86 X TOPIC 6 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE
• Socio-culture relations based on certain value systems in cultures should be
agreed upon by all. The question is whether the existing education system
is complete and prepared to accept students of various cultures,
particularly at higher institutions and private schools.
Biological heritage Monopoly
Elite Proletariat
Habit Status quo
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Topic X Pedagogy
7 Related to
Multi-cultural
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of multi-cultural educational pedagogy;
2. Illustrate the five aspects encompassing the pluralism of multi-
cultural educational pedagogy; and
3. Evaluate teachersÊ role in implementing teaching and learning
process effectively in multi-cultural education.
X INTRODUCTION
Multi-cultural educational scholars agree that at a fundamental level, multi-
cultural education becomes the orientation of schooling systems whereby
teaching and learning process is based on an ideal democratic perspective
namely equity and equality (Banks, 1995: Sleeter, 1995). James A. Banks listed
five critical dimensions in the context of multi-cultural education ,namely:
integrated content, constructive knowledge, prejudicial reduction, equity
pedagogy, school culture and fair societal structure.
Pedagogy or methodology can be regarded as management of activities chosen
by teachers to be applied in class. Pedagogy means „an overall effort required in
a set of arranged procedures based on selected methodology‰(Kamarudin Hj
Husin, 1990). This illustration means methodologies that are chosen for teaching
and learning process must be based on certain approaches that are related to
models, principles or theories of learning. He also states a pedagogical aspect as a
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plan or procedure to implement teaching in an organised, orderly and systematic
manner. They are steps or stages of teaching that are continuous and neatly
arranged as well as must be adhered to equitably achieve certain learning
objectives.
It can be concluded here that teachers can formulate certain teaching and
learning procedures by adopting various suitable methodologies, especially
attractive methodologies that can fulfil their studentsÊ needs, particularly in the
multi-cultural educational context, whereby students have different
backgrounds. Therefore, teachers need to have a clear picture on their minds,
such characteristics or traits and understand the overall principle of teaching.
There are two basic principles in the selection of teaching methodology. Firstly,
teaching methodology should be planned. Teaching that is not planned
adequately results in the teacher deviating from the educational objectives and
consequently, wasting the studentÊs learning time. Therefore, proper planning
can guarantee effective usage of time that has been allocated. Factors that have to
be taken into consideration when planning teaching and learning are the
educational objectives to be achieved, topics to be learnt, time allocated, teaching
and learning materials or equipment available as well as studentsÊ background.
Secondly, there should be changes in the teaching methodology. The best
teaching methodology can be adopted in all situations, at all times; topics and
students cannot be determined because of problems of diversity. However,
effective teaching can be created if there are studentsÊ interests and one of the
ways to draw their interest is through various teaching methodologies and
learning activities. Certainly in discussing multi-cultural educational pedagogy,
the aspect of teaching objective, usage of time and teaching aid should be centred
on efforts to create equity and equality to all students. This will provide students
with the opportunity to interact with their peers in class.
Therefore, in the context of multi-cultural education, teachers should be sensitive,
creative and innovative in selecting their teaching methodology so that teachers-
students and students-students interaction will occur in a harmonious
environment and equality will also exist. This is because the goals of a multi-
cultural education can create feelings of respect for different cultures and values;
help students learn and function in a multi-cultural society; develop positive self-
concept among students; inculcate new experiences about cultural similarities
and differences in a positive environment; and lastly encourage students to work
together in a multi-cultural environment.
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7.1 PEDAGOGY IN MULTI-CULTURAL
EDUCATION
As a teacher, you should be prepared to fulfil the needs of all students in your
class, including giving equal attention to students of different background,
gender, and social economic status, religion, race and ethnicity. It cannot be
denied that multi-cultural education challenges the narrative traditional
education of the Malaysian multi-racial society; the Malay community with the
Malay educational system, while Chinese and Indians with their language and
culture respectively. In the meantime, multi-cultural education is inclusive in
nature, whereby it consists of various societal culture and background. More
accurately, it is said to recognise diversity that exists in a multi-racial society. The
intellectual goal achieved from a multi-cultural education is proper
understanding of who we are as Malaysians.
In discussing multi-cultural educational pedagogy, Marshall P. L. (2001) states
equity pedagogy as pedagogy which can create equal opportunity for all
students to learn. This pedagogy is a combination of various strategies and
techniques focusing on studentsÊ educational style and their intelligence level.
Equity pedagogy focuses more on students, whereby students are given equal
treatment and teaching and learning based on their differences.
Meanwhile, according to Banks and Banks (1993), there are four stages in efforts
to ensure integration occurs in a multi-cultural educational curriculum content,
namely:
(a) Stage 1 ă Contributions Approach
This approach is the most basic stage where curriculum content focuses on
heroic character, holiday destination, and interesting culture of certain
societies. This traditional approach focuses on ethnocentricity curriculum
that is widely used in multi-cultural schools. Discussion focuses on societal
culture and tradition, food, music, art, but attention is not given in
determining meanings and interpretations that are most significant in the
minority society.
(b) Stage 2 ă Additive Approach
This approach is made up of efforts to add aspects of contents, concepts,
and themes, without changing their structures. For instance, teachers can
add reading materials, reference books, teaching units and specific courses,
but students are not required to have basic knowledge to understand the
concepts, issues and societal groups in efforts to understand cultural
diversity dimension, gender, race and so on. Minority students know and
learn very little about their history.
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(c) Stage 3 ă Transformational Approach
This approach involves structural change in the curriculum to enable
students to learn about concepts, issues, events and themes from the
perspective of a minority society. The main focus in this curriculum change
is how the culture of a dominant society emerges from a complex condition,
and is successful in interacting in different cultures that is accepted by all
races.
(d) Stage 4 ă Social Action Approach
Students are required to make decisions about important social issues and
take suitable actions to resolve such issues. Students are required to act
proactively and given the power to act. They are equipped with knowledge,
skills and important values to participate in social change. This approach is
in the form of self-esteem through value analysis, decision-making skills,
problem solving and experience in solving social problems.
7.2 WHAT SHOULD BE TAUGHT
Multi-cultural education has various structures and forms. Several scholars, who
are experts in multi-cultural education believe that the education must focus on
cultural concepts and problems that arise as a result of a cultural clash. They are
of the view that schools should study arising conflicts that are caused by cultural
differences at home and school. In fact, studies should be carried out between
influential culture (dominant group culture) and non-influential or less
influential culture (minority group culture), unfair treatment against certain
races, and gender (Spring 2000 in Nelson J.L 2004).
Meanwhile, other scholars are of the opinion that multi-cultural education is a
study about various cultures, which are the means to carry out reforms in
education. Therefore, content is more focused on curriculum that is responsive,
flexible, whereby anything that occurs in the multi-cultural society can be
understood, and changes in curriculum can be done.
In the Malaysian context, where we have a society of different races and
ethnicities that practises different religions as well as different lifestyles, certainly
multi-cultural education plays a very important role in the GovernmentÊs efforts
to create national integration. Therefore, in achieving this noble intention, the
question that arises is: what is the curriculum content that should be taught to all
students? Based on theories on multi-cultural educational curriculum, the
curriculum content must comprise cultures of all races that encompass cultural
and religious aspects and their traditional practices. Early educational exposure
in schools is a process of understanding and knowing the culture of other races.
Eventually, at a more complex level of study, students are able to make cultural
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analysis and respect cultures of others. This will create a group who understand
cultures. This is important because respecting one anotherÊs culture will be
produced through education.
7.3 PLURALISM IN PEDAGOGY
Did you know that „pluralism‰ means differences in ethnic, language, attitude,
behaviour and skin colour that are usually influenced by religious differences?
This definition affects pedagogy that will be adopted in education of the plural
society. This means that the pedagogy that will be used is based on the studentsÊ
different backgrounds. Here, we will discuss the pedagogical aspect that can be
adopted for different genders, languages, attitudes, family backgrounds and
learning styles.
(a) Gender
Pedagogy that is selected must also be suitable with studentsÊ gender. In a
class that has students of the same gender, teachers should certainly adopt
a different pedagogy from a classroom which has a mix gender of male and
female students. Researches that have been carried out found that female
students are more matured than their male counterparts. This maturity
aspect contributes to the seriousness of female students in focusing in their
teaching and learning process. Therefore, it is undeniable that the female
studentsÊ academic performance is more outstanding and better than that of
male students. The relationship between teachers of different gender than
students also affects the pedagogy chosen, that is male teachers to teach
female students and otherwise. The approaches selected should be suitable
with relationship in terms of different genders. This pluralism aspect of
pedagogy is because the gender element itself consists of different social,
culture, ability and thinking capacity.
Every individual has different learning styles despite having the same
culture. Some students can learn well through exercises and learning
theories, while others through learning materials and so on. There are
students who can learn well through professional explanations, small
group discussions and direct interactions. Some of them are analytical,
synthetic and intuitive in nature. Therefore, different genders certainly have
different ways of learning. Male students have an individualistic way of
learning, while studies show that female students prefer to study in groups,
have discussions in a win-win situation and strive to achieve the same goals
(Sohail Inayatullah, 2006).
In terms of a pedagogical aspect, teachers should use a variety of
methodologies to suit different genders. Since female studentsÊ maturity
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level is higher than that of male students, therefore, group methodology
can be applied. Similarly, male students prefer to learn individually. This is
what pluralism in pedagogy means. Teachers should combine the various
pedagogies to fulfil the needs of students from different backgrounds.
(b) Language
According to Kamarudin Hj Hussein (1988), there are various methodologies
that can be used in language teaching. Among the classic methodologies in
language teaching are Grammar Interpretation Methodology, Direct
Methodology, Traditional Methodology, Military Methodology, Imitation-
Memorisation Methodology, Linguistic Methodology, Listening-Speaking
Methodology, Psychological Methodology, Interpretation Methodology,
Eclectic Methodology, Cognitive-code Methodology, Phonetic Methodology,
and Reading and Writing Methodology. Each methodology listed has its
strengths and weaknesses. Before using any methodology in teaching
students language skills, teachers should know studentsÊ background,
culture, strengths and weaknesses, as well as interests so that the teaching
and learning process runs smoothly.
