HOMESCHOOLING AMONG FAMILIES LIVING IN THAILAND: EXPLORING EXPERIENCES THROUGH A PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH

HOMESCHOOLING AMONG FAMILIES LIVING IN THAILAND: EXPLORING EXPERIENCES THROUGH A PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH By NELLAH LAING PEDGRAGOSA A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Education Emphasis in Educational Administration Faculty of Education Asia-Pacific International University Year 2021

i Thesis Title: Homeschooling Among Families Living in Thailand: Exploring Experiences Through a Phenomenological Approach Author: Nellah Laing Pedragosa Thesis Principal Advisor: Josephine Esther Katenga, PhD Thesis Co-advisor: Amanda Simon, PhD Program: Master of Education with Emphasis in Educational Administration Academic Year: 2021

ii ABSTRACT This study is a qualitative study on homeschooling among families living in Thailand. The objective of the study is to explore the experiences of homeschooling families through phenomenology. The study sought to establish why parents homeschool; analyze educational resources available to homeschooling families; determine the effect of homeschooling on children’s development as perceived by the parents and identify the support system available to parents to ensure that parents succeed in homeschooling. The participants in this study are homeschooling parents from different parts of Thailand. As this study is a qualitative research, interview and a focus group interview were used to collect data. The findings show that parents’ motivation to homeschool are, worries with the public-school system; negative influence from school peers; religious reasons; and parent's context. This motivation to homeschool lead parents to select homeschooling curriculum that meets their children’s need and create a unique activities for their children’s academic, social and spiritual growth. As a result, homeschooling children experience achievement in academic and a balanced psychosocial development. For future research, to get a more in-depth perspective to the study and provide a comprehensive view of how homeschooling really works, studies should include observations of how each family conducted their homeschooling to better understand the use of time, learning approach, teaching methods and how the curriculum of their choice works for each family. Other qualitative methods such as grounded theory model, case study model or a narrative model, could be implemented to study the experiences of each homeschooling families.

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I praise God for His guidance and wisdom throughout my master's study. I would not have reached this milestone if not because of His help from the beginning to the end of my study. My sincere gratitude goes to my thesis advisor, Dr. Josephine Katenga, for her patience and guidance through my writing journey. Dr. Bienvisa Nebres also spent hours reading and giving me constructive comments to help me improve my writing. To Dr. Jimmy Kijai, Dr. Daron Loo, and Dr. Naltan Lampadan for their guidance and encouragement in completing my courses and research. I deeply appreciate my husband, Mr. Edwardson Pedragosa, who cheered and encouraged me to continue my studies. The moral support, prayers, and financial support were greatly appreciated. I am also grateful for my children’s emotional support and understanding, Josiah and Caleb. Their endless support to finish the house chores while I was busy writing this thesis kept me moving forward. This study would not have been realized if it were not for my personal experience of homeschooling both of my sons. Last but not least, I am also extremely grateful to my friend Linda Lagason who spent hours reading and editing my research paper. To my other friends and family members, your moral support was appreciated! In completing this study, I desire that this research contributes to the lack of literature on homeschooling in the Asian context. Nellah Laing Pedragosa

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... viiviii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................iix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................1 Why Parents Homeschool..........................................................................................1 Benefits of Homeschooling .......................................................................................2 Homeschooling in Thailand.......................................................................................4 Statement of Problem.................................................................................................5 Purpose of the Study..................................................................................................6 Research Questions....................................................................................................7 Definition of Terms ...................................................................................................7 Significance of the Study...........................................................................................8 Limitations and Delimitations ...................................................................................8 Organization of the Study ..........................................................................................9 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..........................................................10 Introduction..............................................................................................................10 Determining Factors of Homeschooling..................................................................10 Problems with the Public-School System............................................................11 Religious Reasons for Homeschooling................................................................12 Parents Contexts...................................................................................................13 Parents’ Self-Efficacy ..........................................................................................13 Parents’ Level of Education.................................................................................14 Home Environment and Parents' Availability .........................................................15 Support Systems ......................................................................................................16 Educational Theories ...........................................................................................16 Constructivism (Vygotsky)..............................................................................16 Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)......................................................................17 Pedagogical Approaches......................................................................................17 Waldorf Homeschooling Method ....................................................................18 Montessori Method ..........................................................................................19 Other Learning Methods..................................................................................20 Government Support for Homeschooling............................................................21

v Support from Schools and Churches....................................................................21 Parents Support Each Other.................................................................................22 Homeschooling and Children’s Development.........................................................22 Homeschooling and Academic Achievement..........................................................23 Homeschooling and its Effect on the Social Development .....................................25 Homeschooling and its Effect on the Emotional Development...............................27 Homeschooling and its Effect on the Moral Development......................................28 Homeschooling Problems........................................................................................29 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.....................................................31 Research Questions..................................................................................................31 Research Methods and Design.................................................................................31 Sampling Method and Participants..........................................................................32 Data Collection and Procedure ................................................................................33 Research Protocol (Questions).................................................................................33 Data Analysis and Interpretation .............................................................................37 Trustworthiness........................................................................................................38 Credibility ............................................................................................................38 Dependability.......................................................................................................39 Confirmability......................................................................................................39 Ethical Consideration...............................................................................................40 Reflexivity ...............................................................................................................40 Summary..................................................................................................................42 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF THE STUDY ............................................................44 Demographics of Participants..................................................................................44 Terrence Family ...................................................................................................44 Smith Family........................................................................................................45 Willy Family ........................................................................................................46 Romeo Family......................................................................................................47 Gary Family .........................................................................................................48 Somchai Family ...................................................................................................48 Jimmy Family ......................................................................................................49 Ford Family..........................................................................................................50 Thanakit Family ...................................................................................................50 Aaron Family .......................................................................................................51 Demographic Charts................................................................................................54

vi Summary of the Participants’ Demographic............................................................57 Reasons and Experiences of Homeschooling ..........................................................58 Worries with the Public-School System ..............................................................58 Negative Influence from School Peers.................................................................59 Religious Reasons................................................................................................60 Parent’s Context...................................................................................................62 Parental Responsibility ....................................................................................62 Parents as the First Teacher. ........................................................................62 Parental Control. ..........................................................................................63 Control Over the Choice of Curriculum ..........................................................64 Independent Learning-Based Curriculum........................................................64 Curriculum’s Modification and Adjustment................................................65 Schedule and Learning Pace. .......................................................................66 More Practical Skills........................................................................................67 Child-Centered Learning Approach.........................................................................68 Academic Achievement of Homeschooled Children...............................................69 Homeschooling Effect on Psychosocial Development............................................70 Over Familiarity...................................................................................................70 Discipline .............................................................................................................71 Socialization.........................................................................................................71 How Homeschool Affects the Family Dynamics ....................................................73 Homeschooling Challenges .....................................................................................75 Financial...............................................................................................................76 Management of Time ...........................................................................................77 Lack of Support System.......................................................................................77 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................78 CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................80 Demographic Finding ..............................................................................................80 Discussions ..............................................................................................................81 Worries of the Institutional School System .........................................................81 Teacher-centered teaching approach................................................................82 Negative Influence from School Peers. ...........................................................82 Academic Achievement .......................................................................................82 Child-Centered Learning Approach.....................................................................83 Parents’ Context...................................................................................................85

