Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor

Long steel
cutting edge

Shaft wedged
tight rather
than tied

broad-bladed battle ax Decorated
The head of this ax has been hammered from guard
one iron bar. A long wooden handle was
wedged tightly into the socket to make an La Tène-style
effective weapon for hand-to-hand combat. decoration

date unknown
origin northern europe

Bronze does not Socket is
hold edge well hollowed-out

Wooden Boss protects
sheath with hollowed-out
bronze strips handhold on
the reverse
bronze axhead Holes for
cross-straps
Bronze battle axes, with sockets to take a
wooden shaft, are associated with the Celts iron-age dagger in sheath
from the earliest times. They were used as
tools but they were also useful in hand-to- This decorated iron dagger in its bronze
hand combat. They would become more sheath would have belonged to a
effective when made from iron. tribal chief. Iron blades showed status
in this period, and were also used for
date 750–650 bce everyday functions, but only in extreme
circumstances in battles fought with
origin unknown swords or spears.

date 550–450 bce
origin britain

Leaf-shaped head the battersea shield full view

bronze spearhead Pulled from the Thames River at
Spears and javelins played an important role Battersea Bridge in London in 1857,
in Celtic battle tactics. Charging the enemy, the this is the decorative bronze cover
infantry would hurl their javelins from about to a wooden shield. Almost certainly
90 ft (30 m) hoping to break up the ranks a parade shield, it seems too finely
ahead for single combat. Spears were used as wrought to have been used in combat.
thrusting weapons, by infantry and cavalry. Celtic shields were circular at first,
but during the Iron Age period, they
date 900–800 bce adopted the longer, full-body shield.
origin unknown
length 20 in (50 cm) date 350–50 bce

origin britain

length 30½ in (77.7 cm)

Shield has
27 studs of
red glass

3000 BCE–1000 CE 4 44–45 ancient roman weapons and armor 4 48–49 bronze- and iron-age weapons and armor

4 40–41 ancient greek weapons and armor

the ancient world anglo-saxon and the mass of anglo-saxon and Frankish
frankish weapons warriors were infantryman, who carried a shield
and armor and a dagger (a seax), often wore a helmet,
and fought with spears, axes, and the single-
bladed heavy weapon called variously the
scamasax, scramasax, or long seax.The nobility
and their retinues of professional soldiers had
more sophisticated armor and weaponry: chain
mail; spangenhelm helmets with neck and face
protection; angons (throwing spears similar
to the Roman pilum); and, of course, swords.

False, Blade of a Seax
unsharpened
edge Swords were extremely expensive
weapons, so most people carried
Grip made of wood or a blade that doubled as a fighting
bone wrapped in leather dagger and a working tool. Called
the sax or seax (the root of the
Blades name “Saxon”), examples have been
are always found from the 5th century onward.
single-edged
date 900–1000 ce

origin northern europe
weight 2 oz (0.06 kg)
length 9¾ in (24.76cm)

Tough single- Scamasax date 900–1000 ce Long grip
edged blade origin northern europe for wielding
The scamasax or scramasax is a long seax—the length weight 2 oz (0.06 kg) with both
of a sword—with a lower, curved, sharpened edge, and length 7½ in (19 cm) hands
no pommel. Crude, easier to manufacture than a sword,
and more like machetes, they were effective weapons Leaf-shaped
that would see service until the 15th century, providing spearhead
those who could not afford a sword with a long blade.

Short Saxon spear date 400–500 ce Socket hammered
origin northern europe tight to shaft
The main weapon of this period was the spear, carried length 8½ in (21.5 cm) and riveted
equally by a lord, his retinue, professional fighters, and
the mass of troops. There were two types, those used for
hand-to-hand combat and those thrown before contact
with the enemy, which tend to be lighter and, in the case
of the Frankish angon, much like the Roman pilum.

Long spears were
used by, or against,
cavalry

Grip made of Typical, slightly tapering,
wood or bone double-edged blade
covered with
leather

50

Wooden FRANCISCA throwing ax Iron head
curved angled
shaft The throwing ax was popular from the
with the Germanic warriors who shaft
fought against Rome in its later
years. It was used in a similar
way to the javelin—thrown before
contact with the enemy to create
gaps in their battle lines.

date 400–500 ce

origin europe

weight 15 oz (0.43 kg)

length 6¼ in (16.5 cm)

Elongated Plates held
lower edge together with
gives the name reinforced bands
“bearded” axe
NORTHERN EUROPEAN axhead
Axes were popular weapons because
they doubled as tools and were
cheap to make. The technique was
very simple. A strip of iron was folded
in half around a mandrel, creating a
socket. Between the two halves, the
cutting edge of harder iron or steel
was fire-welded in place. A wooden
shaft of suitable length was then
wedged into the socket.

date 900–1000 ce
origin northern europe
weight 17½ oz (0.50 kg)
length 8¾ in (22 cm)

Long Saxon spear date 400–500 ce frankish spangenhelm
origin northern europe
The use of spears is portrayed in the Anglo-Saxon poem length 19 in (48 cm) As with mail and armor,
about the Battle of Maldon in 991 CE. Eorl Byrhtnoth helmets were taken from the
throws two javelins, killing two men, before he himself Long head dead on the battlefield and
is wounded by a thrown Viking spear. Only then does he are rarely found in burials.
draw his sword. Thrusting spears were longer, with larger However, a sufficient number
heads such as this example, attached to the shaft with of these spangenhelm
a split socket and rivet. survived. The style originated
in the Middle East and spread
to Western Europe by the 3rd
century CE.

date 500–600 ce

origin western europe

Tip less sharp Cheek
than many guard
seaxes or
scamasaxes

Saxon sword date 500–600 ce
origin northern europe
Swords were expensive and time-consuming
to manufacture by pattern welding. They 51
were only used in Saxon society by people
of high rank or professional warriors, and
were objects of great veneration.

the ancient world 3000 BCE—1000 CE the seafaring scandinavians known as Norsemen
or Vikings have a special place in European history. From
4 50–51 anglo-saxon and frankish weapons and armor the British Isles to the Varangian Guard in Kievan Rus,
they came to symbolize the quintessential Dark-Age
viking weapons warrior. Striking from the sea in their longboats, they
and armor plundered the coasts of Europe before colonizing and
settling possibly as far afield as Novia Scotia.They were
Mail Shirt with DaggeD Points date 900–1000 ce well armed, in particular with swords and axes, but also
origin unknown with spears, javelins, and bows.They carried round
Initially worn only by the rich and powerful, shields and most wore helmets; many wore mail as well.
mail shirts, called brynja or hringserle, became
more common in the 11th and 12th centuries.

Iron axhead date 900–1000 ce
origin northern europe
This ax has a convex blade with a weight 17½oz (0.50kg)
hardened edge welded on separately, length 8¾ in (22 cm)
and a flattened ovoid socket. It would
have had a wooden handle.

Rings were Early mail Blade curves
riveted, was jerkin downward and
flame- (thigh) length inward
welded, but later Decoration continues
or with mid-calf over socket
overlapping
unriveted Hardened
ends iron or steel
to carry a
52 better edge

Bound
around
edge with
leather
or iron

Brightly Projections
painted, around socket
often with stop axhead
crosses once from shearing
Christianity
was adopted

full view

Painted Wooden Shield

The shield was an important part of
the Viking’s battlefield armory. Made
from wood, they were covered in
leather. This example is a replica.

date 900–1000 ce

origin northern europe

weight unknown

diameter 30–40 in (70–100 cm)

Shaped Dome
plates make composed of
up dome four plates

Spectacle
visor protects
eyes and nose

Metal-plated helmet date c.875 ce
origin norway
This is a reconstruction of a helmet
from fragments found in a grave at Gjermun-
dbu. It is made up of a dome of four plates
fixed to a brow band by two bars that criss-
cross the head.

Animal
decoration

Dome
strengthened
by keel rib

Nasal swedish helmet
offers nose
protection Discovered in a grave at Vendel in Sweden,
this conical helmet is similar to the
Gjermundbu find with its spectacle visor. date 800–900 ce
Most Viking warriors possessed helmets, origin sweden
but few would have been as ornate as this.

Silver wire Decorated
ornamentation nasal guard

engraved iron axhead Wenceslas helm date c.900 ce
origin czechoslovakia
This beautifully decorated axhead Named after the helmet from the Treasury
was found in Mammen in Jutland, of Prague Cathedral, the Wenceslas style is
and is the name for this style of characterized by its one-piece forging with
ornamentation. added brow band and nasal guard, which are
silvered and highly decorated.
date c.970 ce

origin denmark
length 6½ in (16.5 cm)

Dome
strengthened
by keel rib

Broad,
crescent-
shaped blade

Cutting edge made
of hardened steel

Long handle iron ax Gjermundbu-style helmet Spectacle
to allow two- visor to
handed blow This is one of three forms of Viking Another Gjermundbu-style helmet, this has a protect face
ax, the bearded ax whose elongated spectacle guard riveted to a brow band and
lower edge and slanting blade two strengthening bands to hold together the date c.900 ce
favored downward blows. four plates that make up the dome. origin norway

date c.900 ce

origin unknown

53

the ancient world 3000 BCE–1000 CE

4 50–51 anglo-saxon and frankish weapons and armor

Viking Weapons
and Armor

full view

Guard formed of large Two-edged 8th–9th century Viking sword date 900–1000
boat-shaped plate pattern-welded blade origin unknown
Typical iron This iron sword is typical of Viking weapons, length 35½ in (90 cm)
Straight guard double-edged being straight-sided and about 35½ in
blade (90 cm) long. It has a two-piece pommel
Large and guard, both of which are decorated
decorated with an interlace pattern in brass inlay.
pommel The blade is inlaid in iron on one face
with a figure-of-eight mark.
Hilt decorated with
geometric patterns Double-edged sword date 800–1100
of silver and brass origin denmark
There were many variations in Viking swords, length 90cm (35½in)
mainly in the form of the pommel, guard, and hilt.
Most blades were double-edged with a rounded
tip because they were used for big, slashing
blows delivered to miss a shield or defensive
parry, which could severely damage the blade.

