STEM education how to train 21st century teachers

Using STEM Concepts and Applications to Assess K-12 Student Learning 137

STEM products and performances often cover many different subjects, topics, concepts,
or standards. Therefore, they can be more difficult and complex to assess. By using rubrics,
criteria cards, mini-rubrics, and checklists, teachers are able to (a) score student work, (b)
provide ongoing feedback, and (c) grade more accurately and fairly. In this next section,
assessment tools (e.g., rubrics, criteria cards, etc.) are discussed.

THREE TYPES OF ASSESSMENT TO USE WITH STEM TOPICS
AND CONCEPTS

Pre-Assessment Process

The pre-assessment process provides the foundation and basis for instructional
improvement and is a necessity for differentiated instruction. This type of assessment, which
is administered before students begin a unit of work, is formal or informal. Teachers are
alerted about the student‘s level of readiness in learning particular concepts or skills and what
their students already know, understand, and are able to do before the unit begins.

Pre-assessment can show which students (a) are ready to learn new information, (b)
already know the information that is going to be taught, and (c) are not yet prepared for this
new learning. Quality pre-assessment allows students to demonstrate mastery or show where
they need remediation before instruction begins. Using pre-assessment help teachers
determine a time line for instruction because it indicates how much knowledge students
already have about the information and skills he or she is planning to teach.

One instructional strategy that employs pre-assessment and allows students to
demonstrate their mastery of topics before instruction begins is known as Curriculum
Compacting (Reis, Burns, & Renzulli, 1992). It is used both as a way to document mastery
and to challenge those students who already know the material. This strategy works especially
well with math because it is generally easy to find out which students know the basic
formulas, algorithms, and mathematical procedures and can accomplish them with accuracy.
When using this strategy, teachers design pre-assessments so that students can demonstrate
mastery before instruction begins. Students who have mastered the material, concepts, skills,
and knowledge then work on alternate activities that are either extensions of the standard or
other more challenging and rigorous work.

Formative Assessment

Formative assessment, sometimes called assessment for learning encompasses a variety
of strategies to determine student progress toward achieving specified learning goals
(Stiggins, 2007).

Such strategies must be linked to ongoing standards-based classroom teaching and
learning. Timely teacher feedback is an essential ingredient of this process. Instead of merely
measuring student learning at the end of a unit of work, teachers who use formative
assessments are (a) continuously aware of how their students are learning, (b) how much they
are learning, and (c) what problems they are having during the learning process.

138 Carolyn Coil

Black and Wiliam (1998), two leading authorities on formative assessment, defined it as
―all those activities undertaken by teachers, and by the students in assessing themselves,
which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning
activities in which they are engaged‖ (p. 140). Their meta-analysis of more than 250 research
studies found that formative assessments can contribute more to improving student
achievement than any other school-based factor. They also found that formative assessment
benefits all students, including low-achieving students more so than high-achieving students
(Black & Wiliam, 1998).

The formative assessment process assists teachers in (a) identifying which students have
reached their learning goals and (b) which students need more time, more help, and/or more
practice. This process allows teachers to guide instruction in response to the learning
differences they discover after students begin their work. Such assessment alerts teachers to
the misconceptions some students may have about what is being taught while the instruction
is still in progress. It also gives students descriptive feedback so they can see (a) what they
have achieved, (b) which answers are correct, and (c) how they might improve. This provides
students with opportunities to change and improve their work before turning it in for a final
grade.

Formative assessment includes using the ―Most Difficult First‖ strategy. With this
strategy, students are asked to (a) complete the most difficult problems or questions from
each section of a unit and (b) select those problems that represent specific knowledge or skills
the student must know. Traditional math problems from a textbook and/or worksheet often
have the most difficult problems at the bottom of the page. If a student can complete these
correctly, it is evident that there is no need for him or her to do the easier problems covering
the same knowledge and skills (Coil, 2011).

On the other hand, the formative assessment process may be more involved and complex
such as using a rubric on an ongoing basis while doing STEM projects, experiments, or
performances.

Peer or self-assessments work particularly well with this type of activity because
suggestions can be given and changes made before the final product is turned in. In fact, the
work of scientists and engineers by its very nature would almost always have elements of
formative assessment before the final project is completed or final hypothesis proved. In the
same way, students working on STEM assignments should mirror the formative assessment
processes used by professionals in STEM fields.

As you will see later in this chapter, well-written rubrics are excellent tools for both
formative and summative assessments, and often the same rubric can be used for both.
Constructing such rubrics is sometimes difficult, but doing this well is extremely worthwhile
when assessing STEM concepts and applications.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS

Summative assessments sometimes referred to as ―assessments of learning,‖ are
conducted after a unit is completed or after a certain time period has elapsed in order to
determine how much learning has taken place.

Using STEM Concepts and Applications to Assess K-12 Student Learning 139

These assessments are generally used to give grades or scores to students and provide
accountability. They offer a means by which a teacher can determine a student‘s mastery of
information, knowledge, skills, concepts, etc. after the unit or learning activity has been
completed.

Summative assessments should parallel formative assessments that are used during the
learning process. Additionally, they should align with instructional/curricular objectives,
standards, and benchmarks. It is unfair to use formative assessments to measure students on a
set of knowledge and skills while they are learning them and then construct summative
assessments that have no relationship to the formative assessment used during the learning
process. When students ask, ―What is going to be on the test?‖ the answer is never a surprise.
The response should be, ―What do you think is going to be on the test?‖ If the final
assessment parallels all of the other assessments that have been used while the students are
learning, the contents of the summative assessment should be obvious.

Summative assessments are sometimes called high-stakes assessments because they
determine exit grades or scores and can be tied to final decisions about students. SAT or ACT
scores may determine acceptance at a competitive college or university. Summative
assessments also include a student‘s grade point average (GPA) which can determine
scholarships he or she may be offered.

Summative assessments are not always a test. They can also be the final version of a
project or performance. In STEM subjects, summative assessments may be given during a
competition such as judging projects in science and engineering fairs, scores in math
Olympiads, contests or challenges, or a final placement in a robotics competition. This next
section, examines assessment criteria and assessments such as rubrics and Criteria Cards that
can be used as both formative and summative assessments of STEM topics, projects, and
subjects.

DEVELOPING ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

The majority of student projects, products, and performances could be assessed in a
multitude of ways. Because most educational systems are standards-based, looking at the
standards is the place to begin when developing assessment criteria. The next step is to
consider the standards and then determine the significant learning outcomes for each piece of
student work. Important questions to ask are (a) why am I having my students do this work or
project? (b) what standards will they be working on? and (c) can I picture what I want this
product or project to look like?

Developing assessment criteria is putting your mental picture into words. On the other
hand, if you say, ―I don‘t know what it will look like, but I‘ll know a good one when I see it,‖
the chances are you won‘t be able to write clear assessment criteria! Well-defined assessment
criteria provide a focus and direction for students and give teachers a concrete method to
assess what each student does. It is important to be clear on what learning outcomes you want
your students to achieve. For STEM products, projects, and performances, high-quality
assessment criteria reflects advanced levels in self-directed learning, scientific thinking,
problem solving, research, and/or communication.