Issues and problems in language teaching is normally in the process of
learning a foreign language or second language. For instance, teaching and
learning Bahasa Malaysia among non-Malay students, teaching and
learning English language among Malay students, and so on. Although
there are students who can master the second language well, studies have
shown that many students still face problems in second language learning.
Therefore, teachers should apply various suitable pedagogy in language
teaching that are suitable to achieve the teaching goals.
(c) Family background
Family background is normally influenced by studentsÊ socio-economic
status. Students whose families have a stable income or rich background
certainly have a different culture than poor students, who are
disadvantaged and lack nutrition. Students who live in housing schemes
are very different than those living in villages. Family background instil
different cultures, way of thinking, emotional and intellectual capacity.
Poor students who live in rural areas always have an inferiority complex
and low self-esteem because of their inadequacies. During the learning
process, such students will display passivity and depression, and are quiet
as well as non-participative in class. Teachers should be wise in selecting
and applying pedagogical aspects that are suitable with their ability and
intellectual capacity. Meanwhile, those from a higher social and economic
status are bolder, more inquisitive, more cheerful and able to easily master
skills taught by teachers.
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Similarly, students with different cultures and backgrounds because of
different race and ethnicity, certainly have different cultures and life
perspectives. In the Malaysian context, those from a Malay background are
very different than those from Chinese and Indian backgrounds. Therefore,
the different races, which most probably have different religions as well,
will influence their way of life and thinking.
It is undeniable that gender is also influenced by family background. A male
student who lives in a female dominated family will be inclined to behave
more femininely. Studies show that this behaviour is caused by culture,
background and practice in the family. It is not surprising that there are male
students who like to cook, sew, like womenÊs fashion and so on.
(d) Attitude
Do you know that studies conducted by educational psychologists show
that attitudes, behaviours, beliefs, values, practices and traditions are
inherited and ingrained since childhood? Students will eventually bring
these attitudes to schools. Therefore, in schools, teachers will face students
with all sorts of attitudes. StudentsÊ attitudes towards schools, teachers,
classmates, other cultures, races, religions and so on are obstacles that have
to be overcome in a multi-cultural education.
Attitudes will affect studentsÊ psychological aspects. You have certainly
face studentsÊ attitudes that test your patience as teachers. But it is your job
to try to change studentsÊ attitudes so that they can be in the mainstream of
the student community. Indeed, efforts to change their attitude can be very
challenging and require a long time. Your success to change studentsÊ
attitude from a negative to positive one shows that you are a successful
teacher.
Similarly, you will face attitudes of students from different family
background, culture, socio-economic status, language, race and ethnicity.
Therefore, you will have to try to change bad attitudes to good ones. This is
because prejudices, misconceptions, uneasiness with other peopleÊs cultures
are dominant characteristics of your students. Hence, the pedagogy that
you apply will remove the negative attitudes. You should work hard to
ensure that students who are in your class can interact, mix around and
understand one another and eventually a „melting pot‰ process will occur.
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(e) Different learning style
Students are different in terms of sociological and psychological. From an
educational psychological perspective, every student has his own strengths
and weaknesses, and this will certainly influence the pedagogy that will be
adopted by teachers. This means that the learning style of every student
will differ. Therefore, the pedagogy that you use should focus on the
individual differences.
Cultural values and experience of certain students from different cultural
backgrounds will influence their learning style. This is in addition to
different educational environment. School culture is different from the
culture at home. In fact, studies show that oneÊs learning style is greatly
influenced by his or her cultural background. Learning skills, which is the
way information is obtained and processed depends on the suitability of
the teaching and learning style. Male students have different learning style
than their female counterparts. Students, who come from families with low
socio-economic background, have different learning styles than those who
come from rich families. It is similar if it is related to the differences in
culture, race and ethnicity. For example, the American natives show an
active learning style, concrete learning experience, and prefer cooperative
situations.
The type of subjects they learn also influences the learning style.
Mathematics and Science learning style is different from Arts or Literature.
Therefore, you have to include all aspects so that your teaching, pedagogy
and studentsÊ learning styles are taken into consideration.
7.4 MEDIA PEDAGOGY (CARSON & FRIEDMAN
1995)
Carson and Friedman (1995) discusses media pedagogy as follows:
(a) Multimedia usage
In multi-cultural education, teachers should be creative and innovative to
create a variety of media in their teaching. Textbook is a classic traditional
media. Despite the world having multimedia as a result of modern
technological progress, textbooks are still a popular teaching media. In fact,
many teachers still use them. It cannot be denied that the usage of
multimedia in teaching will affect each teaching goal. Media has a different
capacity to increase studentsÊ understanding. For instance if the
information you want to disseminate is at a knowledge domain, you should
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present the information in an extensive and meaningful context. Besides
that, media that displays visible image can also assist in your teaching.
Therefore, as teachers who can motivate students, the application of
multimedia greatly helps the teaching in class with students of different
backgrounds and cultures. Usage of TV, DVD, film screening and audio-
visual pictures are necessary to manage a meaningful teaching and learning
process.
(b) Student-centred Teaching Aid
Multi-cultural education is an effort to develop a cultural society that
attempts to fulfil needs in terms of individual equity in society, equality, as
well as to create a united society with members that respect one another. In
fact, multi-cultural education can create unity among students. Therefore,
teaching aids that are used in teaching and learning should be centred
towards students. Teaching aids should not be merely centred towards
academic needs or to protect minority groups. Teaching materials act as a
catalyst to increase the studentsÊ „body of knowledge‰, to understand the
different ethnics, cultures and genders in their society. Teaching materials
should be able to increase the studentsÊ knowledge and experience in the
multi-cultural context. Teaching materials that are centred on students
should have the following characteristics:
(i) Centred around multi-cultural society, gender and ethnicity;
(ii) Able to generate studentsÊ thinking at a higher cognitive level;
(iii) Can extract explicit and implicit aspects that will attract students;
(iv) Generate discussions among students;
(v) Help create communication among different cultures; and
(vi) Provide opportunities to all students to raise views and opinions
based on their culture, gender and ethnicity.
(c) Media Literacy
It is imperative that teachers should be media literate. In multi-cultural
media, teachers should have a high level of literacy towards media usage as
the goal of integrated curriculum content is to develop the curriculum in a
framework that shows multi-cultural contributions from the traditional
discipline perspective. This can only be implemented with teachersÊ high
level of literacy rate and awareness towards technology. An example is the
use of the „World Wide Web‰ to obtain sources of learning for students.
Electronic mail and multimedia technology can be beneficial in generating
communication and interaction, which is meaningful among students of
different cultures. This can help students understand and appreciate
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curriculum content for social studies, science and psychology subjects, and
even in foreign language learning.
Most scholars agree that technology and multi-cultural education demand
responsible parties to improve infrastructure and educational facilities in
schools. This will definitely assist teachers in using the latest technology to
present their teaching content. Studies carried out in schools equipped with
technology, show that teachers can use Internet facility and teaching is
based on computer technology. As a result, most students who are
computer savvy will apply it at home or at any cyber cafes. However, there
are students whose families cannot afford to provide computer facilities at
home. Therefore, such situation will create a phenomenon known as a
„digital gap‰. Teachers should be diligent in such situations, and attempt to
use other media so that educational objectives and goals will not be
thwarted due to the lack of modern technology-based media.
In the knowledge perspective and dimension, scholars agree that scientists
have contributed greatly in knowledge development. This is because
knowledge is built based on content integration that is influenced by world
views which are made up of various cultures. Students should be
encouraged to inculcate skills that will help in their knowledge
development. Therefore, teachersÊ educational training should always use
technology to instil and even push students to build their own knowledge.
Teachers, as educationists, should make use of Internet technology to
generate studentsÊ interest towards subjects that are taught. This includes
online discussions, which can create multi-cultural understanding and
analysis between oneÊs culture and that of others.
In fact, teaching media and technology can curb prejudice among students.
Usage of the latest media and technology can also develop healthy
characteristics among students, and avoid inclinations of negative
perception against others. Multimedia presentation in teaching and
learning, e-learning, video conference, computer conference, SMS, e-mail,
web interaction, e-pals, Friendster and so on can be used in efforts to
exchange views among students of different cultures, thus, can curb
misconceptions. It can also create media literate teachers, especially
electronic media, which is gaining popularity in the academic world.
7.5 CRITICAL PEDAGOGY
Multi-cultural education is not only about the teaching and learning of certain
languages, but also looking at how the language develops worldview. Therefore,
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to avoid a gap among cultures, critical pedagogy is not only a common teaching
methodology, but is also an attempt to look into the effects of social and culture
in relation to certain languages and civilisations. To study such relations, the
questions that are normally raised are: „Improvisation occurs in which
civilisation?‰ and „Add-ons happen in which language and civilisation?‰ These
differences are critical when looking at the level of civilisation of certain races.
How we combine knowledge is not instinctive in nature, but what is more
important is the knowledge structure in the context of certain cultures. In fact, we
can see the methods used by individuals within certain communities to search
for information and truth are also different. This is the underlying philosophy of
the critical pedagogy, which requires teachers to implement in the context of
multi-cultural education.
(a) TeachersÊ skills in solving problems of students from various backgrounds
A teacherÊs duty is not restricted to teaching. It would be incorrect for one
to join the teaching career merely thinking about how to impart knowledge
to students. The teaching career requires one to possess multiple skills in
carrying out his or her duties. According to Gay (2005), there are 14 skills
that a teacher should have. Among which are teaching, communication,
pedagogical, conceptual, technical, relationship, problem solving and
decision-making. One of the skills that is regarded as important in multi-
cultural education is the skill to deal with various problems faced by
students of different backgrounds. If we were to list these problems, there
are indeed too many complex issues. In a multi-cultural context, for
instance, Muslim students have different problems from Hindu students or
those who are Buddhist followers. From a race and ethnicity perspective,
Malay students have different problems than Chinese or Indian students.
Gender also shows a similar polar. The problems of male students are
different than those of females. It is said that female students are more
matured and committed to their work than male students, while students
from rural areas with low socio-economic status certainly have more
problems than those with higher socio-economic status. Students with low
socio-economic status will also face inferiority complex syndrome as
compared to those who are rich.
Problems that exist as a result of the different backgrounds will have an
effect on teachers in schools and classrooms. Focus should be given on
rational considerations so that every student can have the right to learn.