vii Parents as First Teacher ...................................................................................86 Religious and Moral Conviction......................................................................87 Parental Control ...............................................................................................88 Control over Curriculum Choice. ................................................................88 Control Over Making Adjustments and Modifications to Curriculum........89 Control Over Learning Pace, Schedule, and Learning Style. ......................89 Control Over Discipline...............................................................................90 Socialization.............................................................................................................91 Homeschooling Challenges .....................................................................................92 Financial...............................................................................................................92 Lack of Support System.......................................................................................93 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................94 Limitations...............................................................................................................95 Recommendations....................................................................................................96 Recommendation for Practice..............................................................................96 Recommendation for Future Research.................................................................98 REFERENCES.........................................................................................................100

viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Research Questions and Interview Protocols.................................................34 Table 2. Demographic Table of Comparison...............................................................53 Table 3. Twelve Indicators of Child‐Centeredness.....................................................85

ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Reasons for Parents to Homeschool. .............................................................11 Figure 2. Parents’ Level of Education ........................................................................15 Figure 3. Teaching Theories and Methods .................................................................18 Figure 4 Homeschooling Support for Parents..............................................................21 Figure 5 Homeschooling Studies.................................................................................25 Figure 6. Conceptual Framework for Collecting Data.................................................43 Figure 7. Religious Background .................................................................................54 Figure 8. Primary Homeschooling Parents..................................................................54 Figure 9. Number of children.......................................................................................55 Figure 10. Parents’ Country of Origin and Nationality ...............................................55 Figure 11. Status of Marriages.....................................................................................56 Figure 12. Parents Educational Background................................................................56 Figure 13. Major of the Primary Teaching Parent .......................................................57 Figure 14. Conceptual Framework ..............................................................................79

1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Homeschooling has been on the rise for the past decade. The number of homeschooled children around the globe at the beginning of 2020 was about 3 million (Pandurov, 2021), even with homeschooling is still unauthorized in many countries. This reflects a global paradigm shift in how education is viewed, as more parents choose to homeschool due to the perceived diminishing quality of public education and negative school environments, which are manifested by some students’ low academic achievement and poor social development (Jeub, 1994; Ray, 2013). In the United States of America, homeschooling is one of the fastest-growing forms of education (Gaither, 2009), and globally, it has been growing steadily (Cheng & Donnelly, 2019; Dandan, 2017). According to Ray (2015), homeschooling can be defined as a parent-led, home-based education. This educational practice is a traditional learning approach that has existed for decades. Why Parents Homeschool A variety of reasons are often cited by parents who opt to homeschool. These reasons include a lack of faith in the educational system in providing the appropriate quality of education and a poor school or classroom environment where education is implemented. An example of a poor learning environment includes limiting a child’s natural way of learning, which interferes with the development of children’s natural skills (Weldon, 2016). Furthermore, the learning conditions in schools tend to

2 deteriorate as teachers will need to manage large classes and their inability to work with gifted children or those with special needs (Dumas et al., 2005). Too often, children’s knowledge is measured according to the teachers’ whims (Hill, Ball, & Schilling, 2008; Popham, 1999). Another critical issue that concerns parents in the public school system is children’s safety in the wake of school violence (Dumas et al., 2005). All of these issues affect the quality of classroom instruction and management. Considering these issues, many parents conclude that providing education for their children should be a task they should undertake within but not limited to, the confines of their home. Benefits of Homeschooling Homeschooling offers numerous advantages. By homeschooling, parents have the freedom to nurture their children’s development. They also gain the freedom to encourage their children’s inquisitiveness by providing thought-provoking activities personally. Homeschooled children are free from the strict confines of schedules ubiquitous in schools. So, they have more time to learn through play and enjoy more opportunities to explore and learn according to their interest and skills (Jones, 2013; Jung & Jin, 2015). The social benefits of homeschooling also prove to be very attractive. In this home-based education, parents teach their children norms and standards of socialization for interacting well with others. An added benefit of homeschooling is that the children are shielded from bullying. This is a trend in many schools. Recent media has seen many reports of children subjected to bullying, which resulted in suicide. Parents who homeschool have less fear of their children being exposed to these dangers. Furthermore, there are health benefits for children schooled at home. According to Wile (2013), homeschooled children are less likely to become obese.

3 His study included 47 homeschoolers and 48 public school children aged between 7- 12. The participants’ total body fat and physical activity were measured. The children were also asked about the kind of food they eat. The researchers found that homeschooled children had lower values in all three fat measurements and were reported to have a better diet. As a result, the children had a stronger immune system to resist the outbreak of diseases (Wile, 2013). Another benefit is that parents are free to undertake projects with their children. For most homeschooling parents in Thailand, teaching children at home means freedom from the Thai educational system restrictions (Noppakunthong, 2007). Travel is also a means where learning takes place. Traveling together with family, they explore different places and learn new cultures, languages, food, and environments (Jjnorasuk, 2019; Byrnes, 2012; Mitchell, 2010; Stone, 2013). They can use whatever learning method they want to ensure their children learn. For example, they can encourage their children to learn through nature, read books, embrace nature as their classroom, and learn science. Due to the emerging popularity of homeschooling, many Asian countries are now legalizing homeschooling. For example, in Singapore, homeschooling has been legalized since 2000. Recent years have seen homeschooling parents form organizations and support the home-based education community. For instance, in Singapore, parents believe homeschooling allows them to tailor their children’s education based on their needs. For other parents, homeschooling reduces education costs (Dimarco, 2018). The education ACT of 1996 (Act 550) made primary education compulsory in Malaysia. However, in 2001, several homeschooling parents met with the Minister of Education to clarify their need to homeschool. Since then, homeschooling has been allowed, and parents are coming together to form a homeschooling community. Malaysian homeschooled children do very well

