36 X TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
• Philosophy helps humans think critically and logically with the basic
thinking for all human activities, particularly in the fields of science, arts,
religion and education.
• There are four branches of philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology and logic.
• Western philosophy is divided into four doctrines namely: idealism,
realism, pragmatism and existentialism.
• In Islam, the philosophy of education can be summarised as the continuous
effort of developing oneself towards living a balanced way of life, and
gaining knowledge of God.
• Educational philosophy encompasses a belief system, general principle and
stance that discuss various matters concerning education and learning that
should be carried out in the school or in classrooms.
Aqliah Logic
Axiology Metaphysics
Education Philosophy
Epistemology Pragmatism
Existentialism Realism
Idealism TaÊdib
Irsyad Tadris
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Topic X Educational
3 Development
in Malaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the history of educational developments pre and post
British colonial era;
2. Discuss the National Education reports;
3. Discuss teachersÊ educational training;
4. Explain educational concepts; KBSR/KBSM and Smart School; and
5. Explain the Education Act 1996.
X INTRODUCTION
Prior to the arrival of the colonial powers, education in Malaya was informal in
nature and did not emphasise on studentsÊ cognitive development. The type of
education concentrated on the teaching of the al-Quran, good moral and
behaviour, spiritual knowledge and the art of self defence.
In the earlier and organised stage, there was a religious education system known
as „sekolah pondok‰ (literally, hut schools or Muslim boarding schools) which
were established and managed by renowned Islamic scholars. Students were
educated in madrasah (religious schools) and lived in the huts built around it.
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38 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
The second stage of the educational development in Malaya occurred during the
British colonial era from 1824 to 1957. At this stage, education was managed by
the British without any philosophy or national educational policy. Educational
administration at that time was based on the policy of Âdivide and rule‰ as well
as open policy and non-intervention from the Government.
3.1 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING
THE BRITISH COLONIAL ERA
In this section, we are going to look at the educational development during the
British colonial era.
3.1.1 Vernacularism Educational System
British education was introduced in Malaya when the Penang Free School was
established in 1816. Other English schools in the states of Malaya were built
much later. Among them are King Edward VII School in Taiping (1883) and
Victoria Institution in Kuala Lumpur (1894). In the middle of the 19th century,
Christian missionaries helped establish several English schools.
Most English schools were built at urban areas with the help of the British
Government. The school curriculum was modelled after the Grammar School of
Great Britain with the goal of producing low-level administrative officers to fulfil
the requirements of the British metropolitan power. English schools were
regarded as elite schools because they were located in the towns and the students
comprised of children from elite families. Education in the English schools was at
the primary and secondary levels.
The countryÊs education policies and practices during the British era were very
different. Opportunities for schooling were also imbalanced because the British
Government did not have a clear educational policy. The British Government
practiced laissez-faire in the education sector and this led to the existence of five
types of schools during the British colonisation period. The types of such schools
were Malay Vernacular School, Chinese Vernacular School, Tamil Vernacular
School, English Vernacular School and Islamic Religious Vernacular School.
Socialisation of every school was according to its own direction.
The impact from different school socialisation during the British colonisation era
has resulted in a complex situation in our national integration and uniformity.
The existence of vernacularism in the British educational era had then caused a
huge social and economic gap among the people of Malaya. Students from
English schools had better economic value and employment opportunities
compared to students from the Malay, Tamil and Chinese vernacular schools.
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TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA W 39
The British Government had no intention of developing an educational sector
when ruling Malaya because they considered education for the Malays in
particular would not be beneficial, and the education would create awareness
among them to oppose the Government.
The British education system gave the impression that the colonial ruler was not
interested in developing the people through their education system.
Understanding and unity was not regarded as important to be instilled through
the English education, which neglected the issue of an organised national
education system and failed to establish a single school system that could
educate and unite children of all races in Malaya.
3.1.2 Malay Education
Early Malay education focused on the teaching of Al-Quran and basic knowledge
of reading, writing and counting. Malay education was only free at primary
school level. Malay children with high ambitions and those who wanted to
further their studies were forced to attend English schools in the city.
Malay schools were founded in the 19th Century with the main purpose to
ensure that Malay children continued to remain in villages, inherit the familyÊs
poverty and help their parents. They merely hoped to become better fishermen
and farmers than their parents. Therefore, education that was secular in nature in
Malay language was limited to four years only with limited curriculum and
scope. They were taught to read, write, and count as well as handiwork skills
such as weaving.
Educational facilities for the rural community were limited in terms of quality of
education or involvement opportunities that were provided. Early schools for the
Malays were built based on the individual efforts of those who cared enough to
provide education for the Malays. The first Malay school was set up in Teluk
Belanga, Singapore in 1856, and Kampung Gelam which was funded by a
member of the Johor royal family. In 1863, three more Malay schools were built
in Seberang Perai namely in Penaga, Permatang Pauh and Bukit Tambun. In
Perak, Malay schools were established in Kuala Kangsar and Batu Gajah in 1884.
Subsequently, Malay teachersÊ training began in 1894 in Teluk Belanga,
Singapore.
In the early 20th Century, the Malay College Kuala Kangsar (MCKK) was
founded to meet the increasing demand for secondary schools. It was based on
the English Grammar School model in 1905. However, the school was specifically
for children of the elite. Apart from that, opportunities for Malay school students
to further their studies were limited and they lack opportunities to be involved in
socio-economic and administrative sectors at that time. Opportunities for them
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40 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
were merely to hold lower ranking positions, such as police personnel, clerk,
office boy and labourer, which were suited to the objective of the colonial masters
then.
Then in 1922, the Sultan Idris Training College (SITC) was established to meet the
rising demand for qualified Malay school teachers. Meanwhile, the Malay Female
TeachersÊ College was set up in Malacca in 1935 to address the requirement of
Malay female teachers.
3.1.3 Chinese Education
An open policy and non-intervention in social affairs of migrant races resulted in
the existence of Chinese and Tamil schools. These schools were managed by
respective races without assistance from the British until the 1920s. In line with
the tradition of placing importance on education and maintaining racial culture
and identity, the Chinese community began to establish Chinese schools since the
early 19th Century.
In mid 1920s, the strong influence of these Chinese schools made the British
Government realise the need to introduce a law to prevent such schools from
being isolated and to gain control over the school activities. The non-intervention
policy of the British rule in vernacular education resulted in the political and
economic developments in China to influence the education system of the
Chinese community in the Malay Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak. The curriculum
was based on the education system in China, and textbooks and teachers were
brought in from China into the Malay Peninsula.
Beginning 1924, part of these Chinese schools received financial aid from the
Government. Generally, the schoolteachers lacked formal training until after
World War Two when formal class training programmes were organised.
3.1.4 Tamil Education
Tamil schools were initially built at rubber plantations where the majority of the
Indian community was located. In 1923, the Malay Federation states approved a
Bill named the Malay Federation State Ordinance 1923. A provision was included
in the ordinance, whereby it was compulsory for rubber plantation employers to
educate their workersÊ children. Christian missionaries also extended numerous
contributions towards the Tamil education system.
The Indian community managed these schools, and the Government or
employers of rubber plantations did not extend any contribution either in terms
of physically, financially or pedagogically. Tamil schools which were built at
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TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA W 41
rubber plantations faced inadequacy in terms of curriculum content, teaching
force
and curriculum.
Curriculum in Tamil schools was adopted based on the education system in
India. Teachers and textbooks also came from India. The curriculum emphasised
on knowledge in three basic skills namely reading, writing and counting.
Prior to World War Two, formal class teachersÊ training programme for a
duration of three years began for Tamil school teachers. Education in Tamil
schools was also limited to primary schools only.
3.2 EDUCATIONAL REPORTS
After World War II, political developments in China, India and neighbouring
countries, greatly changed the temporary position or transient deterring of
Chinese and Indian migrants into the region. Due to the tendency of a more
permanent status, the Chinese community began to regard the Malay Peninsula
as their permanent settlement, while uprising nationalism among the Malays
focused on the complexity of the educational problems. This situation created
waves of aspirations and sentiments of various races, which was against the
educational policy.
The Malays demanded the Government improve the quality of education in
Malay schools and increase opportunities for further studies. A committee
concerning Malay education was formed in 1950, chaired by L.J. Barnes, Oxford
UniversityÊs Social Training Division director, to study and come up with
acknowledgments to improve Malay education.
3.2.1 The Barnes Report of 1950
The Barnes Report proposed the establishment of a national school system and
bilingualism, either English or Malay language, as the main medium of
instruction. Malay, Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools will be replaced
gradually by a national school introducing the national stream.