Hence, it is the teachersÊ responsibility to use the skills required in
developing an individualÊs potential to sit in a class, learn together,
appreciate, respect and help one another. Eventually, the goal to provide
equality and justice can be achieved.
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Skills can be acquired formally and informally. Formally, teachers should
take the opportunity to attend various courses and seminars, while
informally, teachers should be bold in trying out new skills as a result of
past experiences, in their efforts to solve studentsÊ problems, or share
problems with other teachers who are more experienced and successful.
(b) Encouraging students to reflect upon the past, present and future
In the teaching and learning process, an effective way of applying
curriculum content is to encourage students to engage in self-reflection.
This is one of the skills to generate a high level of thinking in problem
solving, and in efforts to make assumptions and projections in the future.
A reflection process in the context of simple language is to evaluate and
analyse something which you have learnt in the context of past, present and
future. This process should be encouraged among students. In the process,
particularly in the multi-cultural education context, they can evaluate the
benefit of relationships among cultures. If there are no relationships, history
has shown that the economic and political situation of certain countries will
be destroyed. You will also encourage them to make future projections of
current situations and environments. The process can actually instil
attitudes and beliefs, as well as suitable cultural behaviour, so that we can
live in harmony in the future.
As a teacher, you should provide enough details and information in the
reflection process. You may try to expose your students to various „hands
on‰ cultural interaction experiences. The results of the reflection they
engage in are a clear process from historical and cultural inputs, as well as
new information that occur in community living.
What is important in the reflection process is that your students can
improve themselves, work towards putting themselves in accepted societal
norms and cultures, and eventually they can behave appropriately in line
with the cultures of dominant societies and their own cultures.
(c) Information dissemination to generate new ideas
As you know, in a borderless world, most communication scholars always
talk about „knowledge management‰. In the knowledge process, the
emphasis is on is on the ways we disseminate knowledge to others, and
methods to ensure the knowledge we obtain has an impact on generating
new ideas which can inculcate a high level of thinking, and lastly to apply
the new ideas in a form that can benefit the majority of the society.
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As a teacher, you should have a data bank. According to Jack Foster (2001)
in his book „Ideaship‰, he states that information dissemination is
important in efforts to help others generate new ideas, encourage them to
think better, and help them create a more interesting and attractive
environment.
In the multi-cultural education context, the same aspect can be
implemented. Information dissemination in classrooms is not top-down in
nature or information from teachers to students. It can happen in horizontal
and vertical forms. Students are encouraged to provide information on
their cultures, races, languages, ethnicities and gender backgrounds, and all
these information are new knowledge to other students with different
backgrounds.
At this stage, teachers try to generate new ideas from the cultural
information that are given by students. Subsequently, teachers can
encourage discussions and brainstorming, in an effort to generate new
ideas among students. Teachers play a minimal role when ideas are
generated by the students.
New idea generation will encourage students to think creatively and
critically. They will produce ideas beyond cultural thinking and their
background. This is greatly encouraged. As teachers you should assess new
ideas, and give your views and opinions.
7.6 HOW TEACHERS MANAGE TEACHING
AIDS EFFECTIVELY
Teaching aids used in the teaching and learning process act as a catalyst to
improve studentsÊ understanding. Creative and attractive teaching aids are
important in attracting studentsÊ interest.
There are various effective ways to use teaching aids in the teaching and learning
process of multi-cultural education, such as:
• You must convey your expectations to all students in your class. By doing
this, you can place attention to views and opinions, experiences and
contributions by students of different cultures in implementing the
curriculum content.
• Teaching aids that are used can facilitate dialogues about culture, ethnic,
gender, language, and different socio-economic groups. Therefore, you will
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not be creating any unfair situations against the differences that exist in
class.
• From time to time you should check and assess textbooks, and teaching
materials that are often used to ensure that the languages, images and
pictures contained in the teaching aids are inclusive in nature towards all
cultures.
• You should work towards ensuring the curriculum and teaching contents
are relevant with the studentsÊ experiences, life, and perspective at all times.
Illustrations and concept attainment can be improved through elaborative
cultural explanation.
• Based on the materials that are available, you should be creative and
responsive to changing the pedagogy in an effort to provide links among
students with their multiple learning styles.
• You should attempt to provide vast opportunities to create interactive
learning. This is because peer interaction can improve studentsÊ
understanding towards a concept, especially in understanding newly
introduced concepts in class.
It cannot be denied that in multi-cultural education, students always fall back on
their own culture in the form of language, space and time when interacting,
techniques and ways of solving certain problems, as well as styles and ways of
interacting. They also bring with them different experiences and framework of
reference in thinking about abstract ideas in a concrete manner. Teachers,
meanwhile, provide materials and teaching that can support the differences that
exist. Therefore, teaching materials that are used should help assimilate the
different cultures among students.
7.7 INDIVIDUAL-CENTRED PEDAGOGY
Selection of teaching methods depends on its needs and importance to students,
more so those involving students of different cultures or races. Hence,
individual-centred pedagogy is very important and effective in presenting
certain teaching contents.
(a) StudentsÊ experience is put forward
An effective technique is to pick studentsÊ experiences and use them as
examples in the learning process. The goal is to ensure that every student
will know these past experiences and make it useful in their learning. In
fact, teaching materials based on experiences is the main source for
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teachers. Not all teaching aids are obtained from existing things but
studentsÊ experiences can also help achieve learning goals.
Learning will be more meaningful if studentsÊ experiences are presented
naturally and with humour so that students will not be bored and
pressured. This is especially the case when teachers can relate the
experiences with the real world.
(b) Reviewing the traditional model/approach
The objective of reviewing the traditional model/approach is to make it
suitable with the learning situation which emphasises on unity in diversity.
Multi-cultural education requires an approach that can present lesson
content effectively without creating difficulty among students.
Teachers are given total freedom to design the teaching method or
combining a traditional approach with a modern one. Only teachers know
about student learning problems because they are always confronting and
resolving studentsÊ problems.
For students from multiple cultures, educators propose cooperative
learning, teaming up and grouping as an effective method because it
involves all students and fulfils a multi-cultural education.
(c) Emphasis on thinking skills, learning and social awareness
Pedagogy in multi-cultural education also emphasises on thinking skills
positively by searching for meaning and understanding of something, as
well as making considerations and decisions in a just and democratic
manner. The aim of this skill is to teach students to be able to evaluate the
reasonableness of certain ideas/issues and become evaluative.
Learning skills are also emphasised because students of multiple cultures
have various abilities. Learning skills require students to have listening,
reading, and writing, note-taking and memorising skills. These skills
encourage the application of other skills to collate information and
communicate ideas.
Social skills are very important to students as the initiators of social
interactions in classrooms. Social skills encompass leadership, decision
making, trust building, communication and conflict management. These
skills can be acquired directly or indirectly based on activities in
classrooms. However, teachers should control and provide guidelines so as
not to deviate from the multi-cultural education goals.
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7.8 PEDAGOGY IN CLASSROOMS
In certain classrooms, there exist multiple studentsÊ cultures and behaviours as
well as abilities. However, to reduce this diversity, the teachersÊ roles are
important to ensure teaching and learning runs effectively. Therefore, pedagogy
in classrooms that have students of various cultures require personal approaches
which are acceptable to students.
(a) Cooperative learning
This is a method which involves a group of students working as a team to
solve problems or complete certain tasks to achieve similar goals. The main
focus is to encourage student interaction and cooperation in working
towards achieving success. The method is very suitable for students of
multiple cultures or races, abilities and capabilities.
The main principles of cooperative learning are:
• Positively dependent on each other;
• Face-to-face interaction;
• IndividualsÊ are accountable towards their own learning;
• Cooperative skills; and
• Grouping process.
Examples of cooperative learning are:
(i) Roundtable ă Students take turns to provide answers;
(ii) Think pair square ă Students answer in pairs and share with other
classmates to provide an overall and comprehensive answer; and
(iii) Numbered heads together ă Each student is allocated a number. The
students will then be required to provide answers when their number
is called out.
Cooperative learning will encourage students to interact actively and
positively in teamwork. This will create a situation of sharing ideas, and
accepting views among them.
(b) Experiential learning
This learning occurs as a result of past experiences made into lessons and is
more meaningful if students are capable to make an example of the
experience and effectively apply it in real life.. This learning begins with a
concrete experience, followed by reflection as a result of observation. The
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result of the reflection will be assimilated into a theory that is abstract, and
eventually forms a hypothesis that will be tested in a new situation. This
means that students will experience learning through three phases:
experiential learning phase, reflection phase and the third phase is towards
testing the experience in a new and challenging situation. All these will be
used in facing a new learning or new experience among students. The
illustrations is explained in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Experiential learning
(c) Simulation/Role Play
Simulation is a situation that is controlled and deliberately created to liken
real situation that occur with the aim of conducting training/practical to
solve certain problems. This technique will provide spontaneous experience
and a real picture of the situation.
In the context of classroom teaching and learning, it enables students to
imitate or do certain things in a pretentious manner while in an organised
and controlled situation. It is suitable for language, literature, geography,
history and science subjects. It can be administered in a small group or a big
one depending on the selected problem solving issues.
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This technique provides students with the opportunity to interact,
appreciate, feel and accept views of others more effectively, particularly
among students of different races/cultures. It also encourages acceptance
and understanding of the feelings of others. Normally, there are two types
of simulations that are popular: role play and socio-drama. Role play is
more towards taking roles or reality training without any basic training. An
example is the role of interviewer and interviewee. Socio-drama refers to
acting certain characters spontaneously.
(d) Project
Technique is an activity that involves planning, implementing and
producing programmes that have been determined. A project requires:
• Project goal ă Needs to be clear and can be achieved by students based
on age and background;
• Project activity ă The type of project and deadline to complete certain
projects;
• Expected results ă The expected results especially in terms of education
goal and studentsÊ experience;
• Evaluation ă Can become successful through checklists, project results,
scrap book and so on; and
• Committee members ă Those involved and the role of each member.
This technique should be implemented in detail so that the education goal
through the project can be achieved. Providing certain projects require
location, time and suitable lesson content. In the context of multi-cultural
education, cultural based projects are better and produce meaningful
learning.