140 Carolyn Coil

The act of brainstorming all possible criteria must be considered in assessing your stated
learning goals. Your assessment criteria must correspond to the standards and learning
outcomes you have identified. If you have an exceptionally long list of criteria, pare it down
or combine two or more of your criteria into one item. From a list of ten or twelve criteria,
identify at least four or five of the most important. Too many assessment criteria for a product
or performance may cause students to lose focus and feel overwhelmed. Therefore, a limited
number of criteria targets the most important items and seems more doable to the student.

This listing of standards, learning outcomes or objectives, and specific criteria provides
the beginning point for constructing a rubric. This next section examines both complex
rubrics and mini-rubrics and shows how to use such a list of criteria to construct each. To
limit the number of criteria, Criteria Cards may be developed and used.

Criteria Cards

Criteria Cards are short, easily understood lists of criteria that define the characteristics of
various products or performances. Students can use the same Criteria Card multiple times
when producing the same or a similar product. The content changes but the elements of the
product or performance remain the same.

When teaching science, technology, engineering, or math you may use the same generic
criteria for certain products, processes, or performances, regardless of the specific academic
content covered. These generic processes are most likely processes you want students to focus
on regularly or products they will work on more than once. These may well be products and
processes they complete for several different teachers and/or in several different subjects.

Examples of generic processes include certain writing conventions (e.g., grammar,
mechanics, spelling, and sentence structure), math algorithms (e.g., a set of steps always used
when solving mathematical computations), procedures for writing science lab reports,
elements in lab reports, or skills (e.g., research, organization, etc.). Generic processes may
include classroom expectations such as turning in classroom assignments on time.

There are hundreds of products students can design and develop to show what they know.
The expectations for these products can be easily defined on Criteria Cards. Examples of
products often used in STEM classrooms are as follows: brochures, dioramas, flowcharts,
murals, posters, graphs, Venn diagrams, Museum Boxes, timelines, wikis, and blogs.

Using Criteria Cards that students can refer to over and over again is a great assessment
short cut and time saver when assessing their products and processes. These cards have short,
easily understood lists of criteria (generally 4-5) that students can look at each time they use
the same process or complete the same kind of product. Often Criteria Cards become one of
the listed criteria on a rubric. You will see an example of a rubric that uses a Criteria Card in
the next section.

The use of Criteria Cards by elementary, middle, and high school teachers will benefit the
students greatly. At the elementary level, students learn how to create products and how to do
scientific and mathematical processes. These skills build from one grade level to the other. A
Criteria Card defines each product or process and allows the teacher to add more complexity
from one grade level to the next. At the secondary level, it is helpful if all teachers define
generic products or processes in the same way. This is especially true with STEM curriculum
which is often interdisciplinary and may be taught by several teachers.

Using STEM Concepts and Applications to Assess K-12 Student Learning 141

In addition, the development of scope and sequence charts, maps or lists for student
products and performances would allow teachers at one grade level to pass along Criteria
Cards to teachers at the next grade level. For example, by seeing the Criteria Cards, fourth
grade teachers would know that third grade students have had experiences making brochures,
designing PowerPoint presentations, developing Venn diagrams, and/or creating graphs.

The amount and types of Criteria Cards teachers use vary from teacher to teacher, grade
level to grade level, and school to school. As seen in Table 1, there are a representative
sample of Criteria Cards appropriate for STEM subjects and topics.

Table 1. Product and Process Criteria Cards for STEM Topics, Projects and Concepts

Brochure Podcast

1. Folded with information on each 1. Audio released on the Internet

side 2. Can be downloaded by others

2. Highlights important points 3. Accurate information about the

3. Visually appealing with pictures topic

4. Titles and text spelled correctly 4. Speaking clear and understandable

5. Accurate information 5. Stays within time limits

Diagram PowerPoint Presentation

1. Items in logical and accurate order 1. Visually appealing

2. Visually shows relationship between 2. Pictures and words are coordinated

parts or ideas 3. Incorporates technological options

3. Neat drawing and writing 4. Technology works appropriately

4. Accurate labels 5. At least ten slides

Graph Science Lab Report

1. Neat and legible 1. Has a title

2. Data is accurate and easy to 2. Indicates materials used

understand visually 3. Lists and describes procedures

3. Data plotted correctly on axes 4. Explains results

4. Accurate title and labels 5. Cites references/resources used

Log of Project Work Time Line

1. Records date for each day 1. Title

2. At least two sentences about daily 2. Chronological order

accomplishments or observations 3. Important events/dates indicated

3. Shows goals for next day 4. Well-plotted time spans

4. Includes reflections and questions 5. Neat and legible

Model Venn Diagram

1. Accurate representation 1. Has two or more overlapping

2. Durable and well-constructed circles

3. Neatly done 2. Shows similarities and differences

4. 3-dimensional 3. Has a title and conclusions

5. Correct scale 4. Neat and clear writing

5. Accurate

Note. Coil, C. (2007). Pieces of learning. In C. Coil (Ed.) Successful Teaching in the Differentiated

Classroom (p.154-155). Marion IL: Pieces of Learning.

142 Carolyn Coil

Complex Rubrics

Rubrics can be defined as directions or guidelines for student work. They identify criteria
that serve as indicators for students as to what is most important in a project or performance.
A majority of complex rubrics also contain some type of rating scale so that various levels of
student performance can be assessed (Coil & Merritt, 2011). Good rubrics help teachers
evaluate all types of products and performances more fairly since they are precise about what
the expectations and criteria for assessment are. With rubrics, students and teachers, alike,
understand exactly how student work will be evaluated. The criteria are most definitely not a
secret! Being clear about the expectations and criteria for assessment gives students an
understanding of the meaning behind their grade.

Teachers use the specific criteria on the rubric to guide them in grading and evaluating
student products and performances.

Looking at and understanding the criteria give students a direction to follow when doing
their work. In this way, they have useful information about what they have done and about
their progress as learners. Many students are encouraged to explore topics in more depth
based on the feedback from rubrics, especially when these are used as formative assessments.
Because STEM projects often require assessment of higher-order thinking and problem
solving, rubrics can be very valuable tools, particularly when the criteria emphasize these
things.

The word rubric has multiple meanings in education because there are many different
types of rubrics that can be used to assess student work (Coil & Merritt, 2011). A typical
complex rubric has the following components:

 standards and/or objectives that are the focus of the learning activity;
 a scale of possible points, levels, and/or categories to be assigned for varying degrees

of mastery or quality;
 criteria used to evaluate the product or performance;
 pointers and/or descriptors for assessing each of the criteria; these help in showing

the correct place on the scoring scale to which a particular student‘s work
corresponds;
 a Criteria Card as one of the listed criteria; and
 an extension column to encourage students to work above and beyond the basic
assignment.

There are no precise rules about how many criteria need to be in a rubric or how many
levels should be indicated. In general, four or five levels are adequate. The number of criteria
should be no more than five or six. The more levels and the more criteria, the more
cumbersome the rubric becomes.

From a practical standpoint, most students stop reading rubrics or directions when they
are too complex or wordy. In addition, extremely long rubrics are difficult for teachers to use.
If the purpose of a rubric is to give feedback to the student and/or to help the teacher
accurately and fairly score or grade a student‘s work, then the process should be as simple
and understandable as possible.

Using STEM Concepts and Applications to Assess K-12 Student Learning 143

As indicated above, rubrics usually have a scoring scale. When a scale with five levels is
used, Level 4 indicates grade-level mastery and Level 5 is the extension level. In this scale,
Level 5 is especially important for gifted and high-achieving students. Many times these
students can get A‘s on assignments without putting forth much effort or thought. They need
rubrics that (a) will show them ways to extend their work beyond the expected grade-level
norm, (b) will encourage them to work toward excellence instead of mediocrity; (c) will build
on what they already know; and (d) enables them to progress independently at their own rate
of speed.