The Barnes Committee made various proposals to formulate a national education
system. One of them was for schools at primary level to be an instrument for
unity and integrity of the multi racial society in Malay Peninsula. Based on that
view, the Barnes Committee proposed a report to the British Government, known
as the Barnes Report in 1951. Among the proposals were:
• Form a single primary school model, where a national school opened to
students from all races taught by teachers of various races and descents.
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42 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
• Abolish racial-based vernacular primary schools and replacing it with
national schools.
• Encourage Malay and English languages to be the main medium of
instruction in primary schools and English language to be the main medium
of instruction in secondary schools.
• Have one system of primary school education for six years, beginning from
six year olds.
• Provide free school for all students.
These proposals raised strong objections from other races, particularly the
Chinese who regarded it as an attempt to oppress and eliminate their culture and
language. To quell the worries of the Chinese, the British administration
appointed a Chinese educational committee in 1951 under Dr Fenn and Dr Wu to
report on Chinese schools in Malaya.
3.2.2 The 1951 Fenn-Wu Report
The Fenn-Wu Committee studied social aspects of Chinese vernacular schooling
and submitted a report known as the Fenn-Wu Report. According to the
committee, Chinese vernacular schools can play a role of developing a united
race separately. The committee recommended:
• Usage of three languages, namely Malay, English and Chinese, while English
remained as the medium of instruction.
• Support the establishment of the national educational system, but Chinese
schools should be retained with its curriculum content and suited to the
environment of the local community.
3.2.3 The 1952 Education Ordinance
The Central Advisory Committee concerning education was formed to study
opposing views that were proposed by both reports, which raised widespread
public debates in Malaya. A compromise was struck from the differing views and
subsequently became the basis of the 1952 Education Ordinance.
The 1952 Education Ordinance was a single effort by the British towards having
an educational system with national characteristics.
The following are some important characteristics of the 1952 Education
Ordinance:
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Ć Develop a national school with the gradual introduction of bilingual to Malay
and Tamil vernacular schools, through national language classes;
Ć Limit the entry of students into English schools; and
Ć Develop vocational secondary schools.
The 1952 Education Ordinance could not be implemented because the
Government faced financial problems following an economic crisis. This was
because a huge sum of the allocation had to be spent to face the crisis. The 1952
Education Ordinance did not receive good response, causing the Federal
Supreme Council to appoint a special committee to find a solution in order to
implement the policy stated in the 1952 Ordinance.
3.2.4 The 1956 Razak Report
At the end of 1955, the Federal Peninsula Malaya had the first elected
government. In preparation towards Independence, the government recognised
the importance of creating and protecting the social and political stability to
ensure economic growth and harmony of the multi-ethnic society in the country.
The school system introduced by the British failed to instil elements of
nationalism and could not accommodate the requirements.
Thus, a national educational system was formed based on the 1956 Razak Report
and incorporated in the 1957 Education Ordinance.
The Razak Report recommended 17 acknowledgements that took into
consideration ultimate goals for the formation of a national education system for
all ethnics using the Malay language as the main medium of instruction. Basic
principles and proposals of the report were incorporated in the 1957 Education
Ordinance, which became the basis of the National Education System.
Among the important proposals are:
• Establish two types of schools; primary schools, either independent or
assisted, and secondary schools, either independent or directly assisted.
• Replace existing primary schools with general schools with Malay language
as the medium of instruction, and national-type schools with Chinese, Tamil
or English language as the medium of instruction.
• Make Malay and English language as compulsory subjects in all primary and
secondary schools.
• Form a national secondary school open for competition for all races, using a
uniformed curriculum for all streams. The curriculum can be modified to
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44 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
enable teaching for all races and incorporate Malaya Peninsula culture as well
as room for multi languages as the medium of instruction.
• Commence a Malaya oriented school through the curriculum and timetable.
• Take steps to inculcate national language development and improve
knowledge among people of the Federation of Malaya.
• Emphasise schooling stages in Malaya in 1956.
TeachersÊ training programmes were extended to accommodate the rising needs
for qualified teachers,. Two overseas colleges ă Kirby TeachersÊ Training College
and Brinsford Teachers Training College ă were formed temporarily in England.
In Malaya, teachersÊ training colleges were established in Penang, Kuala Lumpur
and Johor Baru.
At the tertiary level, Universiti Malaya was formed in Singapore in 1940 to meet
the rising demands for tertiary education in Malaya and Singapore.
The 1956 Razak Report was regarded as the basis of the national education
system in the country. Among the important characteristics of the national
education policy that had been used as a guideline in efforts to develop
education since then, were having the:
• Goal to form a single national education system for all ethnics;
• Ultimate aim to make Malay language as the main medium of instruction;
• Aim to create Malaysian-oriented curriculum with curriculum similar to its
content; and
• Aim to enhance the national education system by creating a standardised
examination for all students.
Proposals of the Razak Report had been rationalised and implemented in
educational programmes and projects to inculcate national identity and spirit
among the multi-racial society as well as producing skilled workforce to achieve
the countryÊs development.
Proposals of the Razak Report had been formulated to become the 1957
Education Ordinance. This ordinance made it compulsory for a single curriculum
for all schools. In 1959, an Education Review Committee was established to
review all implementation of the education system proposed in the Razak
Report.
The review was conducted due to various objections against the implementation of
the Razak Report. Among them were Malay school teachers who expressed
disapproval because they were of the opinion that the national language could not
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be implemented firmly; Chinese schoolteachersÊ associations objected because part
of the content of the Razak Report neglected the importance of Chinese language
education.
In 1959, an Education Review Committee was formed to assess the implementation
of the education system proposed by the Razak Report. The Education Minister
then, Encik Abdul Rahman Talib was selected as the chairman of the committee
and produced another report called the Rahman Talib Report.
3.2.5 The 1960 Rahman Talib Report
Acknowledgments of the 1960 Review Committee had important relation with
educational developments in the 1960s. In principle, this report was aimed at
strengthening and improving concepts and goals of the countryÊs educational
system included in the Razak Statement and Education Ordinance.
The main tasks that were retained were:
• A single schooling system for all;
• National language as the main medium of instruction for all levels of
schooling; and
• School curriculum and examinations that were the same in terms of content
and national in form.
Among the important matters that were acknowledged by the 1960 Review
Committee were:
(a) Free primary education;
(b) Automatic promotion from primary level until Form 3;
(c) Primary Five Assessment Examination;
(d) Improving quality of education in vernacular schools;
(e) Upgrading technical and vocational education;
(f) Control of Primary Lessons;
(g) Forming of the Federal School Board;
(h) Introducing Malay language as the main medium of instruction;
(i) Usage of official language for Public Examinations;
(j) Development of TeachersÊ Training Programme; and
(k) Preparing Moral and Religious Studies.
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3.2.6 1961 Education Act
Towards the efforts of updating and finalising the national education policy, all
matters that were received in the 1956 Razak Report and main
acknowledgements in the 1960 Review Committee, were incorporated into one
education legal provision, which was subsequently called the 1960 Education
Act.
The 1960 Education Act was incorporated into one educational legal provision
that was subsequently called the 1961 Education Act. Therefore, any efforts made
to develop the countryÊs educational development were guided by the policy
stipulated in the 1961 Education Act, as follows:
The 1961 Education Act
„To formulate a national education system that can fulfil the need of the
country and ensure success of the cultural, social, economical and political
developments. It should also take into consideration how far it is suitable in
principle to the basic principle that students should be educated according to
the requirements of their parents. And while additional provisions are
required to ensure effectiveness specific for continued progress in the
educational system development where the national language becomes the
main medium of instruction.
3.2.7 The 1979 Cabinet Report
After several years of implementing the educational system based on the
Rahman Talib Report, a study was carried out to study the educational needs to
meet the aspirations of a science and technology era and the National Economic
Policy. In 1974, a Cabinet Committee was formed to study the implementation of
the national education policy.
The main task of the committee was to analyse the national education system,
among others to:
• Analyse the goal and effects of the education system then;
• Ensure the needs of the workforce and country were fulfilled; and
• Produce a united, disciplined and well-trained society.
The Cabinet Report, produced in 1979, analysed and subsequently made proposals
on the types of schooling, examinations, administration, curriculum content,
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textbooks, civic, religious, moral, discipline and co-curriculum education. Various
changes to the national education system were:
• Making Malay language as the main medium of instruction. Malay and
English languages became compulsory subjects in schools. Opportunities to
learn Chinese and Tamil languages were also provided.