Rounded Pattern-welded Embellished Double-edged sword
pommel blade
Many Viking swords such as this one were
pattern-welded for extra strength. This ancient date 700–800
process involves introducing carbon into the red- origin denmark
hot iron and making a number of rods. These are length 35½ in (90 cm)
twisted and forged together with rods containing
less carbon, producing a patterned appearance.

late Viking sword Viking sword blade date 900–1000
This broad, straight, two-edged blade retains origin unknown
traces of an inlaid inscription, now indecipherable, This later Viking sword blade is much corroded, length 80–100cm (c.31–39in)
and a scroll-design pommel; the grip is missing. as are so many found on archaeological sites.
The sword is more tapered than earlier versions. Their wooden scabbards and hilts have almost
date 900–1150 always completely rotted away, making
origin scandinavia interpretation of runic inscriptions very difficult.
length 35½ in (90 cm)

Hilt
arrangement

54

Rounded
pommel

Blade Longer blade
strengthened used for
by rib thrusting

Winged spearhead Pommel top held
in place by rivets
This lugged or “winged” spearhead, of Decoration on
a type used for war and hunting, has a hilt also serves
corroded iron head, leaf-shaped blade of to provide grip
flattened diamond-section—now curved Vikings often
out of true by heat or burial—and a tapered decorated
iron socket. The wings can catch and lock sword hilts in
an opponent’s weapon in hand-to-hand gold or silver
combat, stop a blade from sliding down
the spear toward the user’s hands, and
can hook a shield out of the way.

date 700–800

origin northern europe

length 18 in (47 cm)

Lozenge-shaped spearhead Many thrusting
spears have wings
Throwing spears were important Viking on either side
weapons, and their use is recorded in the sagas,
including stories of those who could throw two Viking sword hilt date c.700–1050
at once. Olaf Tryggvasson was said to be able origin northern europe
to do this from each hand at the same time. This sword hilt has a characteristic Viking rounded
pommel – it is probably made from copper and
date 600–1000 decorated with inlaid geometric designs in silver. The
sword is too finely crafted to have been used in battle
origin northern europe and would have been carried by a chieftain to show
his status or used in ceremonies.
length 14¼ in (36.6 cm)

Fuller to Thick, square-section, Semi-circular pommel
lighten blade downward-pointing quillons
Later blades taper 55
more toward the point

the middle ages



the middle ages Many of the weapons, tactics, and forms From 955 ce, when the heavy cavalry
of social organization popularly held to be of Otto I of Germany crushed the lighter
characteristic of the Middle Ages had, in fact, mounted Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld,
been prefigured in late antiquity. Heavy cavalry, Europe experienced a period of comparative
the holding of land in exchange for military peace.Yet, it was also a time of political
service, religious warfare, and the struggle of fragmentation, as, most notably in France and
urban cultures against incursions by mounted Germany, the centralized kingdoms of the 9th
nomads were themselves new phenomena. century gave way to a constellation of smaller
What altered at the end of the medieval period states often no larger or more enduring than
was the growth in the capacity of states to the ability of a local warlord to enforce his will.
maintain a centralized administration and the As the capacity of royal courts to organize large
appearance of gunpowder weapons—powerful armed bodies declined, a system of feudalism
indicators of changes to come. arose to fill the breach (see box page 60).

the emergence of mounted armies
The core of feudal armies was formed by
mounted men-at-arms—not all of them
knights.The ability to fight on horseback—as
opposed to merely arriving by horse on the
battlefield or engaging with the enemy at
bow-shot distance—had been hugely enhanced
in the 8th century with the arrival in Europe
of the stirrup, which gave a mounted warrior
a much more stable platform from which to
employ swords or spears.The characteristic
dress of such 11th- and 12th-century fighters
is summed up in the 1181 Assize of Arms of
Henry II of England, which declared “let every
holder of a knight’s fee have a hauberk [coat of
mail], a helmet, a shield and a lance.”

Such armies were expensive to maintain
and inflexible, and as the obligatory period
of service was so short, campaigns could not
be long.This, and the need to avoid casualties
among the hard-to-replace heavy cavalry,
meant that the raid or chevauchée came to be
the standard form of warfare. Pitched battles
were relatively rare, although those large-scale
battles that did occur, such as the defeat of the

norman attack
William of Normandy’s mail-clad army assault the
Breton town of Dinan, defended by a motte-and-
bailey fortification, in the style the Normans would
import into England.

1008 1066 1085 1100 1167–77 1192
Death of Abd Battle of Hastings; Spanish European knights Wars of Kamakura
Al-Malik; break- Normans conquer capture adopt use of Frederick shogunate
up of Muslim Toledo from couched lance Barbarossa established
caliphate of England the Moors and the in Japan
Cordoba c.1040 Lombard
First recipe for League
1000 gunpowder in a
Chinese source 1075 1150

1025

1014 1027 1046 1077–1122 1096 1144–46 1187 1197

Vikings Church Council at Arrival of Wars of Investiture First Crusaders Battle of Richard I

defeated by Toulouse proclaims Norman in Germany and Italy Crusade lose County Hattin. builds Chateau

Brian Boru at “Truce of God,” Robert between Emperors sets out of Edessa Saladin Gaillard on
58 Clontarf
limiting fighting Guiscard in Henry IV and V and (1099 —leading defeats the Seine in
to Mondays, Southern supporters of Papacy capture to Second crusaders France

Tuesdays, and Italy Jerusalem) Crusade

Wednesdays and

banning it in Lent

English king Harold II by the Norman
Duke William at Hastings in 1066, were
all the more decisive for it.

William’s army is depicted on the Bayeux
Tapestry clothed in mail and sporting conical
helms. A large portion of the Norman army
was, in fact, composed of archers, with
shortbows or mechanical crossbows. At
Hastings, massed volleys of arrows, combined
with hit-and-run cavalry attacks, overcame
the English shield wall manned by Harold’s
huscarls, warriors of undoubted effectiveness
wielding two-headed axes, but who lacked
the mobility to counter the Norman tactics.

castle building Levant were composed mostly of lightly mongol warriors
The establishment of Norman rule across armed mounted archers, who used their Genghis Khan’s Mongol cavalry were almost
England was accompanied by a program maneuverability and elusiveness to deft effect unstoppable on open terrain, even against other
of castle building.The rapid spread of such in wearing down and picking off the more mounted opponents such as the Tartars.
fortifications controlled by local magnates, cumbersome Crusader knights.Western
rather than the royal courts, became a defining armor had by this time become heavier, with the crusading army dismounted and fought
feature of the political landscape of western the mail coat reaching down to the knee, and as infantry. But states came increasingly to
Europe. In England, these were at first of the long kite-shaped shields intended to provide rely on pure footsoldiers, first in a supporting
motte-and-bailey type with a fortified wooden maximum protection on horseback. Armed role, and then as a principal element in their
tower constructed on an earth mound. By with couched lances, a massed charge by the armies.This was particularly marked from the
the 13th century, they had become more crusader knights, as at Arsuf in 1191, could be 13th century as the economic power of
sophisticated affairs of stone, with concentric devastating, but equally, as when Saladin wore towns grew and their capacity to provide
rings of defenses and rounded towers to guard down the Christian army through heat and soldiers burgeoned. In 1340, Bruges was able
against undermining. Castles such as Harlech in thirst at Hattin in 1187, such a heavily to raise 7,000 men from its population of
Wales or Chateau Gaillard in France could be armored force could rapidly become 35,000. Armed with weapons such as
defended by relatively small numbers of trained ineffective if denied supply and shelter. polearms, which required less training than
troops and, if well provisioned, withstand quite the equipage of a knight, the later medieval
extensive sieges.Wars came to center on the One solution to over-reliance on an infantry relied on solidarity and massed
reduction of such strongholds by storming, expensive and inflexible mounted arm was formations, very much in the spirit of the
diplomacy, or—most often—by waiting for to increase the role of footsoldiers. In truth, Macedonian phalanx.
hunger or disease to strike down the defenders; knights often did fight on foot—at Dorylaeum
in 1138 King David of Scotland captured Wark in 1097 during the First Crusade, one half of
Castle by allowing the garrison to go free and
even providing them with horses to replace
their own, which they had been forced to eat.

the crusades
Further refinements in military architecture,
such as the use of castellation, were imported
from the Middle East during the time of
the Crusades.The Muslim armies of the