(e) Modelling
Modelling makes something as a lesson or guide in carrying out tasks that
are given. An example is the traditional attire of certain races. The attire can
become a model to solve the task given by a teacher. Students can answer
questions based on the model that is displayed or observed.
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SELF-CHECK 7.1
Answer all questions below and provide examples in the Malaysian
context.
1. State three importance of pluralism in pedagogy along with
examples.
2. Give three advantages and disadvantages for each of the following:
(a) Critical Pedagogy;
(b) Individual-centred Pedagogy; and
(c) Media Pedagogy.
3. Explain the characteristics of cooperative learning with experiential
learning.
• You have learnt about several pedagogies that are suitable for multi-
cultural education.
• The basic pedagogical principles will help you implement them for
students of various cultures.
• In the context of multi-cultural education, the same aspect has the same
value.
• Teachers are required to have pedagogical skills or knowledge in their
efforts to ensure that learning objectives are achieved.
• Actions that are made in classrooms are based on the skills that you have as
teachers.
• The clear goal is to produce students who are able to interact, exchange
views, respect and understand one another, regardless of the
methodologies used.
• This will occur because you, as a teacher, have succeeded to change their
worldview towards the culture and way of life of others.
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Diversity Pedagogy
Equality Reflecting
Equity Spontaneous
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Topic XImplications of
8 Multi-cultural
Education on
Teachers in
Classrooms
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the meaning of multi-cultural education;
2. Elaborate five implications when multi-cultural education is
implemented;
3. Analyse a suitable teaching approach to be used in multi-cultural
education; and
4. Distinguish the types of evaluation that can be used in testing the
multi-cultural education curriculum.
X INTRODUCTION
Teachers in the 21st century are faced with various cultural dilemmas in making
decisions on what should be taught and how to teach. This cannot be denied
because post modernism, globalisation, and the Information Technology era have
affected teachersÊ roles. Teachers should be prepared to face changes in view of
the existing scenario where the social aspect is complex in nature due to political,
economic and social influences. However, it is not easy to teach students who
have one culture as opposed to those with different cultures in the same class.
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Questions such as „What is the information required?‰, „What are the cultural
context and its forms in the society?‰, and „What are the values shared in the
dominant society?‰ will arise. As a teacher, are you able to answer these
questions so that you will be truly effective in managing teaching and learning in
classrooms that comprise of students from various backgrounds?
As you are aware, a plural society has an obvious implication in a countryÊs
education. Pluralism means different ethnics, languages, attitudes and
behaviours, gender, cultures and races. Today, it cannot be denied that most
society is plural in nature. This is the typical nature of a modern society today;
homogeneity is extraordinary. History has shown that ethnic mix occurs through
conquering, namely war, colonisation and immigration. Hence, a plural society is
always characterised by inequality and conflict. Pluralism creates differences,
social and economic inequality, prejudice and misconception.
These scenarios have an implication on the education system of certain countries.
In fact, cultural diversity has attracted the attention of the Western society since
the 1970s and 1980s. In fact, they view this issue as something educational and
professional in nature. Based on equality and human rights, maximising national
capacity and defending social justice, this issue has become the focus of most
society in the globalised era. Hence, it is the teachersÊ duty as educators to strive
to eliminate all teachings that can raise uncomfortable situations in the society,
prejudicial attitude, unjust practice and so on.
However, it is quite saddening that minimal effort is focused to create a teachersÊ
education that is strong and professional to provide basic facilities for them,
school administrations and management and educational researchers in the
context of the plural society. Hence, teachers in the 21st century are faced with
various cultural dilemmas in making decisions on how and what will be taught
in the context of a multi- cultural education. How would you manage a
classroom comprising of students from different lifestyles, backgrounds, gender,
religions, values and practices? What are the information you need in making
decisions or accurate selections? What are the cultural forms and societal context?
What are the values that can be shared in a society where its culture is very
dominant? Take a minute to reflect on these questions.
In the Malaysian context, multi-cultural education is one of the approaches that
can create a society that respect one another and can live in harmony.
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ACTIVITY 8.1
In your view, what are the approaches suitable to be adopted in the multi-
cultural education teaching and learning process?
8.1 CURRICULUM
Taba (1962) in the International Encyclopaedia of Curriculum (1991) states that
curriculum is a plan for teaching. Meanwhile, Tanner & Tanner (1975) states that
curriculum is planning and teaching. What will be taught, and what are the
contents to be exposed to students? Olivia (1997 in Kenneth T. Henson) interprets
curriculum as something that is taught in school; as a set of subjects; as a research
programme; or as part of experiences that are taught in school.
Hence, from the above definitions, multi-cultural education curriculum has
similar meanings but the content is focused on various cultures. Therefore, multi-
cultural education curriculum that is to be taught to students should consist of
cultural, gender, economic status, social, race and ethnic aspects. This is
important because firstly the goal of multi-cultural education is to ensure that
students gain knowledge on the diversity and complexity of culture, gender,
race, ethnic, and differences of every member of the society. The multi-cultural
education curriculum is inclusive to all cultures. Secondly, the goal of multi-
cultural education curriculum is aimed at inculcating respect among students of
different cultural backgrounds, religions, races, economic status and gender.
Multi-cultural education curriculum is formulated to develop studentsÊ ability to
function in a plural society and identify the differences that exist. Therefore,
multi-cultural education should consist of perspectives of women, men, the rich
and the poor, race, ethnic and culture.
(a) Curriculum Reform/ Change
Curriculum is sensitive to all changes that occur in societies. Curriculum is
also complicated because the aim is to facilitate teaching, while the teaching
itself is too complex and difficult to understand. To remain elective,
curriculum must be responsive towards changes in society, government
policies and studentsÊ behaviour. Failure to change curriculum in line with
the changes that occur will result in the whole education system not
functioning to meet the needs and requirements of the society.
There are various concepts on multi-cultural education curriculum. What is
clear is that the transformational approach of multi-cultural education
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occurs from slight changes to total changes of social awareness and societal
act concept. James Banks (1993) and Mcintosh (2000) formulated a
continuum in changes in curriculum to help create transformation,
although very little changes occur in total. Banks (1993) and Mcintosh
(2000) listed several steps and strategies, which became models. They
divided multi-cultural education curriculum changes into five stages:
(b) Stage 1: Curriculum of the mainstream
Mainstream curriculum is a curriculum that influences and dominates what
is called as „Western-centric‰ and „male-centric‰. This indirectly denies
experiences, hopes, and contributions from individual perspectives or
groups that are not dominant in curriculum content. In fact, all educational
materials such as textbooks, films, teaching aids and materials present
information that are euro-centric and male-centric. This stage is a
dangerous stage for dominant students and those from non-dominant
groups. It gives negative and dangerous impact according to Banks (1993):
„⁄forcing pretentious superiority values, giving wrong concept in
relations with other ethnics, and denying opportunities and benefits to
acquire knowledge, perspective, cultural framework that should be
obtained by appreciating cultures of other ethnic groups.‰
The curriculum of dominant groups will lead students from non-dominant
groups to fail in valuing culture, their own cultural experience and
perspective, in addition to school culture which is dominated by
mainstream groups where they are forced to adapt themselves with new
culture which is certainly different from their own.
(c) Stage 2: Hero and Holidays
Teachers at this stage highlight differences that exist in information
integration, or sources on famous individuals, and cultural artefacts from
various races and ethnics in the mainstream curriculum. Billboards in
schools should display pictures of countryÊs leaders and freedom fighters.
Teachers can also plan to hold festivities for celebrations of certain groups.
This involves learning the costumes, food, music, and foreign cultural
elements. The strength of this approach is teachers strive to shift
mainstream curriculum content by providing materials and knowledge out
of the mainstream curriculum. This approach is easy to implement with the
help of a little knowledge from teachers.
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(d) Stage 3: Integration
Teachers will act more drastically in implementing an integration process
by adding materials and knowledge about non-dominant groups into the
curriculum. Changes in multi-cultural education curriculum must focus on
the following matters:
• All multi-cultural education curriculum contents must have gone
through the process of researching and detailed research so that every
cultural element that is discussed is accurate and complete;
• All subjects that will be taught should be seen from various angles of
knowledge fields;
• Inclusive curriculum must comprise voices, views and opinions of all
students in certain classes;
• Inculcating a positive perspective towards literary works and not only
having a narrow view that the best literary works are only from the
West; and
• Curriculum that is formulated must reflect the different teaching styles
of all students.
(e) Content and educational process
As explained previously, multi-cultural education should be inclusive in
nature, where cultural aspect, gender, socio-economic status, race, ethnic
and religion are crucial elements that should be given attention. This is
because the multi-cultural education process will only be implemented to
easily focus and create an effective educational process, where every
student in the classroom feels appreciated, and gain equity and equality.
(i) Curriculum Content
Issues related to content is the basic question in discussing its
implication on curriculum. According to Jerry Aldridge & Renitta
Goldman (2002), generally the content of „Multi- Cultural‰ education
comprises two important elements that have close relations with
cultural literacy. They are mainstream cultural literacy curriculum
and marginalised cultural literacy curriculum. For example,
mainstream cultural literacy curriculum in a history lesson such as
„Who is the warrior Hang Tuah? Hang Tuah is said to be a Malay
warrior.‰ This is a fact that is stressed in the mainstream cultural
literacy curriculum. However, from a different perspective, some
Malay historical researchers specifically stated that Hang Jebat is the
Malay warrior, and not Hang Tuah.
The second view is called marginalised cultural literacy curriculum.
By referring to the cultural aspect, both perspectives are said to be
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insufficient. According to Jerry Aldridge & Renitta Goldman (2002)
again, the third option is called critical literacy. If we teach students to
consider various views and opinions from various sources, hence we
are teaching them how to assess their sources of reference. Questions
such as the following should be asked: „Who made the statement?‰,
„Who supported the opinion?‰, „Who are marginalised?‰ and „Who
are lagging in airing their views in matters that are discussed?‰. This
is because knowledge comprises political and cultural contents. What
we learnt in schools have political, social, cultural and environmental
elements. Hence, our job as teachers should be to explain to students
their assessment, analysis and understanding of what they have read
from various angles.
(ii) Education Process: How should teachers teach?
According to Gary D. Borich (2000), there are several teachersÊ
behaviours that can contribute towards effective teaching in a class
that has students of various backgrounds and cultures. The practices
are:
• Teachers should provide an encouraging learning climate by
providing maximum aid for students.