• Having a uniformed and Malaysian-oriented curriculum and examination
system for all schools.
• Providing basic education opportunities for nine years, aside from extending
vocational and technical education.
• Introducing primary education according to a new curriculum for primary
school (KBSR) based on writing, reading and counting, as well as an
integrated curriculum for secondary school (KBSM) beginning 1988.
• Providing various educational facilities at university level, particularly in the
field of applied science and literature, as well as encouraging co-curricular
activities to inculcate discipline such as military cadet, police cadet and
scouts.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Discuss with your classmates the importance of the 1961 Education
Act in the National Education System.
3.3 TEACHERS EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The main thrust of education is teachers. They are those who implement all
curriculum goals and policies outlined by the Government. Every support and
motivation from teachers is meaningful to education. They can also guarantee
that all educational plans run as intended by the Government. Therefore,
teachersÊ education is crucial to determine the future generation of teachers in the
teaching profession.
3.3.1 Teachers’ Training
Initially, teachers received training by undergoing courses in Brinsford Lodge
TeachersÊ College (closed in 1964). Around 1963, a Teachers Training Guideline
and Course Study Review Committee were formed and they produced a report
called the Teachers Training Integrated Programme. According to this report,
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48 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
lower secondary school teachers training was implemented comprehensively by
determining certain subject specialisations for certain colleges.
Two years after the integrated programme was implemented, the TeachersÊ
Education Division introduced an ad-hoc programme called Multiple Filed
Education System. Training was conducted throughout the whole of Peninsula
Malaysia at district training centres. The main objective was to accommodate the
lack of teachers for schools that started multiple stream education. Prospective
teachers selected to undergo the course are those with similar qualifications as
those trained at teachersÊ training colleges.
3.3.2 Teachers’ Educational Model
There were two types of teachersÊ education:
(a) Pre-Service TeachersÊ Education, and
(b) In-Service TeachersÊ Education.
Both levels of courses were conducted by the TeachersÊ Education Division and
local universities.
Improvement in teachersÊ performance has been given emphasis since Malaysia
achieved Independence. The TeachersÊ Education Division bore a heavy task in
implementing this profession. Training was not only at primary schools but also
secondary schools.
In-service training was conducted from time to time, alternating with orientation
courses within the „train the trainers‰ concept. This course was normally
handled by the Education Ministry. The main objective was to ensure strong
quality in teachersÊ performance.
3.4 THE NATIONAL EDUCATION CONCEPTS
In this sub-topic, we are going to discuss the national education concepts,
namely, the KBSR, the KBSM and the Smart School concept.
3.4.1 New Curriculum for Primary School (KBSR)
The present education system is the result of developments which started even
before Independence. However, the changing point that exists now was through
the 1956 Education Committee Statement, the Razak Statement. It cannot be
denied that the most important aspect for a country was to have its own national
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identity. Based on this awareness, the Razak Statement stressed that the National
Education Policy should be accepted by the people of the Federation of Malaya in
general and could fulfil their needs as well as encourage their progress as one
nationality.
On December 8, 1980, the Education Minister made an official announcement
regarding the New Curriculum for Primary School (KBSR). The goal was to ensure
comprehensive development of students. Developments included intellectual,
spiritual, physical, emotional, talent and social aspects as well as aesthetical values.
This curriculum provided every student equal opportunity to acquire skills,
knowledge, values, behaviour and practices that were required. Every student
was given encouragement and extensive guidance to master basic skills well.
The New Curriculum for Primary School was aimed at enabling students to:
• Extensively master Malay language which is suitable with its position as the
national and official language of the country;
• Master basic language skills; speaking, reading and writing in the medium of
instruction in primary schools;
• Master basic counting skills well;
• Master learning skills based on basic skills;
• Have the ability to read, write and speak English in line with its position as
the countryÊs second language;
• Develop good conduct and attitude based on humanitarian and spiritual
values accepted and appreciated by the society based on the Rukun Negara,
as well as making those values the basis of life practices;
• Have knowledge, understanding, interest as well as awareness for the people
and the environment;
• Mix around, respect rights and capabilities of others as well as have the spirit
of cooperation and tolerance;
• Develop talent, leadership ability and self-confidence to improve knowledge
as well as upgrade the ability to apply any basic skills that have been
acquired; and
• Have interest, understand, enjoy and be involved in arts and recreational
activities within the scope of the national culture.
The curriculum for primary schools was formed based on acknowledgements 57
(a) of the Cabinet Report:
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50 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
„Primary School Curriculum should be planned to enable students to achieve
skills in three main fields, communication, human and environment, and
self-development suitable with requirements, interest, talent and mental
capability as well as studentsÊ preparedness.‰
(a) Implementation Strategy
In the implementation strategy, various principles had been brought
forward as guidance, namely decentralisation, use of discretion wherever
necessary and attempt together with feedback to improve curriculum
followed by its full implementation.
Through decentralisation, all parties were hoped to be able to provide
feedback whether in planning or implementation. Although in principle,
directives and decisions were made at a central level, each decision was a
result of everyoneÊs opinions.
The principle of discretion was closely related to the principle of
decentralisation. Since KBSR was planned to consider different factors to
students, situation of certain places, teachersÊ capabilities and financial
capabilities, the states and schools were encouraged to change the ways to
implement the curriculum.
The third principle was to have a pilot project before full implementation.
Every level would have a trial practise for a year before its full
implementation.
Orientation and training of KBSR teachers was based on the „multiplier
effect‰ concept. Therefore, important staff from among the workforce were
required. Their role was to provide teachers for implementation through
orientation courses and training at district and state levels.
Courses for these important staff should be handled together by the
Curriculum Development Centre and other divisions in the Ministry. The
use of this overall strategy can be seen in Figure 3.1 below:
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Figure 3.1: KBSR Implementation Strategy
The KBSR educational system placed emphasis not only on studentsÊ
achievements, but also on talent development and relationship between
students and their peers.
The new assessment system that was suitably planned for KBSR consists of
the following characteristics:
• Not centred at a national level;
• Aimed at helping in learning and remedial work;
• Various shape patterns;
• Held continuously so that weaknesses would not accumulate; and
• Formulated, administered and checked by teachers themselves.
(b) Identification
In identifying and improving weaknesses, several matters should be given
emphasis, among them:
• Performance of students involved;
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• Suitability and quality of KBSR materials supplied to schools and
materials teachers prepared;
• Effectiveness of orientation and training teachers and principals;
• Effectiveness of service assistance and guidance teachers and principals
acquired throughout early implementation; and
• Facilities and equipment in classrooms or schools involved.
Once identification has taken place, immediate improvements would be done
if there were weaknesses that could be improved at that time. Identifying
officers to provide guidance in the form of teaching and advising either
during or after observations had taken place. Weaknesses that were
identified might be in terms of teaching strategies, material usage and so on.
(c) Implementation Organisation
To ensure that KBSR could be implemented effectively, the decentralisation
principle was adopted. Through this principle, all parties would be
involved in taking the initiative and decision-making. These parties
included schools, districts and states. The Implementation Committee was
formed to get the involvement of affected parties and ensure cooperation
and coordination between central and state education departments.
Planning on policy issues were made at a central level by the KBSR
Implementation Committee. The aim was to prepare a general guideline to
help implementation at state, district and school levels.
(d) Teaching and Learning Strategy (KBSR)
The main characteristics of teaching and learning strategies were as below:
Ć During the teaching and learning process, children were divided into
various groups; big or small groups, couples or individually based on
their skills, abilities and interests.
Ć Various types of teaching methods and techniques were used to choose
the knowledge and skills to be presented.
Ć Emphasis was given to the needs and interests of children through
rehabilitation programmes.
Ć Emphasise the use of local materials as well as suitable teaching aids so
that teaching and learning process could be carried out more effectively.
The implementation of the KBSR programme started in 1982 and resulted
in a comprehensive curriculum change at primary school level. This
curriculum was formulated to guarantee the mastery of basic skills and
comprehensive student development.
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The KBSR programme emphasises on mastery of basic skills (reading,
writing and arithmetic), and knowledge teaching was deferred so that
proper focus would be given on these three skills. This change at the
primary school level required changes to be implemented in the curriculum
for secondary level so that there would be proper continuity in focus,
content and learning styles.
3.4.2 Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School
(KBSM)
On September 11, 1986, the Education Minister made an announcement on the
Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (KBSM) programme. Generally,
changes in curriculum at secondary school level are important to ensure proper
continuity in terms of emphasis, content and learning style.
