kupdf.net_avex-air-training-ppl-human-performance-amp-limitations


 

and


 AVEX AIR TRAINING



PRIVATE PLOT LICENCE 

HUMAN
PERFORMANCE

and

LIMTATIONS

 Avex Air (Pty) Limted, 2004
(Reg N 67/91

Crer per Aveue d Zuric Rd
Aepr, Spr Ext 
Kempt Prk
SUTH AFRCA

S6° 719
E8 119

Prvte Bg X1 
EDEEN, 165
Repubic  Sut Ac
Te (1 1  97855
F (11 976517
EMal avex@irccm
www.vexcm

Prduct Cde: AATMEDPP

Frst pubised i Sut Aca b Avex Ai Taig 
Revsed Mc 8
Revsed August 8
Revised Decembe 1
Revised September 1 1

All gts eseed.  terms  te Cprigt Act, N 93  1 978,  pr  tese tes m be
reprduced r trasmted   r b  es, electic r mecaic cludig
ptcpig, ecdg r b  irmt stge d retevl sstem, wtut te pemss
i writig  te publser

An Avex Air Training Publication

Private Pilt Licece © AvexAir Traiig 10/2004
Revisio 12/2010

PRIVATE PILOT LIENE

HUMAN PERFORMANCE 

ONTENTS

HAPTER PAGES SUET

i) - iv) INDEX

Gl Gl  G GOSSARY 

   1  THE AVIATION ENVIRONMET

1Q1 QESTIONS

 1  7  THE HUMAN MACHINE

Q1  Q QESTIONS

3 31  37  THE UNGS

3Q1  3Q QESTIONS

 1  8  THE EARS

Q1  Q3 QESTIONS

5 5  55  THE EYES

5Q1  5Q QESTIONS

6 61  63 PRESSURE

6Q1  6Q QESTIONS

7 71  7 ACCEERATION AND VIBRATION

7Q1 QESTIONS

8 81  813 FYNG AND HEATH

8Q1 QESTIONS

9 91  98 HUMAN INFORMATON PROCESSING

9Q1  9Q QESTIONS

1 11  16 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

1 Q1  1 Q QESTIONS

 ll ANSWERS

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 10/2004
Revisio 12/2010

NDX

Page (i)

NDEX

AAccuctemfmatigduaetn581
Acute nsmnia 85
AAcduatpetasttrenss8931
AAAlllvcimeehni tarcanal38811
AAmmpneuslaia95
AAnnaaeemmicahpxia375
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AAnnttiihdisatrarhmineeass 88 9
8
Antispasmdics  89
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AArpnuseaa88 
AArspeirriiens8 
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8
AAsstthgmmaatis m   357
Athersclerss  5
Atmsphere 1 1
Atitudes  1 1
Audtr neve  
Autiness  55
Bartrauma  1
Behaviur 1 3
Bincuar vsn          5 3
Bilgical cntr sstem  9 
Blnd spt 5 
Bld gucse    
Bd pressure  3
Bd rhthms         8
Ble's aw  1
Brain 91
Bran stem  91
Brnchia tree   31
BCranfecinheitis                 3878
Capares  
Carbn dixide           3  1
Carbn mnxde 3 5
Cardivascuar sstem    1
Cataracts           5 
Central nervus sstem  1
Central vsin 5 
Cerebrum 9  1
Cerebelum        9 1
Cerebra cex  91
Chera 81
Chrnc fatgue 8 
Chrnc nsmna  85
Chrnc stress        81
Cia muscles   51
Crcadan dsrhhmia          8  7
Crcadan rhthms  8 
Cnca insmnia  85
Csed lp sstem   97
Cchlea  

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air raiig 10/2004
Revisio 12/2010



NDX

Pa (iii)

KKiiddyysstos 65
Kowld basd bhavior1 
LLasdiillsios55  5
1
Liar acclratio 5
Lo ot rcmabmimprorsysr39 7
Loss
Low blood prssr 
Ls 31
Macla 5
Malaria 81
Mmory 9 3
Middl ar 1
Mirai 8  1 1
Mid st97
Mooclar visio 53
Motio sickss 8
Motivatio 1 3
Motor proramm 98
Motor skrilvl msmory993
Motor
Myopia 5
Narcolpsy 85
Nasa89
Nrvos isomia 85
NNirhvtovsisisoystm531
OOpcloloroapvicsyilsltsimo986
OOpthicodoxrvslp58 
5
Ossicls  1
Otolith oras 5
OPOazitokrillarsr81 911
Paradoxical slp  8
Paraasal siss 6
Parial prssr  33
Priphral visrivoossystm51
Priphral
Prsoaliy 1 1
Prsoality charactristics 1 1
Pilots, drs ad slmdicatio 87
PPPlllaatsmrlisayts3711
Prsbyopia5
Prssr vio1 9
Prssr
Pls rat 
Ppil  5 1
Radial kratotomy  5 
Radiatio1 
Rd blood clls   1
Rlxs 9
REM slp 8
Rspiratio3 
Rtia 5 
Rods5 
Rl basd bhavior 1 
Saccl 5
Slctiv attio 95
Smatic mmory 9
Smi-circlar caals 
Ssitivity 9
SSSihtoarstotitoryramtlhramwshamoroldryss199353

Private Pilot Licece © AvexAir Traiig 10/2004
Revisio 12/2010

NDX

Pa (iv

Siainal insmnia. 8.5
Skil-basd bavi 1 3
Slp 8.
Slp manamnt 8.6
Slp pans . 85
Slpin pbms  8.5
Sla Radiatin 1 .
Smnambism. 86
Snd  .3
Spaia disinianiantn. ..6
Spaia 6
Spina cd  .9.
Stas  slp  8
Stas  sytpsxsia 8 
Stanan 3. 5
Ssss 81
SSyk .6
5
Sddn incapacitan  8.11
Sviva  8.1
TSyslcpss631
Th ans  .6
Tim  s cnscsnss  35
TTTaxbciaccmcaatals8831.81
Typd. 81
tic  ..5
Vins  
Vntiatin  3 1
Vti. .  . . . . .  .  . . .  . . . .   . . .   . . . .   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . .   . . . .  . . . . .  . .  . .  . . . .   . . . .   .  . .   . . .  . .      . .   .   .  . .   .                         9
Vstibla appaas  ..
Vsbla sysm . 
VVissabl alcy . 5
5
W Bd clls  . 1
Wkin mmy. 93
Yw v . 81
Zitbs 86

Private Pilot icece © AvexAir Traiig 02004
Revisio 2200

GLOSSARY

Pae G1

GLOSSARY

ALVEOLI

emna, mnute a sacs n the uns throuh whch oxyen passes nto the bood.

ARTERY 

A tube of musce and connecte tssue fbes whch dstrbutes blood from the hea to the
caplaes.

ANTIHISTAMINES

A oup of drus used to teat allerc condtons, such as hayfeer, a sde efect of whch s
dowsness.

BAROTRAUMA

Damae/pan caused by the expanson or contacton of a as tapped wthn the body, own to
pessue chanes

CAPILLARY 

A mnute essel nework connectn an atey and a en

CARDIOVASCULAR

oncernn the hea and bood esses.

CELL

A mcroscopc mass of potoplasm (oranc compound ncudn a nucleus, of whch tssues are
made

COCHLEA

The spa cana of the nner ea (Hearn oran.

CYANOSIS

A blush appearance of the skn and mucous membanes caused by defcent oxyenaton of the
bood.

EXPIRAON

Breathn out

HAEMOGLOBIN

The cooun mater of the red bood copusces It conssts of proten and ron and has a stron
anty fo oxyen

HYPERTENSION

Rased blood pressure.

HYPOTENSION

Low bood pessure.

INSPIRAON

Beathn n.

LEFT ATRIUM

The lef upper chambe of the hear

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

O

Pae G

LEFT VENTRICLE 

The lef lowe chambe of the heat.

LUMEN

The space iside a tube o oa.

MUCUS

A sticky secetio fom mucus membaes

OSSICLE 

A small boe such as those i the middle ea kow as the malleus, icus ad stapes

OTOLITH

A had stuctue at the base of the semicicula caals cotaii delicate sacs kow as the
uticle ad the saccule

PATHOLOY 

Disease, ad the chae i stuctue ad fuctio it causes

PHYSIOLOY 

he fuctios of livi bodies o oas

RESPIRATION

he aseous itechae betwee the blood ad the tissues

ISSUE 

A mass of cells a coective tissue fomi oe of the oas of which the body is composed

TRACHEA

The wid pipe; a tube exedi fom the layx (voice oa) ad sepaati ito two baches
kow as bochi befoe etei the lus.

VASCULAR

Relati to, o cosisti of vessels

VEIN

A vessel cayi blood fom the capillaies back to the hea

VENTILTION

The aseous itechae bewee the lus ad the atmosphee

VERTIO

A feeli of otatio associated with the vestibula fuctio of the ea

VESTIBULR

he fuctio of the semicicula caals coceed with balace ad equilibium

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

HAPTER 1 THE AVIATION ENVIRONMENT 

Page 11

THE AVIATION ENVRONMENT 

A. INTRODUTION
Dig  e peiod of ma evolo, biologcal developme eabled e ma beig o adap o a
variety of eviomeal varables sc as emperare midty ad lad based alde were e ar
s relaively dese ad ere is sfcie oxyge o ssa lfe W e adve of avaio, ad  pa
 icla g alide ad ig speed flg, e ma body ow as o adap faly qickly o a apidly
cagig evirome ad oe were deceased ar desty meas less oxyge ad lower empera
 es. I is  eec a ale evirome Fom e pilos po of view, e, i becomes mpoa o
dersad e limaos of e ma body ad e meods ad pocedres sed o peve dam
age o wa is a farly delicae macie

 THE ATMOSPH ERE
Te amospee as a sbjec s coveed i geaer deail i Meeoology. oweve a bef smmary s
pee ee as a pelde o is efect o e ma body.
1  STRUCTURE OF TE ATMOSPERE
Te amospere comprises ree mai secos, i ascedig oder ese ae e Tropospere
 e Sraospere ad e Ioospere. Of ese, e ropospee is e more impoa sce  s
wi s area, wic exeds from sea level o appoxmaely 6  f a weaer occs ad
mas lve ad ow fly.
 COMPOSITION
Te amospere is made p of may gases, e two mos predomia beg Oxyge
approxmaely 1 % ad Noge appoximaely 7%. From e ma perspecive  is oxyge
wic is e esseial eleme, sce i s lfe ssaiig Oxyge s absobed og e lgs
ad disbed by e blood o e varos orgas of e body wee i is sed o br glcose
ad elease eegy
3. TEMPERATURE
Oe of e caacersics of e amospere s e decrease  emperare w alde, wc
averages abo C per 1   Variaos  s lapse ae ae paly resposibe fo e ceao
of weaer A very ig aldes e a is vey cold, arod 5°C Tis varaio i emperare,
from warm o extemely cold s of sgficace o e pilo wo, beig ma, reqires a iteal
 empeare of arod 36C o 9F o be able o opeae omally.
 UMIDI
Waer vapo is prese i varable amos rogo e amospee I s variable as a resl
of emperare: wam ar ca old more wae vapor a cold ar. A ig alides e cold dy
ar s compessed as a fcio of e je egie o provde ai for mas o breae Despie
some wamg i e pocess, e ai emais faily dy As pat of e beaig process waer
vapo is expelled fom e body, wic, i e dy ar of e acra may resl  a local dyig
of mcos membaes ad pese sympoms of deydrao A ormally ydraed peso saig
a flig wll oly eqie a slgly creased fld ae  sold be oed a alcoolc
beverages ae o e deal flids sice alcool as a dieic efec, ie  ecorages e deys
 o lose excessive waer
5 OONE
Ozoe , a cemically alered form of oxyge ), is ceaed we oxyge is sbjeced o
elecical dscarges sc as ligig I is vey poisoos ad eve if very low coceraios
ae aled  ca damage e vey delcae lgs of e lgs ad ai passages
Below   f ere s vey litle ozoe pese b i iceases sigificaly owards e lower
sraospere Coceraios of ozoe also cease  e pola egos I is o cosidered a
seios ea o cew or passeges i pressised aicaf. Greaes exposre wold occ i
flgs over e poles, or i spersoic arcra wc operae ger a omal commecal je
aica owever drig e compesso process for presssaio exeral ar is warmed wic
beas dow e ozoe io oxyge Caalytc flers may also be isalled  aicaf wic
coially operae i a ozoe evrome