• Encourage students to provide a response to each lesson.
• Teachers should present teaching materials in an organised
manner to suit studentsÊ background and emphasise concrete
knowledge before discussing abstract ones. Teachers should also
monitor studentsÊ performance, while helping those who need
help and guidance immediately.
• Prepare curriculum with materials that have been standardised in
efforts to meet individual studentsÊ needs. Teachers should use
media, teaching resources, and personal experience to increase
studentsÊ interest and attention.
According to Rothstein-Fisch, 1998: Triandis, 1989 (in Jerry Aldridge &
Renitta Goldman 2002), the most complex issue in multi-cultural
education is the different values between majority and minority
students. This complex issue is that of collectivism and individualism
values.
According to Zeichner (1993), there are several important elements in
multi-cultural teaching, among them:
• Teachers must have a clear picture about their own ethnic and
identity;
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• Have high hopes on the success of all students that they teach;
• Teachers personally are very committed to increase and practise
equity for all students and have confidence on the best
achievements on studentsÊ learning;
• Always have good relations with students;
• Students are exposed to academic curriculum that is challenging
in inculcating high level cognitive skills;
• TeachersÊ teaching focus on forming meaning of certain content by
students in an interactive and collaborative environment;
• Work is regarded as very meaningful by students;
• Curriculum is inclusive to different cultures;
• Teachers explicitly expose school culture and at the same time
defend their own cultural identity; and
• Parents are encouraged to be involved in creating fairness and
equality for all humans.
Hence, teachers should know in detail about studentsÊ background so
that the teaching and learning process can be implemented effectively
and achieve its objectives.
8.2 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION TEACHING
TECHNIQUES, METHODS, STRATEGIES
AND APPROACHES
As a teacher, you already know concepts of teaching approaches, strategies,
methods and techniques. Before we discuss further on multi- cultural curriculum
teaching and learning, teachers should have own methods, well-planned
teaching and learning methods, suitable techniques and fixed strategies in their
teaching process. Organised preparation made by teachers will enable students
to understand what is presented easily, systematically and will become an
interesting teaching and learning process that is fun for students of different
backgrounds and cultures.
8.2.1 Approaches
Al Ramiah (1990) quoted Sorenson and Gross (1963), who defined approach as
„an attempt to arrange and coordinate deduction procedures or observation of
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teachersÊ behaviours and attitudes‰. Meanwhile, Mohd Salleh Lebar (1998)
defined approach as „the way we view and come up with definition of certain
occurrences‰. It can be said that approach is actually referring to the way certain
subjects is taught with the aim of achieving its objectives. Approach is normally
beneficial for the long term and it comprises models and principles or learning
theories of certain lessons.
In the context of multi-cultural education curriculum teaching and learning,
suitable thinking skills should be taught through methods that balance studentsÊ
thinking towards different cultures around them. Hence, teachers must plan the
contents to be taught as well as methods and activities that can develop thinking
skills in line with teaching goals that should be achieved. Just like homework,
another effective way is to have suitable activities made up of questions
organised according to the Bloom Taxanomy and various flowchart and mapping
concepts that can link one idea to another. It can expose students to different
cultures, appreciation of cultures, gender aspects, and even different economical
concepts. In fact, approaches adopted by a teacher who is involved in multi-
cultural teaching and learning should have effects on inculcation of culture and
attitude of tolerance on cultures of others.
8.2.2 Strategies
According to Kamus Dewan (2002), strategy means „proper planning to achieve
goals or successes‰. Meanwhile, Kamaruddin Hj Husin (1990) views strategy as
„⁄referring to a set of teaching act, which is aimed at achieving the product that
is required‰.
Hence, we can summarise that strategy is planning or framework or plan that has
been formulated or acts that have been made in efforts to help an organisation
fulfil ideal goals. Future plans are called strategy that have been planned, while
actions that are made is called strategy that is produced. For teachers, strategy is
a form of an organised teaching and learning plan before entering a classroom,
where such strategy consists of an induction set, lesson content plan during
certain times, activity planning to achieve bjectives as well as a plan for
concluding lessons. A strategy that is well prepared can help distribute resources
that are available into a unique and solid situation after taking into consideration
internal efficiency and estimated environmental change. Therefore, strategy can
be summarised as a series of incidents that have been planned and extended, and
teachers can use substantive changes for students.
For instance, praises is a crucial strategy to develop studentsÊ self-dignity and
personal strength. Praises have a strong motivational power to stimulate
studentsÊ success. Good and effective teachers will use praises to attract students
attention and stimulate their teaching and involvement. Students who always
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receive praises from teachers because of their efforts and works have a positive
self image which can lead to their success in studies. Such recognition is very
important to build studentsÊ confidence and self-dignity. Praises should also be
given to students in various forms such as giving positive comments about
students, good grades and developing studentsÊ self dignity, as well as praising
any effort that demonstrates progress made by students. Teachers should be
generous in extending praises to students because it is a motivation for them.
In determining certain learning strategies, several factors should be considered,
namely, methods and techniques that should be used, teaching aids that are
available in schools, knowledge available in students, studentsÊ abilities and
interests, teachersÊ skills when teaching with the use of teaching aids in lessons
and class control when applying the strategies.
There are several types of strategies that can be used in class. Some of them are
basic skills network consolidation strategy, such as reading, writing and
calculating, lesson content absorption strategy, teacher-centred strategy, student-
centred strategy and material-centred strategy. All these are suitable to be
applied in multi-cultural education teaching and learning.
8.2.3 Methods
S. Sukumaran (1992) discussed several basic methods that are adopted in
teaching and learning of Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (KBSM).
Based on KBSM, teaching has been modified to be student-centred because active
studentsÊ involvement in teaching and learning is encouraged. The student-
centred method is said to be very suitable with multi-cultural education teaching
and learning.
Traditionally, many teachers are still using the direct approach or explanation
method based on textbooks and this is practiced for all topics, students and classes.
This method is unsuitable for a multi-cultural education. Such an education should
not be practised through a „reading and comprehension‰ method such as
language subject, which is monotonous in nature and boring to students. Although
some teachers have successfully implemented the direct approach method, there
are many disadvantages such as lack of variation or diversity, and it can hinder the
presentation of curriculum of culture, which is diverse and different from one
another.
Various types of teaching materials, guides or medium such as pictures,
television, radio, charts, overhead projectors and computer can be used to help
ensure a smooth teaching and learning process as well as ensuring students
understand faster and more thoroughly. In addition, in multi-cultural education,
these materials certainly help teachers in efforts to create realistic situations in
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classrooms. In fact, teachers should provide opportunities for students to follow
learning practically, based on realistic situations of culture and societyÊs life, and
not only focusing merely on theory or community living.
Learning is regarded as a cognitive thinking and skills mastering process.
Therefore, teachers should have the strength on the following aspects, which are,
knowledge and understanding on contents (what will be taught) and knowledge
and understanding on teaching method (how to teach). Both should complement
each other.
Among the methods that can be applied in multi-cultural education teaching are
projects, questioning, case research, study visit, demonstration, brainstorming,
role play, simulation, lecture, mapping, inquiry, finding and so on.
(a) Project Method
Project method is a teaching and learning activity that provides learning
experience for students. Activities given to students should focus on
tapping studentsÊ interest, their needs and meeting learning goals. Several
steps should be followed when teachers use this method in multi-cultural
education teaching and learning to ensure effectiveness, namely:
• Activities that are carried out will only be regarded as a project if it
places emphasis on studentsÊ needs and interests.
• Students will enjoy the experience from learning when doing activity
projects. They will directly be exposed to various cultures, genders,
races and ethnics. Therefore, they should be given the opportunity to
choose their own projects which they will carry out willingly.
• Teachers should ensure that the projects are well planned by students
but carried out with the teachersÊ help.
• Projects that are well planned should be implemented carefully.
• Assessment on projects should be held after the projects are completed
to ensure that the original objectives are achieved.
• Teachers should also ensure that values such as cooperation,
responsibility, leadership, determination, respecting one anotherÊs
cultures, interaction among students in the process of completing the
projects, and originality exist in students when applying the project
method.
• Teachers should act as advisor, counsellor, judge, chairman, listener and
assessor as well as sympathise with students whenever necessary.
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Learning activities through the project method are carried out after
students have mastered certain skills. Unlike most other methods, the
project method requires more than one teaching period as more time is
required to prepare such projects. Nevertheless, the real teaching duration
can be used to discuss projects that will be carried out or used to show
results.
According to Pavlov Classic Norm, learning can occur as a result of
stimulation and reaction. Stimulation can be associated with another
stimulation to bring about learning. For instance, a teacher creates an
exciting and fun teaching and learning environment, such as having
activities that can attract studentsÊ attention or discussing songs. Hence,
students are linked or stimulated (learning environment) to one another
(fun). The students will always have the desire to go to school if there are
fun teaching and learning activities. They will be happy to learn, mingle
with their peers, and ultimately, it will realise the actual goal of multi-
cultural education that is equity and equality. There will be no prejudice
and so on.
(b) Survey Method
This method requires students to conduct a survey on cultures, religions
and own genders or that of their peers. Students are given a certain time to
conduct surveys that have been set by teachers. Students need to record
information on the culture that is being studied during the survey duration.
Students are required to present the information obtained from the
findings. The presentation must encompass topics and aspects that are
fixed.
Students will divide their survey into three. Firstly, observation, for
example, students leave their class to count how many people are crossing
the road that has been fixed. Aside from that, they also need to know things
that are closely related to clothing, and language used. The second step is
discussion. This process occurs between teachers and students, and
students and their peer groups, whereby information is shared. Thus,
weaker students can improve their understanding with the help of their
peer groups. Subsequently, the third step is researching. They are required
to prepare a special record book so that the facts that are obtained can be
recorded and stored properly. Students then do practical work. They will
present and state information that is obtained in the form of pictures,
drawings or certain models using symbols in displaying their observations.
Eventually, students are required to prepare reports as a result of the
research that they have conducted. This survey method provides a lot of
opportunities to students to acquire knowledge, while making full use of
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their senses to observe, interpret, analyse and eventually draw a conclusion.