In the effort to consider the proposal from the Cabinet Committee Report and to
overcome arising problems as well as coordinate education with current
developments, the new curriculum should place emphasis on the following
matters:
• Secondary School Education should be based on general education; namely
education which emphasised on overall and balanced developments. To
achieve this goal, equal consideration was given to spiritual elements, values,
attitude, knowledge and studentsÊ talent.
• Focus was given towards instilling universal values, which were similar to
the shared values of the Malaysian society to produce responsible, rational
and compassionate individuals.
• Secondary school education also gave special emphasis on instilling
nationalism. Nationalistic education was aimed at promoting the spirit of
pride for the race and nation.
• In KBSM, emphasis continued to be given to the role of Bahasa Malaysia as
the national language and the countryÊs official language. This is to enable
students to master language and communication efficiency in Bahasa
Malaysia, suitable with its role as the language of unity, main communication
and knowledge.
• Life skills were introduced to adapt oneself with changes that had taken place
in the technology world and entrepreneurship.
• Co-curricular activities were given proper emphasis to ensure a balance
between formal lessons in classrooms and informal education outside
classrooms.
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(a) Goals of KBSM Programme
KBSM aims at continuing overall student development; encompassing
intellectual, spiritual, physical, emotional, talent, moral values, aesthetic
and social aspects. This is to enable students to develop their potential,
easily adapt to constant change as well as function effectively and
productively towards their self-development, peopleÊs unity, national
development process and racial identity creation.
To achieve these goals, KBSM was formulated based on the principles
below:
• Balance and integration of intellectual, physical, emotional and spiritual
elements;
• Suitable curriculum for all students;
• Curriculum which equipped students with skills for lifelong education;
and
• Curriculum which emphasised core subjects and compulsory for all,
apart from elective subjects to fulfil interest and inclination.
(b) Basic curriculum
Curriculum which was planned based on the national education
philosophy. In principle, the curriculum emphasised on three fields;
namely communication, human and environment, and self-development.
The curriculum formulated was based on several main principles namely:
• Knowledge is very important.
By acknowledging this fact, emphasis must be given to knowledge
acquisition from primary school level onwards. With knowledge,
humans would be able to face life challenges and continue with their
lifelong learning.
• The principle of increasing oneÊs thinking ability.
Every student is educated to show their ability to air their views and
opinions based on objective and critical thinking.
• Related to values.
Integrated curriculum would not be complete if it did not comprise
objective elements encompassing spiritual, humanitarian and
nationality.
• Instilling Bahasa Malaysia as an official language.
Bahasa Malaysia is to be the language of sovereign unity and
knowledge that is able to interpret any field of thought.
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(c) Organisational Implementation
Several committees were formed to implement integrated curriculum
programmes. The Educational Planning Committee was tasked to plan and
formulate policies and all actions based on proposals that were proposed by
the Central Curriculum Committee, which was the Working Committee in
curriculum formulation. The responsibility of the Educational Planning
Curriculum was to research and propose a summary of curriculum
formulation, implementation and programme evaluation.
To ensure widespread implementation, the Implementation Committee was
established, and operated in two stages - central and state. The tasks
performed were professional and administrative in nature.
In terms of an administrative aspect, committees at both levels were involved
in tasks involving supply, administrative, facilities, financial, supervision,
tracking, information dissemination and communication.
From a professional aspect, the Implementation Committee at the central
level was given the tasks of curriculum formulation, publishing course
content, preparing textbook and related-materials, carrying out training
courses and preparing teaching and learning strategies.
(d) Steps to Develop and Implement KBSM
Various activities to plan, develop, try, identify and evaluate programmes
had to be implemented to guarantee that KBSM truly achieved its goal.
Curriculum material development for each lesson, such as content,
curriculum elaboration, textbook writing guide, orientation guide, training
and study materials, required involvement from within and outside the
Education Ministry. Meetings and workshops were held to acquire various
skills and knowledge contribution so that the materials were suitable.
Teachers were responsible in implementing KBSM in classrooms. Every
teacher should be equipped with knowledge, skills and attitude suitable
with the needs and aspirations of KBSM and such subjects. This was done
through orientation sessions at the school, district or state levels.
Measures were also taken to suit activities in various fields with
requirements of the KBSM programme, among them:
• Programmes in teachersÊ training colleges were suited to KBSM and
lecturers were oriented to ensure that potential teachers obtain proper
training and exposure to teach KBSM.
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56 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
• The studentsÊ examination and progress evaluation was studied and
modified so that both could strengthen the required practices in
classrooms.
• Radio and television educational programmes were made suitable with
KBSM to enrich learning in classrooms.
3.4.3 Smart School
The Smart School concept was one of the main applications in the Multimedia
Super Corridor (MSC), which was being developed. Implementation of the Smart
School concept is suitable with the present development and for future demand,
particularly in producing knowledge workers who are informed, skilful, and
confident as well as have good ethics.
Construction of these prestigious schools is also expected to be able to provide
excellent education and training for the present and future generations in all
aspects, to form a society with scientific and innovative thinking by taking
advantage of the latest technology as well as contributing towards science and
technology civilisation in the future.
Implementation of the teaching and learning curricula in smart schools using the
latest technology application is capable of developing studentsÊ potential in
various aspects involving intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical. Generic
skills and multiple intelligence developments are given emphasis in the Smart
School implementation.
The Smart School Pilot Project in 1990 involved 90 schools nationwide. Of the
total, 81 were existing schools, while the remainder were new schools. Smart
Schools provide sophisticated and latest ICT infrastructure for teachersÊ and
studentsÊ use. These schools have laboratories equipped with computers with
various hardware and software including Internet and Intranet.
(a) Smart School Curricula
Smart School curricula were designed to help students achieve
comprehensive progress and a balanced development with main elements
to generate thinking.
The emphasis on the Smart School curricula was towards knowledge
integration, values and language absorption beyond curricula, and skills as
well as suitable attitude for the IT era.
(b) Smart School Objectives
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The objectives of a Smart School were based on the National Education
Philosophy and aimed to:
• Produce workforce who are technology savvy;
• Democratise education;
• Increase involvement of relevant individuals;
• Instil overall individual development; and
• Provide opportunities to increase individual strength and capability.
(c) Smart School Teaching and Learning
In teaching implementation, teachers are required to integrate generic skills,
such as learning, creative and critical thinking, information technology, and
interpretation and evaluation, to be mastered by students. Teachers should
adopt suitable teaching management techniques to manage thinking and
student-centred teaching.
Smart teachers should master the skills of identifying knowledge resources
that can be used to enhance the effectiveness of their teaching. Through
smart teaching-learning, students will be directly involved in interacting
and cooperating with their peers to achieve maximum development based
on their potential.
Optimisation of learning sources is a very important skill for smart
schoolteachers. It encompasses practising various strategies to achieve
optimum application of learning resources that are available in smart
schools. The teaching and learning process in smart schools is shown in
Figure 3.2:
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58 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
Figure 3.2: Direction of Smart School Teaching and Learning Practice
In the teaching and learning process, facilitators are teachers who will help
students to achieve their learning goals through group or individual activities.
Facilitators not only present skills and experience but also help students achieve
optimum learning by using facilitation skills.
3.5 THE 1996 EDUCATION ACT
National education is an education framework in the country as stipulated in the
1996 Education Act of Malaysia. The education system had gone through a
restructuring process based on the 1991 Education Act to optimise its functions
and roles.
The 1996 Education Act played a role as framework to the national education
system, consisting of important matters that were used to define and determine
policy direction that would be complied by education administrators and
leaders. According to Section 15 of the 1995 Education Act, the national
education system comprised of:
• Preschool education;
• Primary education;
• Secondary education;
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TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA W 59
• Post-secondary education; and
• Tertiary education except for expatriate schools (international schools).
Section 16 of the 1996 Education Act listed three categories of the national
education:
• Public education institution;
• Government-assisted institution; and
• Private education institution.
The National Education Philosophy became the platform of the National
Education Policy that was formulated after taking into consideration views and
aspirations of all parties. The goal of the Malaysian education system was
summarised based on the goals included in the Rukun Negara, the National
Education Policy and the National Economic Policy (NEP). Some of the goals of
our education system are:
• Production of quality education;
• Production of educated and intellectual students;
• Creation of a united society;
• Social community development;
• Production of quality workforce;
• Economic growth particularly in the rural areas;
• Formation of responsible and committed citizens in a democratic country;
• Restructuring of the societyÊs socio-economy; and
• Poverty eradication.