Therefore, the top level in any rubric should be a way to show that students have gone
above and beyond the teacher‘s expectations or assigned work. This is particularly important
because we do not want students to stop working on a project once they have reached the
minimum expectations. Instead, we must continue to challenge them and to indicate this
challenge within the rubric.

Some rubrics are written with the highest acceptable level on the scale first. Others begin
with the lowest acceptable level on the scale and subsequently increase levels. The latter is
preferred because you want students to see a progression of learning as they read each line of
the rubric. Level 1 on the rubric scale indicates minimally acceptable work. Each subsequent
level shows further progression in accomplishing the standards or learning outcomes for the
project. In general, a zero should not be used in a rubric scale. It is better to give the project
back to the student saying that it is not acceptable and needs more work.

Science, technology, and engineering students are often asked to do project-based work.
This allows them to demonstrate what they know and explain the process of learning rather
than simply finding or writing the correct answer on a test. Learning in this way almost
always brings about higher levels of thinking and greater complexity and rigor in student
work.

The Website Design and Integers Brochure Rubrics

The Website Design Rubric assesses a student project focused on technology. The four
criteria in this rubric are: (1) Layout, (2) Writing and Mechanics, (3) Images and Sources, and
(4) Network. As illustrated in Table 2, five levels are specified in this rubric with Level 1
indicating minimal work while Level 4 describes a well-done finished product. Level 5
denotes work above and beyond the assignment. One Common Core Standard is indicated on
this rubric.

The second rubric, Integers Brochure Rubric, is for a math project focused primarily on
knowledge and comprehension of integers (See Table 3). The criteria indicate the
requirements for the brochure: (1) Vocabulary, (2) Accuracy, (3) Illustrations or examples of
integers, and (4) Follows the Brochure Criteria Card. Notice that in this example, following
the Criteria Card is one of the stated criteria in the rubric. Using it saves a great deal of time
in delineating the requirements for a brochure. Additionally, if students were given a choice
of products to use to show what they know, it could have merely stated, ―Follow YOUR
CHOICE of Criteria Card.‖

Table 2. Website D

Common Core WEBSITE DESIGN RUBRIC

Standard: Name: Date:
Use technology, Level 3

including the

Internet, to

produce and

publish writing Level 1 Level 2

and to interact and

collaborate with

others.

Layout Text broken into Headings and sectio
paragraphs and/or labeled and create
Layout has no structure sections. hierarchy; some
or organization. consistency.

Writing and Unclear and difficult Many spelling errors but
to understand; many writing shows consistent
Mechanics spelling and writing line of thought; Easy to understand
errors. understandable. spelling and gramm
C errors.
R
I

T

E Images and

R Sources One or two images with Three images with
I some relation to page relation to page and
A Images are unrelated to and text. At least one source
page.

Network Student has problems Text is in a program
bringing up his or her other than the word
Web page within a processor; one or more Some files in simpl
Web browser. files in wrong location. processor of HTML

Note. Coil, C., & Merritt, D. (2011). Solving the Assessment Puzzle. Marion, IL: Pi

Design Rubric

Level 4 Level 5
EXTENSION

ons are Hierarchy closely follows Consistent format extends page-to-page;
meaning; heading and styles are text, images, and links flow together.
consistent within pages. Attention-grabbing Home Page.

d; some Easy to understand; very few Clear, concise, and well written, easy to
mar spelling and grammar errors. understand with no spelling or grammar
errors.

some Four images with strong relation Five or more images with strong relation
d text. to text and page; images are from to text and pages; images have proper
e cited 2 or more sources are correctly size, colors, and cropping; images are
cited. properly cited from 3 or more sources
(Scan, Photoshop, Video, Photo Deluxe,
etc.).

le word Most files in simple word All files in simple word processor of
L. processor of HTML. HTML; efficient and knowledgeable use
of Internet access programs.
ieces of Learning.

Table 3. Integers Br

Common Core Standard: Name: 2 3
Use the four operations 1
with whole numbers to
solve problems.

Vocabulary Brochure does not include Mathematical terms about Ne

many mathematical terms integers used but ab

related to integers. incorrectly applied. co

C Accuracy Most mathematical facts At least half of the M
R about integers are not
I accurate. mathematical facts about fa

integers are accurate. ac

T

E Illustrations or Only 1 illustration or A few examples or M

R Examples of example graphed on the number lines used to in

I Integers number line to show show operations of ar

A operation of integers. integers clearly. nu

Follows Meets 1 item on the Meets 2 items on the M
Brochure criteria card. criteria card. cr
Criteria Card

Note. Coil, C., & Merritt, D. (2011). Solving the Assessment Puzzle. Marion, IL: Pi

rochure Rubric

Date: 5/Extension
4

ew mathematical terms New mathematical terms Several new mathematical
bout integers used used correctly and defined terms used.
orrectly. clearly. Illustrations and examples
used to explain terms.

All facts about

Most of the mathematical All the mathematical facts integers are accurate.
about integers are accurate.
acts about integers are Counter examples and to
ccurate. justification are shown

prove facts.

Most examples of All examples are well Operations of all types of
ntegers and operations
re shown clearly on explained on number line. integers are shown as
umber line.
Examples cover all types problems or diagrams and

of integers. on the number line.

Meets 3-4 items on the Meets all 5 items on the Meets all 5 items on the
riteria card. criteria card. criteria card.
Unique brochure.
ieces of Learning. Exceptionally attractive
and well organized.

146 Carolyn Coil

MINI-RUBRICS:
ASSESSMENT FOR STUDENT CHOICE ACTIVITIES

Complex rubrics are excellent tools for evaluating student work and for encouraging
excellence in learning. Many teachers may be puzzled about how to use rubrics when giving
students a number of differentiated choices to consider within a unit of work. When using
student choice menus such as Tic-Tac-Toe and Individual Lesson Plan™ boards with
students, it may be difficult and time consuming to create complex rubrics for each of the
student choice activities.

A workable solution may be to use mini-rubrics. Mini-rubrics are short lists of
assessment criteria that guide students while they are working on products or performances.
They can also be used to grade completed student work. In a mini-rubric, the rows, columns,
and descriptors found in complex rubrics are eliminated. Because of this, four, eight or nine
mini-rubrics can be placed on one sheet of paper to correspond to the choice activities offered
to students.

Students read the mini-rubric for each activity before making a choice of which activity
or activities they want to work on. Extensions can be included in mini-rubrics and serve the
same function in challenging high-ability students as the extension column does in a complex
rubric.

Because of the limited amount of space available to write each mini-rubric, Criteria Cards
are particularly useful. As appropriate, a Criteria Card can be included as one of the criteria
listed on the mini-rubric. The remainder of the criteria targets the content and standards on
which the activity focuses. Because mini-rubrics can be used for grading student-choice
projects or performances, include a space for the number of possible points for the activity.
Some teachers add a blank for each item in the mini-rubric so they can use it as an assessment
checklist.