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

TH AVIATION NVIRONMNT 

Page 1
Te pesece of ozoe  e amospee seves as a barer preveig a lage propoo of e
damagg la viole adaio of e s fom reacg e eas sace.
6 PRESSURE
Air pessre is e foce exeed per  area by a colm of a as g as e amospere I
ca be expessed i a mber of ways for example  pods pe sqare ic (lb/sq ic or 
ces of mercy (g. Te meic sysem more ofe beg sed i avao expresses pesse
 grams per cbc cemee, o moe commoly i ecopascals (Pa
ea level pesse s expessed as 1 1 35 Pa, or 1 7 lb/sq c o r 99" g
As alde is gaied e leg of e colm of ar redces ad, logically, so does e pressre i
exers a a parcla alde. U der sadard codiios (ISA, a laye of a 1 a i dep eqals
79 fee a mea sea level. Tadiioally s is roded of o 3 fee. oweve, a   f 1
Pa eqals 7 fee a   fee  eqals 991 fee, wls a 6  fee i eqals 1 6 fee Ts
redcio i pessre wi alide ca ave dire coseqeces for e ma body. Wo
oxyge  e body cao svive pesse cases oxyge  e lgs o dse io e
bloodseam A edco i presse meas a fewe oxyge molecles ae able o ee e
bloodseam, a problem wic is compoded by e fac a a alde e ar is less dese.
Wo pressrsao or spplemeary oxyge e body cao svive a alde. See l
hpe 3, The ug  hpe , Peue.
7 RADIAION
Radaio  e form of X ays, as log bee sed for e diagoss of boe ad oe jres
as well as e eecive reame of some ypes of cace oweve e egave efecs of
adiaio are possble damage o e geec maerial (e blepri of lvig cells wc may
case replcaed cells o be abormal I oder o deermie e advisably of radaio eame
ad e pobable eecs of radao damage as opposed o e beefis of e reame, cera
sadards ave bee esablsed, kow as e rad ad e rem
A rad s a mease of e acal amo of osg radiao absorbed by livg sses Expose
 o  or moe ads is faal o mas. Expose o 5 ads cases e deas of rogly alf of
 e people exposed A few people ae able o svive expose o  ads A doses of 5
rads or less ee are o mmedae owad sigs of lless b some pas of e body sc as
germ cells, vial o sexal repodcio, ae geecally damaged.
A rem s e amo of adiao ecessay o case e same biological eec  mas as oe
rad of X rays Mos people are og o eceve abo 3 em of aral radaio eac year,
wls e eaoal Commiee o Radiaio Poeco recommeds a maxmm of 5 rem pe
year fo e geeal pblc well below e acceped maxmm of 5 rem per year fo adaio
wokers.
Cosmic radao comprses wo pas
GALACTIC RADIATON
Tis comprses so wave elecromageic waves origiag from osde e sola sysem Tese
ig eergy paicles are defleced by e eas magec field povidg maxmm poeco i
 e eqaoral egios ad mimm a e poles. Addiioal proecio s aceved og
saospec absopo, so a o e grod e radaio is mc less a a alde
Logically e e ige we fly e geae e expose o adiao. I e early days of e
spersoic Cocode, wic operaes a aldes far  excess of sbsoic je arcra, cab crew
wore dosmeer badges o measre e amo of radiao ad e aicra was also fed w
adiaio alarm sigals. Wls e dosmeer badges ave bee doe away wi, e acra sll
coa radiaio wag devces. Te So Afica Civl Avaio Reglaios (CAR eqie a
ay arcra opeag i excess of 9  f be eqipped w a cosmc radiaio deecio device
SOLAR RADATION/ULTRAVOLET (UV LIGT RAYS
Ts loger waveleg radao ogiaes from e s ad s ecessary for e prodco of
vami D esseial fo e maieace of boe developme  e ma body Exposre o UV
adiaio prodces mela i ski cells ceaig a dakeg  sk color, or e sa. Ove
exposre ca case a geec mao  ski cells ad sk cacer Naal proecio from UV
ays s povded by e ozoe laye, wls people wo sped a gea deal of ime  dec
slg ae ecoaged o se sa loios coaig g UV blockg ages

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE AVIATIO EVIROMET   QUESTIOS
Page 1 -Q1

QUESTIONS
ANSWERS ON PAGE 1-1)

 .  % of the vole of the atosphee s ade p of:
a) oxyge,
b) toge,
c) cabo dioxide,
d) ozoe

 7% of the voe of the atosphere is ade p of:
a) cabo doxde
b) oxyge,
c) water vapo,
d) itroge.

3 he pecetage coposito of the gases whch ae p the atosphere s costat
a) oly at sea eve,
b) oy whe ISA stadads prevail,
c) thoghot the atosphere irrespectve of attde,
d) oly at sea level aog the eqato.

. With regad to the stctre of the atosphee:
a) the statosphee exteds fo sea evel to appoxatey 6  
b) the toposphere exeds fo sea evel to appoxatey 6  
c) the ascedig ode is stratosphere toposphee ad ioosphere
d) the ascedig order s toposphee, ioosphee ad stratosphere

5 he sybol for oxyge s:

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

HAPTER 2 THE HUMN MCHINE

Page -1

THE HUMAN MACHINE 

A INTODUTON
Te uman body lie a compex macine as a numbe o componens wic combine o mae i
wo Fo e macine o uncion a is bes al componens mus be in good condion Te same ap
plies  o e uman body Te pupose o is cape is o give e suden an ovevew o e pats o
 e body wic elae o e woing o ose sysems wic ae peaps moe peinen o e pio
and wic ae coveed moe ully in e vaious capes o is boo

 THE NEVOUS SYSTEM
Te neous sysem is e eeconics o e macine and e bain is e compe sending mes
sages o and eceiving em om e vaious componens Te uman nevous sysem consiss o wo
disinc pats
  Te Cenal Nevous Sysem compising e bain and e spina cod
 Te Peipea Nevous Sysem wic connecs e cenal nevous sysem o e body ogan sys
 ems.
No a o e bodys componens need o be consciousy od wa o do Te neous sysem allows
o volntary acion ie e bain eing muscles and imbs o move, and involntary acion ie e
ea ae bining o e eyes sweaing and woing o e gasoinesina ac ae accompised
auomaicaly oug e auonomic nevous sysem

 THE ARDIOVASULAR SYSTEM
1  BLOOD
In ode o e body o wo i equies bo nuiens and oxygen Tese ae anspoed aound
 e body by e blood wic aso emoves ceain wase maeia eg. cabon dioxide Blood
compises wo pats pasma and bood cels Te aveage maue adul wi ave beween 35  5
ies o bood
PASMA
Tis is e medium oug wic e ces ae anspoed aound e body I is a yeowis
cooued uid compising appoximaey 9% wae I aso conains ousands o dieen
subsances including poeins viamins gucose sas omones anibodies and wases
BLOOD CELLS
a) RED BLOOD CELLS
Tese conain e ionic poein haemoglobin wic is a complex and vey eicien sysem
used o anspo oxygen aound e body I is capable o absobing age quaniies o oxygen
olding e moecues uni i eaces an aea o low oxygen levels wee e oxygen is en
eeased ino e issues Cabon dioxide is also ataced by e ed blood cels o
 anspotaion o e ungs and emova om e body ee e 3 e ug Red blood
cels ae omed in e ed maow o a bones suc as e ibs veebae and su as well as
 e ends o ong bones ound o example in e egs Te nomal coun in an adul is
5,, ed bood cels pe cubic milimee (c.mm) o woe blood
(b) WITE BLOOD CELLS
Tese ae e pa o e bodys deence sysem wic poduce bood poei anibodies wic
in un ae anspoed aound e body o ig inection and disease Tee ae vaious ypes
o wie cels, some o wic ae omed in e bone maow, oes by e spleen and lymp
gands Te noma coun pe adu is beween 5 and  pe cmm o wole bood
(c) PTELETS
Tese ae e ey ingedien in e omaion o bood clos Wee a bood vessel as been cu
o damaged paees sic o e edges o e wound oming a co o plug wic wil peven
ue bood loss Tese ae also omed in e bone maow Te nomal coun pe adu is
, pe cmm o woe blood

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Revision 2/200

THE HUMAN MACHINE

Page 
BLOOD SUGAR Bood Glcose

The bk of he eegy eqied by he body fo eveyday acives is obaied fm cabohydaes
 he soce of whch icldes bead ceeals ce, poaoes pasa ad sga These cabohydaes
ae digesed ad coveed o glcose by he dgesve ezymes  he gaso-esia ac The
amo of glcose pese i he blood is ciica sce he ba s paticay sesive o
icoec amos Gcose s soed i he body - i he live ad msces  as a sbsace
called Glycoge whch s easly ecoveed o glcose as ad whe eqed by he body
Becase des vay ad ca iclde faly age amos of sga i s ecessa fo he body o
be able o cool he evels of blood glcose This s acheved hogh wo homoes called
Isli ad Glcago. Is which is seceed by he paceas, is he moe impoa of he
 wo sice is fco is o chemcaly ae glcose io he fom  whch  s soed i he ive
As blood glcose levels fall gcago s eleased whch aows he soed gcose o be eeased
back o he boodseam Thee ae wo codos whch ae of impoace o s
a GLYCAEMIA EXCESS BLOOD GLUCOSE

A deficiecy of si eads o a disease caled diabetes, a saio whee excess gcose is
o soed b bds p  he blood il a ceai level is eached a which po he kdeys
wil sat o ve he excess gcose io he ie This fco voves he elmiao of moe
wae fom he body ha is omal, ad excessve his is aso a idicaio of diabees The
pesece of gcose i he e, beg as i s a clea idcao of dabees ad, heefoe
coec blood gcose leves expas he impoace of he ie es i avao medical
examaios Ijecios of sl ae abe o maia he blood glcose a he coec eve
Cossey high bood gcose evels may imaey efec body isses b he moe
mmediae efec o he ba s of sigifca impoace gh bood glcose levels ca ead o
behavoal chages whch ca be misake fo ace alcohoism
b GLYCAEMIA LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE
This s a empoay codo whch ca be fod  diabeics ad odiabeics I he case of
dabeics  cod be as a esl of a ovedose of s de o a edecy o ovedo ahe
 ha eglec he medcao The sympoms of low blood glcose icde dzzess, headache
somach pas ad shakg Ths sao ca be easly esoved by esog he bood glcose
level by akg gcose o sga hogh he moh I he eve ha he peso has aleady
eeed a coma, glcago ca be ijeced decy o he bloodseam o egise he glcose
eseves fom he ve By ot eatig well or reglarly, odiabecs may expose hemselves
 o he same sympoms Recovey s easily achieved simpy by eag somehig  Ths
emphasses he impotace of ot fyg o a empy somach
 TE EART
The cicaio of he bood hogho he body va a sysem of bood vesses compisg aeies
veis ad caplaes, is acheved by a fssized holow, mscla pmp kow as he heart The
hea compses fo chambes two sco chambes o atrim ad wo dischage chambes
kow as vetricles Oxyge ich bood s daw fom he lgs hogh he plmoa ves by
 he sckg aco of he e atrim fom he lef aim  passes hogh a oeway vave, called
 he bicspid o mitral vave, o he e vetricle Fom hee  is pmped hog aohe oe-way
vave - he aotic valve - o he mai aey o aorta which caies he blood o he ppe ad
lowe body Alog he way, oxyge s dischaged ad epaced by carbo dioxde The blood s
 he oed via ppe body ves speo vea cava ad lowe body veis ifeo vea cava o
 he right atrim of he hea whee  passes hogh a oeway valve caled he ricspid valve, o
 he right vetricle which pmps  hogh aohe oeway vave - he plmoary valve - back o
 he lgs via he plmoa artery

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

Aota THE HUMA MACHIE

Supeio Page 2-3
Vena
ava Pulmona
Vein

Rigt Aotic
Atium Valve

Vena Valve

ef
Venticle

Ticupi - Deoygenate bloo
Valve - Ogenate bloo

Rigt
Venticle

Figre 2 The Heart

Wt regad to nomal ear operaton, tee items may e consdeed

a BLOOD PRESSURE

Ts force, exeed y te lood against te walls of te man areies, s wat keeps te lood
cclatng aond te ody Blood pressre as a ig and a low pont As te lef and rigt
ventcle contact, te pressre wll e at it's highest and ts is efered to as te systoic
pessre As te cames elax and efll wt lood te pesse s at t's lowest and tis s
known as te diastolic pessre Tese pessres vay fom ndvidal to ndvdal, t a typical
fgre fo a easonaly ealty yong adlt wold e  20 mm g millmetes of Mercry 
systolic, and 70 mm g  dastolic In medcal tems ts s wten as 120/70 Blood pressre
can e sed as a mease of a pesons ealt and as most plots already kow, foms a vey
imporant par of te aviaton medcal examnaton Danges ae nerent n ot g and low
lood pessre Nomal lood pesse s dependant on seveal tems sc as te strengt of
te ear elastcty of te arery walls volme and consstency of te lood and te efcency of
te eart valves no leaks

G BLOOD PRESSURE YTENSION

ig lood presse yperenson may e nflenced y te following factors

i ovewegt  a large mass reqres a geater circlaton placng a geate rden
on te ea to deliver lood togot te ody

ii smokng  eavy smokng cases te lood vessels to ecome consticted forcing
te eat to pmp ade to get te lood trog See a/o Hypoxia (apte 4) ;

ii eing nft
iv emotional state of mnd
v kidney or ear dsease
v genetc
v det  paclaly wit regard to an excessive ntake of salt, wc s tlsed y te

ody to reglatewate etenton n te tsses Too lile salt wll not allow te ody to retain
water and it will e exceted Excessve salt ntake wll reslt in too mc wate eing etaned
in ot te tsses and te lood, n te case of te latte te ea will ave to wok arde to
move te greate volme

Contned longtem g lood presse may ceate a sitation were a weak point n an
aery alloons ot Tis s known as an aesm, a potentally lifeteatening condition
sold te artery wall reak, eleasng large amonts of lood into te sonding tsse
and casing sc a sstantal drop in lood presse, tat deat eslts Oter eactons