Generally, this will develop studentsÊ intellectual, spiritual and social
potential. In the multi-cultural education context, students can think and
understand certain cultures more clearly as a result of the primer
information obtained.
(c) Role Play Method
Role play method is used in learning activities in classrooms to provide
students the opportunity to carry out role playing in front of their
classmates in an organised and controlled manner with the aim of
proposing solutions to certain problems that arise. Role playing is based on
topics that are learnt in class. Students participate by using knowledge that
they have acquired in the real situation.
Before beginning the activity, teachers create a problematic situation
relating to the topic that is taught and will provide a brief explanation on
the situation. Students will visualise the arising situation and subsequently
act it out spontaneously according to the situation they imagine. During the
role playing, students must think and arrange their ideas properly to show
their perceived solution. At the end of the lesson, teachers should guide
students to make a conclusion of the role play. Indirectly, role play is a
method that can help teachers explain theories that are taught and know
how far their students understand as well as distinguish their abilities and
achievements.
Among the advantages of the role play method are:
• It provides an opportunity to students to take part in the learning
process aside from mastering language skills spontaneously through
role play.
• It trains students to think spontaneously and solve problems as soon as
possible in a controlled environment.
• It increases studentsÊ understanding on topics they have learnt by
bringing in real situations from outside into classrooms.
Based on BanduraÂs (1969) social theory, copying humansÊ learning
behaviours occur by observing reactions that are displayed. According to
Bandura, copying will only occur if the following happens:
• Close observation given to reactions to be copied either through sight,
sound or use of other senses.
• Observation results are stored in memory.
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• Reactions that occur are based on what are seen, heard and felt.
• Rewards are given to strengthen the reaction.
Therefore, in classrooms, this theory contributes to teaching techniques such
as role play and simulation. Teachers play a role in creating certain
situations to teach noble values, cultural activities, gender practices, act roles
and so on.
(d) Discussion Method
This method is normally used for whole-class discussions. One of the
methods that are often used by teachers to encourage students to socialise
as well as seek information is through discussions. In this method, teachers
play a crucial role as a facilitator to students. Teachers should understand
the discussions that are carried out so that they can provide guidance and
guide students facing problems during discussions. Apart from that, this
method can motivate students to seek information and learn more
thoroughly while having in-depth discussions.
The discussion method can be defined as conversations or discussions with
several people about certain important matters or objectives. This method
requires a lot of skills and training. When a teacher manages a whole-class
discussion, the teacher always has to be in the right discussion scope and
find ways to refocus the discussion while encouraging students to listen
carefully at all views that are aired during the discussion.
Before the discussion method is carried out, teachers should ensure that
students have basic knowledge or history of the matter that will be
discussed, in this context, possibly their own cultures. Discussions cannot
be carried out if students do not have any knowledge of the topic which is
their own cultures. Sometimes, discussions can be carried out before
instructions are given to stimulate studentsÊ interests about the topic of
discussion. However, information about the discussions should be given
when managing them.
In effective approaches, the whole-class discussion method encourages
students to study their views to interact and assess other studentsÊ ideas
and improve their learning skills during the lesson.
(i) One-Way Discussion-Explanation From Teachers
Lectures involve one-way interaction between teachers and students.
This results in students becoming passive. Students are merely the
audience and teachers are the active players. The senses that are used
are only eyes and ears. This contradicts with the learning theory
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which requires a variety of senses being involved in certain teaching
and learning sessions.
Teachers can motivate the studentsÊ interest at the beginning of the
lesson. This is important when starting a new subject or learning unit.
Teachers can motivate and stimulate studentsÊ interests and curiosity
through the lecture materials that will be presented.
• Through the lecture method alone it is difficult for teachers to
measure studentsÊ learning stage.
• Lecture is only given at a suitable time such as when starting or
introducing a new topic.
• Teachers should give lectures in an interesting manner and use
analogy, comparison, illustrations and other teaching aids.
(ii) Two-way Discussion
Teaching and learning session should be inserted with questions and
discussions that are suitable for two way interactions to be developed
in the teaching and learning process. These kind of activities will
produce students with good communication skills and confident in
presenting their ideas to teachers. Discussions are a very good way to
help students understand difficult ideas and concepts. Besides that,
multiple-way discussions can form social relationships and students
can learn the cultural aspects of their classmates from various
backgrounds. Information is obtained in an open environment. Apart
from that, there are elements of cooperation, helpfulness,
respectfulness and willingness to listen to views of others. Aside from
that, the element of patience with peer behaviours indirectly helps
develop studentsÊ skills to debate calmly during discussions. All these
will help students learn social skills, aside from understanding as well
as practice noble values in life.
Discussions can be done in a big or small group. In this sort of
discussion, the entire class will participate. Normally, in such
sessions, teachers act as chairperson of the discussions. Teachers
extract materials that the students will discuss through a variety of
questions posed to the class. Meanwhile, in small group discussions,
teachers will divide the class into smaller groups with a chairperson
heading each group. Teachers act as facilitators, moving from one
group to another while asking questions aimed at ensuring the
discussion moves towards the direction that has been set.
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Importance of Discussion Method
• This method enables students to collate ideas, analyse and train
them to either accept or reject certain ideas raised in the topics of
discussions.
• Discussion improves creative thinking capability and information
processing in studentsÊ cognitive development.
• Teaching methods through discussion increases existing
knowledge through an exchange of information among the group
members.
• Discussion is an important method for problem solving.
• Discussion encourages students to give opinions and criticisms on
a certain topic.
The discussion process of certain topics concerning culture or social
and economic aspects can guide an abstract learning process (Bridges,
1997, 1987). According to Bridges again, interaction in a group is an
important component because it forms towards the direction of
observation and analysis of certain topics. Discussion enables students
to understand better about certain topics by analysing information by
every student involved in the discussion.
In using the discussion method to educate students, interaction
should be carried out seriously whereby students support their ideas
with evidence. The views that are raised refer to competition between
their group members and teachers. TeachersÊ ideas are also open to
criticisms (Engle & Ochoa 1988, P. 47). Engle and Ochoa also stated
that objectives and contradicting aspects or views are to encourage
interaction and students to act with any solid evidence that they have.
Purpose of Discussion in Class
• To develop a high level of thinking as a thinking skill that enables
students to interpret, analyse and manage information skilfully.
• The discussion method is aimed at helping linking students with
lessons through:
Reaction stimulation;
Making analogues; and
Bringing alternative ideas into the topic of discussion.
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• To guide students in thinking ahead and not only to just know
present information.
• The discussion method is also aimed at stimulating skills and
abilities to fulfil instructional teaching goals.
• To encourage students to develop their knowledge themselves
based on the given topics.
• Discussions provide students exposure to different views.
• Discussions help students improve and subsequently increase
their skills and abilities to interact with one another.
Advantages of Discussion Method
• A discussion that incorporates situations and occurrences in the
real world will motivate students to have more in-depth
knowledge about the topic that is discussed as it has raised
studentsÊ interest and curiosity. Indirectly, the discussion method
helps students identify the relationship that exists between
concepts and topic of discussion.
• Group discussion helps students understand a topic clearly
because the interaction process and conversation that occur during
the discussion may explain any questions that exist in their
minds.
• Teachers are able to identify the level of studentsÊ understanding
and will know studentsÊ opinions or perception on the topic
discussed.
• Students can develop an efficiency in discussion, which will
become a skill that will extend beyond the classroom.
In the multi-cultural education context, discussion is the best method
in efforts to inculcate studentsÊ social interaction.
(e) Practical Work Method
Practical work method can be defined as one that is applied whereby
students use materials to learn concepts or facts about culture, race, ethnic
and gender. Teaching and learning activities that use this method will give
students the confidence in their learning. They can easily understand and
remember certain concepts. Students will receive psychomotor training
through their own work and at the same time have fun in learning
activities.
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(f) Induction Method
The induction method is used to get conclusions, facts or basic
characteristics of research on learning activities that are carried out in
classrooms. This method requires students to study situational illustrations
that are given in order to draw comparisons and analyse until a solution is
achieved. Therefore, its effectiveness depends on studentsÊ achievement
levels. If students still have not mastered the necessary skills, then teachers
need to give proper guidance.
(g) Deductive Method
The deductive method can be defined as one that uses theory to get
conclusions or new generalisations. This method is more complex because
it requires students to obtain vast experience and sufficient knowledge to
make the conclusion. TeachersÊ role is as a facilitator and guide so that
students are clear with the concepts or skills that are to be presented. This
method is only effective if teachers are wise in controlling the learning
environment in class.
(h) Discovery-Inquiry Method
This method encompasses all activities such as planning, investigating,
analysing and finding. It requires skills such as drawing comparison and
seeking similar characteristics to generalise. This method is closely linked to
the practical work method. Through this method, the spirit of curiosity can
be instilled in students. Learning will become more meaningful and they
will easily remember their lessons. Through experience and observation,
students will like the discovery-inquiry method because they have the
opportunity to explore and seek for answers.
Ethnographic inquiry focuses on explaining the culture of a society, aimed
at understanding in-depth about certain societyÊs way of life from the
perspective of the native society of a race. Anthropologists often use this
method to study culture, which is exotic, but important to know the life
experiences of certain races. Ethnographic inquiry involves observation
activities and interviews that are useful for teachers and students.
Observation is done to help teachers and students understand society,
schools, and classrooms, particularly those that have multi- culture
characteristics.
(i) Exposition Method
The exposition method is an information dissemination method, explaining
concepts, facts, principles or lesson contents to students in class. This
method involves presenting lessons through explanation, storytelling or
demonstration. When using this method, teachers should provide an
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explanation first and students listen carefully until they understand or
record them in their books.
(j) Problem Solving Method
Problem solving is an activity that involves problems in the form of words,
non-mechanism problems, guesswork, quiz or problem solving in real
situations. This method is said to be effective because it encourages
students to be actively involved in terms of cognitive mind and physical.
However, this approach is complex to be carried out for all levels of
students. StudentsÊ cognitive level is the main complication because this
method is more suitable for students who have mastered the necessary
skills earlier.
(k) Cooperative Learning Method
The method adopting cooperative learning is one of the most likeable
methods used by teachers. Cooperative learning is a teaching method
whereby students cooperate in smaller groups and help one another to
complete individual or group tasks. There are various benefits in
implementing this method in business management studies, as it is suitable
to be used in a class with multiple abilities. We should realise that students
do not come from one category or the same background but from various
background and levels of cognitive. Teachers should take this into
consideration before any teaching and learning activities are implemented.