1206 1282–1302 1396 1448
Muslim sultanate Battle of
of Delhi War of the Sicilian Nicopolis; Battle of
established Ottomans
Vespers defeat Kosovo Polje;
1212 combined
Battle of Las 1241 1302 1331 Hungarian- 1415 Ottomans 1477 1494
Navas de Tolosa; Mongol Gunpowder French Battle of defeat Charles the Bold Charles VIII of
Aragonese crush invasion 1298 Battle of weapons crusading Agincourt; France invades
Moorish Almohads of eastern Edward I Courtrai; used at siege army Hungarians of Burgundy Italy, beginning the
Europe beats Scots Flemish of Friuli defeated and
at Falkirk; infantry English killed at Nancy Italian Wars
early use of beat Philip
longbow IV of France longbowmen 1450

defeat French

mounted

knights

1200 1250 1350 1500

1206 1219–21 1244 1291 c.1300 1337 1410 c.1420 1453 1492
Genghis Fifth Muslim Muslims Japanese Hundred Battle of Corned powder Constantinople Granada, last Muslim
Khan Crusade forces retake take last Years Tannenberg; developed. taken by emirate in Spain falls
becomes Jerusalem crusader swordsmiths War Teutonic First German Ottomans; Battle to Christian army
Mongol stronghold, starts knights crusade against of Castillon, Earl 59
leader Acre perfect defeated by the Hussites of Shrewsbury
katana Poles defeated by
sword French (Hundred
Years War ends)

the middle ages Feudalism A defining moment came in 1302 at Courtrai, favor the heavy cavalry charge, even when the
when a force of Flemish burghers, armed with terrain slowed and channeled their progress to
“Feudalism” is a modern term to describe the pikes and spears, routed an army of French make them especially vulnerable to arrow-fire.
complex system of land tenure and military knights as it stumbled through a muddy,
obligation that characterized medieval Europe. broken terrain of ditches and trench traps. One response to this weakness was to
In its classic form, feudalism meant that each increase the protective capacity of the knight’s
man had an overlord (or liege) and provided him the crossbow and the longbow armor yet further. In the 14th century, open
with services—most often military—in exchange The infantry did not rely solely on static helmets were replaced with closed “great
for the holding of land (the fief). It was ideally defensive weapons such as pikes, or close- helms” and the following century saw the
adapted to a situation where rulers needed quarter bludgeons such as clubs. An increase in gradual introduction of full plate armor,
the effectiveness of missile technology brought which became increasingly elaborate and
to supply land to maintain a crossbows and, most particularly, longbows to beautifully worked. Although fluting of the
military elite for the realm’s prominence on the battlefield.The crossbow metal and the molding of the pieces to the
defense, but fared less well was already well-established in Europe by 1139 physique of the wearer meant they were not
as towns grew in importance when the Lateran Council sought—in vain as impossibly heavy as they seemed, such suits
and sovereigns could buy —to ban its use against Christians because of of armor were almost luxury items, affordable
the services of soldiers the terrible wounds it inflicted.The crossbow only by the aristocracy.While they might
(including mercenaries) bolt’s penetrative power and the fact that to protect and mark out commanders, they were
outside the system of use it required little expertise, meant its use a further indication that armies composed
feudal obligations. became extremely widespread.The English, largely of mounted knights were on the
however, favored the longbow, which required verge of obsolesence.
an oath great strength—both in its construction and
of fealty from the archer—but whose rate of fire was the mongols
roughly four times that of a crossbow. Although In the mid-13th century, another group of
first used to real effect at Falkirk against the light cavalry again showed the power of massed
Scots in 1297, the longbowmen played a key horse archers.The Mongols emerged from
role during the Hundred Years War in defeating central Asia, overwhelming first northern
the French at Poitiers in 1356 and Agincourt China—which they took in 1234—then
in 1415. In both cases, however, the French Persia and the Muslim states of the Levant,
army also fell victim to a persistent tendency to before sweeping down on Russia and eastern
Europe in the 1240s. Relying on light,

courtrai chest

A scene from the Battle
of Courtrai (1302), where
Flemish communal infantry
held firm against a French
cavalry charge. It became
known as the “Battle of the
Golden Spurs” due to the
number of spurs collected
from the defeated French
knights on the field.

chinese mace

This mace, with a strap to secure it to the
bearer’s arm, is typical of the weaponry
carried by the Mongols during their rule
over China (1279–1368)

mounted bowmen who could travel long gunpowder came to be known in Europe— The first handguns had appeared in the early
distances rapidly, even in adverse conditions, “Chinese salt.”The Ming, indeed, had a 1400s—by 1421 John the Fearless of Burgundy
the Mongols were able to bring opponents military school by the early 1400s specifically was said to have 4,000 in his army.Yet it was
to battle on their own terms.They employed tasked with instructing soldiers in the use not until the introduction, from around 1450,
tactics of surprise and terror to such effect of firearms, and also employed dragoons— of matchlock arquebuses, which were possible
that many towns simply surrendered to them mounted handgunners. —just—to reload in combat, that the handgun
rather than risk the wholesale slaughter of their began to find a place on the battlefield. Even
citizenry. In April 1241, within a few days, they Although cannons were used by the English so, the late 15th century was very much a
simply crushed two European armies of Poles at Crécy in 1346, it was only at the very end of time of transition: as late as 1494, half the
and Hungarians that dared to face them. the period that firearms really began to play a French army that invaded Italy was composed
Only the capricious nature of the Mongol significant role.This was most notable in siege of heavy cavalry, while, in contrast, the Swiss
dynastic succession saved western Europe warfare, where the problems of transporting mercenaries who defeated the Burgundians at
from utter devastation. the massive cannons was less pressing than Nancy in 1477 were composed of a combined
in battlefield use.The huge bombards used force of pikemen mixed with handgunners.
early firearms by the Ottomans against Constantinople in The Burgundians could not penetrate the
During their Chinese campaigns, the Mongols 1453 heralded a brief age in which strong Swiss phalanx, leaving them vulnerable to
would, for the first time, have faced a new fortifications were no longer a reliable volleys of fire from the handgunners.
type of weaponry—firearms.The earliest recipe protection for defending forces. It was not,
for gunpowder comes from the Wujing Zongjao however, until the introduction of iron balls, By the early 16th century, the idea of
(c.1040), while the Chinese may have used which meant cannons could be smaller, and military obligation in return for land had faded
“fire-lances” against the nomadic Jurchen in corned powder (around 1420), which gave in western Europe and, elsewhere, states, such
1132.The Mongols themselves used primitive them more power, that field artillery became as those of the Ming and the Ottoman Turks
gunpowder weapons in their abortive invasions a possibility.The victory of the French at were consolidating to such an extent that
of Japan in 1274 and 1281, but it was their Castillon in 1453, when Jean Bureau’s cannons central resources were once again equal
successors, the Ming, who first exploited raked the English army and forced its flight, to deploying larger armies and keeping them
them, justifying the name by which was perhaps the first example of a victory in the field for extended periods.The world
won through its use. lay on the verge of a military revolution.

renaissance battle

Serried ranks of heavily armored lance-wielding knights
from Florence and Siena fought at the Battle of San Romano
in 1432—a style of warfare soon to be rendered obsolete.

1000—1500 3 104–105 european infantry and cavalry swords 3 180–183 european swords 1775–1900

3 102–103 two-handed swords

the middle ages European in medieval europe the sword was the most highly regarded
swords of weapons. It was not only a magnificent weapon of war—often
handed down through the generations—but had evolved into
a symbol of status and prestige; a man became a knight by the
dubbing of a sword on his shoulders. Early medieval swords were
heavy cutting weapons that were used to hack their way through
mail.The development of high-quality plate armor encouraged
the introduction of sharply pointed thrusting swords, whose blades
became progressively longer.

Round Straight cross-guard
pommel

crusader sword Double-edged
This type of sword—with its broad cutting blade
blade, simple cross-guard, and
pommel—became popular during Ricasso: part of Heavily
the Crusades, and spread throughout blade close to hilt corroded
Europe. The heavy cutting blade left unsharpened blade
would have been devastating
against lightly armed opponents. Wooden grip Arabic
bound with cord inscription
date 12th century
origin western europe
weight 2 lb (1.27 kg)
length 38 in (96.5 cm)

Large wheel
pommel

full view

italian sword date c.1400 Curved finger guard
origin italy Traces of
Probably Italian in origin, the Arabic inscription weight 1 lb (0.76 kg) gilding
on this sword’s ricasso—a part of the blade close length 41 in (104 cm)
to the hilt—states that it was given to the Arsenal
of Alexandria by an Egyptian Sultan in 1432. The
long ricasso enabled the swordsman to hook his
forefinger over the cross-guard and grip the blade,
thereby providing better control.

“Scent-stopper” Remains of Droplike
form pommel wooden grip terminals
survive
Rose-window
pattern

Circular cross- Straight two-
section, straight edged blade
cross-guard

62

french sword date 14th century Downward- curving Large
origin france quillons on cross-guard round
Reflecting the need to overcome the plate armor that weight 2 lb (1.16 kg) Diamond-shaped pommel
was becoming increasingly common in the 14th century, length 33 In (85.7 cm) cross-section to
this powerful sword would have been used for both blade
delivering heavy cutting blows and for thrusting. The
double-edged blade is wide at the hilt and tapers rapidly
to a sharp point to penetrate an opponent’s armor.

Sharp point
for penetrating
armor

Disc pommel with
chamfered edges

riding sword date c.1325 Straight, Thin grip
origin england tapering Raised shield
This heavily corroded sword, reputedly discovered in weight 1 lb (0.71 kg) quillons with incised
the Nene River in England, is termed a “riding sword.” It length 31 in (80 cm) coat of arms
has a decorated copper-alloy disc pommel, and quillons
slightly inclining toward the blade, which is double-
edged, and of a flattened diamond cross-section.

Long double-edged blade english sword date 14th century Hexagonal cross-
Fuller: a groove running origin england section quillons
down the blade to This sword is distinguished by its long, tapering, and weight 1 lb (0.76 kg)
make it lighter while slightly down-curved quillons. Thought to be English- length 41 in (104 cm) Short tang
maintaining its strength made, it has a short tang and a small wheel pommel, Small
and its double-edged blade incorporates a single, wheel
shallow fuller for two-thirds of its length. pommel

Heavily corroded with Slender, down-
“bites” out of edge curved tapering
quillons
castillon sword date mid 15th-century
63
This is one of a group of at least 80 swords said to come origin england
from the same find spot in Castillon, France, where a weight 2 lb (1 kg)
battle was fought between English and French forces in length 43 in (109.2 cm)
1453. The iron hilt consists of a pommel of “scent-stopper”
form, and a straight cross-guard with droplike ends.
Vestiges of the original wooden grip and gilding survive.