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE HMAN MACHINE

Page 24
o ssaed g blood pressre iclde ea aacks, srokes ad damaged blood vessels
i e eyes ad kdeys
LOW BLOOD PRESSURE (YENSON
Ulike g blood presse, low blood pressre (ypoeso s exremely rae ad is seldom a
seos o life reaeg cocer I may lead o dizzess or eve faig.
(b PULSE RAE
Blood pressre sold o be cofsed w plse rate e plse ae s e ae a wc e
ea beas - a fco of pysical codio. e sysemac coacio ad elaxaio of e
ea mscle creaes a presse plse wc may be expereced a vaos places o e body
ad s commoly sed by medical pesoel o assess e well-beig of a paie I is mos
oceable i e ws ad e side of e eck. A omal plse rae for a perso a res wold
be bewee 6 ad  beas pe me Rig, bisk walkg or fo a mater ay form of
exercse ca empoarly icease e plse rae wc will rer o omal fe a res perod.
A vey fi perso may ave a vey low plse ae becase regla exercise as made e ea
moe eficie omoes, fever ad emooal disrbaces may also icrease e plse ae.
Some medcaos may crease or decrease e plse rae, wc  r ca advesely afec
pilo pefomace
(c RYM
e regla bea of e ea o e rhythm is acieved by small elecrical mplses wic
case e mscle fbes of e ppe ea cambes (lef ad ig am o coac s
acio foces blood o e lowe cambers (lef ad rig vericles were e same elecical
implse, ow slgly delayed, cases ese cambers o coac, sqeezig e blood ad
ceasg is pessre fo discarge o e aeral sysem For e rym o emai cosa
e elecrcal mplses ms ema cosise I sold be emembered a e brai moitors
ese elecrical mplses rog e aoomic evos sysem b  does o geerate em
e ear coas a specal area of isse  e pper camber wc acs as a aal
pacemaker Falre of is aal pacemake ca be coolled by varios dgs o a arfcal
pacemaker, ee sered by a srgeo, or wor exeally. e vey fac a elecrcal
mplses cool e ym of e ea makes i very easy for mode scece o moio is
corec fcog. A elecrocardiograp deecs ese mplses ad prodces a racig kow
as a electrocardiogram or EG.
3 CIRCUION
BLOOD VESSELS
e vasclar sysem is e erm give o e ework of aeries, veis ad capillaes wc
aspos blood ogo e body
ARERIES
Areres ae fairly ck walled, elasc vessels wc aspor blood der pessre away
fom e ea e mai aey s kow as e aorta ad leads drecly away fom e lef
vericle fomg pa of e systemic circlatio  e delivey of oxygelade blood o
e isses O s rer io e ig vercle, e blood is pmped back o e lgs via
e plmoary arte pa of a secod sysem  the plmoa system  wic delivers
e blood io capillaries i e lgs. I is ee a e excage of carbo dioxide
(exaled ad oxyge (ialed akes place ee e 
VEINS
e veis ave e, less flexble walls a ose of e areries de o e fac a e
blood pesse i em is less ey also coa a sysem of oe way valves o peve a
reverse flow of blood ey ae esposble fo raspoig e blood back o e ea
CAPILARES
ese are e smalles of e blood vessels ad ae prese  e isses e vey fie
composio s sc a oxyge is able o pass rog e membrae io e sse ad
wase mae  e opposie drecio o be raspoed away fo emoval from e body
eier rog e bladde as e, o rog e lgs as carbo dioxide

Private Pilot icece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE HUMAN MACHINE

Page 2-
TE KDNEYS

Te kneys are a pair f beansape rgans lcae a e rear f e abina caviy a
ff an essenia re in e circay syse Tey are b excreto an eglato rgans
in a ey fier e bl revng fr  any wase aerial a e sae e regaing e
bys fli balance B eners e kineys rg e real arte wic vies n
saer brances ening in a icrscpc srcre cale a ephro a par f wic cnans
a fier Tere are apprxaey ne illn f e in eac kiney Win e neprn arf
r wase sbsances are separae an re va e reter   e blaer fr reval fr
 e by Usefl an nw balance sbsances are reabsrbe in e capillares an veins
an rerne  e by via e rena vein Te al vle f e bys bl is ceane n
 is way evey 0 ines wic eans a between 1 0 an 1 80 lres f b pass rg
 e kneys evey ay

Rel Vei

Rel e

Uee

Figre 22 he Kidey
D DISORDERS, DISEASE AND ILLNESS

  CORONARY ARTERY DSEASE
ear sease is crrenly e s kely case f ea r isably in e re insrialse
cnres, w crnay arey isease beng e s cn ne
Te crnay aeries are w aeries a branc f fr e aa  prve e ea scle wi
xygenae b S ne f ese aeres bece blcke pat f e eat wll be eprive
f b an e resing n a ear atack, r ycaral nfarcn
Crnay aey sease s s fen case by atheroscerosis, a cnn in wc faty
epsis cale plaqe, bece atace  e inner ning f e aey casng i  bece
narrwer an less flexble an  was As s ass grws i ay bece ar an caky,
narrwng e aery an resricng e ve f bl i can cary Tese cgge areas bece
ea sies fr e frain f sanary bl cs, wc ay aey s f e fw f bl
cpeely a cnin cale a coroa thrombosis A cnin in wic e bckage is case
by a bl cl wc ves rg e atey an beces ge in an area areay narrwe
is cae a coroa emboism See igue 23

Private Pilot icece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE HUMAN MACHINE

Page 2-6

hrosclrosis

Figre 2 Coroary Arte Disease
Syptos of a coronay trooss are sudden and sevee cest pans followed y collapse and
possle eat arest (deat. Cosdeed te cuse of civlised society coronay aey disease ca
also e eedta is ifluenced y age diet ad aits Conic g lood pessue oesity lac
of exercise stess ad daetes will cotute as will foods ig in aal fats ad soing
2 EART FAILURE
Peraps te ost ipotat eat cae is te left veticle It as cosideale uscle ass as
it as to pup ewly oxygenated lood to te rest of te ody If te lef vetcle s daaged it wll
e unale to eet tese deands ad will egin to fal. No loge ale to coe wit te lood
eng puped to it fo te lungs va te lef atiu pessure egns to uld up ac troug te
pulonary ve nto te lungs were it causes congestion Tis ca esult in eatlessness ad
cougng te sputu ejected in te pocess ay e pin fo lood staiig.
3 ANGNA
As a uscle te ea ust ave its ow supply of lood n oder to fuction eficietly. As te
cooay ateries gadually ecoe loced te ea ay well cope i oal circustaces ut if
peaps troug exeton oe is efot is deaded fro te ea te lood supply ay e
sufcient esulting in oxyge stavato ad a esultat pain i te cest called agia (uscle
cap}. Unlie te coonay tooss te aey is ot copletely loced it is just suficetly
esticted to pevet a full flow of lood. Also unlie te coonay toosis te pai coes on
slowly ad not suddely ad wilst orally felt in te cest it ca occur aywere fro te lowe
jaw to te ris spreadig to te ars or te ac ad is ofen accopaied y dizziness
eatlessess ad a pale coplexio. Regular sufeers use glyceryl tiitate talets to relieve te
pole.
4 STROKE
A stroe is te te used to descre te efects of a sudden inteupto i te supply of lood to
te ai as a esult of a uptued lood vessel or a loced arery. Bran cells wic ae tus
depived of oxygen eter stop fuctoning o if depved for a polonged perod actually die
resultg in te failure of tose pas of te ody controlled y te afected ain cells. Te seveity
of stoes vay depedig o te legt of lood deprivation A sor peiod of educed low flow
ay result i slured speec weaness of a ad o foot ad lured or doule ision all of wic
disappea witn a few ous. Longer iteruptions of lood flow poduce a sudden eadace
followed y laout ad so pat ut ild dysfutio. A svee stoe esults i loss of
eoy deteoratio of alace paralyss o oe o even ot sides of te ody ad canges i
eotonal eaviou. Te causes of a stroe iclude ig lood pessue oesty diaetes eavy
song ad stress.
 KIDNEY STONES
Kidney stones wic ae cystals usually derived fro calciu i te uine can vary in size fo
inute eoug to pass toug te uiay syste to as lage as 2  in daete. Gout sufeers
ay also for stoes ade of uric acd. Te causes vary fo ereditary to deydation ad lac of
execse. Te predoiat sypto is pai in te afected idney wic y ecoe patcularly
sevee. Te cue ay vay dependig o te type of stoe Tose ade fo uic acd ca e
dssolved wit a soluto of sodiu icaoate a etod wic does ot wo wt stones ade
fo calciu. Tese can e oen dow nto saller paticles usig ulta-sonic waves ad easily

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HE HUMA MACHIE

Page 27

passed n he rne n exeme cases rgen sgey wl be necessary o remove he sone before 
can damage he kidney. Prevenon is mos simply acheved by scen nae of fids

6 ANAEMA

hs is no scly a dsease, b aher a condon I descrbes a defcency n he nmber of red
blood cels o he amon of haemogobn ha hey conan and as sch s consdered a sympom
of one of several pobems, some of which may be common and heefoe easly eaed whs
ohes may be ae and even faa. he end es is ha he body does no oban sficien oxygen
fom he blood whch redces s eficiency and may esl in a feeing of weakess o redness,
beahless and even faning folowing exercise. he mos common form s ron defcency anaema
a condon n whch he body is nabe o podce sfcen haemogobn Remeber ha  is hs
ronch poein ha s responsible for absorbing oxygen fom he lngs and anspoing  aond
 he body. hs condion is easly eaed wh ion sppemens.  lso ptr 3 nmic
ypoxi

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Revisio 2/200

THE HUMA MACHIE  QUESTIOS
Page 1

QUESTIONS
ANSWERS ON PAGE 1 1  

1  aemogobn a proein molece ond in he ed bood cels:
(a s a anspo molece or oxygen rom he lngs o he isse cels,
(b acs as a beahing dive or he bran
(c acs as a moece spe, by beakng down carbon doxide n he bood o cabon and oxygen,
(d pays a key ole in he ormaion o bood clos

 Anaemia is a condon in whch:
(a  here is a decrease n he amon o haemoglobin in he ed bood cels,
(b  he hea is nabe o pmp sicien bood o he ngs o colec oxygen,
(c here is a rescon n he orm o a bood clo n a coonay aey
(d hee is a decease n he amon o haemogobn n he whe bood cels

3 he pa o he body's deence sysem which podces bood proein anbodes which ae
 anspoed arond he body o gh necon and dsease are caed
(a plaeles,
(b whe blood ces,
(c ed blood ces,
(d haemogobin

4 he  erm sysoc s sed o indicae ha:
(a bood pressre is a s lowes level,
(b blood pressre is a s highes level
(c bood pressre s nomal,
(d he pse rae is very ow

 Long erm high bood pesse may lead o:
(a a decrease n he plse rae
(b an nceased plse rae
(c an incease in he hear rhyhm
(d an anerysm

6 Sdden and severe ches pans olowing whch he vicim collapses are sympoms o:
(a angina,
(b coronay hombosis
(c an aneysm,
(d anaema

7 Low blood pressre o hypoension, may lead o:
(a a ha aack,
(b an aneysm,
(c dizzness o aning
(d an ncease n he hea rhyhm

8 Bood pesse is:
(a he oce exeed by he bood agains he wals o he main aeries,
(b  he ae a whch he hea beas,
(c esponsibe or he regla beaing o he hea,
(d meased by he nmbe o beas pe mine

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Revisio 2/200

THE HUMAN MACHINE - QUESTIONS

Page 

9 Plateets are the bood cels which:
(a) ght inecton and disease,
(b) pay a key role in the ormation o blood clots,
(c) mae up the buk o blood pasma,
(d) cay oxygen around the body.

 0 Glucose is stored
(a) in the lver as insulin,
(b) in the lve as glucagon,
(c) in the ive as glycogen,
(d) in the pancreas as nsuln.

   Non-diabetcs can also sue om low blood gucose. The symptoms, which nclude dzzness and
shaing, can be corected
(a) by not eating beore ying,
(b) by eating eguay,
(c) ony by having an insuln njection,
(d) by dining more water.

. Fainting s a conditon whch causes a loss o consciousness due to:
(a) a eduction in the suppy o bood to the bain,
(b) high blood sugar,
(c) high blood pessure,
(d) a high pulse ate.