In this chapter are two sets of mini-rubrics along with the corresponding student-choice
activities. One is the Scientific Method Tic-Tac-Toe. It is designed to first teach the steps of
the scientific method and then to have each student use the scientific method to do an
experiment. Students choose one of eight choices (any except #5) and complete this choice.
Upon completion, each student then does #5. You will see the following items in the
Scientific Method Tic-Tac-Toe (See Table 4.):

 Common Core Standards that are the focus of the activities,
 activities listed in each box with the product or performance bold-faced for easy

reference, and
 an indicator of the type of learner to which the activity might appeal.

In the components of the corresponding mini-rubrics are as follows (see Table 5.):

 the product or performance that will be assessed (boldfaced and numbered),
 assessment criteria,
 Criteria Cards as needed,
 suggested extensions for most of the choices, and
 possible points (to be filled in by the individual teacher).

Using STEM Concepts and Applications to Assess K-12 Student Learning 147

Table 4. Scientific Method Tic-Tac-Toe

Scientific Method Tic-Tac-Toe Student Choice Activities
Directions: Complete one student choice activity and then do Activity #5.
Common Core Standards:

 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and

information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and

analysis of content.

 Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually

and quantitatively as well as in words.

 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and

research.

1. Construct a flow chart or 2. Ask a question about a 3. Make an information cube

diagram that teaches the steps of scientific problem. Write a list showing and defining six steps

the scientific method. of 5 possible hypotheses that in the scientific method. Give an

could answer the question or example of each step.

solve this problem. Pick one

hypothesis and write an

explanation of how you might

(logical) test it.

(written/verbal) (kinesthetic)

4. Write a rap/song that helps 5. Required Activity 6. Write and perform a skit or
the listeners remember the steps To be done after you have play about the steps in the
of the scientific method. finished one of the other scientific method.
choices. Use the steps of the
(musical) scientific method. Write a (kinesthetic)
question and develop a
hypothesis. Then design a
simple experiment to test your
hypothesis. Look at your results
and write a conclusion.

7. On the Internet, find 8. Develop a game about the 9. Interview (either by email or
examples of how others have
scientific method – play it with in person) a researcher in some

used the scientific method. On a partner. field of science. Ask about some

the computer, type a summary research he or she has done Ask

at least three of these examples how he/she used the scientific

and your evaluation of how well method. Write a summary of

each used the scientific method. what you learn.

(group learner)

(technology)

(written/verbal)

Note. Coil, C. (2011). Differentiated Activities and Assessments Using the Common Core Standards.

Marion, IL: Pieces of Learning.

148 Carolyn Coil

Table 5. Mini-Rubric: Scientific Method Tic-Tac-Toe

Mini-Rubric: Assessment for Scientific Method Tic-Tac-Toe

1. Poster or Flowchart 2. List & Explanation 3. Information Cube

- Follows Diagram or Flowchart - Has a scientific problem - Follows Information Cube
criteria card - Has 5 hypotheses criteria card
- Shows 7 steps of the scientific - Clear and logical explanation - Each side describes one step
method of how the test could be done of the scientific method
- Gives an explanation or - Each side has an example of
example of each step Suggested extension: Choose the step indicated
two of your hypotheses to test
Suggested extension: Diagram for Required Activity #5. Suggested extension: Make an
shows other steps to follow when extension to your cube to
hypothesis is incorrect. include all 7 steps.

Possible Points ____ Possible Points____ Possible Points ____
4. Rap/Song 5. Required Activity 6. Skit/Play

- Follows Song criteria card - Correctly uses all 7 steps of - Follows Skit criteria card
- Includes all 7 steps of the the scientific method. - Includes all 7 steps of the
scientific method - Written documentation of each scientific method
- Accurate information step - Perform for class
- Logical conclusion
Suggested extension: Sing to Suggested extension: Include
class or put it on a video Suggested extension: Has props that show scientific
pictures, visuals or video instruments and calculations
showing steps.

Possible Points____ Possible Points ____ Possible Points ____
7. Summary & Evaluation 8. Game 9. Interview & Summary

- Has 3 examples of how the - Follows Game criteria card - Follows Interview criteria
scientific method is used - Includes all 7 steps of the card
- Summary explains each scientific method - Asks questions about using
example - Played with a partner the scientific method when
- Evaluation gives logical reasons doing research
for opinions Suggested extension: Include - Summary has accurate
- Sources of information from the other scientific information in information, clear and
Internet cited correctly. your game. coherent writing with correct
grammar, spelling, and
punctuation

Possible Points ____ Possible Points ____ Possible Points _____

Note. Coil, C. (2011). Differentiated Activities and Assessments Using the Common Core Standards.

Marion, IL: Pieces of Learning.

The second example is an Individual Lesson Plan™ on Measurement designed for
primary students. The steps in this lesson plan present fewer choices for younger children (see
Table. 6).

 Common Core Standards that are the focus of the activities,
 two required activities for all students, and
 four student-choice activities to be done in partners with each pair choosing two

Using STEM Concepts and Applications to Assess K-12 Student Learning 149

The components of the corresponding mini-rubrics are as follows (see Table. 7):

 the product or performance that will be assessed (boldfaced and numbered),
 assessment criteria,
 suggested extensions for all four choices, and
 possible points (to be filled in by the individual teacher).

These two examples illustrate how to design assessments for differentiated STEM
student-choice activities.

Table 6. Individual Lesson Plan for Primary Students

Individual Lesson Plan for Primary Students - Measurement
Common Core Standards:
 Measure the length of an object by selecting and using appropriate tools such as rulers,

yardsticks, meter sticks, and measuring tapes
 Estimate lengths using units of inches, feet, centimeters, and meters

Required:
 As a whole class activity, introduce the students to a number of measurement tools and

have them practice using them.
 Using objects found in the classroom, have students estimate their lengths in inches, feet,

centimeters, and meters. Each student will choose two of the activities listed below and
will do them with a partner.

1. Estimating and Measuring Objects 2. Measuring Your Body

With a partner, estimate the length in inches of With a partner, measure these body parts in inches
each of five objects given to you by the teacher. and centimeters. Write down the measurements for
Then use a ruler and measure to the nearest ¼ you and for your partner.
inch. Write a sentence explaining how close Thumb
your estimate was. Arm from elbow to wrist
Foot
Longest fingernail
Then measure your height using feet and meters.

3. Measuring School Spaces 4. Using Tape Measurements

Estimate the length in both feet and meters of With a partner, use a measuring tape to measure the

the following: following in both inches and centimeters:

Whiteboard or Smart Board Around your wrist

Classroom wall Around your waist

Distance between the door of your classroom to Around a jar or can

the door of the lunchroom Around your head
Top of your teacher‘s desk Write down your measurements for each along with

Then use a ruler, yardstick, and a meter stick two sentences explaining when and why you should

and do actual measurements in feet and meters. use a measuring tape rather than a ruler.

Write what you learned.

Note. Coil, C. (2011). Differentiated Activities and Assessments Using the Common Core Standards.

Marion, IL: Pieces of Learning.

150 Carolyn Coil

Table 7. Mini-Rubric: Assessment for Measurement Individual Lesson Plan

1. Estimating and Measuring Objects 2. Measuring Your Body
Has estimates of the length in inches of 5 objects Measurements are in inches and centimeters
Uses ruler to measure each to nearest ¼ inch Has measurements for thumb, arm from elbow to
Name of object, estimate, and actual wrist, foot, and fingernail
measurement written clearly Has measurement for height in feet and meters
Has a sentence explaining how close the Has measurements for both people
estimate was
Extension: Measure the length of hair of the person
Extension: Estimates lengths in feet, yards or with the longest hair in your class and the shortest
meters of larger objects and measures them. hair in your class. Make sure you have their
permission first!