1000—1500 3 104–105 european infantry and cavalry swords 3 180–183 european swords 1775–1900

3 102–103 two-handed swords HAND-AND-a-HALF SWORD
Also known as a “bastard” sword, this long-bladed
the middle ages European weapon was primarily used for thrusting at an opponent.
Swords To improve direction and give greater power, it was
Long, tapering provided with an extra long handle so that it could
double-edged be gripped with both hands on occasion. date early 15th century
blade origin england
weight 3 lb (1.54 kg)
H-shaped hilt length 37 in (119 cm)
usually made from
wood or bone Rounded
guard

Distinctive one-sided Single-edged
pommel shape blade

baselard date 1480–1520 Forward quillon
origin england bent forward
This simple, single-edged short sword weight 1 lb (0.57 kg) toward the blade
would ideally be used against lightly length 27 in (69 cm)
armored opponents. A weapon of the
ordinary soldier, this sword type was
popular in northwest Europe in the
14th and 15th centuries.

Extended Rear quillon Single-edged
one-sided extended blade
pommel backward
full view

bronze gilded sword date 15th century Double-edged blade
origin italy
This ornate sword features bronze gilding to both the weight 3 lb (1.34 kg)
hilt and the pommel. The grip is made from black horn length 34 in (88.3 cm)
and is carved to flow into the fish-tailed pommel. The
four-sided, double-edged blade is in remarkably good
condition and tapers to a sharp fine point.

64

Long thin fuller Octagonal
pommel
Exceptionally long Long tang
ricasso of 6 in with no grip
(16 cm) length
Straight,
square quillons

Straight
quillons

DOUBLE-EDGED sword Double-edged blade Long
pronounced
A rusted knight’s medieval broadsword characterized date 1150–1200 fuller
by a broad blade and rounded point. Distinctive features origin germany
also include a simple cross-guard, short hilt, and large weight 4 lb (1.95 kg)
oval pommel. It would have been used primarily as a length 32 in (82.2 cm)
heavy cutting sword.

full view date c.1500 Double looping
origin england finger guards
short sword weight 1 lb (0.79 kg)
length 29 in (74.5 cm)
Used primarily by foot soldiers, this English-style sword
was designed with a single edge and a sharp point. The Tang
quillons are extended in length, and the rear quillon bent without
upward and backward toward an extended pommel, grip
thereby forming a simple knucklebow.

Wheel
pommel

Double-edged transitional sword
blade of hexagonal
cross-section This sword is a transitional weapon,
moving away from the classic cross-hilt
Bronze Carved black medieval sword and looking ahead to the
gilded horn grip rapier of the 16th century. The short tang
guard suggests that the swordsman’s fingers
Fish-tailed would have gripped the ricasso, protected
pommel by a double finger guard. 65

date c.1500

origin italy

weight 2 lb (0.94 kg)

length 40 in (103 cm)

1000—1500 3 124–125 weapon showcase: wakasashi samurai sword 3 188–189 chinese and tibetan swords

3120–123 japanese samurai swords

the middle ages Japanese the swords used by Japanese samurai warriors were among the
and Chinese finest cutting weapons ever made. Japanese swordsmiths were elite
swords craftsmen who used a process of smelting, forging, folding, and
hammering to create curved blades that were immensely hard, but not
brittle. Only the steel of the sharp cutting edge was water-quenched to
full hardness.The softer back of the blade (the mune) was used to block
blows—the samurai carried no shield. Chinese swords, sometimes
straight rather than curved, had little of the almost mystical prestige
of their Japanese equivalents.

Black lacquered
rattan

Rayskin Menuki
covering
on hilt

aikuchi date 19th century
origin japan
The aikuchi was one of the many types weight ¼ lb (0.28 kg)
of Japanese dagger, distinguished by length 22 in(c.55 cm)
having no hand guard (tsuba). It was
often carried by ageing samurai in Sageo (cord)
semi-retirement. This aikuchi, shown fastened
with its scabbard, is a 19th-century scabbard to belt
reproduction of a medieval weapon.
Mune (flat back
Brown silk k atana of blade)
binding
The samurai’s long sword, the katana, date 1501
Habaki (blade collar) was worn with the cutting edge origin japan
uppermost, so it could deliver a sweeping weight 1½ lb (0.66 kg)
cut in a single movement. This katana length 36¾ in (94 cm)
is signed by swordsmith Kunitoshi.

Tsuba (hand
guard)

Sageo (cord)
of gilded
Dutch leather

Kashira Wooden hilt covered with
(pommel) ray- or sharkskin, then
wrapped in braid

66

Scabbard bound chinese sword date c.1570 Monster motif
with gilt iron origin china decoration on
This sword, decorated with Buddhist weight 3 lb (1.30 kg) handguard
emblems, was made for presentation to a length 35½ in (90.3 cm) Kissaki
Tibetan monastery. It is shown in its leather- (point)
covered iron-bound wooden scabbard.

High shinogi
(ridge line)

Hamon (temper Scabbard
pattern) on blade coated with
edge brown lacquer

Menuki (hilt
ornaments)

wakizashi date 17th century
origin japan
This 16th century-style wakizashi was a weight 1 lb (0.42 kg)
samurai’s shorter sword, and was normally length 26½ in (67 cm)
carried paired with the katana. A useful
secondary weapon, it was worn indoors when
the katana was set aside at the entrance.

k atana date 15th century tachi mounting
origin japan
Attributed to the Shizu group of weight c.1¼ lb (1 kg) The tachi sword was worn slung from a belt,
swordsmiths, this katana blade dates length 42 in (107 cm) to which it was attached by the sageo (cord)
from the Sengoku period. The sword could on its scabbard. In this late example of an
be used with one hand, though a two- earlier style, the sageo is made of gilded
handed grip was needed for full power. leather, traded from the Dutch. The tachi
was, for most of Japanese history, the proper
mount to be worn with armor. date 18th century
origin japan
weight ¼ lb (0.13 kg)
length 29¼ in (74.5 cm)

Laquered wooden
scabbard

Kojire (scabbard end)

67

1000—1500 3 134–135 asian daggers 3 192–193 indian and nepalese daggers

3 130–133 european daggers 1500–1775 the vast array of medieval dagger types was used mainly
for thrusting at an opponent: for self-defense, assassinations, and for
the middle ages EUROPEAN close-combat fighting where a sword would be too cumbersome.
DAGGERS Traditionally, daggers were considered a weapon of the low-born,
but, during the 14th century, men-at-arms and knights began to
carry them, the weapon normally being worn at the right hip.

Pommel curls Tang tapering Scrolling
backward toward blade quillons
around rivet

quillon dagger date 14th century Double-edged blade with
origin england rectangular cross-section
So named because it resembles a scaled- weight 0.2 lb (0.1 kg) Inlaid brass
down version of a sword, with prominent length 12 in (31 cm) mark in center
quillons that curve down toward the of ricasso
blade. This example has an unusual
pommel—mirroring the quillons—that
is curled around a rivet. Sword daggers
were typically carried by men of high
rank, especially when not wearing armor.

Inlaid
geometric
design

quillon dagger date c.1400
origin england
This example of a sword dagger has a weight 0.3 lb (0.1 kg)
distinctive brass pommel and quillons with length 11 in (27.94 cm)
an inlaid geometric design. The blade has
a short ricasso with a mark inlaid in brass Heavy
at the center, and the original grip is missing faceted blade
from the tang.

S-shaped
quillons

Hammerhead Single-edged blade
projection from
pommel

quillon dagger baselard date: 15th century
origin: europe
A good example of the more basic The name possibly derives from the Swiss weight 0.3 lb (0.14 kg)
and widely used daggers of the late city of Basel, and the baselard (or basilard) length 12 in (30.5 cm)
Middle Ages, crudely constructed for was in use throughout western Europe in the
the ordinary fighting man. This dagger’s 14th and 15th centuries. This example has a
unusual features are its hammer-head reconstructed H-shaped hilt—made of bone
pommel and the horizontally S-shaped —combined with the original broad blade
quillons of the guard. that tapers to a sharp point.

date 15th century

origin england

weight 0.6 lb (0.29 kg)

68 length 15 in (40 cm)

quillon dagger date 16th century Symmetrical Crown-shaped
origin england brass quillons brass pommel
This English dagger is distinguished by brass quillons, a weight 0.6 lb (0.26 kg) Hand grip made from
crown-shaped brass pommel, and an unusual scalloped length 13 in (34.5 cm) scalloped bone or
grip highlighted with pins. The heavy, single-edged close-grained wood
blade—triangular in shape with a spearpoint—could
have been used for both thrusting and cutting.

Single-edged blade with Brass pin
triangular cross-section Round pommel
Lower rondel with fitted with conical
wooden hilt metal cap

Lozenge-
section blade

rondel dagger date 15th century
origin england
The rondel dagger is distinguished by its round, weight 0.5 lb (0.23 kg)
disclike guard and pommel. It was also known length 13 in (35 cm)
as a dague à rouelles and was a popular dagger
with the gentry and aristocracy. In this example,
the tang runs directly through the hand grip
and attaches to the pommel.

Hilts often carved from
wood, horn, or ivory

ballock dagger date c.1500 Distinctive Circular grip flaring out
origin england rounded hand toward the pommel
Also euphemistically known as a “kidney dagger,” this weight 0.4 lb (0.17 kg) guard
weapon was named after the distinctive shape of its guard, length 13 in (34.9 cm)
with two rounded lobes. The ballock dagger was used
throughout Europe, although it was most popular in England
and the Low Countries, and equipped soldiers of all ranks.