 3 Aer donating bood a plot may not ly o a period o
(a) 8 hous,
(b) 36 hous,
(c)  hous,
(d) 7 hous

4 The term diastolc s used to ndcate that
(a) bood pessue is at its owest evel,
(b) blood pessure s at its highest level,
(c) bood pessue is normal,
(d) the puse ate is vey hgh

1  Oxygen ch bood s drawn rom the lungs through the pulmonary veins by a chmbe in the
hear caled the
(a) le ventrcle,
(b) right ventrce,
(c) right atium,
(d) e atrium

 6 The le ventcle o the hea s responsible o
(a) pumpng deoxygenated blood bac to the lungs,
(b) drawng oxygenated blood om the ungs to the heart,
(c) pumpng oxygenated blood around the body,
(d) drawng deoxygenated blood bac to the hear,

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Revisio 1/010

HAPTER 3 THE UNGS

Page 3-

THE LUNGS

A. INTRODUTION
I oder to uderstad the efects of flyg o ou peformace, t s fst ecessary to evew vaous
aspects of the opeato mtato ad requemets of the huma ody Not the least of whch s ts
requemet for oxyge

 OGEN AND ITS UTILIZATION
Fom the study of Meteorology, we are awae of the stucture ad composto of the atmosphee 
respect of the varous gases preset Of prme mporace to the huma eg s te volume of oxy
ge, approxmatey 21% wthout whch we caot lve Of sgfcace to the piot s the chagg
pressre wth atitde ad ts efect o our alty to reathe ad thus exract the requred amout of
oxyge I ths egad, the gas aws whch are petet to the plot are oye's aw whch states that
for a fxed mass of gas at costat temperature, the pressue s vesely popooa to the volume,
ad Dato's Law of Paia Pressre whch states that  a mxture of gases, the pessue exered y
oe of the gases s the same as t would exer f t aloe occuped the same volume From ths state
met t s possle to deteme the para pessue of oxyge at ay alttude smpy ecause the pres
sure at a pacua attude ca e measured ad the propoo of oxyge  the atmosphere s co
stat he sgfcace of ths aw wl ecome apparet later
he chemca reacto ewee the food we eat, ad the oxyge we eathe ceates the eegy we re
qure to lve The ypoduct of ths pocess s carbo dioxide ad whlst the huma ody s ale to
reta age amouts of t t s capale of storg arge quattes of oxyge Thus, thee s ot oly a
costat demad for suppes of oxyge ut also a eed to remove the caro doxde Ths gaseous
exchage s acheved y vetiatio o reathg The traspoato of these gases s acheved va the
lood ad the exchage s caed out  the lugs (respiratio)

 THE LUNGS
he fucto of the lugs s to allow oxyge to ete, ad caro doxde to ext, the ood stream A
comato of the otward movemet of the chest wal ad the dowward movemet of the dia
phragm creates a decease  pessure sde the chest, wth the result that ar s the sucked to the
lugs By reaxg the chest wall ad daphagm, ar s expeled fom the lugs

ub

e un

ibs

phrm

igre 3-: he Lgs

he haed ar fows though the trachea to the brochia tree whch cossts of ever dvdg
raches smla  fact to a tee At the ed of these passageways are mute sace stuctures
caled aveoi It s here that lood s rought to cose cotact wth the oxyge molecules ad ude
the fuece of pressure the oxyge dfuses, or passes through, the caplary memrae ad to the
ood Here t ataches tsef to a pote moecule, wth the ed ood cels caled haemogobi for
ts traspoato aoud the ody he oxyge wl rema atached to the haemoglo utl t eters
a aea whee the oxyge cotet s low whereupo the haemogo eeases the oxyge aowg t
to dffuse to the tssues Cao doxde s dssoved  the ood whch caes t to the lugs wth
ay used oxyge fo exprato  iu .

Private Piot Licece © AvexAir Traiig 0/2004
Revisio 2/200

THE LUGS

Pae 32

ch  

t ! onchus

lvoi covd wih inu
bood-id cplis

uns onchol

Figre _2 Lg Brochial Tree ad Alveoli
Breati is a atmatic prcess irecte y te rai As te ee t icrease xye itake, r
car ixie elimiati fctates, s te rai ctrls te rate a ept f reati.
Oxye ric l takes  a rit re cr wist xye eficiet l as a is clr.

D THE EFFETS OF REDUED PRESSURE
As metie earlier, te xyeati f l i te s is epeet  presse T e precise,
a pressre gradiet ie reater pressre  te tsie frces xye it a area f wer parial
pressre i te  It ecmes vis w wy te erstai f tis prcess is imprat t
pilts As we ai atite we kw tat pressre decreases terefre te rivi pressre fr xye
asrpti wil as ecrease reslti i a redced fw f xye it te l Tere is sme
cmpesati as a reslt f te str atracti etwee aemli a xye, t tis reaces a
critica pit ave  0 000  I mre scietific terms, t empasise tis fact at sea level te partial
pressre f xye i te aveli is  03 mm Mercry H), t at 1 0 000  it is  mm H!
Te recti i te amt f xye ca a es ea t a ecrease i ma perrmace

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE UNGS

Pge 33

PARAL PRESSURE

OF AIR - OF OGEN - OF OGEN

IN ALVEOLI

ALTUDE ATMOSPHERES (P A) (PO) (POA)
mm Hg mm Hg mm Hg

 cc 5 < 8  7

,   3

3 6 7

, 39 73 8

, 53    55

5, 63  3 76
1  Se Lee
 76  6  3

5 3 

33cc -6 3

Figre   Alide-pressre relaioship

Volme

A  cc bbbe of i t se-leel wil icrease to  c t 5   decrease to 33cc t 6 
below se-eel (NB Scb es)

Pressre

Atmoshe  il esse eese wth icreasig tte  ese below se-eel
NOE See so um p 

 YOX
  DINITIONS
HYPOXIA s the oitio e whih the oge oettio t the tsse eel s ess th
om
ANOXIA is the coto whee thee is  oa absece o oge

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

TE UNS

Page 3
. AUSE AD SYMPTOMS

Tere ae many cases of ypoxia, bt in te aiation contex te greatest isk occs as a est of
an incease in altitde, wit its atendant dop in paia pesse Te fist symptos of ypoxia ae
saly associated wit menta fnctions owing to te fact tat brain tisses are te most sensitie to
a ac of oxygen. Obiosly, te ate at wic te obseed effects occ wi depend pon te
atitde. Ealie, te fige of 10 000  was mentioned bt it is possible een at 8000  to obsere
signs of mental impaiment atog generaly ealty persons sod not be noticeably affected p
to 10 000  From 10 000  pwards owee te effects become moe noticeable and te
symptoms simia to te efects of acoo can be smmaised as folows

JUDGEMET
Redced perfomance as a reslt of te oss of sef-citicism.

HAGE I PERSOALY
Beaior canges as a est of epoia, aggression or oss of inibitions

MUSULAR OTROL
Mental impairment ests in poo msclar conto and ncoordinated moements.

REDUED MEMOR/OETRATIO
Te loss of so term memoy can est in difficlty in caying ot normal operating
procedres

EFFET O SESES
Peipeal ision and nigt ision ae fist aected, folowed by day ision coor ision, toc
and eaing

REDUED OSIOUSESS
f ypoxia contines, te lee of consciosness redces esting initialy in ligteadedness,
diiness and confsion ten semiconsciosness, nconsciosness and timatey deat

3 FATORS AFFETG SUSEPTBILIT TO HPOXA
Te effects of ypoxia may ary fom indiida to indiida and altog no one can esist its
efects, ssceptibiity to ypoxia can be increased by arios factors, incding:
FATIGUE/STRESS
Tiredness peaps from exended figt dty can incease te onset of ypoxia.
ALTTUDE
Te geate te atitde te geate te effects
OLD
More energy mst be geneated to conteact cold, reslting in an inceased demand fo
oxygen wie cication is slowed and conseqently increases te adance of ypoxia
EXPOSURE TIME/RATE OF ASET
Te onge te expose to ypoxia and te faster te rate of ascent, te greate te effect wil
be.
ILLESS/HEAT
Een mid ilness o eat expose maes demands on te energy sppy of te body and
teefoe te oxygen reqiement, inceasing te onset of ypoxia
EXERSE
As wit cod and ilness tis makes demands on te bodys enegy sppy and terefoe
oxygen, increasing te degree of ypoxia

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE LUNGS

Pg 35

ALCOHOL, DRUGS AND TOBACCO

h intk of lcohol hs smil fcts to thos of hypoxi incudng  ducd tolnc of
ltitud. Mny dugs dpss bin functon nd slow th t of bthing which cn fuh
ggvt hypoxi Smokng cts carbo mooxide s  bypoduct fo which hmogobin
hs  gt finy thn it hs fo oxygn with th sult tht th s lss hmoglobin
vilbl to tnspo oxygn though th systm, thus nhncing th ffcts o hypoxi

PHYSCALLY

h skin bcoms pl nd  bluish tint my bcom notcbl, picuy th fng tps ps
s nd nos, (ths s cld Cyaosis s wl s i hung ccompnid by ywning

G FORCE EPOSURE

hs fcts ficint oxygn uptk fom th ungs.
Som of th fctos mntiond bov  unvodb to th pilot, whlst oths  sfnducd
by pson hbts. Howv th mponc of undstnding nd cognisig th sgns nd
symptoms of hypox nd th coctiv cton to b tkn cnnot b ov mphsisd
Fo thos intstd n fcts nd fgus, th folowng my b intstng f not nightning!
Hving cqud n undstnding of th physioogy, fcts nd symptoms of hypoxi t
qustion ss s to wht to do bout it. n picu, th time tkn to do somthng bout it n
ths gd th tm TME OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS is significnt

h tm of usfu consciousnss is gny gdd s bng th mxmum lngth of tim,
aer n individul hs bn dpivd of hs oxygn suppy, duing which h is bl to cy out
som usfu o mningfu tsk, wthout supplmnt oxygn nd bfo h o sh oss
consciousnss t is so considd to b th tm vlb to cognis th onst of hypox nd
do somthing bout it. hs tim is vb not only ccoding to titud, but fom ndvdu to
ndvdul t wl so b shond by physic ctvty nd oth fctos. h folowng figus 
fily psnttiv of th vious tms fo  nom hthy pson

  f   8 mnuts 5     3 mnuts
3  f 3 sconds to on minut 35  f 1 5  3 sconds
  ft 1    sconds

 HYPOA CLASSFCAON

HYPOC HYPOA

This s  condition wh th is isiciet oxygntion of th blood in th ngs his cn b
s  sut of  decreased pi pssu of oxygn (PO) in th Avoli thus t blood tuning
to th h fom th lungs contins ss oxygn nd thfo th tissus gt lss n viton this
sitution dvops with  hght bov 8 . t cn so b cusd by ung diss nd vn
smoking

ANAEMC HYPOA

This condton is found n css of bood loss fom sv bding o dontion o dcsd
mounts of hmogobin fom mnstution, chonic infction o n on dficincy possibly owng
to dit, wth th sult tht th is  dcs in th tot cculting hmogobin t cn lso
occu n css wh th is n bnomlly high cbon monoxid psnc n th blood,
ducing hmogobin vilbiy. t should b notd tht th South Aficn Cv Aviton
Rgutons, 1997 (P 91 qui  pod of 7 hous following bood donton bfo  fght
cw mmb my fy

STAGNANT HYPOA

hs condition cn occu wh th  ht o cicultoy pobms. Th bood gny hs
nom hmogobin nd oxygn vs, but poo ccution suts n lss oxyg thn is quid
ching th tissus his cn b found in css of shock, wh th is  dop in th totl
fctiv cicutng bood voum (th muscul wlls of th is lx, which ffctvy wdns
thm) s w s cn ntomic nd function distubncs of th bood cction

HYSTOTOC HYPOA

This cn occu s  sut of th posoning of cells o tisses, nding thm unb to utilis
th oxygn suppd in th blood his cn so occ whn  pson is und th infunc of
cohol o dugs

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE LUGS

Pag 36
5 METHODS TO COMBAT HYPOXIA

Carly, t prbms ivlvd wt mbatig ypxa ar twfd
a) Prvdg a adqat spply f xyg.
b) Mataiig a adqat prssr gradt
Dpdg  t divda, t bdy is ab t mpsat t a dgr by irasg t
ar rat ad bratig rat Gd pysa dt, a ag vr 5 yars ad pits w fy
rglarly xpsd t md ypxa, av a igr tra t t fts f ypxia
I mdr airraf wi rly  ig alttd prati fr gd prma, ts is prvidd
by abi prssrisati A arra flyig at 3  f may, by prssriati, prvid a
virmt qivat t apprxmatly 6 
I arraf wtt prssrsati, bratig a gas mxr xyg ad trg) via fa
asks, s ssay As attd is gad, a irasg prtag f xyg s addd til
t pit s rad wr  % xyg is bg bratd Ts saly rs at
apprximatly   f Abv tis gt, bas f t prssr gradt rqirmt,
xyg wd av t b divrd dr prssr, a tq kw as Psitv Prssr
Bratg PPB)

F HYPERVENTITION
1  DEFINITON
Hypvtat tivly mas over breathig r bratig at a rat i excess f tat rqird
fr rmal pysigial prpss Its as s t rstritd t ypxia, bt a b t rst f
mti sikss, axity, at, vibrat r pai
. CAUSE
T rat ad dpt f bratg s say trld t matai stat lvs f arb dixd i
t bdy It sd b rmmbrd tat i trms f t tratmt fr ypxia,  rfr was
mad t irasig t bratig rat as a aswr t rdd xyg prssr i t gs T
bratg driv s a fti f icreased arb dxid ad ot drasd bdy xyg A
ssary ig bratg rat wil rmv arb dxid at a abrmally g rat rstg i
ags i t irat, mst sgifiaty i t brai. Ts ag  irat ass a
rdt i t damtr f t artrs t t bra, w t rivs a rdd spply f
xyg A vday xamp f tis is t bw p a bal rapidly, y w s fl igtadd
Primary yptati asd by mtal rspss rs mst mmy amgst axis,
ixprd yg pts drig strssf sitatis Otr ass ild pa, vbrati ad
mt skss f a pilt sspts ypxa ad ittialy stas t yprvtat i t mstak
bif tat tis will sv t prbm, t a sta a vis yl wi a pysigaly vry
rapdly ad t ss f ssss
3. SYMPTOMS
T symptms ar vy similar t ts f ypxa ad, trfr, yprvtiat s  fsd
wt ypxa T assi symptms f ypvtati ar
a) Lgtaddss r dizziss
b) A tigig, r mbss f t fgrs, ads, ts ad lips.
) A stiig f t figrs, ads, ts ad ips
d) Axty ad st pas
) Rdd pfrma
) Tlig r ldig f visi
g) Stfig/spasm f pripra limb msls
) Claps ad ssss, drg wi bratg rtrs t rma ad t sbjt wil
rvr.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/200