4 academically, possess good social skills, and fit well in their communities (Aziz, 2019). In Taiwan, the Republic of China, homeschooling was legally recognized in 1982. This move by the government brought about a rise in the number of Chinese students who excel in government exams after being homeschooled (Dandan, 2017). Homeschooling in Thailand There are many reasons for this trend, and many parents recognize the importance of homeschooling. Classes in Thai schools are typically large. Unfortunately, teachers cannot manage these large classes. In addition, in these schools, teachers prefer a teacher-centered approach to instruction (Kaewdang, 1998; Kritiyapichartkul, 2003; Pintavanich, 2000). This learning approach is not conducive to teaching critical thinking and problem-solving. Learning depends on teachers’ lectures with little student participation. There is a lot of memorization and copying from textbooks. The failure of this “spoon-feeding” teaching strategy focused on learning facts and placing little emphasis on other pedagogical strategies which promote student independence is the cause of many educational deficiencies. For these reasons, some Thai parents choose to homeschool (Chansaengsee, Peungposop, & Junprasert, 2017). Other parents decide to homeschool because they are worried about having less time with their children. Family time is shortened because of the long hours children spend in school. This reduced family time is further exacerbated by too much homework (Marzano & Pickering, 2007; Cooper, Salying, & Dent, 2019; Galloway, Conner, & Pope, 2013). Others see these issues, along with the negative peer socialization in schools, as leading to student depression (Prinstein, 2006; Schwartz, Sheerbear, Dudgeon, & Allen, 2012; Leary, 2001) and the use of drugs (Kendel & Davies, 1996; McCabe, Boyd, & Young, 2007).

5 Homeschooling has been legal in Thailand since 1992, but the law was only passed in 2004. In the year 2007, Thailand's education law under the constitution of sections 49 and 50 declared that the government would permit organizations or private sectors to do alternative education. In Thailand, homeschooling includes child-centered learning experiences and focuses on family and culture as the central pillar of learning. Though legal for quite a few years, homeschooling is still relatively new. This is because not many parents know about the existence of homeschooling in Asia. Many Asian parents think that homeschooling is only done in the Western world. With the legalization of this practice, there is growing interest in different families to educate their children at home (Education in Thailand, 2019). In 2015 there were 100 homeschooling parents (Kitcharoen, 2015). This increased to 474 homeschooling parents in the following year (Office of Basic Education Commission, 2016). This increase reflects parents’ interest in teaching their children at home. Statement of Problem Despite the growing involvement of parents in their children’s education, its implementation is hampered by the following concern: lack of qualification in homeschooling, that is, parents have no teaching experience or an understanding of homeschooling teaching approaches (Engchun, Sungtong, & Haruthaithanasan, 2017); poor selection of homeschool curriculum; lack of support system for parents engaged in homeschooling. In addition, parents have to grapple with the question of children’s transition to higher education if they have not consistently taken standardized tests to measure their academic abilities and achievements (Shepherd, 2010). However, literature indicates that while many parents are not trained to homeschool, they are willing to learn teaching approaches and methodologies to use

6 in homeschooling their children to enhance their children’s educational outcomes (Rudjanee, Ekkarin, & Theera, 2017). Moreover, parents still forge ahead with teaching their children even when they have never taught before by means of perseverance and trial and error. Another issue parents face might be deciding upon a suitable curriculum, as homeschool curricula are not standardized. There is not a one-shoe-fits-all curriculum for homeschooling. There are different types of homeschooling curricula; each curriculum has different approaches and instructional materials. When making a decision, parents should not ask, “What is the best homeschool curriculum?” but, “Which homeschool curriculum is the best fit for the children?”. The issues above are common to parents worldwide who wish to homeschool their children. While these may be the same for parents in Thailand, there might be cultural or societal expectations that can differentiate the homeschooling experiences. There are further questions that may be posed, guided by the legal allowances made by the government and published studies. Some of these questions may be, while the Thai government promotes homeschooling, does the government support parents who homeschool? Are homeschooling parents in Thailand educated enough to undertake this education approach? Do they have adequate resources? Do these families get the support they need from public or parochial schools? These questions drive this study on the experiences of homeschooling families in Thailand. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to explore the experiences of homeschooling families. The study sought to establish why parents homeschool, analyze educational resources available to homeschooling families, determine the effect of homeschooling

7 on children’s development as perceived by the parents, and identify the support system available to parents to ensure that parents succeed in homeschooling. Research Questions 1. What are the potential factors that may influence parents to homeschool? 2. How do parents go about homeschooling their children? 3. What are the challenges that parents experience in the homeschooling of their children? Definition of Terms Homeschool: A homeschool is a learning approach in which parents are committed to overseeing their children’s educational development. However, this does not mean that learning only takes place within the comfort of the home environment. For homeschoolers, learning involves being anywhere to observe, interact, and have hands-on experience with other homeschooling families and community members (Shaw, n.d.). Homeschool support group: A homeschool support group comprises homeschoolers who regularly interact either virtually or face to face with each other to share resources, networking, socialization, and co-teaching (Home Educator, n.d.). Eclectic teaching approach: Eclectic learning approach uses various teaching methods to teach a particular subject (Teaching English, n.d.). Instructional methods: Instructional methods are a variety of instructional strategies and activities used to facilitate learning. Examples are brainstorming, quizzes, reports, journals, group discussions, projects, and lectures. (IGI-global, n.d) Academic Achievement: Academic achievement means completing a certain level of education, for example, high school or earning a college degree. This is

8 usually completed within a semester. Academic achievement also refers to a student’s strong performance in a specific subject matter. When this happens, the student is awarded good grades(What Is the Definition of “Academic Achievement”? n.d). Significance of the Study While there is a plethora of literature on homeschooling in general, there is little study on this topic in Asia and Thailand. This has resulted in a lack of understanding of this system of education (Rudjanee, Ekkarin, & Theera, 2017). This study hopes to contribute to the literature on Asian context homeschooling in light of this realization. Parents and government authorities can know the why, the what, and the how of homeschooling, and government policymakers may be able to develop clear policies for homeschooling and provide better support to the homeschooling community. In some Asian countries (e.g., South Korea), homeschooling is illegal. With better guidelines and support systems, parents can execute their homeschooling with a clear understanding of this approach. In return, children will have better educational outcomes. Limitations and Delimitations This study explored homeschooling in the southern part of Thailand in Ayudhaya, Korat, and Saraburi provinces, to be specific. This study only focused on people living in the Southern part of Thailand. Participants came from different cultures and did not have the same understanding of homeschooling. Besides, participants who had homeschooled in the past ten years may not have remembered the details of their homeschooling experience. Only parents participated in the study. Children were excluded. This led to a lack of input from the children involved in homeschooling. Data collection was done through interviews and focus groups. Other

9 data-collecting methods, such as on-site observation, which would have provided different perspectives, were excluded. Organization of the Study Chapter 1 delivers a general introduction to the topic of homeschooling and its issues. In Chapter 2, the literature review will discuss existing literature and theories of child development and homeschooling, why parents decide to homeschool, and the problems of homeschooling. Chapter 3 will center on research design, participating families selected for this research, data collection, and analysis processes. Chapter 4 supplies the research findings and compares similarities and differences between the families studied. Chapter 5 will contain a discussion of the findings. The final chapter 6 is the conclusion and recommendation for additional research in the future.