Heavily patinated, Quillons formed
double-edged blade by two bone plaques

Brass strip

battle of hattin

Using crossbows, arrows,
swords, and staff weapons, as
well as the heat of the desert, Saladin
and his army defeated the Christian crusaders
in 1187 at the Horns of Hattin, near Lake Tiberias in
northern Palestine. The loss of this battle was a disaster
that led to the destruction of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.



1000—1500 3 140–141 european two-handed staff weapons

3 136–137 european one-handed staff weapons

the middle ages European the long, two-handed staff weapons of the Middle Ages
Staff were used primarily by infantrymen as a defense against the
weapons usually invincible armored knight. At the battle of Courtrai in
1302, a rag-tag army of Flemish peasants and townspeople defeated
a force of armored French cavalry using long, axlike weapons,
a forerunner of the halberd. Cavalry were also armed with pole
arms, although these were single-handed weapons such as the war
hammer and mace.They could be wielded on horseback and were
capable of causing severe injuries to even the best-protected men.

full view Hammer head

poleax Rondel to Langet: steel strip to Long thin
protect hands protect shaft from spike
edged weapons Broad
The poleax was a multi-purpose weapon: the spike date 1470 axhead
was used for thrusting, the ax blade for cutting origin france Fluke Spike
through armor, and the hammer head for crushing length head 12½ in (32 cm) Socket Long blade
tissue and bones. This poleax has long langets and Long spike
a rondel or disc to protect the bearer’s hands from
weapons sliding down the shaft.

Langet

halberd date c.1480
origin switzerland
Developed by the Swiss in the 13th century, length head 18½ in (47.3 cm)
the halberd was primarily a slashing weapon,
although its spike could be used for thrusting. Hole to
The fearsome Swiss infantry used halberds to attach crest
great effect at the battle of Morgarten, where
they destroyed an Austrian army, in 1315.

Angled
narrow
blade

Langet pin german halberd date c.1500
origin germany
Small fluke During the 16th century, halberds became length head 16¼ in (41.2 cm)
increasingly decorative in style, but this example,
dated around 1500, is very much a utilitarian
weapon of war. A powerful spike is combined
with a diagonal ax blade and a hooked fluke.

Attachment of lower
part of blade to shaft

bardiche Small spike

Popular in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and Turkey date late 15th century

from the 15th to 17th centuries, the bardiche was a origin russia Long curved blade

72 form of poleax. A particular feature of the weapon length head 30¼ in (77 cm)
was the attachment of the lower end of the axhead
to the wooden shaft.

war hammer Leaf-shaped Engraved Socket
The single-handed war hammer spike geometric for shaft
typically comprised a blunt hammer design on
head or set of claws at the front with blade
a sharp pick at the back. The war
hammer became increasingly popular engraved axhead date medieval
during the Hundred Years War origin germany
(1337–1453), although it had been Favored weapons of the Vikings, axes continued to
in use since the 13th century. be used by warriors in the Middle Ages, often thrown
with deadly accuracy. The Bayeux Tapestry shows
date late 15th century several instances of foot soldiers using axes, both
origin italy single- and double-handed.
length 27¼ in (69.5 cm)

Pick for
piercing
armor

Richly etched Hammer Short mace head
gilt decoration head to stun curved
opponent spikes Cast from a copper alloy, this
bronze mace mace head was originally
The mace was a clublike weapon Wooden thought to have dated back
usually made entirely of metal, or, at shaft with to the Bronze Age, but is now
least, with a metal head. This example langets believed to come from the
of a simple mace consists of a circular 12th-13th centuries. The hollow-
bronze head—with vertical ridges or socketed head features several
flanges—and a thick wooden shaft. short spikes.
Like the war hammer, maces were
popular with cavalrymen. date 12–13th centuries

date 14th century origin europe
origin europe
length 3¼ in (8 cm) length head 3¼ in (8 cm)

Fine lance head date medieval
tapering origin europe
point The lance was a defining weapon of the medieval length 7½ in (19 cm)
Circular knight, and used the momentum of the knight’s
curved horse to deadly effect. A typical lance was 169 in
blade (430 cm) in length, the shaft made from a wood
such as ash, and fitted with a small iron or steel head.

Bronze head long-handled ax
with vertical
flanges In the 11th century, axes
were used by the English
Saxons and Scandinavian Circular socket to
warriors, but during the attach ax blade
next two centuries, the ax to top of shaft
became common throughout
continental Europe. This
long-handled ax would have
been used with both hands.

date 13th century

origin europe

Wooden shaft Pronounced
spike
Extended tang to 73
attach axhead to shaft short ax
Gilt ax butt Although heavily rusted, the highly
with scrolls curved blade of this single-handed
ax is clearly visible. Instead of the
shaft being inserted into a socket
on the axhead, here a tanglike
projection is forced into the shaft.
Another distinctive feature is the
long spike at the back of the head.

date 14th century
origin europe

1000—1500 3 136–137 european one-handed staff weapons 3 140–141 european two-handed staff weapons 3 142–143 indian and sri lankan staff weapons

4 72–73 european staff weapons

the middle ages Asian staff medieval asian armies deployed a wide range of staff weapons,
weapons including maces and long-handled battle axes, and weapons with blades
or pointed heads. Staff weapons generally evolved from agricultural
implements or from simple clubs, but they could be highly effective
in face-to-face combat. Although gradually rendered obsolete by the
gunpowder revolution, many such weapons remained in use, virtually
unaltered, in some Asian armies into the 18th and even 19th centuries.

Tang—to be Holes for pegs to fix
fitted to shaft tang to shaft

Grip mughal mace

This 16th century-style mace is in essence little more than date 18th century
a curved solid iron bar, but it could undoubtedly deliver origin india
a powerful blow if energetically wielded. Maces of this weight 3 lb (1.5 kg)
kind were used by Mughal soldiers during the conquest length 30 in (77.5 cm)
of India in the 1500s. They are recognizable in many
miniature paintings that represent the Mughals at war.

Central grip

decorated iron mace Protective
This splendid mace dates from the knucklebow
period of Chinese history in which
the rule of the Mongol invaders was Elaborately
overthrown and the native Ming decorated iron
dynasty took power. The elaborate mace head
decoration suggests that it would
have served a warrior of high status, curved blade battle ax date 17th century Metal
possibly a member of the Mongol origin india shaft
elite fighting on horseback. In Asia as in medieval Europe, the battle ax became a weight 2 lb (1 kg) Ornate
date 14th century weapon of choice for aristocratic cavalrymen to use when length 17 in (44 cm) curved blade
origin china or mongolia fighting dismounted. No helmet or armor could offer sure
weight 2 lb (1.17kg) protection against the powerful blow such an ax could
length 15 in (40 cm) deliver. The spikes radiating around the axhead could do
damage as well as the blade.
Handguard

Grip

74

naginata Curved
steel
The naginata, a Japanese cousin of the European blade
glaive, consists of a long, curved blade attached to
a wooden shaft. It was a standard weapon of foot date c.1600–1700 Chiseled
soldiers in medieval Japan, but was especially origin japan knop
associated with fighting monks, the sohei. They weight 1 lb (0.62 kg)
are described by Japanese chroniclers as entering length 41 in (105 cm)
battle “whirling their naginata like waterwheels.”

Iron shaft Curved head saintie
reeded with Steel spearhead Known as a saintie, this 16th
raised ribs century-style Indian spear is a
Small parrying weapon—its function is both
Decorative iron grip defensive and offensive. The shaft
iron shaft
could be used like a staff
Wooden shaft covered to deflect hostile blows,
with polished rayskin while the spearpoint was
thickened to allow a thrust

to penetrate clothing or armor.

date 18th century
origin india
weight 2 lb (0.97 kg)
length 35 in (89.8 cm)

Leather
wrist loop

Socket Radial fin
carved with
ornate text

bronze carved mace head date 12th century
origin persia
Dating from the period when Persia was dominated by the weight 1 lb (0.8 kg)
Seljuk Turks, this hollow mace head is made of bronze. It length 4 in (11.5 cm)
has raised fins around the edges to focus the impact of a
blow. The mace head has been decorated with foliage and
calligraphy in a fine tradition of Islamic craftsmanship.

Hollow onion- Brass ottoman gurz
shaped head button
The armies of the Ottoman Turks
Hollow had varieties of mace or “gurz”
steel shaft among their richly diversified
weaponry. This reproduction hollow
steel weapon could have been 75
more deadly against an armored
Christian knight than any sword,
capable of concussing an enemy
or breaking his bones without
penetrating the armor.

date 18th century

origin turkey

weight 2 lb (1.16 kg)

length 27 in (70 cm)

the middle ages small mongol warrior
mongolian
dagger

in the 13th century, the Mongol horsemen of the Asian steppe were the world’s
most effective fighting men. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan and his successors,
they created an empire that stretched from China and Korea to the eastern edge of
Europe.Totally without humane sentiment, the Mongols had a well-earned reputation
for massacre, using terror systematically to weaken the resolve of their enemies. But the
foundation of their success lay in traditional military qualities: rapidity of movement,
disciplined battlefield maneuver, and the ruthless pursuit of decisive victory.