Revisio 2/200

THE UNGS

Page 3-7
4 TREATMENT  HYPERVENTIATIN

Becase he syos of hyoxa ad hyeveiao are slar  s iora for reae
roses o o ake he sake of assig he oe ad o he oher. Boh codios ay be
rese a he sae ie. A sile re is o asse he wors. I oher words f he lo s a a
alide a whch  s ossibe for hyoxia o occr, he shold ake ses o se oyge if avaiabe,
or redce ade. If, however, he aide s ess ha 10 000 fee, he syos shod be
regarded as hose of hyerveao ad he folowg ses shold be ake

a) Redce breahig, boh i rae ad deh.
b) The dea is o breah io a aer bag. Ths rebreahig of exred air a ixre of carbo

doxide ad oxyge wll saly c sho he aack.
NTE  ay be dificl b he sbec shold be ecoraged o o icrease he rae ad
deh of breahig, as his wl oy exacerbae he sao

G. LOSS OF AIN PRESSURE
The rocedres o be foowed  he eve of cab decoresso wll be eesvey covered drig
he echcal ad raccal asecs of coverso o aircraf ye. However i he coex of hyoxia i
is ioa o cosider he foowg
Efecvely here are wo siaos volved.
 . A grada oss of ressre,  whch case he io or crew wod ake he ecessay ses o
redce aide o avod exosg assegers o hyoxia Use of oxyge asks ay have o be
cosdered i oaos erra
 A sdde ad raid oss of cabi ressre wih a resla abr exosre o yoxia, cod ad
eve decoressio sickess see Chaer 6, Pressre). The aircraf wod have o desced
rapidly o a lower ade ad assegers ad crew wod eed o se oxyge asks
iedaey.
The dager of rad decoresso s ha he aircra acs ike a ver, he aerodyaic efec of
which wold be o sck air o of he arcraf creag a cabi aide, owig o he redced
ressre hgher ha he acal aide The eed for raid crew resose  boh corog he
arcraf ad esrig eergecy oxyge for assegers, goes who sayig.

. DISORDERS, DISEASE AND ILLNESS
1  HYPXIA ad HYPERVENTITIN
Boh of hese have aready bee covered  deai cosie he os obvios obes for os
ad ca be cosidered eorary codos
. ASTHMA
This is a edca codiio reslg  he arrowg of he aiways of he gs de o ifaao
ad sclar coraco The case is geeray kow, b ossibe coribig facors clde
sress alergy ad eerare The codio ress i iadeqae veilaio of he gs
breahig  (siraio) is reavey ora b breahg o (exraio) s resriced wih
exhasio ad hyoxia reslig Relef ay be achieved hrogh he se of brocho dilaors. I ca
afec ayoe a ay e
3 BRNCHITIS
Ths s a flaao/feco of he cos ebrae ha e he aiways ad s saly a
colcao of oher diseases sch as he coo cod or fleza. Syos are a heg
rodcig cogh ad d fever. I s reaed wh ai-boics ad ass abo e days
4 PEURSY
Ths is a localised area of fecve ifaao o he oer sace of he lg which cases a
shar ches a aggravaed by dee breahg. I s reaed by aibiocs ad ai flaaories.
The ore serios ad lastig llesses assocaed wih he lgs wod i al robabiiy recde
he io fro flyg aga

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE UNGS - QUESTIONS

Pge 3-1

QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS ON PAGE 111)

1  As liude s cresed ove se leve
() e pl pessue exeed y oxyge n e mospere rems cosn, wile s pecege
composio o e mospere decreses
() e p pressure o oxyge n e mospee decreses, wle  o con dioxide
creses,
(c) e pi pessure o oxyge s well s l e oer gses in e mospere decreses,
(d) o e pl pessue exeed y oxyge i e mospee d s pecege composon o
e mospere decrese.

2 Hypoxi s
()  regur occuece in pessursed ircr   liude o moe  10 000 f ove se level,
()  mesure o e ood's oxygen suion,
(c) drecy reled o e re o scen nd o e in cuse lude,
(d) e immede resul wen  peson ees   re  excess o  nomy reuied.

3 Te s sympoms o ypox usuly s occurng  iudes ove 1 0 000  nd
() re very esy d mmediely deeced plos,
() e usuy ssoced wi decesed men ucios,
(c) loss o muscu cono s one o e eles mesons,
(d) c e ressed y educing e e o eng.

 Suscepiy o ypox:
() c e educed y reng very sowly
() creses pidy i pesons over e ge o 2 yes,
(c) inceses in pios wo ly regurly exposed o mild ypox,
(d) increses wi e use o cool drugs nd occo

 Ressce o ypoxi c e cresed y
() dugs wc sow down e crculion d eeore e re o oxyge consupo
() e vsv mnoeuvre wic oces moe oxyge o e ood,
(c) eg   good pysicl condiio nd 2 yers o ge d ove,
(d) reducing e reg e

6 Hypoxc ypoxi is deied s
()  codiion were ere is insuicie oxygeion o e lood in e lungs owig o decesed
pl pessue o oxygen  e lveoi,
()  codion were owig o lood oss, ee is  decrese  e ol cicug emogo,
(c)  codio wee ee e e or ciculoy proems,
(d)  codio wen  peso ees   e i excess o  omly requred

7. Te ime o useu conscousness  30 000  is pproximely:
() 30 - 60 seconds,
() 1  - 20 seconds,
(c) 2  3 miues
(d) 1   30 econd.

8 Hypeveon, or overeg, occurs mos commonly:
() s  resul o cresed ody cro dioxide,
() we ere is  decrese i e ol circulig emogo
(c) in pios ove e ge o 2 yes wo ly reguly exposed o mid ypoxi
(d) i codiions o nxey

Prvate Pilot Licece © Avex Air rag 0/2004

Revso 2/200

TE LUNGS - QUESTIONS

Pa 3-2
9 Symptoms of hypvntiation nlud

(a loss of al musl ton
(b a lihthaddnss with a tnlin o numbnss of th finrs, hands, tos and lps,
( a pa sin with a bluish tnt of th fin tips ips as and nos,
(d drasd mnta funtions

 Th xprsson "tim of usful onsiousnss" fs to th tim tan at a spfid attud
(a to arry out a spifi tas,
(b to dal with an mny stuation suh as an nin failur,
( to ronis th onst of hypoxa and do somthin about it,
(d to opat wthout oxyn bfor bomn unonsous

   Th immdiat tratmnt for hypntiation shoud b to
(a inas th rat and dpth of brathin,
(b brath pur oxyn throuh a mas,
( du th at and dpth of bathin,
(d assum a position whih wl noua blood to flow to th had.

 2 Mthods of ombatin hypoxia nud
(a bathin into a pap ba,
(b inrasin th at and dpth of bathin,
( mantainin an adquat oxyn pssu radnt
(d dras th at and dpth of brathin

1 3 Anam hypoxia an our as a rsult of:
(a motona strss,
(b an xssiv at and dpth of bathin,
( a low body tmpatur,
(d bood loss fom svr bdn

 yanoss is iy to sut from
(a hyprvntation
(b hh lvls of arbon dioxd in th blood,
( hypoxa,
(d hh bood pssur

 Bood whh s biht d in oour
(a is h in oxyn
(b s dfint in oxyn,
( has a hih luos ontnt,
(d has a hih v of abon dioxid

6 As altitud inass
(a th paia pssu of oxyn inrass,
(b th tim of usfu onsiousnss nass,
( th possibiity of hypvntilation dass,
(d th tim of usfu onsiousnss dass

 7 Th bathn driv is a funton of
(a a das in th amount of oxyn in th body,
(b th lvl of arbon dioxd in th body,
( th bodys tmpratur
(d th pus at.

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

HAPTER  THE ERS

Page 41

THE EARS

A INTRODUTION

Te ea a tw ey impat, ut deet uti eaig ad aae Tee ee ut i
depedety  ea te, ad wit it i uy impat  a pt t e ale t ea it wuld
t e et t ay tat ae ii, aae i te ed mt mptat ee. It llw, te
tat a gd udetadig  t ut i  deae alue  pit

 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR

Te ea mpe tee ealy deied pat: te ute ea mddle ea ad ie ea.

cl udo
nee
ocl

ccul

udto
cnl

 du utcn
tu

Figre 4 Aaomy of he ear

1  TE OUTER EAR

Te ute ea  impy a ud gateg deie t mpe a ap  aiage, me etly
kw a te pia  auie, te pupe  w i t let ud wae wi ae te
paed tug a eguay aped aa alled te eea audty aa, t te eadum 
tympa memae w m te dde etwee te ute ad mdde ea Te aal, 
paageway tai ai ad wa pduig glad, te pupe  wi  t tap eea
mate tu peetig it m eag ad piy ietg, te eaig meam A uid up
 wa i ti paageway a,  ue, eut  me eaig  e t wi peet ud
wae m eag te ea dum.

 THE IDLE EAR

Te middle ea  a ey ma a led ame wi tai te ampliig eqipme; tee
iked e, letey kw a ossices Tee e ae tal t te meaa tami
 ud wae ad ae ddualy amed adig t te ape te malleu,  amme te

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

TH AS

Pa 4-2

ius, or av; ad  saps, or sirrup wi also apps o   smals o i  uma
ody.

us us
mm v

Figre 42 The Ossices
T pross of ar omms w  soud wavs sr  ardrum as i o vra.
Tis virao is pid up y  malus, wi is siuad x o  ardrum ad is passd y a
vr aio o  adjo ius, wi  ur rasms  viraio o  saps Ts iy o
is i a opi ald  oval widow, load o  r wall of  middl ar from wr
 viraio passs o  ir ar. Dur s pross ampifiaio of  oriial soud wav
as pla, so a y  im i ras  r ar  viraos av om far mor
orad T air prssur   middl ar amr is p  sam as amospr prssur
y a v or u ald  Eusaa u wi lis  irior of  midd ar wi  asal
passas
S i s o possil, or sould o  for ar o pass rou  ardrum,  oly mas of
v prssur is rou  Eusaa u a fuio wi oms ssay w
lim or dsdi Tis pross a  drd y a old or or simlar fo wr 
rsula swlli or ifammao a lo  Eusaa u rdr i impossl or vy
dffiu o quals  prssur Ts prom is mor prooud dur dsdi fl,
spaly a i ras of ds, w  rasi xral prssur puss  ardrum
iwards. Normally s will  paraly alad y  Eusaia u, xp a  flow of air
io  us dos o our as asly as  fow ou of m. Cary  prolm s xarad
y a rduo   diamr of  u as a rsul of ifo. I oms ovious, , a
pos sould avod flyi f y ar xpri ay form of uppr rspraoy ra ifio for
xampl  ommo od. Apa from  svr pai w wil  xprd  midd ar
may also  damad rsui i som ar loss, w may om prma I vry
xrm ass v  aa maisms of  ar may  affd a odo wi s
alld prssur vo.  so hp  ssu a -2
3 HE INNER EAR
T ir ar omprss wo pauarly impoa pis of quipm  cochlea for ari ad
 vestiblar apparats for ala. T mpora of is dual ro possily xplas wy i s
o of  mos prod pars of  ody Cusod y fud, i is load wi  rid su.
I is w  oa a soud wavs ar fialy ovrd io v impulss wi ar 
rasmd via  adito ee o  rai for irpraio as soud. T ola, a small
oy sruur, oais as may as 2  miu airl ls arrad ao a mmra a
ols aroud islf rsml a sal sll T soud wavs rasmd y  saps o  oval
widow ra prssur wavs i  fuid of  ola ausi  ssoy lls o vira ad
ra v impulss wi ar rasmid o  rai Exssv ois, parularly ovr lo
priods a dama  vy fral arli ls aus prma ar loss.