In the Education Act, the national education concept is strengthened by
encompassing all levels of schooling from preschool to tertiary education, and
covering all categories of schools, namely government, government-assisted and
private schools.
Article 152 of the Federal Constitution upholds the Malay language as the
national language to preserve the peopleÊs unity. The position of the Malay
language as the national language is further enhanced when the National
Language Act was endorsed in 1967. From 1970, the language medium in English
primary schools was gradually switched to the national language.
The 1996 Education Act had taken into consideration the importance of all races
by maintaining the national-type primary schoolsÊ status quo and also 60 Chinese
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private schools. Apart from that, the Unified Examination as adopted by these
schools and conforming school management board and missionary schools were
maintained.
The 1966 Education Act also had a provision for the teaching of ethnic languages
that exist in the country wherever practical and reasonable. Registration was not
required for religious classes like bible classes under the 1996 Education Act.
Final Thoughts
We must always follow the world development in various aspects particularly
the economy, social, politics and technology. All parties should always help in
environmental scanning to identify the latest needs from all angles. The
educational field should always identify the basic indicators related to the
education system including the National Educational Philosophy that became the
thrust for improvement or changes in the countryÊs development.
The failure of the educational system in strategically developing manpower not
only will be a loss for the country, but also affect the sovereignty of the country
as without high values and ethics as well as strong patriotism, everything will be
in vain.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Elaborate the importance of the 1961 Education Act in the
education system in Malaysia.
2. Explain the direction of smart school teaching and learning
practice.
3. Discuss the teaching and learning in KBSR and KBSM
implementation strategy.
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TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA W 61
• Prior to the arrival of the colonial powers, education in Malaya was informal
in nature and did not emphasise on the studentsÊ cognitive development.
• Educational administration during the time of the British was based on the
policy of „divide and rule‰ as well as open policy and non-intervention from
the Government.
• The National Education Reports greatly influenced and shaped the
development of education in Malaysia.
• Teachers are the ones who implement all curriculum goals and policies,
which are outlined by the Government. Therefore, teachersÊ education is
crucial to determine the education of the future generation.
• In Malaysia, the three most important education concepts are the KBSR,
KBSM and Smart School.
• The 1996 Education Act played a role as framework to the national education
system, consisting of important matters that were used to define and
determine policy direction that would be complied by education
administrators and leaders.
Cognitive Ordinance
Infrastructure Recommendation
Input
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Topic XMulti-cultural
4 Education
Methods and
Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Elaborate on at least four multi-cultural education dimensions that
were introduced by Banks (1994);
2. Explain two importance of each of BanksÊ multi-cultural education
dimension models;
3. Compare BanksÊ models with three multi-cultural education
programmes in terms of methods, suitability and importance;
4. State three activities in three multi-cultural education programmes;
and
5. State the process of multi-cultural education programme
comprehensively.
X INTRODUCTION
Dynamic and continuous educational developments results in changes towards
curricula as well as methods in teaching and learning in classrooms. Education
also transcends cultural limitations and geographical boundaries causing
changes in the education system. This leads to the latest curricula shifting from
its geocentric nature to a multi-centric one based on current needs and demands.
Developed nations in particular have practiced multi-cultural education system
due to the trickling effect of foreign culture and elements into their education
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TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS W 63
system. Arrivals of foreign migrants also bring in shared values, qualities and
culture.
You will learn about several concepts, models and methods that are the
ingredients of a multi-cultural education. We will also discuss the elements that
should exist in multi- cultural education models and methods.
4.1 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATIONAL
DIMENSION
The design approach of multi-cultural education by Banks (1994) was formulated
based on a multi-cultural educational concept which emphasised on equal
education acquisition in schools, colleges or universities, irrespective of race,
ethnic, gender, types of students and minority groups. BanksÊ approach was one
of the methods to help us change our teaching and improve education effectively
and in a more organised manner. However, it depended on the types of culture
that exists in a school or classroom.
BanksÊ multi-cultural education dimension was based on the United States of
America. For Banks, America was a huge and charity nation, resulting in the
emergence of groups based on the culture worldwide; for example, African
Americans, Asians, Natives, Hispanic and so on. This situation was obvious in
the southern, western and eastern America.
As a result of this development, the implementation of multi-cultural education
became complex and since two decades ago research was carried out on these
multi-dimensional models. This resulted in the changing the terms of curriculum,
system and pedagogy to fulfil the need of this multi-cultural population. BanksÊ
study (1994 and 1995) divided five dimensions (Figure 4.1) which became the
core aspects of a multi-cultural education:
• Content Integration;
• Reduction of Prejudice;
• Equal Pedagogy;
• Knowledge Construction; and
• Empowering School Culture and Social Structure.
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64 X TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS
Figure 4.1: Multi-cultural education dimensional chain
(a) Content Integration
The teachersÊ teaching emphasises on illustrations and lesson content that
are based on the studentsÊ various cultures. Most subjects which are based
on multi-cultures are in the field of social science, such as language, arts
and culture, while subjects like science, mathematics, physics and biology
are not suitable to be taught according to the studentsÊ various cultures.
However, in recent developments, teachers have made individual
initiatives to incorporate cultural elements in physics and mathematics.
An example is listing physiciansÊ biography according to culture and
ethnic. This method is suitable to distinguish positions and status of
physicians in terms of educational background, research and so on. Hence,
lesson content will be integrated in culture and field of subject. This effort
should be made carefully and suited to situations so that the teaching and
learning process will not be affected.
(b) Reduction of Prejudice
The formulation of curriculum focuses on characteristics and attitudes of
multi cultural students to help understand and form positive racial and
ethnic attitudes among students. Teachers will position these characteristics
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as the basis in teaching so that students can form positive behaviour to
understand and accept the various cultures in their lives. Related studies
show that students who are aware of the existence of various cultures will
respect other races and able to deeply understand the process as well as
cultural characteristics. This will facilitate teachers in instilling various
cultural attributes in their lessons as a way to reduce prejudice among races
in classrooms. Usually teachers will involve all students in the learning
activities.
An example is cooperative learning. This type of learning encourages
cooperation and tolerance in various aspects to achieve the required goals.
Normally, subjects that adopt this approach are more similar to social
science, such as language, moral and civics education, sports activities,
gender education, history and geography. For other subjects, they have to
be modified based on studentsÊ needs and learning stages.
(c) Equal Pedagogy
This is a way or method of certain teachers who teach using various
cultures that exist in classrooms to motivate academic achievements among
students. Various academic achievements based on the different cultures
result in inequality among the students. Therefore, teachers will use various
methods or modify their teaching based on the types of cultures in the
classrooms. Teachers need to conduct in-depth and extensive studies
regarding certain cultures in their classrooms in order for their teaching to
achieve the intended goals.
An example is a classroom that consists of three main races, namely Malays,
Chinese and Indians. Every teacher should understand and know about the
culture and lifestyle of each race to facilitate teaching and learning in
classrooms. For instance, understanding the Chinese culture of
memorisation, hence teaching and learning in the form of memorising
should be inculcated and adapted with the lesson content. However, this
approach is difficult to be implemented if teachers are not prepared to teach
based on multi-cultures and races.
(d) Knowledge Construction
Knowledge is built and formulated because it is social in nature, whereby it
is dynamic and interactive from time to time. Cultural diversity in a
classroom results in the occurrence of exchanging and integrating
knowledge in a healthy and spontaneous manner among students. This
involves exploration of social, behaviour, reference framework and
perspective in knowledge disciplines, which influences the way knowledge
is formulated.
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66 X TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS
(e) Empowering School Culture and Social Structure
This involves school organisation and culture restructuring so that children
from various cultures, ethnics, social classes and races will experience
individual equality and capacity. It places emphasis on changes and
structure formation in the school environment in order for children to have
equal opportunity to achieve success.
4.2 CONTENT-ORIENTED PROGRAMME
Generally, a content-oriented programme emphasises on any teaching and
learning activities based on subject content and suited to various cultures in
certain classrooms. Every subject content must be directed towards overall
achievements and fulfil the goals of multi-cultural education. Guidelines to
implement content-oriented programme are:
(a) Educational activities or programmes that have been planned should take
into consideration the main subject content that is linked to various
cultures.
(b) Avoid financial waste, resources and materials that are adapted in various
teaching and learning methods, particularly from various races.
(c) Quality assurance towards education that practices multi-cultural
education as achievements and results from this education will produce
academic achievements and effectiveness in education.
(d) Fulfil responsibilities for relevant parties, such as parents and the
Government policies. Hence, all curriculum content that is designed must
be in-line with activities that lead towards the goals of multi-ethnic
education.