Hardy horsemen warrior armor
Most Mongol warriors fought as light horsemen,
Every Mongol tribesman was a warrior. From early wearing leather body armor and, if possible, a silk
childhood he learned to fire an arrow and ride a horse, undershirt—allegedly offering protection against an
the two essential skills of steppe warfare.The harsh life arrow shot. Their minority of heavy cavalry, however,
of the Asian steppe taught toughness and endurance, were sometimes equipped with Chinese-style metal
while the disciplined mass maneuvers required for armor. Made of overlapping plates, usually sown
an effective war of movement were learned on tribal onto a backing garment, this is a replica of a mongol
hunting expeditions. armor that was flexible and offered good protection
in close combat.
Organized into army groups 10,000 strong, the
Mongol horsemen swept across Eurasia at a speed of up Rounded helmet
to 60 miles (100 km) a day. Each man had a string of designed to
horses, so he could change mount when necessary.The deflect blows
horses were also a mobile source of food—warriors
drank their milk and their blood. Advancing in Plate Scale armor
columns preceded by scouts, the Mongols sought to protection made of
destroy enemy armies. for neck overlapping
steel plates
Most of the horsemen were archers, using their
Mountain warfare composite bows in hit-and-run warfare familiar to all Leather
Mongol warriors fighting the steppe nomads—closing in to release their volleys of backing
Chinese in steep mountain arrows, fleeing before the enemy could engage them, garment
terrain. Both sides carry and ambushing any foe foolish enough to pursue them.
typically Mongol recurved After the archers had done their work, the Mongols’
bows and round shields. elite fighters, armed with lances, maces, and swords,
would close in to finish off the already decimated
enemy. Over time, the Mongol armies adapted to siege
warfare and even naval operations, exploiting the skills
of conquered peoples, Muslim and Chinese. But their
political skills were never equal to the task of retaining
the power won by their military prowess.

War leader Portrait of Genghis Khan Powerful Straight
composite double-edged
bow sword

Born around 1162, Genghis Bowcase Quiver for arrows
Khan was a chief ’s son in suspended by
one of the many warring strap from the
nomadic tribes that inhabited shoulder
the Mongolian steppe.An
aggressive warrior and a skilled
diplomat, by 1206 he had
united the tribes under his
rule. He led them in campaigns
against the Chinese Empire
to the east and the empire of
Khwarazam in central Asia.
Genghis died in 1227, but his
sons and grandsons continued
his work of empire building.

76

Genghis Khan on horseback great warriors
The Mongol leader is shown here
in the costume of a light horseman. TOOLS OF combat
Warriors usually shot their bows
from horseback, and also used DAO: chinese sword
swords belonging to both the
Islamic and Chinese traditions. DAO: chinese sword
small mongolian dagger
jian: chinese sword

jian scabbard

“bwduihstsooeenpvpseoirosdneo,ssewshiantlholtsbsteruaurngrnegnilhedileaarntded.”
order of genghis khan to his army

1000—1500 3 146–147 asian bows 3 208–209 north american hunting bows

3 80–81 weapon showcase: crossbow invented in china, the crossbow came into widespread use in
Europe from the 12th century. Fired from the shoulder, it was both
the middle ages Longbows powerful and accurate, effective against armored knights and in siege
and warfare.The longbow was developed in Wales and was used in the
Crossbows English Army from the 13th to the 16th century. It is given credit for
victories at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. Capable of ten times the
rate of fire of crossbows, longbows were typically shot in unaimed
volleys, decimating an advancing enemy with sheer volume of arrows.

Steel pin to engage Wooden stock or tiller Groove for bolt
mechanism for with stag-horn veneer
spanning bow carved in relief

Hunting crossbow Revolving nut
The crossbow was an effective weapon released by
for hunting because the hunter could trigger below
carry the bow spanned and loaded with
full view a bolt, ready to shoot. date c.1460 Cord
Wooden shaft origin europe bowstring
Iron tip weight 9½ lb (4.4 kg)
Length 28¼ in (72 cm)
Broadhead bolt
Crossbow bolts date c.1500
origin germany
Bolts, or quarrels, shorter and Length top: 14½ in (37 cm)
thicker than longbow arrows,
had different tips, depending on
the effect required. Broadhead
bolts, with wide barbed heads,
were used primarily for hunting.
Against armor, a crossbowman
used bolts with chisel-shaped
bodkin heads. The tip of the bolt
served as a sight when aiming.

Bodkin Steel pin Wooden tiller
arrowhead

german crossbow Nut

Triangular A crossbow such as this, with a date c.1500
head composite lath of horn, sinew, and wood,
required the use of a spanning lever. At origin germany
crossbow bolts one end, this hooked onto the steel pins weight 6½ lb (2.98 kg)
on the tiller, and at the other, clawed length 28¼ in (71.7 cm)
78 over the bowstring. Operating the lever
drew back the string to hook over the
nut. The bowman then placed a bolt in
the groove. When he pressed the trigger,
the nut turned, releasing the string and
loosing the bolt.

Tip would have Archers in action
had horn nock An archer needed considerable strength to draw the longbow—medieval archers’
to hold bowstring skeletons have been found with enlarged left arms and other deformities. They were
Sinew expected to loose six aimed or 12 unaimed shots per minute.
binding
lath to Shaft of ash
stock or birch

Stirrup for Nock fits in
holding bowstring
crossbow
Bowstring of with foot ENGLISH LONGBOW ARROWS Three flights made
twisted cord while from goose feathers
spanning “Clothyard” arrows were mass-produced
Bow is single in medieval England to supply the king’s date c.1520
stave of yew longbowmen. The three feathers were
Composite essential to stabilize the arrow in flight. origin england
prod or lath
weight 1½ oz (42 g)

length 29½ in (75 cm)

Sharp point
and edges

Barb

english longbow barbed arrowheads date c.1500 79

This is one of the longbows retrieved from the Broad-barbed iron arrowheads could origin europe
wreck of Henry VIII’s warship the Mary Rose, cause a deep, wide wound, and were weight left: 1 oz (28.3 g)
which sank in 1545. It is a simple bow, cut extremely difficult to extract. Not ideal length left: 1¾ in (4.5 cm)
from a length of yew, but the bowyer has for penetrating armor, they came to be
skilfully taken advantage of the natural used for hunting more than for warfare.
layering of the wood. The flat back of the
bow is sapwood, which performs better
under tension, while the rounded belly is
heartwood, reacting best under compression.
Using a replica of a bow from the Mary Rose,
a modern archer shot an arrow a distance
of 360 yards (328 m).

date c.1540

origin england

weight 1½ lb (0.73 kg)

length 78¾ cm (2 m)

4 78–79 longbows and crosbows 3 144–145 european crossbows

the middle ages Crossbow this typical late medieval European hunting bow could shoot a
bolt roughly 328 yards (300 m). Its composite lath (or bow), made of
Flights layers of wood, sinew, and horn, had far too high a draw-weight to be
spanned by unaided muscle power. Using the rack-and-pinion device
known as a cranequin (also called a cric or rack), the archer pulled
the bowstring back to the nut, where it was hooked until released by
pressing the long trigger under the crossbow tiller.When shooting, the
huntsman rested the butt of the crossbow on his shoulder, looking
along the tiller and using the tip of the bolt as his sight.

Wooden shaft

crossbow bolt

Bolts were typically twice as heavy as other
arrows. The flights were of wood or paper,
and only two were used, because a third
would snag on the nut.

Steel pin Crossbow date c.1500 Rotating nut
Cord loop hooks origin germany
onto tiller pins This German crossbow, with its weight 6½ lb (2.98 kg)
handsome bone veneer, would have length 28 in (71 cm)
belonged to a wealthy individual who span 26 in (66 cm)
enjoyed hunting as a leisure pursuit.
It was spanned using the small
cranequin shown below.

Hexagonal
wheel case

cranequin Preparing The Crossbow how it works
The cranequin was first
Bowstring
introduced in Europe in the

late 14th century. One of its To use a cranequin, the archer first anchored Tiller

advantages was that it could it to the crossbow by looping the cord over the
steel pins on the tiller. The claws at the front
be employed on horseback. end of the toothed rack lay over the bowstring.

It was an expensive device By turning the lever, the archer rotated geared Cranequin Cranequin handle
cogwheels engaged with the teeth of the rack,
and worked slowly—two thus drawing the bowstring and bending the Steel pin
considerations that made it bow. When the string was hooked over the nut,
less suitable for warfare than the archer removed the cranequin, laid a bolt in
for use by wealthy huntsmen.

the groove, and was ready to shoot. Claws

80

Tiller tapers full view weapon showcase
to butt
Composite bow
Triangular metal head of horn, sinew,
and wood

Cord bridle binds
tiller to lath

Tiller veneered
with plain bone

Toothed rack Cord bowstring
Curved claws grip
bowstring

Steel handle
of lever

81

1000—1500 3 204–205 north american knives and clubs 3 270–271 african shields 3 272–273 oceanian shields

3 202–203 oceanian clubs and daggers

the middle ages Aztec weapons warfare in the aztec empire, which covered much of
and shields what is now Mexico, was driven by the need for a regular
supply of prisoners for human sacrifice. Although the Aztecs
had bows, slings, and throwing spears, they preferred to use
close-quarters cutting weapons to disable an enemy, often by a
blow to the legs. Ultimately, the “stone-age” Aztec weaponry
proved no match for the steel and gunpowder of the Spanish
invaders who conquered the region in the 16th century.

Eyes made of shell
and obsidian or
haematite

Teeth shaped
from shell

Obsidian knife date c.1500
origin aztec empire
The Aztecs referred to human sacrifice as “the flowered length 11¾ in (30 cm)
death by the obsidian knife.” Obsidian, a volcanic glass,
provided a razor-sharp blade that Aztec priests used to cut
out the hearts of sacrificial victims. After the heart had been
ritually burned, the corpse was dismembered.