 HEARING LOSS
Hari oss a  divdd io wo aras
 . CONDUCTIVE LOSS
T oduv sysm ors  our ad midd ar,  ompos of w ar  ar
drum ad  ossls Har oss i s aras may  summarsd as folows:
(a Coa aormalis  dformao of  ar aa
() Wax wi a uild up ad omply lo  aa;
( fos   aal a aus swl, w may paaly or omplly lo  aa;

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EARS

Pag 3
(d Bony otgowh rom th kl can potrd into and otrct th a cana;
( Incton o th midd ar phap om a throat o no cold
( Poation o th a dm may occr a a rt o ry lod ond or chronc nction o

th midd a. Th acta haring lo i dtrmind y th iz and potion o th
poation;
(g Alrg can ca wling and nammation o th a dm;
(h Diordr i thckning and on o  th ony organ o th m idd  a wi ca poor tan-
mon o ond h can occ throgh an inhtd dord and with ag.
In many ca condcti o is rri Cold and  pa alrg can  contod;
rgry can pai a poatd ardrm, mo gowth tc. Th impoant apct o pilot i to
 awar o th prolm, to tat t and not aggraat it ntil th prom com prmannt
. NONCONDUCTIVE LOSS
Th yp o haring o i aly aocatd with nn ar pathology and i motly non-rrl.
It can  mmard a olow
(a Maormation d to incton  o harm drg or tamin dcincy pcally dring
prgnancy;
( Jandc o anoxa t ar ih
(c Untratd middl ar inction
(d Pyc a natra lo o hang with ag. A th mid twnti thr i a grada
hang lo, acting itly th hghr rnc and only lat th ow rnci Thi
can  rhr aggaatd y toacco, alcoho, copp, chronc nction and acar
pom.
NOISE INDUCED EARING LOSS
Expo to no o icnty hgh intnity may rlt n tmpoay o prmannt lo o haing
Th haring lo may occr in wo dirnt way
(a ROM A CONSTANT, OR LONG TERM EXPOSURE TO A AZARDOUS NOISE ENVIRONMENT.
h xnt o th damag n th ca may  tmpoay, t poongd xpor may rlt n
pmannt o Initiay tmporary hang o may  accompanid y a high ptchd inging
ond (rrd to a tiits a ng o n within th a and md hang Rcoy
may occ within a w hor o a w day
( A SUDDEN EXPLOSIVE NOISE
In thi ca prmannt damag may rt, with poiy a rptrd a dm, damag to th
dicat oicl and timaty rrl damag to th ry nit mmran n th
cochla.

D. SOUND
Sond wa a mad p o wo ditinct pat
 . Th odn o intniy o th ond, which i mard n dci;
 Th ptch o ncy whch  mard in z (z
It i th dcil ll which, in trm o hang lo,  th mor igniicant. Examp o dci
l incd
(a Whip dB
( Norma consation  -?dB
(c Typical no  in th cocpit o a lght airca  95dB
A th dc  incra, th dcomo o od no g way to r pain
Contant xpor to no  ao 85 dB may ca tmpoary or prmannt haing o.
A indcatd ao th no l in a ight aicra can  a high a 95 dB. Piot hold,
tho  awa o th noi nironmnt in which thy oprat and  ita haring
protcton

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

TH ARS

Pa 

E. VESTBUR SYSTEM
Th sod uio o h ir ar is ala. hs is ahvd y h vestiblar ss, orsi
h Si-rular Caals ad h oh ras, whih ar al o d auar ad lar accelera·
tios u o voiy.

ostror ntror
mrur m-rur
n th  n o

tr stbu ontnn th
mrur tr nd u
n w

Figre 4·  Vestiblar apparats

  SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS
hs ors hr sirular us, ild wh a luid ad edolymph, whh ar load
a rih als o ah ohr ad ar aal o ss alraos as ow as 5/sod. A
lard oio o ah aa, ald h ampla, oais a aous ass, alld a cpla
oai u hairs roj ro har ls a h as o ah aua Ths s ar
od o ssory v rs whih i ur ass io h vsiuar rv. Mov o h
ud ds h uua whh sulas is v lls, ad h rsula ria sials whih
ar rasd o h ra ar rrd as aglar or rota araios h orao o
h sirular aas s alos xay h sa as h hr as o ov o a airra
ad hy ar hus a o d alraios i ih, ro ad yaw  ur 44

n fd wth ndoymph

mpu

nso hrs

� 

Figre 4·4 Cross sectio of a Semicirclar Caal
For uross o xlaaio rardi aular alraios, l us assu ha h airra rolls o
a ur o h rih a aio whih wl  dd y h aterior si-rular aa. Th aal
rols o h rih, aus h luid o a hd vy ovi  i h oos dro ad
ausi h uula o ov i h dro o h roll sia h aular arao o h
rai  h alrao has sod, wh h airra ra   a sady ur or so - 5
sods, h uid sos ov, h uula rurs o h oral oso ad h sesatio o rol
sos v houh h ur ous  ur 45.

Private Pilot icece ©Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE ERS

ge 5

 ee h b o o rh c d u

Figre  Agar Acceeratio

 OOLIH ORANS

ese organs comrsng te trice and te sacce, are stmated y iear accelerations,
greter tn 01 m/second, in te orizontal and verca anes. ey are located wtin te
vestibe at te ase of te semi-crclr canls, on eiter sde of te ed. W te ead n an
pright oston te trcle es in te horizota ane and te sacce in te vertica ane. ac
organ contans a maca smlr to te cla, comrsng a gelatnos layer wtin wc small
cacfied ricles caed otoiths ie on to of gros of sensoy airs exendig from ar ces
wic are tced to te vestir neve.

Wen te ead leans fowrd, otolt ressre cases te ars to end fowrd ad wen te ead
leans ackward tey case te airs to end ackward. Simiary f te ead moves to one sde te
ars wil e forced to end towards tat sde. e ar cels are oriented n diferent drectons so
tat te vryng ostons of te ead stimate dferent air ces and in so dong aer te rn, va
te nervos system, of te oston of te ead reative to te force of gravty. For norml,
grond-ased, eveyday oeratons sc as rnning, walkng or trnng te ead, te system s
adeate. From te lots ersective, owever, te otolit organs cnnot dstings etween te
force of gravty and oter linear acceerations wic afect te ilot in te ar. e otoits ossess
greater nea tan te fid wc srronds tem, so f te ody s moved sddenly foward te
otoits effectvely reman eind, moving ckwards over te airs. e rain receives two sensory
nts one tellng it tat te ody s acceertng foward and te oter tt grviy is contnng to
work in te normal directon. ese wo vectors re resoved y te ran into a erceved sensation
of te ody tilting ackwards, or an assmtion tat te aeroane s tced . e reverse
aens in te case of a sdden deceeration. See 1  on te nex age.

Private Piot icece © Avex Air Traiig 0/200

Revisio 2/200

THE EAS

Pa 6

ao  o
aao

o o a  a o o
 b o o  a
 a a
a a a 

Figre 4 iear Acceleraio
Aai, i is impora o rmmbr ha h vsiblar sysm is only abl o dc h iniial
acceleraio, onc his has soppd ihr a a sady or v zro spd h sysm rrs o
ormal
Th vsiblar sysm alon is o rsponsibl for balac; informaio from h sysm is sd
ohr wih cs from h visal and posral sysms o mainain spaial oreaio Nasa
ca rsl from massiv simlaio of h sysm pailarly hr dimnsioal simlaion

F SPATIAL DISORIENTATION

This condiion rfrs o on i which h sbjc is nabl o prciv his posio, atid ad
moion rlaiv o h ah Th codiion can b atribd boh o vsiblar ad non-vsiblar
ass
1  VESBR

Th vsiblar sysm is mor ha adqa for ormal rond opraios sch as ri,
wali or rin h had For flyin, howvr i is inadqa Th rspos im of h
smicirlar canals o alar acclraios nonrd i flih, is oo slow Also, h oolih
oras ar no abl o disinish btwn h forc of ravity and ohr linar acclraions whih
ac pon h pilo Errors hrfor occr in h vsiblar sysm ladi o spial disorinaion
In flih i is possibl for h smiirlar caals o allow som alar acclraios, hos blow
h hrsold of dcion, o rmain nprcivd y as h prcpion of ohrs which
aally do no xis
(a) HE LEANS

Th lassi xampl of his ocrs dri h arly sas of insrmn flyin raii If h
pilo iadvly oll io a r a a ra belo h dcion hrhold of h micirclar
canals h may prciv his wins o b lvl If h pilo now raliss is siaio from
insrm idicaions and rolls o of h rn a a ra which does simla h smi-cirlar
canals h may idd roll h wins lvl b fl as hoh h has bad away from h
wis lvl siaion will fl complld o alin his body wih h privd vical ad will
acally la in h dirio of h oriial sbhrshold roll This illsio is own as h
lans
(b) OCLOGRAVC/SOMAOGRAVC LLUSON
Th scond typ of vsiblar illsion is ha casd by linar acclraion In vl flih a a
consa spd h only forc xpricd by a pilo is ha of his ow wih downward
Dri an acceleraio a irial forc is prodcd in h lonidial axis of h airraf
bacwards Th rsla vcor, doards ad backards cass h oolihs o irpr

Privae Plo icece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EARS

Page 4-7
tis aeleatio as a pit p Deeleratio ases a pit do ilsio Tis ilsio is
ommoly experiee soy ae takeoff at igt over igte teai or ate ee e

4

() COROS EFFECT
Te aragemet of te semiiar aals is s tat ea oe lies i a ifeet axis of
motio ie oe ea i te xes of pit ya a roll Agla aeleratio i ay of tese
axes ill ase te eolymp to move ts stimatig te vestibar appaats a reatig
te aaeess of movemet i tat paila axis As soo as a ostat fo of eoymp
as bee aieve te stimls fom te aal eases atog te eoymp oties to
flo f te ea is move ig tis motio, for exampe if te pilot ee to look p te
origia sesig aa ill be move ot of te axis of motio to be replae by aote aa
movig ito te e axis of motio Te eoymp flo i te origial aal il slo o
ts reatig a sesatio of motio i te opposite iretio to tat of te araf Eolymp
fo il o i te ely alige aa ts reatig te sesatio of motio i its paiar
axis Te efet of tis ombie stimlatio is to ase a tmbig sesatio

() GRAEYARD SPN
Wilst te semi-irla aas ae able to etermie aglar acceleratios, tey ae abe to
pereive aglar veloci Te resltat efet pesets itself ig a spi it o extera
efeee We te piot eters te spi, e ergoes a iitia aga aeeratio a
oties to pereive te aglar motio of te spi aer te aglar aeleatio as ease
Tis may ast for p to 20 seos ig i time te eolymp veoiy relative to te
aa reaes zeo, estig i te pereptio tat motio as ease f te pilot o iitiates
a eovey from te spi e ill ergo a eeeratio iterpete by te semi-irar aals
as a spi i te opposite ietio Retae to believe a obey te airrafs istrmets
a epive of exea refeee, te piot is tempte to make a oretio i te opposite
iretio to te peeive spi tereby paig te airraf frer ito te oigia spi Tis is
ko as te gaveyar spi, fo obvios reasos

(e GRAEYARD SPRA
Te graveya spira is simia i efet to te gaveya spi, exept tat it folos a
ooriate t at ostat ate Agai te eolymp veoity reative to e aal eaes
zero, o motio is peeive a te pilot loses te sesatio of tig Te iexpeiee
piot, it o visa es ill alo te airaf to lose eigt a i a aempt to orret tis
may be tempte to apply eevato a eve poer it te est tat te t beomes
tigter a te airaf ill ete a spial ive Oe tis appes te pilot i peeive a tr
i te opposite iretio a if e oes ot follo is istmets bt tsts is sesatio il
te to tigte te tr stil fe i a atempt to ol ot of te tr it te ogial
osio

(f) NERSON SON
f a abpt age from a limb to straigt a evel is mae, tis may eate te ilsio of
tmbig bakars A pilot so isoietate may eat by psig te aiaf ito a ose lo
atite it a esltat iease i te illsio

(g) EEATOR USON
We a airaf is sbjete to a abpt par verial aeleatio perps by a paf,
te ilsio of beig i a limb a be reate  respose te isorietate piot il eat by
psig te aiaf ito a ose lo attite Similarly, a abrpt oa veria aeleratio
il eate te ilsio of beig i a eset it te piot reatig by plig te airaf ito a
ose p atite

2 MOTON SCKNESS
Te ombiatio of vestiba a visal sigas sppie to te brai eabe it to establis
spatial oietatio  a sitatio ee te ipts of tese sigals to ot or isorietatio
ors i may lea to motio sikess, te symptoms of i ie asea a seatig
Te pimary ase of motio sikess a best be esribe as a ovestimatio of te
vestiblar o balae system of te ea most pobaby e to te repeate veria motio of te
aira i trbet ai Some psyologial fators, s as evosess or stress, may aso
iflee te oset of motio sikess For te majoiy of people it is a temporay oitio
i il timatey isappea oe te aviatio eviromet beomes more famiiar Metos
i may be se to ee te efet o passeges ae:

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EARS

Page 8
* y ad avoid areas o exected tubulece
* Icease the suly o esh ai
* void sudde o raid cotrol movemets.
* Closig the eyes will emove oe o the mismatched sigals to the brai.
* ixig the eyes o the atural hoizo
light crew who suer om this coditio should avoid taig motio sickess drugs because
i most cases they oduce side eects which ted to aect eomace
3 VERIG
his ca best be descibed as a sesatio o otatio whe i act o such rotatio is occuig
o a sese o dizziess as a result o the vestibular system beig uable to adat to a abut o
uexected motio Its cause ca also be ascibed to iectio o the uer esiatory tact,
atigue, discomot selmedicatio ad ressue chages withi the ie ea It ca occu uder
coditios o high gloadig i stee tus or sial dive recoveies where thee is a absece o
a visual hoizo reeece ad the ilot is ot taied, or ot curet i the se o the aircra
istumets
Pressre ertigo o alteobaric veigo, ca occu as a esult o the iability o the eustachia
tube to equalise ressue betwee the ear ad the outside esecially whee the ressue chage
aectig both eas is uequal
Flicker ertigo ca be caused by a lashig light, such as a aircra strobe liht beig relected
om cloud or og o the su a or a bright light shiig o a otatig roeller blade or through
helicote otors
CNCLUSIN
By ow it will have become aaet that the huma body was ot desiged or light the
stucture ad comoets are seciic or a goudbased lie style rom bih, gravity the
atual horizo, the eyes ad ie eas have bee the rimay reeeces o ou satial
orietatio. Satial disorietatio occus whe these eviously eliable ogas o oietatio are
aected by the vayig acceleative orces o light ad illusios ad alse sesatios result whe
our atural cues have eithe bee emoved o chaged
he dage or the ilot is to base the cotol o a aica o these alse ercetios
Most ilots are aected by disoietatio at some time ad are usually able to esolve the
roblem as soo as atual cues are obtaied or examle the atual horizo It is whe we
ae totally isolated rom these atural cues erhas whe lyig i cloud, that we ace the
greatest is t becomes obvious why so much istumet lyig time is equied o the issue o
a istumet ratig. at rom beig taught to cotrol the aicra by reerece to these
istumets it is the belief i these istrumets that is equally as imortat I  oy hous o
istumet taiig we ae tyig to overcome a lietime o trustig what we see ad eel

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/20o

HE EAS  QUESIOS

Page 41

QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS ON PAGE 1   1 

1 No-codctive heaig o i ally aociated with the ier ea ad
(a) middle ea ifectio ae a commo cae
() age pay o ol i ocodctive hearig lo,
(c) alergie are a commo cae of o-codctive hearig o,
(d) i eaily everie thogh medicatio.