10 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of this research is to explore the experiences of homeschooling families. The study sought to establish why parents homeschool, analyze educational resources and teaching strategies available to homeschooling families, determine the effect of homeschooling on children’s development, and identify the support system available to parents to ensure their success in homeschooling their children. This chapter reviews literature related to homeschooling, including definitions, theories, and existing studies on this topic. Homeschooling is a learning approach in which parents are committed to being responsible for their children’s education at home rather than in a public school (Basham, 2001). Ray (2017) defines homeschooling as a private home-based education that parents lead and control. Learning for homeschoolers involves being in any environment where they can observe, interact, and have hands-on experience with other homeschooling families and people in their community (McDonald, 2018; Murphy, 2014). Due to the homeschooling environment, homeschooling children excel in their academic and psychological development. The following section will portray the benefit of homeschooling. Determining Factors of Homeschooling There are many reasons why parents choose to homeschool. Different parents homeschool for different reasons. These reasons are divided into four areas:

11 Problems with the public school system; Religious reasons, Parents' context; and Support System. Figure 1. Reasons for Parents to Homeschool Problems with the Public-School System There are several issues affecting the public school system that are worth mentioning. The schooling system mandates that each grade level have children of the same age. This leads to children having problems interacting with other children not their age. The teacher-student ratio is often 1:25 or 1:30 in a classroom. The ratio of one teacher to a large number of students makes it difficult for the teacher to help the struggling students cope with their lesson (Lines, 2000). Aside from this, there is a focus on memorization in a traditional classroom setting but very little interaction. Students are taught to listen, memorize and repeat Homeschool Problems with the public-school system Religious reasons Support system Parents' context

12 information word for word onto exam papers. With this learning approach, students lack creativity and critical thinking skills (Sataban, 2020). In Thailand, homeschooling parents follow the homeschooling trend, one of the main reasons being that the educational system has large class sizes. Unfortunately, teachers lack the strategies for teaching large classes. Learning in public schools is also hampered by the teacher-centered approach to instruction preferred by Thai teachers (Kaewdang, 1998; Kritiyapichartkul, 2003; Pintavanich, 2000). Learning depends on teachers’ lectures with little student participation. The failure of this teaching strategy which focuses on memorizing facts. is the cause of many educational deficiencies in Thailand (Chansaengsee, Peungposop, & Junprasert, 2017). Besides, there is negative peer socialization in schools which have shown to lead to student depression (Prinstein, 2006; Schwartz, Sheerbear, Dudgeon, & Allen, 2012; Leary, 2001) and the use of drugs (Kendel & Davies, 1996; McCabe, Boyd, & Young, 2007). Religious Reasons for Homeschooling Some parents are motivated to homeschool because they believe the public school system is not meeting their beliefs and values. These parents prefer to educate their children at home to instill the religious and moral values they want their children to experience in adulthood. In a study conducted in 2007 in the USA, many parents believed that the public school system does a good job teaching their children character development but is not doing the job of instructing in religious matters. The importance of instilling religious beliefs in children for homeschooling parents is essential. In this study, scholars found that 75% of homeschooling parents come from a conservative Christian background. These parents stress Biblical values and doctrines for their children (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007).

13 In addition, parents focus on helping their children cut out negative behavior. Referring to a study conducted in 1986 at the University of IOWA, the researchers found negative impacts of television watching on academics. The study concluded that these adverse effects are reduced in homeschooling settings because less television is watched. This contributes to less mental distraction and ignites creativity in learning, which leads to excellent academic achievement (Burn, 1999). In another study by Bennet, Edward, and Ngai (2019), the scholars found that students with homeschooling backgrounds achieve similarly to those with conventional schooling experience. So far, no studies have found that homeschooling children have a low academic achievement (Ray B., 2017). Parents Contexts Parents’ contexts include (1) parents' self-efficacy, (2) level of education, and (3) experience in homeschooling; the home environment includes single-parent families or parents’ availability to homeschool. Parents’ Self-Efficacy Bandura (1989) defines self-efficacy as an individual’s innate belief in his or her abilities to execute and achieve specific goals. This theory suggests that parents’ behavioral choices are guided by the outcomes they expect to come from their actions (Bandura, 1989). Without self-efficacy, parents cannot engage in homeschooling. Parents with strong self-efficacy usually have better success in homeschooling because of their determination and aspiration to impart knowledge to their children. These parents learn and become better at homeschooling as they progress from one level to the next level of their children’s education (Green & Hooper-Dempsey, 2007; Tugsbaatar, 2019). Children excel in education because they are motivated by their

14 parents, who decide to teach them at home (Kandasamy, Hutagalung, Razak, & Isa, 2016). Hoover-Dempsey and Green (2007) stated that parents with a strong parentfocused role are more motivated to home-school their children. This is because they have strong beliefs about their role as parents, their efficacy in helping their children learn, and their beliefs about the personal resources available to help them educate their children. Parents’ Level of Education It is no doubt that parents play a significant role in homeschooling. The question is, does parents’ education affect why parents choose to homeschool? The National Household Education Surveys Program has demographic data from 1999 to 2016 on homeschool parents’ level of education (Table 1). It shows the decreasing and increasing percentages of homeschooling parents’ level of education. In 2016, there was an increase of 14% more parents with less than a high school education to homeschool and a decrease of 2% in parents who graduated from high school or equivalent. A reduction of 7% in 2016 is seen for parents with vocational/technical school or some college education. However, more parents with Bachelor’s degrees opted for homeschooling in 2016, with an increase of 5%. Fewer parents choose to homeschool than parents who have graduated or had professional education, 9%. The reasons behind the rise and fall rates were not provided (Homeschool Demographic, 2020). However, this study shows that parents do not homeschool because of their level of education.

15 Figure 2. Parents’ Level of Education Note: Adopted from The National Household Education Surveys Program Home Environment and Parents' Availability The home environment includes the family's makeup, whether a single-parent household, the number of children the parent has to homeschool, and the time given to homeschool. One consistent finding in the literature on academic achievement is that parental background plays a vital role in parents' choice to homeschool and contributes to the academic achievement of homeschooling children (Kunzman and Gaither, 2013). Burns (1999) specify that because of parents’ presence, homeschooled students watch less television or no television. Their parents are still married to each other, and on an average level, homeschooling parents are educated and probably with higher incomes. In homeschooling homes, parents discuss and choose the breadwinner and the one who stays at home to educate their child/ren. Although parents may choose to homeschool, the number of children in the home may curtail the desire to undertake homeschooling.