This method encourages positive feelings along with appreciative,
supportive and respect of one another, excel in studentsÊ academic, social
and psychological achievements. Other advantages are as follows:
• Positive reliance on one another;
• Individual responsibility;
• Simultaneous interaction;
• Equal involvement;
• Face-to-face interaction;
• Social skills; and
• Group processing.
(l) Constructivism-based Learning Method
This new method known as constructivism gives new ideas on learning and
cognitive growth. It states that students develop knowledge actively. It also
states that students do not merely receive ideas that are given to them
directly but they are actually creating ideas. Research shows that games
and experiments are important elements in this method. Games involve
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consideration on a combination of new ideas and hypothetical results on
certain occurrences and situations.
(m) Learning Technique
Technique refers to small units that exist in certain methods. Technique
encompasses activities, teachersÊ skills and behaviours that are applied in
teaching. Therefore, teaching technique can be defined as teachersÊ skills in
handling and implementing steps in teaching activities. It emphasises on
how to use teaching resources and guide learning steps. In other words,
technique refers to teachersÊ behaviour when using certain teaching methods.
In the multi-cultural education context, technique plays a crucial role in
improving studentsÊ appreciation on curriculum content that is inclusive in
nature. The objective of teaching technique is to attract studentsÊ interest,
maintain their attention throughout teaching, and stimulate curiosity in
students. There are various teaching techniques that can be applied in
implementing steps planned by teachers. Among them are:
(i) Drill-and-Practice Technique
The objective of this technique is to achieve mastery of skills level,
aside from to assure its permanency. It can be used to achieve certain
skills such as citing concepts or remembering important facts.
Through this technique, students will go through understanding and
application processes.
(ii) Brainstorming Technique
This technique is known as brainstorming, which is a discussion
session that enables every group member to contribute opinions and
ideas. It is regarded as a more serious and complex discussion activity
at the secondary school level. It emphasises on contribution of ideas
from creative learning and not analytical learning. All proposals and
ideas that are raised should be recorded to be discussed in general
sessions. Every member is given the opportunity to contribute
suggestions and they are encouraged to contribute as many ideas as
possible. An informal discussion environment should be created.
Proposals and ideas that are raised should not be criticised.
(iii) Games Technique
A game is an activity that can be carried out in learning various
cultures. Involvement in a game provides opportunity for students to
obtain intensive training, meaningful learning and as a diagnostic
instrument. Most activities that are carried out will use various skills,
among them listening skills and problem solving. This direction is
interpreted through implicit objective in stimulating studentsÊ verbal
interaction to improve proficiency and confidence in preparing
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learning context that acts as instruments to eliminate boredom,
therapy, reinforcement and styling.
(iv) Question-and-Answer Technique
This technique can effectively create interaction between teachers and
students. It is implemented by way of teachers posing questions
related to lesson content and students are required to give appropriate
feedback. Questions require students to think while testing and
assessing what they have learnt. The main objectives of the question-
and-answer technique are to identify studentsÊ existing knowledge, to
encourage students to think creatively, innovatively, logically and
critically, and to motivate students to arrange and elaborate materials
that are taught.
(v) Quiz Technique
Teachers can reinforce teaching and enhance studentsÊ understanding
about certain topics. Students can do revision while having fun.
Students can forget their problems by posing questions through
quizzes. Students can learn this method as a new way of thinking.
(vi) Brainstorming Technique
This technique is chosen for learning stage 1 and 2 because during this
session, discussion among group members takes place to enable every
group to contribute towards the production of ideas and opinions.
The best ideas will be presented to their teacher through a mind
mapping completion activity. At the second learning stage, students
will sit in groups to solve summative questions prepared by their
teacher and later resubmitted to students for checking. Teachers will
give the correct answers to students.
(vii) Question-and-Answer Technique
This technique is capable of effectively creating interaction between
teacher and students. It is implemented by way of teachers posing
questions relating to multi-cultural education content, which is
presented and students are required to give appropriate feedback as
done by teachers in the induction set. At the same time, teachers can
ask students about cultural aspects, gender and economic status. Such
questions can test studentsÊ existing knowledge on topics that are
discussed. This technique is also used by teachers at the end of the
lesson where teachers pose questions regarding the lesson that has
been taught and students answer based on their understanding and
ability to recall. Questioning can encourage students to think
critically, analytically and gain feedback logically and accurately. This
technique can help link teachers and students and unite groups
through interaction.
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(n) Teaching Style that is Modified
It is found that studentsÊ experiences are closely related to their socio-
economic status, economy, culture, language and the way they learn. As a
teacher, you should implement the teaching and learning process for
students based on these different situations. In the teaching process,
individual differences should be taken into consideration. This is because
firstly, by recognising the differences of every student, you will be able to
help them use their experiences. Hence, based on their knowledge, you will
be able to teach more effectively in meeting individual learning
requirements. Secondly, by understanding your studentsÊ differences in
background, you will be able to understand your studentsÊ problems,
strengths and weaknesses individually. This will help you change your
teaching styles so that they will be suitable and proper with their
experiences.
Studies show that teachers who apply instructional strategies on their
studentsÊ different abilities demonstrate improvements in their academic
performance. As an example, lessons such as student-centred discussions
can improve performance of students who have already achieved good
results. Meanwhile, teacher-centred teaching has benefited students whose
academic performances are at low and average levels.
According to Gary D. Borich (2000), adaptive teaching is said to be suitable
for students who have different cultural backgrounds, languages, gender
and socio-economic status. There are two approaches in adaptive teaching.
The first one is the Remedial Approach. This approach equips students
with knowledge, skills or basic behaviour that benefit low achievers. As an
example, you can have the high achievers carry out a student-centred
discussion before beginning a lecture or lesson to benefit the other students.
Or you can teach listening skills to students who are not proficient in
pronunciation before using a linguistic approach for the other students.
Therefore, both groups will benefit from this remedial approach. The
remedial approach can be implemented at a certain time in developing
skills or behaviours that are required.
The second approach is the Compensatory Approach. This approach
enables you as a teacher to choose suitable methods to compensate the lack
of knowledge and skills. Teachers modify lesson content in their efforts to
overcome studentsÊ weaknesses and enhance their strengths and
capabilities. Providing teaching aids that are suitable and can facilitate
content can do this. Teachers can use teaching mediums such as films,
illustrations and pictures and facilities at a level that is more complex such
as simulation, experience based workbooks, collating portfolios and so on.
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Adaptive teaching can improve the success of all students regardless of
individual differences. This is done through the remedial method or
remedy, and compensatory method. Therefore, in adaptive teaching, an
important pre-requisite is for you know and understand your studentsÊ
abilities to suit the instructional choices that can improve their acceptance
capacity.
(o) Classroom Management and Various Activity Structures
Multi-cultural classroom management plays a crucial role in ensuring
studentsÊ interaction run smoothly in a harmonious environment and
encouraging interaction and collaborative learning. Therefore, teachers
should be prepared to promote a positive classroom climate for all
students. Hence, the whole school culture should always be monitored and
assessed so that there are no negative cultures which are racist in nature, or
pressures towards certain groups. The school administration must always
assess teachersÊ teaching and learning process so that negative practices in
class will not occur. The question of discrimination, nepotism, sexism and
so on does not arise. The school administration should also ensure that
teachers have a high level of consciousness for the different cultures and
studentsÊ backgrounds.
Teaching and learning activities should vary, stimulate and attract
studentsÊ interests as well as have knowledge value, and lessons that can
develop studentsÊ attitudes towards the equity and equality aspect of
societal life which has various cultural backgrounds. The objectives of
every activity that is carried out should be directed towards creating
feelings of respect for one another, understanding among cultures, tolerant
towards differences and eventually students can interact harmoniously
based on the differences that exist.
Craviotto and Heras (1999) listed several characteristics of a classroom that
can integrate curriculum and classroom culture, namely:
• StudentsÊ families are the main source of knowledge;
• Culture and literature are used as a source of understanding certain
cultures from various perspectives;
• Students are regarded as catalysts of knowledge of their active culture;
• Active dialogue in classrooms is an important aspect in cultural;
• Teachers make the effort to create a corner for students to learn, explore
and discuss with peers; and
• Encourage usage of several languages in classrooms as a medium of
communication.
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Hence, as a teacher, you should be able to manage your classrooms the best
way possible so that students are comfortable, the teaching and learning
process takes place effectively, and your classroom is effective in the multi-
cultural education context where the „melting pot‰ process occurs.
8.3 TEACHING SOURCE
The various teaching source are discussed here.
(a) Various media
In multi-cultural education, you should use various media as your teaching
aid. As teachers who live in the IT era, you should use interactive strategies
in your teaching, particularly in multi-cultural education.
(i) Computer and the Internet
Computers can play a variety of roles in maintaining and enhancing
studentsÊ interests in a classroom. In fact, a computer can help
teachers to encourage students to accept, appreciate, understand and
recognise the differences that exist. Teachers can teach different
ethnics, genders and so on using computer as a live display.
Computers can help not only teachers but also students in improving
their understanding as well as applying their efficiency and skills to
use the computer. Teaching resources from the Internet is easily
obtainable, particularly when teachers seek to access aspects on
culture, race, ethnic and so on.
(ii) CD-Rom
CD-Rom is user friendly. You can choose any CD to be played, which
will really help you in presenting your lessons. This innovation has
been widely used in schools in our country.
(iii) Recording Events: Digital Camera
In the context of multi-cultural education, a digital camera can be
used to record various societal activities to be used in teaching. In fact,
most educators use digital cameras to prepare materials to suit their
studentsÊ cultural lives and experiences.
(iv) Newspaper
The newspaper is the most relevant source of teaching for students.
Most students read newspapers at home or in the public or school
libraries. Materials that are highlighted in the newspapers can become
reading resources and expose your students to various forms of
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cultures and celebrations. In the Malaysian context, a newspaper is a
source of information in our daily lives. All the information can be
used in classroom teaching. Newspapers being low-priced and having
a wealth of information, facilitate teachers in the teaching process.
Hence, the concept of Newspaper-in-Class benefits both teachers and
students.