. A pero who i feig fom verigo wi
(a) expeiece cotat rigig i the ea
() e ale to eqalie the the pee i the midde ea,
(c) have a tempoay lo of hearig,
(d) e ected to a fae ee of otatio

3 The vetilar ytem compie
(a) the emi-circlar caa oy
() the emicica caa the otolith orga ad the eye,
(c) the emi-cica caa ad the otolith orga
(d) the otolith oga oly

4 Becae a pilot' eviomet i oe of cotatly chagig pee he or he
a) hold ot fy with a head cold, thoat, ear or i ifectio,
) hod ot alow thei teeth to e x-rayed, a thi ca cae the fomatio of mall pocket of air
i the filig,
c) hod ot tae pa i ay fom of ca divig.

 he Etachia te i ed to:
a) codct od wave from the oter to the ie ea,
) eqalie prere o oth ide of the ea drm,
c) pevet decompeio ice i dive who have to fly oo afe a dive eceedig 30 f,
d) ee liea acceleratio

6 The fctio of the Etachia te i to
a) eqaie pere i the middle ear,
) eqaie pree i the ier ear,
c) pevet chage i pere i the middle ear,
d) ee aga acceeatio

7 The primay fctio of the emi-cicla caa i to
(a) ee iear acceeratio,
() ee g cctio,
c) ee gravitatioa acceleratio,
d) eqaie prere ewee the middle ad ote ea.

8 The fctio of the oicle i the hma ea i to:
(a) ee agar acceleatio,
() eqaie the pree etwee the midde ear ad the ote ear,
(c) cove od wave ito erve imple efore they are tramited to the ai,
(d) pa od wave fom the ear drm to the ier ear

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

HE EARS - QUESIOS

Page -
9 The nto o the ohlea in the hma ear s

(a) to pass sod waves rom the ear drm to the iner ear
(b) to sense lear aeleratios,
() to onve sod waves to neve implses beore they are trasmted to the brain
(d) balane

1  Spatal orientaton s maintaned
(a) only by the vestiblar system,
(b) only throgh visal es,
() oly by a om biation o the semi-irlar aals ad visal es
(d) by a ombnation o the vestblar system and vsal es

 1  Presbysis s
(a) a temporary loss o hearig ased by hages in pressre,
(b) a natral loss o hearing with age,
() a loss o hearing whih an be orreted throgh medatio,
(d) a persstet riging in oe or both ears

 e o the tos o the ner ear is that o balane whh s ahieved throgh
(a) the vestiblar system whh omprses the sem-irlar anals and the otolith organs
(b) the vestiblar system whih omprses the ohlea ad the otolith orgas
() the vestiblar system whih omprises the otolth orgas and the ossiles,
(d) the vestiblar system whih omprises the ohlea ad the ossiles

13. he pat o the vestiblar system whih senses lear aeleratons s alled
(a) the ohlea,
(b) the semi-irlar aals,
() the otolith organs
(d) estahan tbe

1  I a plot is lyng wth a head old or simlar eto the sbseqent nlammatio may ase the
estahian tbe to beome bloed and the pilot may be sbjeted to
(a) a temporary loss o hearing
(b) veigo,
() a lod and persistent rigig n the ears,
(d) severe pan dring a deset

1  ver-stmlatio o the vestblar system may reslt n
(a) motio siess,
(b) a temporay loss o hearig,
() a bloked estahia tbe,
(d) ringng  the ears.

1 6. Dring a sdden deeleratio a plot may experiee a pthig down sensato. hs s nown as
(a) the inverson llso
(b) the ologravi or somatogravi llso
() the elevator llso,
(d) the leans

Privae Pilo Licence © AvexAir Training 0/2004

Revision 2/20o

THE EAS - QUESTIOS

Pge -3
7 Duig  udde cceetio  iot my exeiece  itchig u etio. Thi i kow 

() the iveio iuio,
() the e
(c) the eevto iuio
(d) the ocuogvic o omtogvic iuio.

 8 The etio, which my e et y  iot tht  ic i tuig whe the wg e i ct
eve i ced
() the iveio iuio
() the e
(c) the eevto iuio,
(d) the ocuogvic o omtogvic iuio.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

HAPTER 5 THE EYES

Page 5-1

THE EYES

A INTRODUTION
Of e five senses vsn is e ms cmmnly used and alug, fm e pls pin f view pe
fec vsn is n necessay gd funcnal vsn s ee ae vaius aspecs cncenng visn a
ae impan  pils and s a basc undesanding f e pysilgy and lmans f e eye s m
pan.

 PHYSIOLOGY
e eyeball s appximaely 3 mm in diamee and s peced n a bny sce in e sull Six
small muscles aaced  e skull and e eyeball, mve e eye up and dwn, fm side  sde
and als allw i a small wsing mvemen. e man cmpnens ae:

Fovea
Iris

Bind spot

Pupil

Coea

Lens

Retina Optic nee

Figre  Aatomy of the eye

1 . HE CORNEA
is s a anspaen windw f abu   - 1  mm wc seals e fn f e eye and allws lig
 pass ug i e suace f e cnea is cuved and s sme efacin  bending, f e
lg ays akes place, bu snce e sape is fixed and n muscles ae aaced  i e efacive
abiles cann be aleed Pecin f e cnea s acieved by e eyelds e mvemen f
wc aids e lubcan pcess.

 HE RIS
e iris, a pigmened  clued muscula membane s siuaed bend e cnea and cnains
an apeue knwn as e ppil e is s e fis means f enabling e eye  adap  canging
lg cndins In e case f p lg cndins e is cnacs eeby inceasng e sie f
e pupil and allwing me lg ug e evese ccus in vey big lg cndiin

3 HE LENS
e lens, lcaed mmedaely bend e is, s supped by e cliay muscles wic ae used 
cange s sape us enabling i  fcus e lig ays. e lens is cuved n b sides muc
lie e lens f a magnfying glass and as e muscles elax e lens flaens us educng e
cuvaue f is suface esuling in less efacin,  fcusing f e lg ays. e ppsie ccus
wen e muscles cnac and squeee e lens wc inceases is cuvaue eeby nceasing
e amun f fcusng s wuld ccu wen fcusing n an bjec clse a and.

s mecanism is nwn as accommodatio, a funcn wc ends  decease w age as e
lens becmes less flexble a pblem a can f cuse be ceced by weang glasses edness
 fague wll als influence e abily  accmmdae esulng in blued mages.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig  0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EYE

Pag 5
5. THE RETNA

T a, a so aspar lay o lig-ssv rvos ss, s locad a  ra o  y.
I coais wo dir yps o poo-rcpo clls ow as rods ad coes Nv rs l
s poocpo clls comig  a small aa o  ia as  optic erve.  s ara
r a o poocpors ad i is ow as  bid spot.

CONES
Ts a cocad aod a small cal ara o  ia, wc s dircly oppos 
ls calld  fovea. T cos wic ar gly ssv o colo ad or dig small
dail as wll as disa ocs, povid  s visal acy or accracy Ty acv
maximm iccy i codos o good llm ao, comg lss civ i poo lig ad
dass Sc or dirc visio s ocsd   oval go, cos ar mpoa o or
cetral visio.

RODS
T prmay co o  ods s o di movm,  o  dail ad avig o
pcpio o color oly i sads varyg rom lac o wi. Ty ar locad i aas away
om  ova, ar al o co i dm lg ad a s srmal  or periphera
vso,  cio o wc s ssial or o oao ad ig visio.

. VISUAL AUTY
Visal acy s  masr o a psos aliy o s. I is xpssd as  dsa a wc a p
so ca clarly s a oc rlaiv o  dsac a wc a prso wi omal vso ca clarly
s  sam ojc T m 6/6 (m), / () vso mas a a pso ca a disac o 6
ms  ), claly s  sam s o caacr a a ormal osv ca also s a a dis
ac o 6 ms ( ) Gras vsal aciy occs w  ial mag s ocsd o 
ova ad dcs ssaially owads  ppry Pysologcal acos wic wll ac vsal ac
y icld  qaliy o  cora  iccy o  ls ad  ssiivy o  ra, wils
o ilcs cld  si o  oc, o  dco ad lvl o illmaio as wll as 
coras w  oc g osrvd ad  acgod. Alog pipal viso s ssi
v o movm a oc ms  lood a dicly i odr o disgs dail

D REFRATIVE ERRORS
Raco is  ailiy o  cora ad  ls o d lg rays i ord o ocs m o  r
a o podc a mag. Raciv ors coss o
HYPERMETROPIA (Log sigdss)
Ts occrs w  racv powr o  y s oo wa As a rsl  coa ad ls ar
al o ocs a imag o  a T acal po o ocs wold occ yod  a.
Ts ca  a aal dc  ca also  xpcd o occ  old popl Foaly  ca
 corcd y wag covex lss
MYOPA (So sigdss)
I s cas  racv pow o  y s oo srog ad lg ays a ocsd  o o 
ra Ts ca also  corcd,  i s cas cocave lss wll d o  wo
ASTIGMATSM
Ts is a opcal c casd y vss o  car o  cor ad o a lss
x,  ls rslg  dsod mags. Ts ro ca  corcd y  s o varos
lss
PRESBYOPIA (Ag cags)
I mos popl, ar vsio dioras w ag d o cags i  ls maig i lss plial
ad or dcg  pocss o accommodao. T s sg o s codo s dcly 
radig  p  poor lig. I ca  mprovd w  s o corcv lss.

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EYES

Page 53

E MONOULAR AND INOULAR VISION
These tems ree to the use o oe eye (moocua) as opposed to the use o two eyes biocua) by
the same peso Whst ot ecessaily cosideed essetal or lyg there ae distict advatages i
havig both eyes availabe o vsio other tha just havg oe
By ocusg both eyes o the same object at the same tme ght rays wi eter the eyes at deet
agles resutg  deet images  both eyes. Ths s due ve smply to the act that the eyes are
located some dstace apa rom each othe ad ca be easily expereced by ooig at a object
with each eye i tur Far om beig a poblem the ba uses ths omatio to estimate the dis
tace o objects; the greater the dieece betwee the two images the coser the object is.
At the same tme the pobem o the bd spot is eased due to the act that ght ays rom the same
souce caot al smutaeousy o each blid spot. The object wi be see by oe eye ad the 
ormatio passed to the bai

F. VISUAL FATORS AFFETING THE PILOT
1  OLOUR VSION
Athough omal coou vsio is ot ecessarily essetia o a pilot the abty to distguish
betwee ed whte ad gee is especiay i espect o compiace wth ght lyig egulatios
Total coour bidess is ute rae curret estimates have t occurig  less tha 1 % o the
populatio but betwee 5% ad 1% o males have dcuty  dstguishg betwee ed gee
ad whte whlst up to % may have a degree o coou dececy Iceasig age may cause
yeowg o the corea ad es ad may decease the itesty o bue lght. t is ow that
smoig ad acoho also have a advese eect o colour viso. There s o cure o this
deicecy.
. NIGHT VSION
Physiologicaly ght vso s achieved through the rods because o their geater sestivty
Geatest ght visua acuity s achieved by oog sightly o-cetre at a object due to the act
that rods ae cocetated away rom the cete o the reta. Maximum ght eiciecy o the ods
may tae as much as 3 miutes to acheve ad thereore a peod o dar adaptatio may be
ecessay to acquire good ight vsio A vey bie exposure to bright lght eques a urhe period
o adaptato ad a good poicy o plots s to cose oe eye beore exposue to brght lght 
order to retai good ght visio i that eye Factors whch ca adversey aect ight visio cude
mid hypoxa smoig acohol stimuats mor ailmets ad iceasig age
3 GARE
Gae ca be caused by high atitude ight lyig just above a aye o cloud o diecty to a ow
su The cotrast  the evels o brightess outsde ad isde the cocpit may mae t dicult o
the pot to ead the istrumets or dspays ad esut  hm yg bid without realsg t. Good
quality sugasses ae a ecessa equiremet  ths id o evromet.
 DEPTH PEREPTON
Depth peceptio o the abity to judge dstace eures may cues The textue o a object
becomes moe obvous as t comes coser whch asssts  judgg height; the caty o a object
provdes cues as to its dstace -  hazy or misty codtos a object becomes bured mag t
more dicult to judge ts dstace ad the relative movemet o a object which appears to move
aster the cose it becomes aso plays a pat So too does biocula viso with athough beeca
is ot ecessarly esseta sice a perso with oe eye ca also use the cues metioed to assst
i detemg distace.
5 EMPY FIELD MYOPIA
Myopia meas shorsghtedess ad ths case is caused by ight at high atitude o at ight whe
thee s othig to loo at The eyes ted to adopt a restg ocus at a pot approximately two
metes away wth the esut that a dstat object has to be ary large i ode to be see a
obvousy dagerous stuato Ths ca be overcome by actively reocusg the eyes o dstat
objects such as the goud couds o stas.
6 ONTAT LENSES
These are oe used  peerece to taditioal spectacles ad have cetai advatages  that
they provide beter periphera vso ad are ot subject to mistg Howeve or the pilot there are
ceai associated poblems o sigiicace The corea ot havg its ow blood supply obtais

Private Pilot Licece ©Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

H YS

Page 5
oxygen o the aent a. Contat lenses an edue ths and ause ild hypoxia and oneal
daage as a esut Dehydation in the eye an aso ou as a esut o ow hudty in the
okpit uthe daagng the onea. Can deopesson an also ause a le etween the
ontat lens and the onea.
7 RADIAL KERATOTOMY
This s a ino sugia poedue on the eye y whih ean eative eos, paulay yopa
an e oeted y aking shalow nsions nto the onea. It does esult in a sustantal
weakenng o the eyeall stutue and ay aso gve ise to unstale eaton. It s theeoe, not
aeptae n ane tanspot plots and ay esult in the goundng o even a pvate plot o
seveal yeas.