16 Families with more children may have problems when there is a significant age range between the children. However, it is still possible to homeschool, but the homeschooling parent will need much support. Apart from the reasons above, parents homeschool because they want to spend time with their children. Unfortunately, family time is shortened when children go to public schools due to the long hours they spend in school (Marzano & Pickering, 2007; Cooper, Salying, & Dent, 2019; Galloway, Conner, & Pope, 2013). Support Systems Homeschooling support is crucial. There are two types of support systems for homeschooling parents. The first is the pedagogical support system which includes the use of curriculum and instruction theories, curricula, teaching methods, and other resources that parents utilize to enhance their homeschooling practices and their children’s learning. The second is their support from the government, schools, and other parents. Educational Theories Many theories from different philosophers have influenced the homeschooling movement. These theories continue to influence homeschoolers and traditional educators alike. There are different teaching, learning, and development guides that parents use when they homeschool. Different instructional methods were born from these theories (McKeon, 2007). Constructivism (Vygotsky). Vygotsky's theory on a child’s cognitive development is a form of social constructivism. Cognitive development is the development of a child's knowledge, skills, problem-solving, and dispositions. For decades Vygotsky’s theory on cognitive development has been used in

17 homeschooling. Vygotsky stresses the importance of social interaction in cognitive development, which parents provide as they work with each child individually (McLeod, 2014). Multiple Intelligences (Gardner). Howard Gardner founded the theory of multiple intelligences, arguing that intelligence is not a single unitary property. He identifies seven types of intelligence: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Each person has a different mix of these intelligences. Learning is best experienced if tailored according to the individual’s strengths (Campbell, Campbell, & Dickinson, 1996). This method approaches learning using a person’s strengths. Children who are more inclined to hands-on should be given projects to show their understanding of any particular lessons. Another example is that if a child is a reader, this child learns best by reading and writing what she knows in essay form. This method meets the needs of children by tailoring the activities that best meet their learning styles and need (Cherry, 2019). Many homeschooling parents choose Gardner’s learning method based on their children’s learning strengths. Pedagogical Approaches Homeschooling parents often select three main methods: Waldorf homeschooling method, Montessori’s Method, and Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligence.

18 Figure 3. Teaching Theories and Methods Waldorf Homeschooling Method The Waldorf approach was founded by an Austrian scientist and philosopher, Rudolf Steiner. His approach covers a holistic education for body, mind, and spirit and focuses on arts and crafts, music, and movement, particularly at younger ages. In addition, this learning theory concentrates on developing the individual’s self-awareness and judgment (Uhrmacher, 2014). Homeschooling parents practice this method of imitating the teacher or parent during instruction in their natural learning environment. Parents can teach by demonstrating a task and allowing children to copy what they do. When children see their parents' work, this encourages them to concentrate and do what they have observed. While practicing this method, parents must be very conscious of their regular activities because they must ensure their ways of doing things are worthy of imitation (Dawson & Nicol, 2008). Teaching Theories and methods Computer based and textbook based Waldorf homeschooling methods Montessori Method Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Method

19 Montessori Method Dr. Maria Montessori developed the Montessori method of education. The theory emphasizes a child-centered approach based on scientific observations of children from birth to adulthood. In addition, This method focuses on the human spirit and the development of the whole child—physical, social, emotional, and cognitive. Maria Montessori’s theory and method focus on the idea of the prepared environment of learning. This approach provides the learning environment with tools to help develop children’s potential. The materials are carefully chosen and designed to aid children in functioning well in their community and becoming independent and competent. Beauty and quality are taken into serious consideration, and the organization of the environment does not encourage clutter. Children play with manipulatives made of wood rather than plastic tools and are simple but functional. Montessori discourages the use of computers and television (Cossentino, 2005). Parents choose this learning method because it is an easy setup. Parents provide manipulatives in different categorized stations for their children to explore learning. For example, parents set up one station to provide different art materials for their children. In another station, parents provide different manipulatives to practice sorting according to colors or sizes.

20 Other Learning Methods Many homeschooling parents implement different methods of learning. Some parents use the computer-based mode. This method of instruction is through the use of an online virtual classroom or software. This method relies on what is offered in the videos, learning exercises, and assignments (Walters, 2015). Parents opting for this method usually are working parents (Taylor-Hough, 2010). The utilization of technology in a homeschool setting is not new, especially in this generation and age (Aburas & Sheeraf, 2010). However, although it is one of the popular options for homeschooling, many parents still prefer the traditional booklearning method (Alias, Rahman, Siraj & Ibrahim, 2013). The conventional way of learning from books is also known as textbook-based methods. This method is similar to processes found in the public school system. Several homeschooling materials have emerged from the 70s. These resources are bought from international sources. A few significant ones are A Beka, Sonlight Christian Homeschool, and Bob Jones Complete, created by Christian. Textbookbased teaching methods usually provide lesson plans for each subject to guide parents and their children and various reading materials to support the core subject. Children who begin with this learning experience become avid readers and independent learners (Shepherd, 2010, Griffith, 1999, Jorgensen, 2011). Many homeschooling parents move towards a less-structured approach after failing to copy the formal schooling at home (Ray, 2009, Duffy, 2005) and prefer to use mixed methods. The eclectic approach to learning helps them cope with the additional responsibilities of homeschooling and helps mothers avoid exhaustion and stress. This learning model recognizes that all family interactions become a learning tool, whether formal or informal. Parents derive learning ideas from various other methods while practicing mixed methods (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2005, Thomas, 1994).

21 Figure 4. Homeschooling Support for Parents Government Support for Homeschooling In Thailand, where homeschooling is still in its infancy and is small in population, parents have a limited support system (Engchun, Sungtong, & Haruthaithanasan, 2017). However, some websites were designed to offer resources, support, and help to fellow homeschooling families. The group that started these websites is a collaborative effort of parents homeschooling their children from different backgrounds (Home School Legal Defense Association, 2016). This is not because the government is against this movement but simply because the Thai government is focusing on solving the negative issues in the public school system (Sataban, 2020). Support from Schools and Churches Other types of support homeschooling parents have for extra-curricular activities are music classes, sports activities, and swimming lessons offered by schools or other organizations such as tutorial centers. There are also church programs Homeschooling supports Government support supports from schools and churches Parents support each other