(i) Multi-cultural curriculum goal
Helps children familiarise themselves with other peopleÊs cultural
perspective more meaningfully.
• Produces children who can accept other cultures in their lives
through feedback.
• Provides children with skills, attitude and knowledge that are
required to ensure that they can share with other children of
various cultures.
• Reduces dissatisfaction and discrimination amongst them.
• Trains students on reading, writing and mathematics skills
effectively.
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TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS W 67
(ii) Curriculum encompassing various ethnic groups
Curriculum that is formulated should involve requirements and the
importance of ethnic groups, for example, language, culture and
religion. This will facilitate teaching and learning to run smoothly and
systematically. This curriculum will reduce discrimination and
isolation from other ethnic groups. The usual method is applied so
that curriculum fulfils the needs of all ethnic groups by preparing the
curriculum development panel from various ethnic groups. Every
view and comment should be accepted in order to prepare an
integrated curriculum and fulfil the needs of all parties.
(iii) Teaching aids encompassing all ethnic groups
Teaching aids are used to facilitate and enhance understanding in
teaching certain topics. In teaching various ethnics, materials from this
group can be used as teaching aids, such as clothes. It can be used as a
teaching aid in mathematics, arts, history and language subjects.
4.3 STUDENT-ORIENTED PROGRAMME
This specifically involves studentsÊ interests. All educational programmes are
focused on students and all teaching and learning activities take into
consideration studentsÊ needs. Students have intelligence and are influenced by
their family background. Hence, teachers should ensure every teaching unit is
focused on studentsÊ achievement and performance according to their abilities,
achievements and cultures. Teachers should study and monitor these
developments of students from various cultures because it would influence
studentsÊ behaviour and interaction in classrooms.
(a) Multi-ethnic Group Learning Style
This learning style focuses more on oneÊs learning process which can make
him or her comfortable and results in meaningful learning effects. There are
various learning styles that can be seen among students. Among them are
learning styles which are dependent or non-dependent on visuals or
musical. All teachers should identify the learning style of their students
from various ethnic groups to facilitate his or her teaching which can be
focused on students effectively and achieve desired goals.
(b) Culture and Language Usage
Teachers should use languages and the various cultures of students as their
teaching materials. It will enable students to understand and remember
their learning. However, language usage should be consistent and
continuous so that it will not affect childrenÊs learning.
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68 X TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS
(c) Special Programme for Minority Group
This programme is especially for a small group of students and unique to
one classroom. Although the number is small, it has similar goals to the
majority group. This means that teachers should prepare certain activities
for the minority group while not affecting the majority group in terms of
learning and lesson content.
4.4 SOCIAL-ORIENTED PROGRAMME
This programme is directed towards achieving social goals of children. Every
learning activity should link to various social activities and relate to the
education/lesson that is implemented. Curriculum of subjects that are required
should be in line with multi-cultural education goals.
(i) Interaction Opportunity among Races
Students are given the opportunity to interact with other races during
teaching and learning. Normally, teachers will adopt a teaching approach
in groups by preparing a series of tasks which encourage students to
interact.
(ii) Cooperative Learning
It is also known as team learning. It involves all members in the group to
solve tasks within a certain time. All learning activities must be directed
towards cooperative learning so that educational and social goals are
achieved specifically among students of various ethnic groups. Cooperative
learning will encourage students to interact actively and positively in group
work. This will create sharing of ideas, acceptance of decisions and views in
an open manner among them.
(iii) Positive Social Contributions to Society
Learning focused on social goals is to create:
• Understanding of other peopleÊs cultures;
• Respect for other peopleÊs cultural practices;
• Acceptance and adoption according to current needs;
• Tolerance; and
• The formation of a peaceful and harmonious society.
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SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Multi-cultural education is complex and complicated to be
implemented. Discuss this statement.
2. State at least two advantages of BanksÊ five cultural diversity
educational dimensions along with illustrations.
3. State at least two importances of every multi-cultural educational
programmes.
• You have learnt about multi-cultural education in terms of its programmes
and dimensions.
• In this topic, you have been exposed to the multi-cultural educational
dimension model.
• Everything is associated with one another and practiced according to the
needs and suitability of subjects, and teaching and learning approaches in
classrooms.
Discrimination Majority
Geocentric Multi-centric
Groups/cluster Prejudice
Holistic
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Topic XImportance of
5 Multi-cultural
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Elaborate three multi-racial educational goals;
2. Explain the importance of multi-racial educational goals;
3. Draw a mind map on multi-cultural educational goals, along with
illustrations;
4. List the disadvantages of multi-cultural education based on
illustrations in Malaysia;
5. State three activities that can curb disadvantages of multi-cultural
education; and
6. Explain the multi-cultural education programme formation process
based on Malaysian cases.
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you learnt about the countryÊs educational history and
factors influencing it, and you were exposed to several concepts of multi-cultural
education based on Western perspective. We also discussed briefly on the need
for multi-cultural education from the Malaysian perspective. Subsequently, you
will look at multi-cultural education goals in general, as well as its importance
and disadvantages. We will also briefly touch on its importance from the
Malaysian perspective based on various relevant illustrations.
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In Malaysia, multi-cultural education had shown its importance after the May 13,
1969 incident, which required an education policy accepted by all races. The
education policy in Malaysia was formulated and the subsequently formed
curriculum was based on the National Education Philosophy. This philosophy
was formulated taking into consideration the importance and educational goals
for Bumiputra/Malay, Chinese and Indian races; and consequently preserves the
countryÊs stability and harmony.
5.1 GOALS OF MULTI-RACIAL EDUCATION
In topic 4, you were exposed to the goals of having a multi-cultural education
curriculum.
Generally, multi-cultural education reduces dissatisfaction as well as
discrimination among races. However, bear in mind that multi-cultural
education does not create one race called „unity in diversity‰. In fact, it merely
ensures equal rights and freedom to education among the races through
democratisation of education.
The main goals of multi-cultural education include changing the learning
environment to motivate academic achievement and support the learning styles
of different students by strengthening values from cultural diversity, equalities,
social justice and democracy.
Formation of multi-cultural educational goals depends on various factors, among
them government policy, school environment, time, society and also educational
goal. It is also aimed at helping educators to fulfil requirements of individual
potential, childrenÊs needs and teaching by emphasising the development of
oneÊs feelings, confidence and competency. Specifically, there are four goals of
multi-cultural education as stated below:
(a) Forming culture and literacy
This is to equip students with information on certain races in terms of their
history and importance in the countryÊs development. This information will
reduce bias against other races. Thus, the curriculum that is formulated
should take into consideration the history, culture, heritage, language and
contribution to the country.
Generally, students will be exposed to historical background of races,
cultural attributes, contributions, certain and unique occasions, as well as
socio-economic condition of races. This explanation should be
comprehensive, analytical and comparative (similarities and differences
with other races).
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The goal is suitable whether for majority students or minority ones. The
mistake made by most educators is to think that minority groups are aware
about their culture and history, and the knowledge is only relevant to them,
and not to others.
Members of certain ethnic groups do not necessarily understand their own
cultural ethnicity. Mastering historical, life and cultural knowledge of
ethnic groups is suitable for all students because they should learn more
with accurate information about their own heritage and that of others. In
addition, knowledge about various ethnics is the basis to respecting,
appreciating, valuing and celebrating diversity, either at national or
international levels.
ACTIVITY 5.1
How are values and attitudes related to individual development in a
multi-cultural society? Discuss.
Teachers also learn about culture and languages of other races because they
live in a multi-cultural society, teach students from different cultures and
from various locations, gender, rural or urban environment, citizens,
language and religion, who always interacting.
The subsequent topic will discuss individual development that is related to
attitudes and values. Generally, attitudes refer to behaviour that is shown
either clearly or otherwise. Meanwhile, values are the beliefs that become
practice or behaviour of someone in oneÊs life.
(b) Individual development, attitudes and values
This will help individuals in terms of personal understanding, positive self-
concept and being proud of their identity. It will also stop students from
misperceiving ethnic identities, attributes and uniqueness. This goal will
help in terms of fulfilling individual potential, confidence and skills. Most
students are more inclined to the attitudes and values that have been
inculcated in their families and ethnic groups.
Emphasising this aspect is part of the multi-cultural educational objectives
in contributing towards studentsÊ individual developments, self dignity
and eventually overall studentsÊ intellectual, academic and social
achievements. Students who feel that they are good are more inclined to be
open-minded and willing to interact with others while respecting the
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TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION W 73
cultures and identities of others. At the same time, attitudes and values that
are formed positively will have equal, independent and democratic views.