G I N FETIONS AND DISEASE
Gven the potane o vson o the pot a knowedge o and teatent o, netions and dsease
o the eyes s useu. Soe o the oe ovous nude:
CONJUNCTIVITIS
The onjuntva s the ining o the inne suae o the eyelds and the exposed suae o the eye
an eoe itated and inlaed y exposue to ateal o va inetons and tants suh as
soke and dust The syptos ae a painu uning o stnging sensation and oodshot eyes,
whh an e exaeated in the dy ai o an aa okpit. Eyesght an e aeted and the
eyes eoe oe senstve to light Ths inetve o o this dsease (ateial o via s vey
ontagous and pilots shoud eain o lyng whist sueng o t Teatent is usualy y
antiots and the poe shoud lea withn a ew days.
CATARACTS
A ataat s the slow and paness loudng o the ea lens o the eye. As suh t wl aet vision
eause t pevents lght o eahing the etna Moe oen t s a podut o te ageing poess
and an suessuly e teated y sugey oowing whh speial glasses will hae to e won.
STY
Ths is a aily oon pole espeally n hiden. t s aused y an neton ong a yst n
the tea duts o ha olles whh an ause a swelng and eddening o the entie eyeld 
neessay t an e sugialy eoved
GLAUCOMA
This aly oon dsode s a esut o ineased pessue wthin the eyeal due to the
inadequate dainage o exess aqueous luid, whh  unteated an daage the opt neve and
lead to a paa o oplete oss o vson. It tends to ou oe oen n edey people and an
e heedtay. Teatent s usually n the o o eyedops athough sugey ay e neessay n
soe ases. Syptos nlude eye pan headahe and ued vson.

H OPTIAL ILLUSIONS
A piot opeatng in an envonent whih povdes iited visal ues ie ul o patal IMC o at nght,
and at the sae te s sueted to stess, owng pehaps to atigue o the natue o the ondtons
he enountes wil e apt to peeive what he wishes to peeive even to the exet o suppyng an
lusoy peepton. Ths ondtion anests tse in a nue o ways
(a FALSE HORZON
Coon duing light n paal IMC the pilot oseves sopng oud oations, an osued
hozon o at night, a oination o stas and gound ghts, and geoeti gond ght patens
al o whih pesent an lusion to a dsoentated pot o not eng oety agned wth the tue
hoion. As a esult the piot ay plae the aa in an noet, and thus potentally dangeous,
atitude.
( GROUND LIGHTING
Many plots, espeay n unalia aeas have staken ights along a staight oad o on a
ovng tain, as appoah o unway ghts. The judgeent o dstane ay also e aeted y
ght unway and appoah ight systes. The uson s that o ess dstane t the unway and
the natua esult s a hgh appoah. Silay, when ying ove a elatively unt aea, the ak o
ights edues height ues and the piot ay ly a ow appoah

Private Piot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EYES

Page 55
() AUTOINESIS

Ts s a lus peme tat maes a statc lgt appea t mve we staed at f a
perd f 8 t 1 0 secds  a da evrmet Te cause  ts peme s as yet, t
w
(d) LANING ILLUSIONS
Mst plts ave at sme tme r ter bee expsed t tese uss, w a be dvded t
tree areas f ccer
1  Te tal judgemet  te apprac slpe
 Mateace f te appa spe
3. udgemet f grud pxmty pr t tucdw
Setg up te tal appa spe a be geatly asssted by te use f ads suc as PAP ad
VASIS gtg systems Hwever, tere wl be may ccass we te ads are t avalabe
ad te pt must rely  s w udgemet Ts bvusly mpves wt experee, altug
expereed plts may st be caugt ut Te fllwg cmm luss are desrbed
() RUNWAY WITH

A vey aw uway may create te lus tat te arcraf s  act ger ta t s Ts
a resut  te ususpetg plt lyg a lwer appa wt te pssbty f tg
bstales  te appac pat, r eve adg st Te ppste a u wt a vey wde
uway, wt te esult tat te plt may flare t s ad ad ard,  vest mpletey
Bt stuats are exacebated at gt
() RUNWAY OR TERRAIN SLOPE
A uway,  tera, tat spes up may eate te lus tat te arraf s ge ta t s
Ts ca esut  te pt aga fyg a we appa wt ts eret rss A dw slpg
ruway, r tera, wl eate te ppste efect resultg  a g apprac
() FEATURELESS TERRAIN
Te absece  gud featues, su as da areas water et a create te lus f beg
ger ta te aa atualy s esutg  a w apprac
(v) ATMOSPHRIC

Ra  te arafs wdscee dsts te plts vs, creatg te lus f beg ge
Hae may esult  te plt tg e s fute away ta e actualy s Bt f tese
uss may esut  flyg a wer appa Flyg tug fg eates a lus 
ptcg up ad  ts ges uecgsed te pt may steepe te appa qute
dramatcaly wt pssble dsastrus csequeces

Private Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EYES - QUESTOS

· Pae -
QUESTIONS

(ANWER ON PAGE 
  he bes nih vision is achieved by

(a lookin diecy a an obec o ensue maximum exosue o he objec o he cones, which ae
moe eicien o nih vision,

(b ookin sihly o cene a an obec, which will alow he ods eae exosue due o hei
concenaion away om he cene o he eina (ovea,

(c eula, bie exosue o lih
(d ookin diecly a an objec o ensue maximum exosue o he objec o he ods, which ae

moe eicien o nih vision.

 In ode o alow moe ih o ene he eye
(a he iis conacs, which inceases he size o he uil,
(b he iis exands, which inceases he size o he uil
(c he ciiay muscles conac, which imoves accommodaion
(d he ciiay musces exand which inceases he sie o he ui.

3 Lon sihedness o hyemeoia
(a can be coeced only by suey,
(b can be coeced by weain convex lenses
(c can be coeced by weain concave enses,
(d can be comensaed o by he iis which conacs alowin moe lih o ene he eye

. Rods in he human eye ae
(a unable o uncion in dim lih
(b used o cena vision,
(c used o he eceion o colou,
(d used in eihea vision.

5 Good nih vision is deendan uon
(a cones which ae eecive in oo ih,
(b ods which ae abe o uncion in dim ih,
(c accommodaion, which inceases he size o he uil,
(d he iis which exands o incease he size o he ui

6 aial disoienaion, a condiion in which he subjec is unable o eceive his osiion, aiude
and moion eaive o he eah:
(a is mos commony caused by on em exosue o a hazadous noise envionmen,
(b can be immediaey evesed by eein o he aica ih insumens,
(c is caused by middle ea inecions invovin he cochea,
(d is easily cued by cosin he eyes and alowin he vesibua sysem o coec ise

7 A educion in h suy o bood o he eina may eul in
(a hyemeoia
(b myoia,
(c emy ield myoia
(d unne vision.

8 Emy ied myoia ees o
(a a condiion whee he eyes ado a esin ocus a a oin aoximaey  mees away,
(b a condiion caused by a educion in he suly o bood o he eina,
(c on sihedness,
(d a condiion in which he subec is unabe o eceive his osiion, aiude and moion eaive o
he eah

Privae Pilo Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

THE EYES  QUESTIOS
Page 5-

. A concave ens is se to
a) correc or long sigteness,
b) compensae or nnel vision,
c) correc or sor sigteness
) correc or empty ie myopia.

. A convex ens is se to
a) correc or long sigteness,
b) compensae or nnel vision,
c) correct or sort sigteness,
) correc or empy iel myopia.

  . e term accommoation" is se o escribe
a) te contraction or expansion o e iris in controling te amont o lig enerig te eye
b) te conracion or expansion o te ciiary mscles wic canges te sape  te lens
c) a coniion were te eyes aopt a resing ocs a a point approximately  meres away,
) a conition case by a recion in te spply o boo o te reina

. en ying an approac to an namiiar rnway a piot may ninenionay:
a) ly a low approac on a ownwar soping rnway
b) y a ig approac on an pwar sloping rnway
c) y a ig approac on a narrow rnway,
) y a ig approac on a ownwar soping rnway

13 en lying an approac o an namiliar rnway a pilot may nintentionally
a) ly a low approac on a ownwar sloping rnway,
b) ly a ig approac on an pwar soping rnway,
c) y a low approac on a narrow rnway
) ly a ig approac on a narrow rnway.

1 . en lying an approac o an namiiar rnway were tere is an absence o gon eares a
pilot may nintenionaly:
a) y a low approac,
b) ly a ig approac on an pwar sloping rnway,
c) y a ig approac,
) ly a ig approac on a narrow rnway

1 5. A nigt wen a stationary ig appears o move i i is stare a i is known as
a) an inversion ision,
b) aoinesis,
c) e oclogravic illsion,
) ypermeropia

Privae Pilot Licece © Avex Air Traiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200

HAPTER 6 PRESSURE

Page 61

PRESSURE 

A. INTRODUTION
he redcio of pressre wih alide ad is effecs o respiraio have bee discssed here are,
howeve, oher efecs ha he decrease o icrease for ha maer have o he hma body ad i a
professio ha eqies cosa chages i alide ad heefore presse, i is impora ha he pi
o be famiia wih hem

. THE GAS LAWS
he gas aws wih which we are cocered are he followig
1  BYLE'S AW
A a cosa emperare, he vome of a give mass of gas is iversey ropoioa o he
pessre o which i is sbjeced I ohe words as the pressre redces the gas expads
 DALN'S AW
he pressre exeed by a mixre of gases is eqal o he sm of he presses which each
wold sepaaely exer if i aoe occpied he space filed by he mixre
P aoher way presse is exered by a he gases i a mixe Partia pressre is he erm
sed o describe he pessre exered by ay oe of he gases i he mixre r cocer is
wih he paia pressre of oxyge P), as i afecs oxyge pake by he body e e

3.

 EFFETS OF PR ESSURE HAN GE
Esseialy, here ae hee efecs o he body brogh abo by pressre chage wih alide hese
are Hypoxia Barorama ad Decompessio Sickess Hypoxia has bee coveed i e 3
1  BARRAUMA
he body coais a mbe of gas filed caviies ha ca be described as eier closed ie o
commicaio wih he oside eviome sch as he gasroiesia rac, or semi-cosed, ie
commicaig direcly o idirecy wih he oside evirome, eg lgs, eas ad paraasa
sises
EFFECS F CHANGING PRESSURE N CLSED CAVIIES
a) HE ALIMENARY CANAL
I ormal, healhy idividas, he somach ad iesies coai bewee  ad  m of
gas his is mosly deived from swalowed air, from he acio of baceria wihi he bowe
ad from exchage wih he gases i he isses ad he blood Drig asce, he gas
coaied wihi he somach expads ad saly escapes pwards ad o of he moh
Gas bbbles wihi he large bowel say combie o form arge bbbes which are veed
hrogh he as Some discomfo ad eve severe pai may be experieced Usay i
oy becomes a probem a ove 5  f ad o damage de o expaso has ever bee
ecorded Passegers who have had rece bowel srgery shold o fy il a eas e
days afer he opeaio
b) HE EEH
iy pockes of air behid filligs especialy i lied filligs, may expad drig asce
leadig o severe pai kow as aeo/baodoalgia
EFFECS F CHANGING PRESSURE N SEM-CLSED CAVIIES
Accodig o Boyes Law as he pessre o a gas decreases, so he volme icreases Drig
asce i a aircraf, he pressre o he hma body decreases d he gas rapped i he
varios caviies wi expad Whee hee is resiced commicaio bewee a gas filled
caviy ad he oside amosphere gas expasio wil occr wiho dificly or discomfor ie
wid is passed ears pop ec If however he gas emais rapped i a caviy he expasio
ca case cosideable discomfor ad pai which may case damage o isses or orgas

Private Piot icece © Avex Air raiig 0/2004

Revisio 2/200