22 geared towards involving young people in the different clubs’ activities, such as pathfinders and adventurers. These activities give opportunities for homeschooling children to interact with other children outside their homeschooling circle. Parents Support Each Other As stated by Mulyadi (2010), there are three models of homeschooling. The first is single homeschooling; in this model, families homeschool independently. The second is where a few families participate in selected activities. The central part of learning is still the responsibility of each family. However, in cases where families have similar needs, they get together to learn and support each other. The third one is the homeschooling community, where homeschoolers get together to compose their teaching syllabus, materials, activities, facilities and infrastructure, and schedule. These models can be practiced depending on the goal, curricula, tools, and support available based on the need of each homeschooling family. The support system that homeschoolers usually get comes from homeschooling groups comprising homeschooling parents. They offer time to answer questions and share resources with each other. In a study conducted in 2007 by Green and Hoover-Dempsey, the findings show that homeschooling parents often communicate with each other about their child’s learning to provide for their child’s academic and social education. This study also mentions partnership-focused parents who work together by giving each other moral support and resources. By educating their children, they keep each other accountable and motivated. Homeschooling and Children’s Development Parents want to participate in their children’s education to retain and influence better educational outcomes while getting involved in their children’s daily lives

23 (Martin, 1997). This includes ensuring that the children achieve academically, socially, and emotionally and become moral agents. Basham (2001) indicates that homeeducated children develop as well as those who attend the traditional school system regarding their emotional, social, and psychological development (Basham, 2001). Psychological development is developing an individual’s cognitive, emotional, intellectual, and social capabilities throughout a life span from birth to old age (Cherry, 2019). Long-term studies suggest that the psychological effects of homeschooling on children are overall positive (Matthew, 2019). Devitt (2018), a homeschool graduate, lists the positive psychological impact of her homeschooling experience, which included: boosting her self-confidence as she avoided an environment where she felt unloved, getting better attention during work time as she did not suffer from being compared with other people in her school performance; gratitude towards her parents for pulling her out of school; serenity and hope, joy and love. She described her homeschooling experiences as being “out of a dark, dreary box into a sunny, warm field of flowers” (Devitt, 2018). Homeschooling and Academic Achievement Academic achievement is an accomplishment of knowledge exhibited through high assessment grades (Cachia, 2018). Homeschooled children do better than those who attend public school. This indicates that homeschoolers generally score 15 to 30 percentile points on standardized academic achievement tests above those attending public schools. In a study conducted in 2015, Black homeschoolers scored 23 to 42 percentile points above black students who attended public school. Homeschoolers scored above average on achievement tests regardless of their parents’ level of education or income (Ray, 2015). For more than 30 years, researchers have examined the academic achievement of the home-educated population (Ray, 2017). Another

24 benefit of homeschooling is that homeschoolers are knowledgeable. Studies show that colleges and universities seek out homeschoolers because of their capacity to contribute their school knowledge. An education expert, Dr. Susan Berry, shared that recruiters recognize the high achievement level of homeschoolers and recruit them for some of the best colleges in America, such as Harvard, Stanford, Institute of Technology, and Duke University (AOP Homeschool View blog, 2013). Another research conducted by Ray in the United States of America (2004) found similar results about adults who had been home educated. He studied more than 7,306 adults and 5,254 adults who were home-educated for seven or more years during grades 7-12. Ray discovered that a high percentage of the adults had taken more college courses than the general U.S. population of the same age group. A high percentage of them already had a baccalaureate degree. Ninety-eight percent of homeeducated adults had read more books within six months than 69% of the public schooled adult population (Ray, 2004). The high achievement level of homeschoolers depends on the positive learning environment available for the children. Homeschooled children have less pressure to meet a common standard set by the government. They are free to flourish without barriers to meet a certain standard of achievement in education (Weller, 2015).

25 Figure 5. Homeschooling Studies Note: Adopted from Ray B. D., Homeschooling: The Research, 2020. Homeschooling and its Effect on the Social Development Social development is usually affected by a child’s social interactions and behaviors adapted and learned from parents and others in the family circle. Social Development refers to the development of social skills mainly directed to children from toddlerhood to teens. Youths with healthy social development form positive relationships with people they associate with daily (Isaacs, 1933). Compared to many facets of homeschooling research, the socialization issue has received significant attention from many researchers (Ray, 2017). One of the most frequently asked questions to any homeschooling family is, “What about

26 socialization?” The main concern is not if homeschooling children will learn while at home but if they will be competent in socializing (Kunzman & Gaither, 2013). Many argue that homeschoolers have no diversity in extracurricular activities and lack the skills to perform and fit well in a pluralistic society (Shepherd, 2010). Although a few studies indicate that homeschooled children lack social development, Rahma, Lestari, and Nugroho (2018) suggest that children develop social skills even when homeschooled. Their study concludes that communication, play, and empathy skills are pretty developed among homeschoolers exposed to different situations and can identify with people and flourish in different environments and settings (Rahma, Lestari, & Nugroho, 2018). Therefore, regardless of the widespread belief that homeschooling children have socialization issues, in many cases, homeschoolers are raised in an environment where they are free to communicate with society of varying ages beyond the walls of their homes (Burke, 2019; Lines, 2000). The issue of homeschoolers lacking socialization is not as severe as one might think after looking at all the research indicating otherwise (Lines P. M., 2001). The determining factors for homeschooling vary from family to family (Wearne, 2016). One factor that is not often mentioned in most studies is that parents want to form bonds with their children. Homeschooling has been a means to strengthen family bonds, particularly bonds between mothers and children (Kunzman & Gaither, 2013). Strong family ties promote good moral values and help combat negative moral influences and actions such as smoking, sexual harassment, alcohol drinking, and drugs (Day & Aaker, 1970). Studies have highlighted the benefits of homeschooling. Knowles and Olivares (1991) and Knowles and Muchmore (1995 ) found that adults who had gone through home-schooling are inclined to be involved in entrepreneurial and

27 professional occupations, independent, and prioritize family time. These groups shared happy memories of being homeschooled, recommended home education to others, and did not have negative perceptions of living in a pluralistic society (Knowles & Olivares, 1991, Knowles & Muchmore, 1995). Another study showed that homeschooled adults read 100% more magazines regularly than 89% of public-schooled adults. Seventy-one percent of the homeschooled adults participated in ongoing community service, and more than thirty-seven percent were public schooled adults. Home-educated adults were more engaged in civil and political life than public-schooled people. This information indicates that home-educated adults are more informed, more active in the community, and more aware of current politics than those educated in the publicschool system. Furthermore, ongoing research shows that children with involved parents earn higher grades and have good social skills and behavior (Garcia & Thornton, 2014). Homeschooling and its Effect on the Emotional Development Emotional development refers to feelings for and about other people, objects, situations, and experiences. Adults can use words to express their feelings and explain their feelings. However, young children cannot do this. They do not have adequate words to describe their feelings. They may express it by hitting, crying, kicking, and screaming when angry or yelling when happy. Young children need help and guidance to control their negative emotions. They need to be taught to handle negative emotions positively by encouraging them to be calm and try to describe their feelings with words. Positive emotional development encourages children to deal with their behavior (Thompson, 2001).