Possible points _____ Possible points _____

3. Measuring School Spaces 4. Using Tape Measurements
Length is estimated in both feet and meters Measurements are done with a tape measure
Includes whiteboard or Smart Board, wall, Measurements are in inches and centimeters
classroom to lunchroom, teacher‘s desk Has measurements for wrist, waist, jar or can, and
Has actual measurements of the above in both head
feet and meters Has two sentences about when and why you need
Has written explanation of what was learned to use tape measures.

Extension: Estimate and measure other Extension: Estimate and then measure other
classroom and school spaces. Make sure you objects that are best measured with a tape
have permission if you need to leave the measure. Write down your results. Why is it more
classroom to do this. difficult to estimate results when you use a tape
measure?
Possible points _____
Possible points _____

Note. Coil, C. (2011). Differentiated Activities and Assessments Using the Common Core Standards.
Marion, IL: Pieces of Learning.

CONCLUSION

The assessment of STEM curricula must be more than counting the right or wrong
answers on a math worksheet or scoring a multiple-choice science test. The interdisciplinary
nature of STEM coupled with the need for higher-level thinking, problem solving, and
project-based learning makes STEM assessments more complex and more challenging for
both teachers and students.

In this chapter, three basic types of assessments: pre-assessment, formative assessment,
and summative assessment were examined. Using all three is necessary when directing and
challenging our students to do more complex tasks and more rigorous work. A number of
tools for assessing student work were reviewed. Developing and using Criteria Cards may be
a valuable assessment shortcut and a way to convey the exact nature of the products,
performances, and processes required. Using complex rubrics with criteria, rating scales, and

Using STEM Concepts and Applications to Assess K-12 Student Learning 151

descriptors are a way to communicate fully our expectations and the nature of quality work.
Using mini-rubrics is a technique that allows teachers to (a) give students choices in the
activities they select and (b) assess students‘ work clearly and fairly. Using some or all of
these assessment tools will allow for the assessment of stimulating and thought-provoking
STEM activities we want our students to engage in.

REFERENCES

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom
assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80, 139-148. Retrieved from http://www.pdkintl.org/
kappan/kbla9810.

Coil, C. (2007). Successful teaching in the differentiated classroom. Marion, IL: Pieces of
Learning.

Coil, C. (2011). Differentiated activities and assessments using the common core standards.
Marion, IL: Pieces of Learning.

Coil, C., & Merritt, D. (2011). Solving the assessment puzzle. Marion, IL: Pieces of Learning.
Reis, S. M., Burns, D. E., & Renzulli, J. S. (1992). Curriculum compacting: The complete

guide to modifying the regular curriculum for high ability students. Mansfield Center,
CT: Creative Learning Press.
Stiggins, R. (2007). Assessment through the student‘s eye. Educational Leadership, 64(8),
22-26.



In: STEM Education ISBN: 978-1-62808-514-3
Editor: Satasha L. Green © 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

SCHOOL COUNSELING AND STEM: RAISING
STUDENT AWARENESS AND EXPECTATIONS

Carol Dahir1,, Ed.D, Michelle Perepiczka2, Ph.D.
and Megyn Shea1, Ph.D.

1New York Institute of Technology, US
2 Walden University, US

ABSTRACT

Why should school counselors become more involved in helping elementary, middle,
and high school students explore the potential of STEM careers? With the national
agenda focused on ensuring that every student becomes college and career ready, school
counselors have an ethical and social justice obligation to support and assist all students
to access all career options after high school, including college (American School
Counselor Association, 2012). A rationale for the involvement of school counselors in
STEM education, implications and recommendations for school counselors‘ roles in
STEM education are presented.

INTRODUCTION

The trans-disciplinary nature of the role of the school counselor and the impact he/she
may have on the future lives of students point to a need for increased school counselor
awareness and expanded involvement in 21st-century career opportunities, particularly in
science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM) (Schmidt, Hardinge, & Rokutani,
2012).

Additionally, school counselors have an ethical obligation to provide rigorous, well-
rounded, exploratory and relevant opportunities for students‘ career development trajectories
(American School Counselor Association, 2010). The American School Counselor
Association‘s [ASCA] (2012), National Model charges school counselors to lead and

 E-mail: [email protected].

154 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

advocate for equitable student opportunity and access, while providing comprehensive
academic, career, and personal-social development. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss
the roles and responsibilities of school counselors, administrators and educators who work
with P-12 students as they explore their unlimited potential in STEM careers.

ALL KIDS: COLLEGE AND CAREER READY

Together, we must achieve a new goal, that by 2020, the United States will once again
lead the world in college completion. We must raise the expectations for our students, for our
schools, and for ourselves—this must be a national priority. We must ensure that every
student graduates from high school well-prepared for college and a career (U.S. Department
of Education, 2010).

Graduating from elementary to middle school and middle to high school are significant
transition points for many students. Many first generation high school graduates and their
families see enrolling in postsecondary education as a daunting and an unfamiliar task
(Conley, 2012). Regardless of their chosen career or academic path after high school, students
must have the capacity to analyze and address complex problems in order to maximize their
potential for professional and personal success. STEM knowledge and skills are essential
elements for success after high school for all students, not only those enrolled in advanced
math and science courses. The following statistics highlight some of the challenges and
opportunities (see Table 1).

Table 1. Challenges and Opportunities in STEM

Reporting Entity National Statistics
The National Academy of Sciences (2010) A recent study of 4th graders in which 66%
of girls, and 68% of boys reported liking
Conley, D. T. (2012). College and career science. While the boys‘ interests continue,
ready: Helping all students succeed beyond girls begin to lose interest in science by the
high school. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- end of elementary school.
Bass.
ACT‘s Annual College Readiness Report Although, 93% of middle school students
(2012) reported that their goal is to attend college,
only 44% enrolled in college and only 26%
International Math and Science Study graduated with a college diploma within 6
[TIMSS] (2011) years of enrolling.

Only 25% of high school students met the
College Readiness Benchmarks in all for
tested subjects, namely reading, math,
science, and English.

0ut of 63 countries the test scores in the
United States ranked eleventh for 4thgraders
in math and ranked ninth for 8th graders in
math. Science standings were similar as the
United States ranked seventh in 4thgrade
science and tenth in 8th grade science.

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 155

Where will the next talent pool come from which is desperately needed to solve
environmental issues, urban decay, crumbling infrastructures, and the next wave of
technology innovation? ―Never before in the history of our nation have we had a greater need
to prepare every student for the greatest range of opportunities after leaving high school‖
(National Office for School Counselor Advocacy, 2010, p. 6). Currently, the need for higher-
educated and skilled workers continues to increase faster than the supply of workers,
especially with dramatic fluctuations in the economic outlook. As the United States struggles
to recover from the ―Great Recession‘‘ with high unemployment rates, the United States faces
fundamental challenges about its role in the global workplace and economic order (Feller,
2009). Employed workers are experiencing more stress and less satisfaction as employers
continue to downsize to reduce costs and produce minimal profits.

Many young people remain uninspired and indifferent in their interests in STEM
subjects. Additionally, there are gender, ethnicity, and racial disparities creating an even
greater void in the talent pool. The advancement of technology and an increase in the demand
for highly skilled workers requires a more rigorous level of academic achievement and a
renewed emphasis on the delivery of career development programs coupled with strong
college readiness in middle and high schools across the United States.