Knives were sometimes
decorated to resemble
the face of the god to
whom sacrificial hearts
were offered

Serrated edge

flint knives date c.1500 Decorated flint knife
origin aztec empire
Practical and easy to make by flaking, flint knives like these length 11¾ in (30 cm) This decorated flint knife was
two examples had a wide range of uses in Aztec society. found in the Great Temple, which
Aztec priests often used them to carry out human sacrifice stood in the center of the Aztec
in preference to obsidian knives because obsidian, capital, Tenochtitlan. More than
although sharper than flint, was extremely brittle. 20,000 victims may have been
sacrificed at the dedication of
the Temple in 1487.

date c.1500

origin aztec empire

length 11¾ in (30 cm)

Head and shaft Obsidian blade set in
are made of wood grooves along edge of club

Ornate chalcedony knife Mosaic inlay of Jaguar skin
turquoise, shell, covering
The handle of this sacrificial knife and malachite Decorative
represents an eagle warrior, one feather
of a prestigious order of Aztec bands
fighting men. The knife blade is
chalcedony, a type of quartz.

date c.1500

origin aztec empire

length 12½ in (31.7 cm)

Wooden handle
carved into shape
of crouching figure

Stone blade made
of chalcedony

Stone flake

full view full view chimalli (shield)

throwing spear An Aztec warrior’s round shield,
or chimalli, was highly decorated,
The Aztec’s stone-edged spears partly to intimidate the enemy.
were often launched by a throwing The shield had a wooden or
stick, or atlatl. This made them bamboo frame covered in feathers
powerful weapons capable of and skin. Shields were made
causing severe injury—even to by featherworkers, who also
a fully armored Spanish soldier. produced fans and headdresses.

date c.1500 date c.1500

origin aztec empire origin aztec empire

enemy capture

This image from a Mexican
codex shows an Aztec
warrior taking an enemy
fighter prisoner. The
warrior carries a chimalli
shield and wears a
cumbersome feather-
covered frame on his back,
which marks him out as of
officer status. The more
captives a warrior took,
the higher his status grew.

maquahuitl (club) Feather
tassels
The principal close-quarters weapon was
a wooden club with obsidian blades. date c.1500
Known as a maquahuitl, it was wielded origin aztec empire
like a sword, delivering a razor-sharp length 29½ in (75 cm)
cut that could sever a horse’s head.

spanish conquests

The war in Mexico between
the Aztecs and the plate-armor-
clad Spanish conquistadors in the 16th
century was fought with the shields and axes
of a society that did not have steel, on one side, and
the steel spears and swords of the Spanish on the other.



1000—1500
3 88–89 european jousting helms, barbutes, and sallets 3168–169 european tournament helmets 3 350–351 helmets from 1900

the middle ages european great basinet
Holes for The origins of the basinet helmet
go back to the metal skull cap
Hbaeslimnsetasnd vervelles worn inside a mail coif and
under a great helm. In the case
the spangenhelm with nasal that had Pointed crown of the basinet, the skull cap
been worn by the Normans was replaced Rounded extended to protect the side and
at the end of the 12th century with a skull back of the head. This basinet
rounder helmet, which eventually covered has no visor, but the holes for
the entire face, and evolved into the great the vervelles that secured the
helm. Although providing good protection, mail aventail are visible.
the great helm was cumbersome, making
it hard for the wearer to turn and see date c.1370
clearly. During the 14th century, it was origin northern italy
largely relegated to a tournament role, weight 6¾ lb (3 kg)
being superseded by the basinet, a helmet
that provided a good compromise between great helm
protection, mobility, and visibility. This great helm is constructed
from three plates of steel, with
a pointed crown and skull to
deflect blows. The vision slits, or
“sights” are formed between the
skull and side plates, and the
lower part of the helm is pierced
by numerous ventilation holes
called breaths.

date c.1350
origin england
weight 5½ lb (2.5 kg)

Cross-shaped openings
for toggle-ended chain to
secure helm to breastplate

Iron plates, Triangular Segmented HELM
originally plates riveted
covered in gilt together This segmented helm dates
copper sheet back to the 11th century and is
constructed from four triangular
iron plates, originally covered in
gilt copper sheet, and joined by
copper rivets.

date 11th century

origin poland

weight 6¾ lb (3 kg)

Copper rivets Vervelle
with silver-
bound heads

86

“Ogival” skull (like great basinet Ovoid,
pointed arch) This skull from a great basinet medially
shows how the helmet sides ridged form
Hinge and pivot extend further down than was
the case with a standard basinet. Flared
Removable pin Over time the mail aventail was sides
to allow visor to replaced by a bevor and gorget Locking pins
be taken off plates. This helmet comes from
the Yorkshire tomb of Sir John
Melsa in the UK.

date late 14th century
origin uk
weight 6¾ lb (3.06 kg)

HoUNSKULL BASINET
The distinctive pointed visors
found on many basinet helmets
were nicknamed “hounskulls,” an
English corruption of the German
hundsgugel (“dog head”).
The whole visor could easily
be removed by withdrawing
the locking pins—shown here
tethered by a chain.

date 1350–1400
origin italy
weight 15½ lb (7 kg)

Narow
sights

Rows of
breathing holes
(or “breaths”)

Conical
visor

Brass borders BASINET AND AVENTAIL
decorated with
“wriggled” This hounskull basinet with an
cable pattern ogival skull is typical of that
Mail worn by knights throughout
aventail Europe in the middle-to-late
14th century. The mail collar or
full view aventail has a leather band on 87
the upper edge with holes that
fit onto the brass vervelles that
border the helmet’s rim. A small
hole has been drilled into each
vervelle, through which a piece
of string is drawn, attaching the
vervelle to the basinet.

date 1350–1400

origin northern italy

weight 15¾ lb (7.12 kg)

1000—1500 3168–169 european tournament helmets 3 350–351 helmets from 1900

4 86–87 european helms and basinets

the middle ages european jousting
helms, barbutes,
and sallets
Rounded
skull

the great helm—relegated to the Rivet to join
jousting field in the mid-14th century metal plates
—evolved into the frog-mouthed together
helmet, a piece of armor ideally suited
to jousting. During the 15th century
the basinet was superseded by a range of
newer designs, of which the sallet was
the most popular.Toward the end of the
century, northern Italy and southern
Germany began to take a lead in armor
development that other countries
followed. Italian armor was rounded
in style, while the German or Gothic
style featured decoration in the form of
radiating patterns of lines and ridges over
the entire harness of armor.

FROG-MOUTHED HELM

The frog-mouthed helm
provided the jousting knight
with basic straight-ahead vision
and maximum protection at
the point of impact. He would
lean his head forward at the
commencement of the charge
to look out of the vision slit or
sight, but the moment before
the lances clashed he would
swiftly lift his head up to deny
his opponent any opportunity to
thrust his lance into the sight.

date early 15th century

origin england

weight 22 lb (10 kg)

Helmet collar

jousting helm

The frog-mouthed jousting helm would sit squarely date c.1480

on the knight’s cuirass, and, in the case of this example, origin southern germany
88 have steel attachments to lock it firmly to breast- and
backplates. The forward part of the helmet was weight 22½ lb (10.2 kg)
specifically designed to deflect the opponent’s lance.

Sight or jousting helm barbute
vision slit The construction of a frog- The barbute (or barbuta) is a
mouthed jousting helm is fairly close-fitting, shoulder-length
Tail of sallet straightforward because it helmet, and many have a
helmet to consists of just two pieces of T-shaped opening for the face.
protect neck steel: the first sits on the skull This example also has a nasal,
Frog-mouthed while the second is wrapped and because of its similarity to
sight around the whole head, coming the helmets of classical Greece,
to a rounded point at the front of it is known as a “Corinthian”
the face. A series of prominent barbute. The helmet was usually
rivets join the edges together. worn by infantry and was in use
throughout the 15th century.
date 15th century
origin europe date c.1445
weight 16¼ lb (7.4 kg) origin italy
weight 5¾ lb (2.67 kg)
SHORT-TAILED SALLET
Originating in Italy, the sallet was Visor with
a helmet adopted by all classes single sight
of fighting men in 15th-century
Europe, worn either with or
without a visor. This visorless
helmet is closely shaped to the
head and has a tail considerably
shorter than most other sallets.

date c.1440
origin northern italy
weight 3¼ lb (1.48 kg)

LONG-TAILED SALLET date 1480–1510
origin germany
This helmet is fairly typical of weight 5¾ lb (2.6 kg)
German sallets toward the end of
the 15th century, featuring a long
sweeping tail to protect the neck,
as well as a visor with a single
sight. For knights and men-at-
arms, sallets would normally be
worn with a bevor to protect the
throat, chin, and lower face.

Flame pattern on skull

painted sallet
It was not uncommon for
sallets to be covered in cloth or
leather, or have heraldic designs
painted on them. This sallet has
numerous pairs of small holes to
attach a fabric covering, and is
painted with a checkered design
in red, white, and green, on the
visor and lower part.

date 1490
origin germany
weight 5 lb (2.2 kg)

Visor with
double sights

Geometric design
with star and
portcullis motifs

89

the middle ages iron
quillon

medieval knightdagger

the armored knight was the elite fighting man of medieval Europe.With his
horse, armor, lance, and sword, he was both a costly warrior and a figure with high cultural
and social prestige. Although warfare rarely lived up to
the ideal of mounted nobles clashing in chivalrous combat,
knights were highly skilled soldiers who adapted well to the
constantly evolving challenges of the medieval battlefield.

with sword and lance

Medieval society expected any young male of social
standing to seek glory in war.Training was taken
very seriously. Boys served first as pages and then as
squires in the household of a knight who ensured their
education in horsemanship and the use of the sword
and lance. After graduation to knighthood, training
continued through tournaments that honed fighting
skills, and through more or less constant warfare.
If there was no fighting to be had close to home,
knights would seek it out, traveling to the edges
of the Christian world to fight the “infidels.”
The classic form of knightly combat was the charge
with couched lance on horseback. But knights were
also effective on foot, wielding swords, maces, or
battle-axes.The code of chivalry to which knights
subscribed expressed a Christian ethic of warfare, but
in practice the plundering, skirmishing, and sieges of
medieval warfare left little place for idealism. In the
relatively rare pitched battles, knights were sometimes
routed by disciplined foot soldiers or bowmen, but
they remained a dominant force into the 16th century.