The students are educated to respect the cultures of others and be aware of
the societal characteristics in a country, thereby reducing conflicts among
races, pluralism and diversity. Positive attitudes and values create
cooperation and tolerance among students. Individual developments
mostly influence the attitudes and values that one has. This can be
explained in Figure 5.1:
Figure 5.1 Attitude developments
If individuals understand and possess the required attitudes and values,
the question of inequality, misconception and discrimination will not arise.
In fact, it will encourage relationship and cooperation among the different
cultures. Many students have the wrong concept and negative views about
themselves and other ethnic groups, which is actually a common
occurrence in a big society. Students from minority groups believe that
there is nothing to be proud of about their heritage, while dominant groups
may exaggerate their importance. Improving understanding about one self
and other ethnic groups, as well as cultural experiences can correct this
mistake.
Multi-cultural education can help educators fulfil the goal to maximise
human potential, meet individual needs and teach children by enhancing
their self-dignity and feelings, confidence and competition. It creates a
psychological preparation in individuals and a learning environment with
positive effects to improve academic achievements. At the same time, the
countryÊs development goal through multi-cultural education can be
organised and easily achieved.
(c) Multi-cultural social competency
Students will learn how to interact with different races, cultures, languages
and generation. This cross-cultural education will help students understand
other ethnics and form values and positive expectations.
This means that teachers must have skills in teaching cross-culture
communication, interpersonal relationship, context analysis, understanding
the views of others and knowing their influence of culture on studentsÊ
values, attitudes, beliefs, reference, expectations and behaviour. This will also
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74 X TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION
help students draw comparisons without touching sensitivities of other
ethnics or judging them.
Social competency helps improve social skills among various ethnics. Social
skills enable one to understand multi-cultural from a social point of view and
assimilate with oneÊs own culture without damaging the cultural values of
others. Hence, understanding other peopleÊs culture will facilitate
communication and relationship goals among various cultures.
(d) Helping teaching and learning literacy skills of students from various
ethnic backgrounds
Multi-cultural education provides basic skills based on ethnic. It requires
in-depth knowledge and experience about studentsÊ background. This is to
ensure that teaching and learning runs smoothly as desired. In fact, this
knowledge will enable teachers to relate their lesson content with studentsÊ
background so that they will understand better and accept clearly.
The teachers will prepare teaching aid based on their studentsÊ background
(culture and social) to be applied in the lesson content. Concrete
illustrations can be obtained from students because it has been incorporated
into their lives and become their life practice. Teachers indirectly acquire
knowledge and experience from such illustrations. This will facilitate the
organisation and planning of subsequent teaching and learning process.
Teachers also use whatever is available as learning aids. Figure 5.2 below
shows the link between teaching and learning, and teaching aids based on
various cultures in classrooms.
Figure 5.2: The link between teaching, learning and teaching aids based on various
cultures in classrooms
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TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION W 75
5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF MULTI-CULTURAL
EDUCATION
Now, let us look at the disadvantages of multi-cultural education.
(a) Focus on multi-cultural and race results in gap among races
Education that only focuses on one race will create racism and reluctance to
cooperate among races. As a result, the gap among races widens. If left
unchecked, social problems in the multi-cultural society will exist.
Examples are the Rodney King and O.J Simpson cases below:
(i) Rodney King
He was beaten up by white police officers because of speeding on the
road. As a result, King sustained serious injuries to the face, hands
and stomach.
KingÊs beating incident received extensive coverage in America as it
was a mere traffic offence which caused him to be beaten up until he
was badly hurt.
Hence, KingÊs case was brought to court to call for justice, due to
dissatisfaction among the African Americans.
(ii) O.J Simpson
Simpson was an ex-American football player who was successful in
his career. However, the murder of his ex-wife and her boyfriend
(both Caucasians) led to dissatisfaction among the American whites.
Simpson was tried for murder but found innocent and acquitted. This
led to dissatisfaction among the whites.
(b) Unexpected causes
Teaching plans and approaches based on existing curriculum does not
assure that multi-racial studentsÊ needs will be met. There are activities that
are unsatisfactory caused by ruling and prohibition in certain races, ethnic
or religion.
(c) Dissatisfaction among students
Various pressures according to certain groups cause dissatisfaction among
students. There are students who are unable to master the language of
medium of instruction, lesson content and are absent from school. These
phenomena can result in an academic gap among them. This gap will lead
to sentiments of various achievements in classrooms. In addition, studentsÊ
learning styles and unsatisfactory teaching methods will create an
uncomfortable environment in classrooms.
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76 X TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION
There are studies showing that certain teaching methods are effective to
certain students only according to race and ethnic. This may be because the
methods are suitable and meet the needs of the students.
Now, how do we reduce the disadvantages of multi-cultural education?
There are several approaches commonly used to reduce disadvantages of
various cultures, among them:
(i) Teachers ă Need to be trained and always acquire knowledge in
cultures of certain races in terms of language, religion, culture and
practices relating to traditions. This knowledge is important to avoid
any misunderstanding and discrimination among races. Modifying
teaching methods based on whatever available in classrooms will be
more fun and provide a positive picture among students.
(ii) School Administrator ă Always monitor and resolve conflicts among
races based on policies, regulations or procedures that have been set.
They should be implemented fairly, equitably and without biasness. If
necessary, form a committee to resolve racial/cultural conflict.
Similarly, there should be a work and teaching environment that is
conducive in school. Focus on teamwork or cooperation among
teachers and students as well as involving parents in academic
programmes in schools.
(iii) Parents ă Involving and cooperating with parents from various
cultures in school programmes, particularly in improving academic
achievements and cultural, language and traditional programmes.
(iv) Jointly formulated curriculum ă The purpose the curriculum is
formulated is to fulfil needs and demands of people for their
childrenÊs future. Hence, the curriculum that can fulfil the needs of
the a multi-cultural society will be accepted and implemented
effectively.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. How can the curriculum in Malaysia fulfil the needs of a multi-
cultural society?
2. State three of its causes:
(a) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(c) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION W 77
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Elaborate at least three multi-cultural education goals.
2. State three activities that can reduce the disadvantages of multi-
racial education.
3. What is the importance of multi-racial education goals in the
Malaysian context?
• Multi-cultural education reduces dissatisfaction as well as the possibility of
discrimination syndrome among races.
• The main goals of multi-cultural education include changing the learning
environment to motivate academic achievement and support the learning
styles of different students by strengthening values from cultural diversity,
equalities, social justice and democracy.
• The advantages of multi-cultural education are :
− It creates agreements to respect existing multi-cultures;
− Instils culture of pluralism in classrooms; and
− Overcomes elements of stereotype, prejudice and racism in the
society.
• The disadvantages of multi-cultural education are:
− It can create a gap among races;
− Other unexpected causes; and
− Dissatisfaction among students.
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78 X TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION
Competent Platform
Comprehensive Prejudice
Literacy Stereotype
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic X Multi-cultural
6 Influence
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Elaborate social and economic roles in influencing the Malaysian
multi-racial societyÊs way of life;
2. Explain two important environmental factors in influencing
Malaysian societyÊs way of life;
3. Identify the roles of administrators, teachers, students and parents on
Malaysian societyÊs traditions;
4. List three ways to instil noble universal values in Malaysian
education;
5. State three activities that can maintain Malaysian tradition and
heritage; and
6. State how multi-cultural education can maintain Malaysian cultural
heritage.
X INTRODUCTION
Multi-cultural influence on a society is very crucial and subsequently shapes the
societyÊs future. As a result, the societyÊs future will be assimilated into various
forms and accepted as one of the cultures of a country.
Malaysia, as a country represented by various cultures, ethnics, social classes and
religions, has accepted the multi-culture society as a unique feature that is not
possessed by many other countries.
In this topic, we will review and study the influence of individuals, groups and
society in effectively and assuredly preserving cultures and maintaining heritage.
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80 X TOPIC 6 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE
6.1 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON
MALAYSIAN SOCIETY’S WAY OF LIFE
It is undeniable that cultural influence can affect Malaysian societyÊs way of life.
Every society has its own culture and uniqueness. In fact, good culture is often
accepted and practised by other societies.