28 Parents have an essential role in the emotional development of their children. Homeschoolers naturally spend more time with their parents, which allows them to have one-on-one interaction with the one who can provide care, attention, empathy, and support. Enough attention from their parents will develop a healthy emotional development that they carry through life (Rahma, Lestari, & Nugroho, 2018). Homeschooled children are more likely to handle their emotions from the early stage of life when they are older than children who attend public school (Blok, 2004). They are good at handling their emotions and are considerate of the feelings of others (Saarni, 2011). Children are not afraid when with their parents; they have freedom of expression. In a study on the psychological effect of homeschooling, homeschoolers are free to express their creativity to find solutions to their problems. The impact of psychological freedom gives homeschoolers secure feelings and allows them to be creative in problem-solving. Homeschooling and its Effect on the Moral Development Parents also desire to get involved in their children’s education for moral development. Negative influence from movies and games gives rise to young people having low moral and spiritual values. This leads to parents’ desire for children’s moral and spiritual development (Burtt, 1994). Most school systems do not meet the spiritual needs of students of different religious values. Furthermore, lesson plans are prepared to meet specific curriculum standards and are not based on the spiritual need of the students (Evans, 2008). Parents homeschool their children to give them the foundation to keep their faith in God into adulthood (Universal Life Blog, 2015).

29 Homeschooling Problems Homeschooling has its problem, as homeschoolers are on their own in most cases. Whatever method parents choose to follow for their children’s education is up to them to decide. In most Asian countries, homeschoolers get very little government support or none at all (Bosetti & Pelt, 2017). Even with the lack of support, most parents are happy that governments allow them to educate their children in the comfort of their homes (Lines, 2000). It is challenging to ensure that homeschooled children receive adequate instruction and knowledge and are well-engaged in their learning. The qualifications of parents taking on the role of the teacher at home is an issue often debated when discussing homeschooling. However, many parents who homeschool often hold degrees from fields other than education. This gap in pedagogical knowledge may be why some parents have confessed their lack of confidence in their teaching method and cite negligence in administering learning content to their children (Lines, 2000). This feeling of inadequacy is also rampant among parents who do not possess a degree. These parents with low education backgrounds face challenges in this new field of homeschooling (Zhao & Badzis, 2014). Another challenge not often mentioned is parents expressing their loneliness as they embark on the homeschooling journey. Extended family members do not always support and understand the idea of homeschooling (Zhao & Badzis, 2014). Other problems stem from children’s psychological development. Children who grow up into teenagers defer their decisions to their peers. Erik Erikson(1994) talks about a child's development stages. Erikson stated that as a child grows to be in his or her teen, they go through an identity crisis. An identity crisis is when adolescents fail to achieve their ego and are confused about their identity. Parents who

30 homeschool have a more challenging time handling their children in their teens during the identity crisis stage. During this stage, teens may prefer to be in school with their friends and have other teachers teaching them instead of their parents (Erikson, 1994).

31 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The purpose of this study is to explore the experiences of homeschooling families. In particular, the study sought to establish parents’ reasons for homeschooling; identify educational resources and strategies available to and used by homeschooling families; determine the support systems available to parents; and, more importantly, explore possible challenges that affect the homeschooling experience. This research will contribute to the current understanding of homeschooling, especially in Asia, where homeschooling is only becoming an alternative that parents choose. The parents' experiences will also provide an emic perspective with which others may resonate. This study will address the following broad questions: Research Questions 1. What are the potential factors that may influence parents to homeschool? 2. How do parents go about homeschooling their children? 3. What are the challenges that parents experience in the homeschooling of their children? Research Methods and Design This qualitative research used a phenomenological design. Qualitative research is non-numerical data; it is the opposite of quantitative research and stems from the philosophy that each person constructs their meaning to life and that individuals perceive various realities. This type of research helps researchers

32 understand the reasons behind the participants' issues. Data is collected through verbal communication. Qualitative research focuses on understanding the participants' perspectives, values, and reasoning over an issue (Wester & Peters, 2000). Phenomenological research is an approach that focuses on and examines the experience of a particular group. In this study, the main goal of this approach is to allow the reader to describe the homeschooling phenomena (Padilla-Diaz, 2015). This research used qualitative data collection methods, including interviews, a focus group, and an open-ended questionnaire. This research method was chosen because interviewing the participants would enable me to collect parents' experiences and perspectives that would not be collected in quantitative research. I would be able to get in-depth information from the interviews. A qualitative paradigm was selected as the study's methodology to explore the experiences of parents who homeschool their children. These experiences could only be understood by talking to the participants and allowing them to discuss their reality. Homeschooling is an on-going phenomenon. This learning concept has attracted many parents to homeschool because of the benefits they can reap from this learning approach. Sampling Method and Participants Data was collected using a purposeful sampling method. Purposeful sampling is a method where the researcher depends on the experiences and understanding of selected participants on a particular phenomenon based on the study's objective (Crossman, 2020; Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012). This study's participants were parents who have experienced teaching their children at home. The data was collected from ten families located in different parts of Thailand. These families had different demographic characteristics. Criteria for participant selection were current or former

33 homeschooling parents. While some participants were known, others were invited to participate after being referred to as potential participants. This data collection approach was called snowballing (Patton, 1999). Data Collection and Procedure The author of this study was the primary researcher who collected and analyzed data. Two methods were used to collect data for this study: an interview and a focus group. An interview in qualitative research is a conversation with a purpose. In an interview, questions are asked to glean specific information (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2012). The interview aims to determine participants’ views, experiences, beliefs, and motivations on specific matters. This method can provide a deeper understanding of social phenomena than obtained from purely quantitative methods. Therefore, interviews are most appropriate where little is known about the phenomenon or detailed knowledge is required from individual participants (Ramsey et al., 20150). Given that this is an exploratory study, an interview protocol with open-ended questions was used during the interviews. The protocol served as a prompt for the researcher and the participants to establish rapport in order for the participants to feel safe to be able to share their experiences. As the interview progressed, other questions were posed to encourage new points that the participants may have raised, as the participants' experiences will differ. Research Protocol (Questions) Since this is phenomenological qualitative research, the interview protocol follows. The interview was conducted with the families. A focus group interview was conducted based on the findings from the interview. This focus group allowed for

34 member-checking so that participants could clarify or expand what had been said in the initial interview. Prior to the interview, I collected demographic data, which included: parents’ level of education; type of household; the number of children homeschooled, ethnicity; parents’ age; and children’s age. Table 1. Research Questions and Interview Protocols Research Questions Interview Questions and Prompts Data collection method 1. What are the potential factors that may influence parents to homeschool? 2. How do parents go about homeschooling their children? 3. What challenges do parents experience in homeschooling their children? Why did you decide to homeschool? Tell me about your experience with homeschooling. How long have you been homeschooling? What factors weighed most heavily in making this decision? Who influenced you to do homeschooling? What was your understanding of homeschooling before you started homeschooling? What have you done to seek support? Do you have any relationship with the school in your area? Do your children participate in any activities by Adventists or local schools? What type of support do you have for homeschooling? Interview Zoom Interview Focus Group Table 1. (continued)

