtiocnLienaLno,caknstdepFa.nCdaSsmtaanlloGs.ro1u9p76C. DlaossinrogoTmhings
Situations. InJ.F. Fanselow and R. Crymes (eds.), On TESOL ’76. Washington,
DC: TESOL, 137-153.
2003. Pronunciation. In D. Nunan (ed.), Practical English Language
Murphy,J. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 111-128.

Teaching.
Nunan, D. 2003. Listen In, Book 7 (2nd ed.). Boston: Thomson Heinle.
NunMacnG, rDaw. 2-H00il5l.EPSrLac/EticLaTl E. nglish Language Teaching: Grammar. New York, NY:
NunParonce,sDs. .CaanmdbrCid.gLe:aCmabm.b1r9id9g6.e TUhneiSveelrfs-ditiyrecPtreedssT.eacher: Managing the Learning

86 Chapter 2 Speaking for beginning level learners 87

liSTenphvteereearlmekleienadgrinafeotrers

A t the end o f this chapter, you should be able to:

O d escribe the speaking issues that typically concern intermediate

CDo learners.
d em o n s tra te an understanding of confirmation checks,
W clarification requests, and comprehension checks, and identify

instances of each in the speech of intermediate learners.

d em o n s tra te an understanding of the following key principles
to support the teaching of speaking to intermediate learners:
negotiation for meaning, developing transactional and interpersonal
speech, and personalization.

c re a te materials and speaking activities for intermediate level
learners based on the following task and activity types: information
gap and jigsaw activities, role-plays, picture-based activities, and
logic puzzles.

✓ e xam in e pieces of classroom interaction and identify the

principles involved in teaching speaking to intermediate learners.

✓ use a diagnostic test to assess learners’ pronunciation.

89

1. Introduction Talk to three intermediate learners of English. According to these learners, what
are their main goals for studying English? Focus specifically on spoken English.
In this chapter, we will consider techniques for teaching speaking to inter­ What are their current strengths? What areas do they most want to improve
m2ca)co.etnedItrniriaatsetsteirtcmlsteheaeodrsfnieaetirsenstt.aleetTrevmhmeeleesdlneeitaasdtreenwsecirstrshtiupadttrhoeeornssatesbf’rlaoesbmptooeu:tahtkebinAeggCinaTnbFiilnLitgyg.sutiYuddoeeluinntemssi(glsihesett tChwehisachphtaetror­ upon next? Now think about your own assessment of these people’s speaking
skills? What do you think are their current strengths in speaking English? What
• handle successfully a variety of uncomplicated, basic and areas should they work to improve first? Fill out the chart below:
communicative tasks and social situations;
Which person His/Her ideas Your ideas
• talk simply about self and family members;
• ask and answer questions and participate in simple conversations Learner #1

on topics beyond the most immediate needs, e.g. personal Learner #2
history and leisure time activities; Learner #3
• increase utterance length slightly, but speech may continue to
be characterized by frequent long pauses, since the smooth Where your ideas differ from the learners’, what accounts for the differences?
incorporation of even basic conversational strategies is often
hindered; mcdadlteeaasntstietesWgsarrn’coiea.sholpNiwmsneeigfalxolekprtxitnrtuwtrogeraenancscuwtkhsnnii.ilocllnlswiFg,acitnfoistooaonpclnseluiyaadsf,kioebniwrrnrgigetiehnefarswteeptdiereiltmlshciciemteuahdlsipilinsnyoaitkoteroetnranamlnboepetofardpuroiinsrtnaisetnuaurecnssesisclpebeilsvateeshtefsiioalno.tragneTsi.nihwenfexlteunealerlmmwnaicseeneditwnaissagiykltllesslalooasbmntouudkes­
• improve pronunciation, which may continue to be strongly
influenced by first language, and fluency may still be strained. 2. Syllabus design issues