WHY STEM? WHY SCHOOL COUNSELORS?

Students and the families, who support them, face tough choices about how to invest in
their future. School counselors can provide the motivation and inspiration to help elementary,
middle and high school students make informed career decisions. School counselors can also
provide the guidance on the preparation necessary to seek STEM opportunities after high
school, in the workforce and/or in a postsecondary setting. The key to this is working with
school counselors to make informed decisions which are the foundation of career
development.

Many principals are not fully aware that the scope of the school counselor‘s role goes
well beyond course selection, college planning, and crisis intervention (Dahir, Burnham,
Stone, & Cobb, 2010). A principal‘s support for a comprehensive school counseling program,
with a strong career development component, is essential to encourage students in STEM
involvement. School counselors have a leadership role and responsibility for designing and
implementing a sequential and integrated career development program. Without the firm
commitment and involvement of school counselors in collaboration with teachers and other
school based professionals many students will receive little and/or no career guidance
support. Well-informed school counselors understand the relationship between academic
decision-making and long-term career goals and how this impacts choice after high school
(Schmidt, Hardinge & Rokutani, 2012).

Career development is often the component of the school counseling program that
receives the least attention. Despite the Blueprint for Reform (2010) which called for
preparing all high school graduates to be college and career ready little has changed (U.S
Department of Education, 2010). A national survey of more than 1,000 practicing American
School Counselor Association (ASCA) members revealed that career development is
delivered to students at a significantly lower level than academic and personal/social

156 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

development (Anctil, Klose-Smith, Schenck & Dahir, 2012). In the same year, a national
survey of 600 young adults revealed graduates rated career guidance in their high schools to
be poor to fair (Johnson, Rochkind, Ott, & DuPoint, 2010).

For years, school counselors have been positively and/or negatively accused of being the
gatekeepers of student potential (Hart & Jacobi, 1992; The National Office for School
Counselor Advocacy [NOSCA], 2010). They are on the front lines of raising aspirations and
nurturing dreams and hold the key to opening doors to the world of work. School counselors
have an ethical obligation (ASCA, 2010) to do their best to ensure that every student in their
trust completes high school with the academic preparation to have all options after graduation
including two and four-year colleges, career and technical schools, and military opportunities
Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Education Trust, 2009). Researchers have suggested that school
counselors are instrumental in reducing educational inequalities and have the potential to
motivate underrepresented and underserved student populations (e.g., students of color,
English language learners, students with disabilities, economically disadvantaged) to seek
non-traditional activities, and in particular STEM related careers (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007;
Lee & Rogers, 2009). Closing the information and opportunity gaps through improved career
development activities for students is a prime example of social justice advocacy. Preparing
students to explore their passions, identify an area of career interest, and motivate and guide
them to enroll in appropriate coursework is a critical component of the work of the school
counselor (Dahir & Stone, 2012).The advent of the National Standards for School Counseling
Programs and the subsequent momentum on the part of the national and state school
counselor associations to deliver comprehensive school counseling programs have
encouraged school counselors to focus on the career development needs of every student,
whether high achieving or disengaged (Campbell & Dahir, 1997).

The ASCA National Model

Despite the pre-eminence of career development in the years of tradition of
comprehensive school counseling, the renewed emphasis is attributed to the ASCA National
Model which provides a systematic and programmatic focus to the design, delivery and
evaluation of a standards-based school counseling program (ASCA, 2012). ASCA strongly
urges the use of the three domains of comprehensive school counseling programs which
suggests that school counselors provide a balance of academic, career, and personal/social
development (ASCA, 2012; Campbell & Dahir, 1997). Comprehensive school counseling
programs that include a strong career development and career guidance component will help
students to: (1) understand who they are, their interests, motivation, and ability; (2) develop
skills in the career planning process; (3) establish career goals; (4) become involved in career
awareness and career exploration activities; (5) visualize a positive future; (6) close the
information and opportunity gaps; and, (7) make connections between personal qualities,
achievement, the motivation to get an education, and future success.

School counselors work in a trans-disciplinary world and the extent of their potential
impact on students‘ future lives make it is increasingly important that school counselors need
to augment their awareness of 21st century career opportunities, and in particular STEM
related careers (Schmidt, Hardinge, & Rokutani, 2012). What role should school counselors
play with regard to encouraging all students to explore STEM careers and acquire rigorous

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 157

math, science, engineering and technology skills? National Office for School Counselor
Advocacy (2010), stated:

It is time to ―own the turf.‖ If not you, who? Who in the school is responsible for
helping students nurture their dreams for bright futures and for helping them create
successful pathways to those dreams? All of our students need school counselors to
champion their cause. Each one of them is entitled to a rigorous education that prepares
them to successfully attain their college and career goals (p. 6).

The challenges that many students face are: (1) to graduate from high school college
and/or career ready, (2) have college/career options available after high school and, (3) have a
solid career plan that supports their career goals. The benefits of earning a postsecondary
degree are clear; however underserved and underrepresented students and those persons with
disabilities are disproportionately ill-prepared to enroll and succeed in higher education
(Conley, 2012). In 2010 70% of White high school graduates entered college immediately
upon graduation, while only 66% of African American and 60% of Latino high school
graduates entered college immediately upon graduation (Aud, Hussar, Johnson, Kena, Roth,
& Manning, 2012). School counselors can encourage and motivate all students to explore
STEM opportunities that will provide a clear pathway to high school graduation and beyond.

Breaking Down the Myths for Students

STEM education has the power to motivate students to become (a) creative and
innovative, (b) to think critically and logically, (c) to identify and solve problems, (d) to
effectively collaborate and communicate, and (e) to become productive 21st century citizens.
STEM knowledge is needed to invent solutions to current challenges. Ultimately,
communities improve when STEM skills are used to solve relevant issues. Many societal and
global problems require today's students to creatively apply STEM knowledge in ways that
will lead to future breakthroughs in such areas as environment and energy, health and
wellness, and information technology. In what ways do counseling activities and services
assist students to ―not only‖ see themselves as being able to use technology, but to create new
technologies and new applications of technology? With the national emphasis on college and
career readiness, the school counselor who sees the connection between STEM opportunities,
economic rewards, and underserved student populations can use career development activities
to help all young Americans leave school ―STEM-capable‖ (Feller, 2009, 2010).

EIGHT COMPONENTS OF COLLEGE AND CAREER
READINESS COUNSELING

Recently, the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (2010) released a report
identifying a comprehensive, systemic approach for school counselors‘ use to inspire all
students to, and prepare them for, college and career success. These eight components of
College and Career Readiness Counseling are intended to build aspirations and social capital
and ensure equity in both processes. These are additional leverages for school counselors to

158 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

gain the support of their principals and colleagues by providing enriching activities that
include STEM career awareness coupled with rigorous academic preparation. As can be seen
in Table 2, the components which focus on closing the information and opportunity gaps for
students, parents, school personnel, and their communities, lend themselves to a STEM
perspective to create a culture where all students think college is attainable.