templars

In the 12th century, knights
of the Christian kingdoms
in Palestine formed military
monastic orders such as
the Knights Templar. Obeying
austere religious rules, these fighting
monks became elite forces dedicated to
the struggle against Islam. Named after
the Temple in Jerusalem where they had
their headquarters, the Templars
accumulated wealth that
attracted the envy of kings.
The order was condemned
for alleged heresy and
suppressed in 1312.

templar knight
ready for battle

90

TOOLS OF combat great warriors

plate armour
The full steel plate armor worn by knights in the 15th century
offered excellent protection. The helmet was curved to deflect
the impact of a mace blow, and slashing sword strokes would
have no effect. The knight was only vulnerable to steel
crossbows and firearms. This “Gothic” armor, with its
elaborate decorative detail, was made in Germany.

hand-and-a-half sword Sallet helmet Besagew: small
italian sword with protective round shield to
visor defend armpit
Breastplate linked
to backplate by Coulter:
waist straps tubular
defense
iron quillon dagger for arm

Mail-clad knights quillon dagger
Mounted knights in mail and
emblazoned cloth surcoats with
heraldic designs wield their swords in a
melee. Close grappling was a significant
element in knightly fighting skills.

battle of Crécy Gauntlet with
Fought in August 1346, separate finger
Crécy was one of the plates
encounters that questioned Greave: plate
knights’ dominance on armour for
the battlefield. Although lower leg
French and English knights
did engage with lance and Leather shoes
sword, the flower of French

chivalry was mown down
by Welsh longbowmen.

“kwnhigathitsst?hteofguunacrtidotnhoef
uchnubreclihe,vteorsfi.g..hatnd if
be, to lay down their nlieveeds.”

john of salisbury, policraticus, 1159 91

1000—1500 3 166–167 european tournament armor

3 94–95 european plate armor

the middle ages EUROPEAN mail armor—the linking together of small iron or steel rings to
MAIL armor form a mesh—dates back as far as the 5th century BCE. By the time
of the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, three-quarter length
mail armor was common among knights and, by the 13th century,
it was being worn from head to toe. Construction was a slow
and laborious process, and as many as 30,000 separate links
were required for a single shirt of mail.

Anglo Saxon-style square neck

MAIL HAUBERK

The hauberk or byrnie—a knee-length
shirt of mail—was the central item of
armor for 11th- and 12th-century knights
and men-at-arms. To guard against blunt
trauma blows to the body, the knight
would wear a padded garment called
a gambeson underneath his hauberk.

date 20th-century replica

origin europe

full view Horseman’s slit to allow
freedom of movement
while on horseback

mail coif

Although some suits of mail armor included
an integral hood with the hauberk, others had
a separate hood, or coif, to be worn under a
plate helmet. Mail was usually constructed
from wrought iron, although mild steel was
used on occasion.

date 20th-century replica Mail flap to be
drawn across face
origin europe while in combat

Short sleeves
for mobility

Welded iron rings

mail shirt date 20th-century replica

This mail shirt—called a “haubergeon”—has origin europe
been made in the Asian style. All the rings have
been welded together, whereas in the west, the
common practice was for mail to be made of
alternate lines of welded and riveted rings.

Replica basinet helmet
Mail aventail
attached to basinet

the battle of bouvines
This contemporary illustration of the battle of Bouvines in
1214 —where an English army and its allies were defeated
by the French—shows both cavalry and foot soldiers
wearing full suits of mail armor.

Alternate rows of
solid and riveted links

mail detail Cuffs bordered
by brass links
Mail was usually connected by the four-to-one system,
where each ring was linked to four other rings. In Europe
the most common practice was for mail to be made from
alternate rows of welded and riveted rings, and from the
14th century onward, entirely from riveted rings.

mail shirt and aventail Mail hauberk
reaching to
This full-sleeved hauberk and aventail—the knees
mail collar hanging directly from the helmet
—is thought to have belonged to Rudolf IV, the date mid-14th century
Habsburg Duke of Austria. Although plate armor
was becoming common in this period, mail was origin austria
still in demand in Europe for another 100 years. weight 30½ lb (13.83 kg)

93

1000—1500 3 166–167 european tournament armor

4 92–93 european mail armor

the middle ages european during the 14th century mail armor was increasingly
plate supplemented by plate armor, which was surprisingly flexible and
armor provided its wearer with a good deal of mobility. By the middle
of the 15th century, knights were equipped with complete suits
of plate armor with mail relegated to covering exposed areas
behind the armor joints. During the late 15th and early
16th centuries, plate armor reached its apogee, and the
main elements are revealed in this breakdown
of a mid-16th-century Italian suit of armor.

italian armor date mid-16th century Gorget—to protect neck
origin italy and join helmet to cuirass
The close helm tightly encloses the Leather straps
entire head. Its pivoted visor is divided Lifting peg Eye slit connecting breast-
into two parts: the visor proper and the to raise in visor and backplates
upper bevor. The cuirass, covering the visor
torso, consists of a breastplate linked Longitudinal
to a backplate (not shown) by leather comb
straps. Extending from the breastplate
are skirts and tassets to guard the
abdomen and upper thighs. Neck,
arm, and leg defenses complete
the head-to-toe protection.

Breathing vents

Upper bevor in
raised position

Breastplate to
protect chest

CLOSE HELM BREASTPLATE SECTION
OF CUIRASS

Articulated steel
tasset plates to
aid mobility at
the waist

Lower bevor

Hinge Hook to attach
and pivot upper and lower
bevors
94
Gorget plates
to overlap
gorget

Pauldron to
protect shoulder

gorget PAULDRONs
Raised neck and
armpit edge Scrolling Rerebrace to
for deflecting decoration protect arm
swords and staff Leather straps
weapons. and buckles to Cuisses to Couter to
attach to leg protect thigh protect elbow

CUISSEs

One plate, the Poleyn to
cuff, covers wrist protect knee

Skirt GREAVEs Thumb
Strap for Greaves plate
buckling to protect MITTEN
skirt to lower leg GAUNtLET
tassets Hook for
closing
MITTEN greave
GAUNtLET

Articulated steel
plates

Rivet
connecting
tassets

thigh plates Sabaton to protect foot
OF CUIRASS —made from small
overlapping plates

SABATON

95

the early modern world



the early modern world The 16th and 17th centuries saw the rapid By the early 16th century, artillery had
spread of firearms, both within and outside clearly demonstrated its effectiveness.This
Europe, and the modification of military and was underlined by developments such as the
political strategy to cope with the effects introduction of the trunnion—horizontally
of the new technology. A world in which projecting lugs that allowed guns to be
elites were not born to military service, but elevated or depressed more effectively. For a
rather trained and drilled to it, coupled with short period, the late medieval propensity to
a generalized growth in the capacity of states skulk behind powerful fortifications and for
both to raise taxes and—to a lesser extent campaigns to focus on sieges and raids was
—to direct their expenditure effectively, replaced by a phase during which armies, aware
meant that armies, as well as the weapons that they could no longer defend fixed points,
they deployed, became ever more lethal. were much more willing to risk pitched battles.

open fighting siege warfare
At Pavia (1525), the combat was The Italian Wars (1494–1509) saw the first
decided by imperial arquebusiers large-scale demonstrations of the potency of
and pikemen fighting in the open, field artillery and firearms on the battlefield.
unshielded by entrenchment; At Cerignola (1503), the Spanish fought from
the French Army was decimated shelter behind a trench and earth parapet,
and their king, Francois I, was subjecting the French cavalry to withering
captured by Charles V, the Holy fire. At the battle of Ravenna (1512), the
Roman Emperor. combat opened with a two-hour artillery
duel, the first of these ever to be recorded.
This era of open warfare, however, was soon
replaced by a long period in which sieges
became once more the dominant feature
in campaigns.The spread of trace italienne
fortifications (see box page 100) meant that
sieges became prolonged and costly affairs
and the benefits to a defending army of
remaining safe within city walls more obvious.

The arquebus was a primitive firearm that
was widely used from the 15th–17th centuries.
Around the 1520s a new weapon appeared—
the musket.Weighing up to 20 lb (9 kg)—much
heavier than the arquebus—it required a forked
rest to allow its bearer to fire, but did have
the advantage of delivering a ball with much
greater force.The musket’s unwieldiness meant
it was most effective in sieges.The advent of
gunpowder weapons did not, at a stroke, make
infantry stalwarts such as the pike obsolete.
Swiss pike formations were a common
feature of early 16th century battles, and their
aggressive tactics, such as charging entrenched
arquebusiers at Novara (1513), made them

1525 1603
In Japan Tokugawa
Battle of Leyasu establishes
Tokugawa
Pavia; Spanish shogunate 1631
Battle of
c.1500 musketeers fighting 1555 1618–48 Breitenfeld;
Spread of Peace of Augsburg Thirty Years War Gustavus
trace italienne in open decimate Adophus’ military
fortification temporarily halts 1600 reforms bear
system 1513 French 1534 religious war in 1571 fruit in crushing
English defeat Germany Battle of Lepanto Swedish victory
1500 French at the Francois I of —Ottoman fleet
“Battle of the destroyed by Don Juan
Spurs” France raises of Austria

the companies

d’ordonnance

1525 1550

1503 1521 1526 1543 1562 1579 c.1600 1632
Gustavus Adolphus
Spanish fight in Spanish Battle of Panipat; Firearms first Start of French Dutch revolt begins Military reforms of
killed at Battle
mixed pike and under Cortés Mughals dominate appear in Japan Wars of Religion: as Habsburg Maurice of Nassau of Lützen

musket square at capture North India Caracole province breaks up

98 Cerignola Tenochtitlán, first used by into Catholic and
Mexico Huguenot Protestant unions

horsemen at

Battle of Dreux