What is the meaning of culture? In his literature study, Bennet (1999), explained
that culture can encompass various forms and abstracts as well as change
according to current needs. It depends on the different locations and
environment. There are cultures that are acceptable by one country and there are
those which are not acceptable at all. This means that the cultural concept is
always changing and dynamic in nature. However, the cultural concept in the
context of a multi-cultural education is defined as follows:
Culture⁄encompasses all knowledge, beliefs, arts, murals, legislations,
customs, habits, symbols, intellectuality, norms, attitudes, values, ideas, and
relationship between events and behaviours.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Is the above definition of culture acceptable in the Malaysian context?
Justify your stand.
(a) __________________________________________________________
(b) __________________________________________________________
(c) __________________________________________________________
How do various cultures affect the social, economic and environment aspects of
the Malaysian society?
(a) Social
The existing Malaysian society has great understanding on the existence of
various cultures since independence. Therefore, prejudice and bias do not
arise in debating multi-cultural education. In fact, the central education
system has changed its views and attitudes towards acceptance of various
cultures as part of the Malaysian societyÊs lives. Religious and cultural
occasions have become one of the agenda in ensuring that all races can
respect and accept each other in the country.
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The most obvious influence in the Malaysian society in terms of social
aspect is the wearing of costumes without any prejudice, attending cultural
festivities, learning languages together and accepting the education system
in the country. The development of an educational hub will facilitate social
assimilation to be inculcated in the multi-cultural education system.
The importance of various cultures in the Malaysian society results in the
Government striving to strengthen and maintain said society in the form of
organising cultural festivities, cultural education in schools, colleges and
universities as well as promoting cultural diversity as a national identity to
be proud of.
Therefore, cultural diversity creates tolerance and the willingness to
thouroughly understand culture. In this matter, the Government
encourages all races to highlight their unique characteristics that can be
shared together. Among them is the usage of traditional costumes (batik,
baju melayu and cheongsam) at certain functions have become a practice
and norm to the Malaysians. For example, batik is accepted as an official
traditional costume that can be worn by all races. According to Hussein
(1993), a human cultural chain cannot be understood through the process of
biological hereditary process but it should be learnt through educational
process, either in schools, family, peer groups or the surrounding
community.
ACTIVITY 6.2
What other examples can you highlight? Give two other examples that
you feel are very suitable in the Malaysian context.
(b) Economy
In terms of economy, we find that everyone can venture into various
economic activities in the country, irrespective of race, ethnic and religion.
Before Independence, the British colonial rule created a „divide and rule‰
policy causing the economic activities to be monopolised by certain races
only. However, after Independence, changes occurred by providing
economic opportunities to all races.
The New Economic Policy (1970) was a programme that helped restructure
economic activities and the social structure of the Malaysian society after
the occurrence of inequalities in wealth distribution in the country
following the colonisation rule policy. At the same time, it attempted to
bridge the economic gap between urban and poor, Bumiputra and non-
Bumiputra, among regions and the elite and proletariat.
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The common mechanism is through economic democratisation to create
greater involvement of the poor and those from isolated regions to other
parts of the country. Mega projects such as KLCC, highways, KLIA and the
Iskandar Development Region (IDR) have given a lot of economic
opportunities for local and business communities. The involvement of all
groups will bridge the economic gap among the races.
(c) Environment
A healthy and harmonious environment will create healthy relationship
among races. Such an environment can be created by providing facilities
like theme parks, community and public halls. Places such as the
gymnasium, recreational fields, clubs, and sports associations are suitable
environments to create the interaction and assimilation process in the
society.
The community in the existing environment influences the formation of a
new culture because the individuals will:
• Accept values that are shared together;
• Provide new experiences aside those gained from the school and family;
• Create a principle of peer social relationship; and
• Create a new culture.
The environment as described, should be monitored to achieve the societal
development goal and not to maintain a status quo based on respective
fields. An environment that instils the values of Malaysian races will turn
into a united multi-cultural country that is able to progress forward.
6.2 INDIVIDUAL ROLES IN RESPECTING
MULTI-CULTURAL SOCIETY
Let us explore the roles of these individuals.
(a) Administrators ă Tradition is emphasised in the lives of students and
school. Administrators have to ensure that any existing tradition should be
further developed among students through co-curricula activities and
cultural aspects. Among the roles that can be played by administrators and
schools in respecting tradition are:
• Cultural week of certain races;
• Encourage teachers and staff to promote respective cultures;
• Integrate individual cultures into the school culture; and
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• Coordinate a standard that is applied by the school community, such as
official/cultural costume, language and noble practices.
(b) Teachers ă Integrate lesson content with illustrations of respective
traditions of various races. There should be willingness to learn about
cultures of others, interaction with parents and school community in order
to ensure that lesson contents are suitable with characteristics of students
from various cultures. TeachersÊ characteristics which are effective in
preserving societal cultures are as follows:
• Explain own identity and ethnic;
• High expectation over success;
• Committed towards equitable achievements;
• Create environment that encourages learning;
• Learning tasks that are meaningful; and
• Encourage parentsÊ involvement.
(c) Students ă Respect, understand and accept cultures of others as well as
adapt them with their own cultures. Every student should be exposed to all
the taboos or prohibitions that are sensitive to certain students, particularly
those related to religion. Among others, the roles that can be played by
students in respecting cultures of others are by:
• Respecting other peopleÊs cultures;
• Accepting cultures of others that do not contradict with their own
cultures and religions;
• Practising values that are agreed by consensus and in line with the
schoolÊs regulations; and
• Organising cultural activities through curriculum and co-curricula.
ACTIVITY 6.3
State three activities and illustrations you feel suitable to be carried out
by students in your school.
(d) PTA (Parent - Teacher Association) ă Parents should be involved in cultural
activities and programmes in schools. We know most parents have certain
skills in cultural matters such as handicraft, dancing, clothing and arts.
Parents should contribute in the form of education and volunteer in
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84 X TOPIC 6 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE
educating children in schools. This culture is practiced in developed
countries such as America, United Kingdom and Europe. Some examples of
contributions from parents are:
• Sharing their expertise and energy with the students and teachers;
• Always be in contact with the school administration to help develop
respective cultures; and
• Attend Cultural Day to lend support to schools.
6.3 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES TO
PRESERVE MALAYSIAN CULTURAL
HERITAGE
The cultural heritage in Malaysia is unique and diverse. The Malaysian race with
its various races, ethnics and religions has become a Malaysian identity and
tourist attraction. The roles and responsibilities of the Malaysian race to ensure
the preservation of Malaysian cultural heritage are by realising the two domains
below:
(a) Inculcation of Universal Noble Values
Noble values are views on desired things (good, noble and glorious), and
those that become reference, criteria or measurement (Ibrahim, 2000 and
Wan Mohd Zahid, 1993). According to Ibrahim (2000), noble values are the
result of religion and thinking. In the Malaysian context, noble values are
based on five main religions, namely Islam, Christianity, Buddhism,
Hinduism, Sikhism and Confucianism (moral philosophy), with Islam as
the fundamental religion in the formation of universal noble values.
Inculcation is an act to insert something and strengthen it through certain
activities. The main objective of instilling universal noble values is to
produce human capital and good citizens, who possess high morals (Wan
Mohd Zahid, 1993). According to Wan Mohd Zahid (1993) and Ibrahim
(2000), the morals are:
• Instilling awareness, understanding, confidence and gratitude;
• Instilling the spirit of love for noble values;
• Observing advantages and disliking disadvantages;
• Forming positive attitudes, and being useful and responsible to religion,
race and at work;
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TOPIC 6 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE W 85
• Eliminating negative attitudes by being responsible in life and at work;
• Carrying out duties with dedication;
• Training self to be disciplined;
• Enhancing productivity/results; and
• Striving to achieve excellence.
Noble values should be implemented through education, training,
simulation, role play and also sports and recreational activities.
(b) Understanding Local CommunityÊs Tradition
Local tradition should be made known to the local residents or outsiders by
having billboards, road shows and cultural brochures.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Answer all questions below and provide illustrations from a Malaysian
context.
1. Elaborate three ways to inculcate universal noble values in the
Malaysian educational system.
2. Discuss three activities that can preserve Malaysian tradition and
heritage.
3. How can multi-cultural education preserve Malaysian cultural
heritage?
• Hussein (1993) explained that to create a culture that is accepted in
Malaysia, there should be three main aspects:
− Willingness of all races and ethnics to engage, accept and trust among
races;
− Engage and develop interaction and relationship among races in
fields that have common importance to individuals and others in the
society; and
− Engage and develop as well as cooperate in all development process
in terms of socio-economy and socio-politics.
• The three aspects are factors that should be consciously understood so that
the racial unity concept becomes a reality.
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