Table 2. The Eight Components of College and Career Readiness Counseling

Components Goals

1. College Aspirations Build a college-going culture by nurturing confidence in students to aspire to college, both 2

and 4 year, and the resilience to overcome challenges along the way. School counselors can

help maintain high expectations by providing seeking adequate supports, building social

capital and conveying the conviction that all students can succeed in college.
2. Academic Planning Advance students‘ planning, preparation, participation and performance in a rigorous

for College and Career academic program that connects to their college and career aspirations and goals. School

Readiness counselors can deliver career development activities that focus on STEM related careers as

well as encourage students to enroll in dual enrollment courses, career and technical courses,

and career academies if available.

3. Enrichment and Ensure equitable exposure to a wide range of extracurricular and enrichment opportunities

Extracurricular that build leadership, nurture creativity, talents and interests, and increase engagement with

Engagement school. School counselors can help to motivate students to engage in technological

innovations, environmental problem solving, research, and entrepreneurship, as well as

exploring their passions through elective courses and after school activities.

4. College and Career Provide early and ongoing exposure to experiences and information necessary to make

Exploration and informed decisions when selecting a college or career that connects to academic preparation

Selection Processes and future aspirations. School counselors can deliver a comprehensive career awareness and

career exploration program and encourage out of the box thinking about career pathways.

5. College and Career Promote preparation, participation and performance in college and career assessments by all

Assessments students. School counselors can utilize free and low cost web based tools to help students
discover ―who am I‖, ― where am I going‖ and ―how do I get there?‖. This is a complex

process that moves beyond interest inventories and surveys, and engages students in the

intrapersonal analyses of addressing their motivation, persistence, resiliency, and coping

skills to align their career goals with educational persistence.

6. College Provide students and families with comprehensive information about college costs, options

Affordability Planning for paying for college, and the financial aid and scholarship processes and eligibility
requirements, so they are able to plan for and afford a college education. Start early – with

the families of middle school students and provide this information annually.

7. College and Career Ensure that students and their families have an early and ongoing understanding of the

Admission Processes college and career application and admission processes so they can find the postsecondary

options that are the best fit with their aspirations and interests. School counselors can use the

comprehensive model to develop a school counseling curriculum that is focused on college

and career awareness that starts in the early years of middle school. A developmental and

sequential curriculum, with specific goals based on the needs of your students, and the ASCA

National Standards, can be delivered in a scope and sequence during the 7 years of middle

and high school. A focused intentional approach will provide students with awareness,

knowledge, and skills making the senior year application and decision making process much

less daunting.

8. Transition from Connect students to school and community resources to help the students overcome barriers

High School and ensure the successful transition from high school to college. School counselors can

Graduation to College collaborate with the Parent Teacher Association (PTA), community organizations, and local

Enrollment business, high school alumni enrolled in technical school, 2 and 4 year colleges. Small group

meetings, mentoring, workshops, and alumni meetings can provide support for smooth

transitions from high school to college.

Note. National Office for School Counselor Advocacy. (2010). Eight components of college and career

readiness counseling. New York: NY, Policy Board Advocacy and Policy Center.

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 159

The ASCA National Model and STEM Implications

The ASCA National Model is a reminder that one third of the work of school counselors
with P-12 students is grounded in career development. The ASCA Ethical Codes require all
school counselors to motivate students to discover their passions and work with them to
develop the goals and strategies to help students realize their dreams. School counselors are in
a pivotal position to help students see the interrelatedness of economic success, career
motivation, civic engagement, and the benefits of seeking a satisfying STEM related career.

Achievement and demographic data present a strong case to provide career development
for every student. School is a place for youth to exert their influence and establish an identity.
School is a place to explore, learn, apply and acquire academic and affective attitudes,
knowledge and skills. School counselors face the challenge of helping students meet
expectations of higher academic standards. While simultaneously assisting students to
successfully be prepared to become productive and contributing members of society.
However, administrators must ensure that the school counselors under their supervision know
the range of STEM careers and that the faculty and staff hold positive views of students
abilities to succeed in STEM careers. With this foundation in place, principals and school
counselors can collaborate with the teaching staff to enhance student development within
STEM fields.

COLLABORATING AND TEAMING:
SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND PRINCIPALS

School counselors have the training and skills to effectively collaborate with other
educators, parents, and community members to improve STEM education for students. By
reaching out to those who have a vested interest in STEM, school counselors can facilitate
actions that will inspire and motivate students to pursue STEM education and careers. This
section outlines key stakeholders with whom school counselors can collaborate to vastly
enhance STEM opportunities. Each subsection includes a description and examples of how
school counselors support STEM and career planning.

School Counselors and Principals

School counselors who want to advocate for change will be most effective if they develop
strong collaborative relationships with their principals. All school counseling programs
should include goals that aim to improve student access to STEM and career education.
Fortunately, goals that advance STEM knowledge and skills will likely align with principals‘
school improvement plans.

When school counselors collaborate with principals and align the school counseling
program to the principals‘ goals, they become an integral part of the education system. One
way school counselors may facilitate collaboration with administration is through
involvement in leadership activities at their buildings. Often, counselors participate on
committees and teams dedicated to school improvement.

160 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

Students‘ lack of motivation to take STEM courses need to be addressed in many
schools. Schools may experience low interest in STEM courses and careers among middle
school students (Rogers, 2009). In general, low student motivation in taking STEM courses
makes it difficult to attract students to STEM classes and careers (Hossain & Robinson,
2012). School counselors can work with their building leadership team to develop school-
wide strategies to increase knowledge and interest in STEM careers.

A critical strategy for increasing interest in STEM careers is student access to career
guidance. Classroom guidance lessons are an effective and efficient way for counselors to
make sure each student has access to meaningful career information. School counselors
believe that they have insufficient opportunities to meet with students to address career
decisions (Piquette-Tomei, 2005). Therefore, school counselors must advocate for greater
student access to career counseling (Schmidt, Hardinge, & Rokutani, 2012). When school
counselors are supported in delivering career counseling activities to individuals, groups, and
classrooms, then all students will have the opportunity to gain valuable information to help
with life and career decision making. School counselors can emphasize STEM skills, careers,
and education when delivering any career counseling activity.

A barrier to STEM involvement may be student access to challenging math and science
courses. School counselors should advocate for and partner with principals to increase
admittance to advanced STEM-related courses (Schmidt, Hardinge, & Rokutani, 2012).
Students with STEM aptitudes often do not realize their full STEM abilities in high school
(Hossain & Robinson, 2012). For example, students of color ―notably, only about 7,000
African American and Latino students currently pass AP Calculus, but 123,000 would be
predicted to be able to pass‖ (President‘s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology
[PCAST], 2010, p. 103). School counselors can work with administrators to develop
strategies to improve the identification of students with STEM abilities and, more
importantly, encourage student self-identification of STEM abilities. Counselors should have
both an awareness of and strategies to prevent gender and cultural biases in STEM education
(Piquette-Tomei, 2005). Ultimately, school counselors should view themselves as ―gate-
openers‖ to STEM education opportunities, especially for underrepresented students (Feller,
2010).

School Counselors and Teachers

Career development information delivered in classroom settings helps to ensure that all
students have access to career information. Counselors and teachers can work together to
incorporate STEM education and career counseling into the classroom. Career development
activities can easily be aligned with or incorporated into teachers‘ lessons. Another way to
include career development in the classroom is for school counselors to present lessons that
help students gain the knowledge and skills to make academic and career decisions.