lsetavteeTl thchaeantAuaClstuThaFolulLygghbuemiduiesnludinneedrssetrnosootatdendbthiynegsiysmmsptpiolalrttaharenisttiecr,oislnpeteeoarfklotehcruestlaoitrsstte.hneeirn, twerhmenedtihaetye TbksasipdnuhnedoiceleiwdAeytcihtottmhhnmtaehe,ocsaeirterwsey.ihtvlnheAioatleaeceslyrsranomtbycheuoaeerlsnundatiereuaaiaeasletnrdceesedh,aaledeptitromvhypyeerplooki,rmpunloersovpwaiywaerrlitnlolealteavlhbrnyeuesg.eisrer(aetSddrhageeetretesoaidierpmgehxanamepgpllaepiarsnoor5s,ydfnuoituEeaonusnnngrrdcgebiiltvenaihesicttxeeheiowiot,rrmemnbntechudeoedtavmsticsehaecmtrteiuyecllurorasnnandctinciuecyvegeda.epdeetrtinssvIotet.neos),f
ccoonmfpideetnencec.e, you can do a great deal to increase their communicative
Reflection
Speaking for intermediate level learners 91
Think about a non-native speaker whom you consider to be an
intermediate learner of English. W hat are the characteristics of that
person’s speech that make you think of him as “interm ediate”?

90 Chapter 3

Review the table of contents or the Scope and Sequence of three intermediate- Talk It Up!: Telephone C hain .t.o....S..t.a..y...i.n....T...o...u..c..h................................................4444
level speaking textbooks. How are they organized— by topical themes, by Listening Activity Two: Send a Card ......................................
functions, or by grammar points (or perhaps by some combination of these Pronunciation Activities: Contractions Difficult Social
ways)? Sometimes you can view the table of contents of a book online, in case Talk It Up!: Speaking Appropriately in 45
you can’t find the book itself.
Situtations................................................................... 48
TlisinishntEeceeSnxcoiahtnmhmagepepsateleccertotiswvu1,airotrsiieneeasoubK, rrosgoaoozalmk/ynosrierzeacepvlod’rsvosaken(rir1ulo9lbnsu9ocn8oit)dafhttbteilhooniesnotmwkew,noeoisrTn,krakgsl,tukoaacIgnnhteddtUahssspepu!Fr,eg.raegiFkevenoiesndrtrgiysoi,,nncFwsshteahfaenoiplccrithneegg,rrisoaahustaspesHswnhtoshoomirwbrekelnee., FLuisrttehneirngPrAaccttiivciet:y GT rhereetei:n gN Co taAr dnso.t.h...e..r..A...n..s..w...e..r..i.n..g...M....a..c..h..i..n..e..!...................5.249
tMopaikcisngprCoovnidneecrteiolenvs,anTthevoWcaobruldlaoryf,Wgorrakm, mMaornesytruMctautrteerss,, aanndd seoxaomn.pTlehsesoef
speech acts, as well as something to talk about. C H ALIPnistTrteEondRiungc4t:Ai oTcnthi.v.e.i.t.yW...O..o.n.r..el.d.:..G.o..e.f.t..tW.i.n...g.o..t.rh.k..e....J.....o......b...............................................................................................................................................5..45556
Pronunciation Activities: /i y / as in seen and / i / as in did . . .57
Talk It Up!: Formal Interviews....................................................60
Listening Activity Two: Breaking the I c e ........................................... 62
TParolknuItnUcipa!t:ioSnmAalcltiTviatileks.:..S...e.n...t.e..n...c..e...S..t.r..e..s.s..................................................................... 64
Listening Activity Three: Workplace Challenges.............................. 6667
Further Practice ....................................................................................69
Self-Evaluation E...x..p...e..r..t......................................................................................................................................759]
Speaking to an

C H AIPn tTr oEdRu c5t:i oSnc.h...o..o...l...C...h...o..i..c..e...s../.L...i..f..e....O...p...p...o..r..t..u..n...i.t..i.e...s.............................................. 72
ListePnirnognuAncctiivaittiyonOnAec:tiCvihtiaens:ging Majors .........................................
I Example 1 73