(v) Video/Film
Video and film is also a teaching source. You can show films that are
relevant with the topics that you are teaching, in your efforts to
expose students to a real life aspect of the various cultures, races,
ethnics or languages. Films can also attract studentsÊ attention because
they share emotions among themselves.
(vi) Games
Games can expose students to multi-cultural lives particularly
traditional games of certain cultures, races or ethnics. In every game,
there are rules and ways to play. All these are cultural manifestations
where students can learn and know the tricks of the games. Games
can also create feelings of acceptance, healthy competition and
tolerance among students.
(vii) Books
Books are still important in enhancing studentsÊ knowledge and skills.
Teachers must ensure that the content of books facilitate the teaching
and learning process in classrooms and outside. Exposure to cultural
aspects in books is a combination of basic knowledge whereby
students need to read, understand and appreciate the content.
(viii) Television
Television is a popular media in Malaysia. The Education Ministry
also provides educational television programmes to facilitate teachers
in the teaching and learning process. In the context of multi-cultural
education, it cannot be denied that television highlights a lot of
cultural aspects in the Malaysian multi-cultural societyÊs life. This is a
teaching source for students to introduce them to the various cultures
that exist in Malaysia.
(b) Various Media Content
When you plan teaching activities, you will be most likely influenced by
many factors. These factors encompass teaching objectives, studentsÊ
characteristics in class, strategies and approaches that you will apply. All
these will not be effective without emphasis on the media content which
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you will use to facilitate your teaching. You should consider the types of
media that you will use, and the media contents that you will apply to
ensure the best effects on your students.
The following considerations should be given due attention in ensuring
quality of content of certain media:
• Media content must be inclusive on different views and cultures, from
different perspectives;
• Encourage students to think critically about the contents that are
presented;
• Information that is presented must be accurate and do not create
controversy, bias and prejudice against students;
• All information and facts should be presented fairly and equally;
• The goal must be comprehensive and final;
• Presentation format should facilitate teaching and learning process; and
• Content of presentation must be suitable with studentsÊ abilities.
In the context of multi-cultural education, media content that is used
should motivate to answer questions such as: „Whose views do we listen
to?‰, „Whose views and opinions do we reject?‰, „Why was the film not
shown to the public?‰, „Why does prejudice occur in the society?‰. In
addition, there are many more questions related to the media content that
you can use. These are some critical questions that can be generated from
the media content and teaching aids that are used.
8.4 PSYCHOLOGY AND COUNSELLING
StudentsÊ emotional aspect plays a crucial role in efforts to suit oneself with
cultural diversity and differences. Teachers should understand students from
their psychological aspect and resolve problems by using the counselling
approach successfully and efficiently.
(a) Teachers approach students based on their perspective and experience
Teacher-students interaction is part of the teaching and learning process in
classrooms. In this interaction process, it is rather difficult for students to
understand teachersÊ behaviours and cultures. This is because of a natural
psychological factor whereby students are more dependent on teachers.
Therefore, as a teacher, you should act proactively by approaching students
based on their experiences. It is easy to approach and understand them
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from their perspectives. This means that you should have an understanding
of their views.
According to Gary D. Borich (2000), in efforts to approach your students,
what you should do is to cooperate with them in various learning situations
that they go through. You should strive to create various situations
whereby students have the opportunity to use their experiences, past
lessons and their culture. In such situations, you will understand their
perspectives and experiences. Secondly, you should provide opportunities
to your students to expose or express something they have or know based
on their culture in building relations between ideas and facts that you have
taught with their perspective and experience.
There are various other measures you can implement to approach your
students from their perspective:
• Talking to your students about matters they already know;
• Encourage your students to draw comparisons between what they
already know and certain topics they want to know;
• Expose your students to learning skills that they have in achieving their
objectives;
• Teach your students to use their own approach that they deem effective
and suitable; and
• Understand their cultural background or content along with their
behaviour and attitude.
You can implement these measures. As an effective teacher, you should
often interact with your students. Only through this way, you will
understand them and they will feel that you appreciate their presence in
your class.
(b) TeachersÊ training in multi-cultural management
Generally, there are several strategies and principles in teachersÊ training in
managing multi- cultural education issues. Among them are:
(i) Teachers must be exposed to understanding sensitive issues regarding
culture, knowledge and possess ethnic competency;
(ii) Have holistic training programmes, promote awareness on multi-
cultural understanding and differences;
(iii) Prepare modules in efforts to create awareness on culture and
prejudice;
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(iv) Teachers are exposed to learning styles, organised curriculum
comprising social awareness, knowledge on various cultures, and can
inculcate behaviour based on orientation; and
(v) Teachers are exposed to reflex and personal history as an instrument
for experiential learning.
A counselling and psychological approach or style is said to be able to
resolve all problems in multi-cultural education. TeachersÊ training must
have open characteristics and flexibility, which is an eclectic approach.
Therefore, teachersÊ training should have anti-racist characteristics.
One of the skills deemed crucial in managing various cultures is teachersÊ
communication skill in various languages. TeachersÊ skills on various
languages can help teachers not only in the teaching and learning process,
but also can help them in acting as facilitators and managing their studentsÊ
cultural diversity. TeachersÊ abilities in languages can also improve their
understanding on various cultures.
Meanwhile, the Government should provide an infrastructure for multi-
cultural education. This infrastructure can act as a catalyst in the teaching
and learning process and becomes a medium for students to interact.
According to Patricia Ruggiano Schmidt (2005), although it is undeniable
that a teachersÊ training programme is proven successful, in the multi-
cultural education context, a teachersÊ training programme should be able
to produce teachers who are responsive towards culture, and this aspect is
deemed as lacking and not given attention.
(c) TeachersÊ adaptability in a multi-cultural environment
Teachers should be able to adapt to various cultural situations that exist in
their own classes. In this adaptability process, teachers should know and
understand studentsÊ cultures, gender aspects, and their socio-economic
status. This adaptability process not only means that teachers are
comfortable in a multi-cultural class but also know and appreciate studentsÊ
real life based on their differences. Many multi-cultural educators say that
teachersÊ adaptability means that they feel comfortable and fit in with every
student individually. This means that teachers place themselves in their
studentsÊ groups individually or collectively.
The adaptability process normally takes some time as you will need to
understand, know and appreciate each studentÊs values, norms, cultures
and traditions. This process is actually a multi-cultural learning process.
From understanding your students, the next step is for you to act in
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134 X TOPIC 8 IMPLICATIONS OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION ON TEACHERS IN
CLASSROOMS
situations which are conducive for all your students from their
perspectives. It means that you should be able to suit yourself beyond
cultures. This adaptability is dynamic, comprehensive and you are seen as a
teacher who is successful in interacting with your students.
Due to your adaptability with your students, you will be able to create a
harmonious interactive relationship polar; your relationship with students
and relationship among students in desired situations in the multi-cultural
education context, so as to produce students who can live in various
cultures with respect and understanding. In this aspect, you need to act as
a role model to your students.
8.5 ASSESSMENT
Traditionally, teachers are responsible for measuring and assessing their
studentsÊ performance and ability. The unresolved issue is: What is the best way
to assess your students? In todayÊs educational system, examinations play an
important role in determining studentsÊ success.
In the traditional educational system, educators like to use a diagnostic
assessment method, problem solving, orientation process and teachersÊ
assessment. Meanwhile, for cultural assessment, most of them use printed
materials based on measurement, competition, pen-and-paper and external
examinations.
There are several reasons why students need to be tested. Firstly, it is to
determine the grading of every student. Secondly, it is to ensure students have
mastered skills and experiences that are acquired in the teaching and learning
process, and consequential action ensues by having remedial activities for topics
that are difficult to master. Thirdly, it is to distinguish whether teachersÊ teaching
is effective or otherwise.
As teachers, you should think of several aspects before assessing you students.
The aspects that you should think of are: „What is the purpose of you assessing
your students?‰, „What you will use in assessing your students?‰, and „What are
the questions that you will pose to assess what should be assessed?‰ Therefore,
in multi-cultural education, teachers should pay attention to the following
matters:
(a) Selection of the best assessment instrument to suit studentsÊ background
The best assessment instrument is one that has four objective domains,
which is one that can assess studentsÊ knowledge, intellectual skills, motor
skills and behaviours.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 IMPLICATIONS OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION ON TEACHERS IN W 135
CLASSROOMS
Selection of assessment instruments is a teacherÊs job in ensuring the
instrument that is used is suitable with every studentÊs background. There
are several assessment instruments used in multi-cultural education:
• Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is a continuous assessment, which encourages
students to learn. Studies have shown that formative assessment can
improve studentsÊ learning behaviour, assess an entire curriculum and
teachersÊ work. Teachers can provide the best service to students with
different abilities due to different backgrounds.
• Summative Test
This test is carried out after you finish teaching certain topics. This is
aimed at determining the level of knowledge and which aspects your
students have yet to master.
• Talent Test
This test is aimed at gauging studentsÊ performance in foreign language
lessons. It measures their skills in mastering the language that they have
learnt.
• Diagnostic Test
The goal of this test is to identify existing problems among students in
the learning process. By carrying out this test, you will know which
units or sub-units, or topics that are difficult for students to master.
(b) Assessment that is extensive and conscious towards different cultures
Challenges that exist in a multi-cultural education are not only in preparing
relevant curriculum but also from an assessment aspect, which is
sometimes sensitive towards societyÊs culture. Therefore, as teachers, you
should ensure that the assessment instruments you have selected comprise
items which are transparent and conscious towards studentsÊ backgrounds
and cultures. This means that you should have skills in item building so
that there will not exist bias, prejudice, and misconception among students.
Transparency in question building means that you should be open-minded
and accept certain things as knowledge and it has to be seen from an
academic perspective alone although there are cultural aspects, socio-
economic status or gender that should be raised in the items that are
formulated. This aspect is rather difficult to implement.
(c) Different assessments based on studentsÊ abilities and problem solving
Due to studentsÊ different backgrounds in terms of culture, gender, socio-
economic status, language and race or ethnic, these aspects influence the
studentsÊ abilities. It cannot be denied that studies that have been
conducted to show that studentsÊ different backgrounds influence their
social and psychological aspects. Realising this fact, you should ensure that
the items built are suitable with your studentsÊ abilities.
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