35 Research Questions Interview Questions and Prompts Data collection method What help do you get from the government? Choosing a curriculum How do you determine which curriculum to use? Tell me your experience using the curriculum of your choice. What was important to consider when you chose the curriculum? What educational outcomes did you want for your children? What is your experience in choosing a curriculum? What was your approach in choosing the curriculum? Do you have any teaching background? Type of Curriculum What resources do you use for homeschooling? What grades are your children? Do you use any online teaching materials or media? How many hours in a day do you homeschool? Academic Achievement What challenges do you face as a teacher of your child/children? What academic challenges do your children face because of homeschooling? Table 1. (continued)

36 Research Questions Interview Questions and Prompts Data collection method How do you motivate your children to learn? What academic activities do you do with your children? Social development How do your children feel about homeschooling? What are your children’s reactions to your instructions? What disciplining strategies do you implement to make your children cooperate and learn? How do you keep your children focused on academics? To what extent do you and your children engage in community activities What activities do you enjoy doing with your children? How many hours do your children spend indoor and outdoor? The interviews were conducted for a few weeks. Four families (couples) were interviewed together, but only one parent was interviewed for the other six families. Due to the other spouse's unavailability, I could not conduct a separate interview for the spouses absent in the first interviews. The length of interviews varied depending on the parents’ availability. The interview was designed to last approximately 30 minutes to one hour. Each interview was conducted without distractions. All the

37 interview sessions were recorded, and transcribed verbatim later. This provided a permanent interview record (Gill, Steward, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008). All the recorded information and transcription are stored on a hard drive. In the unlikely case of a hard drive failure, all the information was also backed-up in an online cloud. A focus group is a group discussion on a particular topic organized for research purposes. The researcher facilitates this discussion to generate information on collective views and the meanings behind the shared views. This method helps understand participants’ experiences and beliefs (Kitzinger, 1995). For this study, only one focus group was conducted. The attendees were three mothers and one father. The focus group session was done online via Zoom because parents lived in different geographical locations of the parents and the restriction to travel due to Covid-19. The questions for the focus group came from the analyzed data collected from the interview. The purpose of the focus group was to verify that the findings were consistent with the collected data and to collect more data in case there were other emergent themes from the focus group. As Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2012) indicated, to ensure that participants were comfortable, I facilitated the focus group in a way that encouraged participation and interaction from everyone. Each participant was given time to share, and no one was exempted. Data Analysis and Interpretation In qualitative research, data comprise text material. The raw materials go through an organizing process to be suited for analysis. During this study, I followed Cresswell’s suggestions for analysis (Creswell, 2015). Data analysis began when I began interviewing participants and continued throughout the time I was collecting data. I continued to analyze after data collection as I compared messages from parents and categorized themes.

38 During the analysis, I kept notes of what I was hearing and made memos of what was not in my protocol. Later, while listening and transcribing the interviews, I highlighted the leading words and phrases to make them easier to put into categories. This process is called coding. During coding, researchers take time to repeat reading, listening, or watching for themes and categorize them. During this process, I labeled the data into different themes and looked for relationships between the themes, as discussed by Medelyan (2019). In addition, I constantly referred back to my questions as a guide to help me stay focused on the analysis. During this phase, the collected materials were then organized into themes. The thematic analysis draws out themes from the text after analyzing words and sentence structures (Creswell, 2015). These categories were finally organized into my research findings. Trustworthiness There are questions on how consistent (reliability) and accurate (validity) the measurements are in doing research. There are four types of assessments in qualitative research that show rigor and how trustworthy the research processes and the findings are. Trustworthiness is a “Demonstration that the evidence for the results reported is sound and when the argument made based on the results is strong.” (Krefting, pg. 215, 1991). To achieve trustworthiness in a qualitative study, researchers recommend four benchmarks to ensure validity in data interpretation: credibility, dependability, generalizability, and confirmability. Credibility Credibility is an essential aspect of trustworthiness in qualitative research. Credibility refers to the level of accuracy and believability of a research study based

39 on what was agreed between the researcher and participants (Mills, Durepos, & Wiebe, 2010). Credibility depends more on the richness of the information gathered than the amount of data gathered, in other words, ‘quality over quantity (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). There are many ways of assessing the accuracy of the findings, such as data triangulation of data collection methods. Triangulation is “the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena” (Patton, pg. 1195, 1999). Dependability Dependability is essential to trustworthiness because it confirms the study’s findings as orderly and can be quoted by other researchers. The aim is to authenticate that the process for collecting data can be tracked over time. This is very important to ensure that nothing was missed in the study or that there was no carelessness or error in the final report. One of the best ways to establish dependability is to keep an audit trail or journal and memos of the data collecting and analysis processes. This ensures the accuracy of the findings and confirms that the collected data supports the results (Guest, MacQueen,&Namey, 2012). Another way to establish dependability is to allow the participants to read the interview transcripts and the analysis to verify that the findings are correct. The process of dependability was implemented in my study as I jotted down memos during the data collection and allowed participants during the focus group to verify the findings. Confirmability Confirmability helps to show that the findings are according to participants’ own words and do not include researcher biases. This criterion verifies that the findings are shaped by participants more than the researcher (Drisko, 1996). There are

40 two techniques that the researcher can use to establish the confirmability of the research findings. Audit trails are one way to keep the details of data collection, data analysis, and interpretation of the data. (Cutcliffe & McKenna, 2004). The confirmability of trustworthiness is probably the easiest to establish because it is just a matter of explaining the decisions made during the research process. The details helped give readers valuable insight into the themes and the date they emerged (Amankwaa, 2016). The participants' words in this study were not altered to preserve the authenticity of the research findings. Ethical Consideration The first step of ethical consideration in qualitative research is to get permission from the institutional review board to conduct interviews. Once the application is approved, the researcher can gather data by conducting interviews (Amdur & Biddle, 1997). However, the researcher must get the participant’s consent before conducting an interview. The participants were adequately informed about the nature of the study and were free to either participate or decline. They were given ample time to consider if they wanted to be a part of the study and declined to participate while the research was in progress. The anonymity and confidentiality of the participants were preserved by not revealing any identification details in the qualitative data. Pseudonyms were given to each participant. Names of places were also anonymized. Reflexivity To avoid bias and not impose my subjectivity of homeschooling on the findings, I would like to reflect on my experience.