74

To the T ea c h e r.................................................................................................... vi Talk /ItsU/ pa!s: iEnxspinregs,s/infg/ Easmiontisohnopin, aRnodle/ Ptjla/yass i.n....c..h..a..n..g...e..........7.775
To the S tu d e n t......................................................................................................ix Listening Activity Two: Learning a L anguage...................................78
APrcekcnoouwrsleeEdgvmaleunattsi.o..n.....................................................................................................................................................................................xxviii Pronunciation Activities: Intonation D..i.s..c..u..s..s.i.o...n...............................................7893
Talk It Up!: Using Notes in a Group
CH A PTER 1: F rie n d s .......................................................................................1 Listening Activity Three: Being Bilingual—What an Advantage! . .84
Introduction .................................................................................................2 F urth er Practice: Interviewing a Fellow S t udent B...e..g..i..n.......................................8876
listening Activity One: That’s What Friends Are F o r .......................... 2 When Should Language Study
PronuSntrcaitaetgioiens AfocrtiIvmitiperso: ving Pronunciation .............................. 4
Talk It Up!: Interviewing Classmates...............................................6 Talk It Up! Oral Communication for the Real World (Kozyrev, 1998, p. iii-iv)
Questions Types and Typical Responses .................6
ListePnirnognuAncctiivaittiyoTnwAoc:tiEvxitcieuss:eSs,yEmxbcoulssefso! r .S...o..u...n...d..s................................................................98 Some syllabuses and methods are designed to emphasize input to the
Talk It Up!: Disagreeing Directly and Indirectly.........................II ilsea“rlnaenrgsu, awgehiwlehoicthhearsleeamrnpehrashiezaersinotrerraeccteioivne.sWanhdatfrios mthew hdiifcfherheencoer? sIhne pcuant
FLuisrttehneirngPrAaccttiivciet:y ATghrreeeei:nCg yabnedrfDrieisnadgsre.e..i..n..g....................................................................................1135 learn” (Richards, Platt and Weber, 1985, p. 143). Input can be unidirectional.
Watching TV7 ...............................................................16 iTnhgaitnisa, nleyarwnaeyr.s Tcahnatgsauinbsientpouft jtuhset ibnypuret awdhinicgholrealirsnteenrsinngo, twicieth, ofiuntdrehseplpofnudl,­
Advice Colum ns...........................................................16 wvaneilrdltenldeoattrobneincfrotoammkee.iisFntocaarklileen.dstainnctea,ksep.eeNcohttahlalttihsetoinopfuatsttofolrealernarenrserscatno bperoccoesns­
vspeerbeIcanhl ciinontnvetorralavcsetti,soinant,tlpeeearosatpctlwteiooenxpceihosa,pnblgeyecdoienmffiomnrimtuinoaintci,oantnionatgnuwdniiidtdhieroeascntei(oLanonanolgt.h,Ien1r9t.e8Dr3a)ucrtaiinnvdge
CH A PTER 2: Feeling a t H o m e ................................................................18 ufcoonrmde“mtrhsuetannilcedsaistnegct”ohme(pip.r en2t1ee4en)d.tsI.snpDetuahkreienprgrottocheepssrseo, vcmoidonesvtefr(esseaydtmibopancastkhtehotenicre)hiaisnreteororlpohpceourrtotluarnscikwtieiolslf
Introduction......................................................................... ........................19 adjust their speech to help the learner understand better. The result is what
Listening Activity One: A Good Apartment Is Hard to F in d .............20
Pronunciation Activities: Syllables................................................. 22
Talk It Up!: Im itations......................................................................25
Listening ActivityFTiwndoi:nGgeattHinog mThei.n..g..s...F..i..x..e..d.................................................................................2275
Pronunciation Activities:
The / a / Sound in Unstressed Syllables............................... 29
Talk It Up!: Discussing Repairs ...................................................... 31
Listening Activity Three: What a Neighborhood! ............................ .32
Further Practice.......................................................................................... 33
OS erlafl-EP vr easlue na ttiaotni o...n............................................................................................................................................................... 3334

CHAPTER 3: M aking C o n n e c tio n s........................................................ 37
Introduction............................................................................................. .38
ListePnirnognu/Aencyctiiv/aitatiysoOninnApecl:taiyEv,i-tm/ieeas/i:l Connections .........................................39
as in send, and /ee/ as in b a d ...........40

Chapter 3 Speaking for intermediate level learners 93