A fundamental purpose of school is to prepare students to join the workforce.
Unfortunately, students often have difficulty recognizing the relevance of required class
assignments to life beyond high school. Helping P-12 students to connect skills learned in
math, science, and technology courses to jobs that use those skills should be incorporated into
all classes. School counselors can assist teachers in finding relevant jobs to discuss during
lessons. For example, when teaching about algebra, teachers could touch on a couple of

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 161

careers (e.g., air traffic controller, animator) that use the skills being taught. Websites such as
WeUseMath.org give descriptions of jobs that use math, the math courses needed for the job,
and how math is used on the job.

Teachers may perceive that there is a lack of time to focus on STEM careers in the
classroom (Hossain & Robinson, 2012). In this case, school counselors could work with
teachers on weaving career examples into already designed lesson plans on a regular basis.
Thus, regularly, but briefly, widening students‘ exposure to different careers which could be
an effective way to increase student interest in STEM education.

School counselors can also collaborate with teachers to provide classroom guidance on
issues that will help with STEM achievement and interest. As mentioned previously,
increasing STEM interest falls within the counselors‘ responsibility to help students make
academic and career decisions. Part of the school counselor‘s role is to deliver classroom
lessons that address students‘ academic, personal–social, and career development needs
(American School Counselor Association, 2009). Counselors can intentionally incorporate
STEM information into guidance lessons on topics such as goal setting, self-efficacy, and
self-esteem (Burger & Sandy, 2002; Schmidt et al., 2012). Classroom lessons should also
highlight underrepresented groups in STEM careers.

School Counselors and Families, Parents and Guardians

Schools cannot leave families, parents and guardians out of the information loop when
designing a systemic plan to increase students‘ motivation to participate in STEM education
and careers. Parents and families have a considerable impact on students‘ career decisions
(Ozdemir & Hacifazlioglu, 2008) and believe that they have the most influence on their
students‘ career aspirations and decisions (Taylor, Harris, & Taylor, 2004). Therefore, school
counselors should collaborate with parents and families, and educate them on STEM and
career development.

School counselors need to create opportunities for parents to learn about STEM education
and careers. Parent workshops are a way to reach a large number of parents. School
counselors can partner with the school‘s PTA to plan and organize workshops for parents.
PTAs can help counselors narrow down topics of interest. In Table 3 are possible workshop
topics:

Table 3. PTA Workshop Topics

Workshop Topics job descriptions, salary, job outlook
STEM career opportunities locally, and nationally
connecting college readiness to
Importance of taking STEM classes in grades P-12 STEM education

Overview of STEM classes offered at the school camps, tutoring, fairs
STEM opportunities outside of school
Importance of encouraging underrepresented
groups to pursue STEM education

162 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

STEM information should be provided for parents in a variety of ways. Some parents
may not be able to attend workshops, so other resources could prove very useful. Schmidt et
al. (2012) suggested that school counselors develop a handout that lists questions to assist
parents in having discussions about career exploration with their children. Handouts could be
given out during parent–teacher conferences or at other times when parents are at the school.
Another option is for counselors to include career-related information in the school‘s
newsletter.

Finally, counselors must embrace technology as an effective strategy to disseminate
information and provide resources for students and parents. For example, counselors should
(a) post STEM-related career information on the school counselor web page, (b) use
technology to send updates, and (c) create pages on social media sites dedicated to career
exploration.

School Counselors and Community Members

Community members can greatly enhance STEM career education. STEM professionals,
university faculty, and college students majoring in science, technology, engineering, or math
and related subjects, have the ability to inspire P-12 students. ―Collaborating with other
education organizations, the private sector and local community organizations are the most
effective and promising way to accomplish the shared vision for motivating workers to join
the STEM pipeline‖ (Hossain & Robinson, 2012, p. 448). The STEM professional
community is able to provide real world experiences for students (PCAST, 2010). School
counselors can collaborate with STEM community members to create rich opportunities for
students.

STEM learning opportunities that occur beyond the school day are effective for engaging
students in STEM. Out-of-class STEM-related activities offer benefits for all students. In
particular, students at risk of dropping out may become engaged in STEM projects when
tailored to the students‘ interests (PCAST, 2010). Counselors can seek opportunities outside
of school for students. Colleges and universities often offer STEM enrichment and outreach
programs for elementary, middle, or high school students. Online resources may make it
easier to find STEM professionals. For example, the National Lab Network has a website that
matches STEM projects posted by educators with local STEM professionals who are
interested in participating in the project (National Lab Network, n.d.).

Another option is to facilitate opportunities for STEM-related activities during the school
day. Many STEM businesses will participate in presentations for students. School counselors
could invite presenters and guest speakers to do classroom or lunchtime demonstrations.
Many students may be excited to learn about robotics, lasers in action and/or hear astronauts
or veterinarians discuss their jobs.

It is especially critical for girls and students of color to have exposure to STEM career
role models (Burger & Sandy, 2002). Counselors need to pay special attention to including
women and STEM professionals of color into presentations and other STEM events. Girls
and students of color are more likely to become inspired to pursue STEM careers if they see
others like themselves in those professions. School counselors can also facilitate opportunities
for underrepresented groups to gain hands-on experiences and build confidence in STEM
education and careers (Burger & Sandy, 2002).

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 163

School Counselors and Colleagues

Identifying education gaps is a good starting point for school counselors. School
counselors can start by looking at the issues in their own buildings. For example, a middle
school counselor might discover that boys overwhelmingly make up the majority of
technology elective courses; this type of data indicates that systemic changes need to occur to
attract girls to technology-based courses. The school counselor may begin to collaborate with
others to develop a school-wide STEM education strategy. The next step would be to engage
counselors at all levels in the district or in the building. Issues at one level should not become
isolated. School counselors at each level should work together to develop streamlined
programs to address STEM and career decision-making.

School counselors should consult and collaborate with other school counselors to gain
ideas and improve STEM education across school districts. Career education with an
emphasis on STEM should be a K–12 experience for students. Developmentally appropriate
career guidance lessons must happen at all grade levels. All elementary, middle and high
school students deserve to be inspired to engage in STEM.

Closing achievement gaps in STEM cannot occur without collaboration. School
counselors can be important players in reaching this goal if they reach out to principals,
teachers, parents, community members, and other school counselors. In short, school
counselors who address the multiple layers and people involved in STEM and career
education are more likely to raise student achievement.

CREATING A STEM CLIMATE WITH COUNSELING

The previous sections of this chapter outline how school counselors play a vital role in
STEM education (Shoffner & Vacc, 1999). School counselors are monumental in (a) creating
a school culture that embraces and emphasizes STEM education, (b) helping students gain
awareness of careers, and (c) demonstrating links between what is learned in the classroom
and future career paths (Lee, 1993). School counselors are charged with taking proactive
approaches to help students stay on target academically in relation to STEM and future
planning for careers or higher education (Bitters, 2011).

School counselors are committed to intervening with students who are identified as
needing more support and assistance. Students who are struggling with STEM academics,
confidence, self-efficacy, and self-worth may benefit from school counseling curriculum,
group counseling, or individual counseling interventions (Fouad, 1995). This next section
offers step-by-step counseling lessons to address common social/emotional (e.g., self-
efficacy, anxiety) student concerns that may inhibit their STEM success. We will first explore
a way to intervene with students who struggle with self-efficacy (refer to Table 4).
Commonly, underrepresented groups perceive themselves to have low self-efficacy about
their ability to do well in STEM courses or activities (Zeldin & Pajares, 2000). A low level of
self-efficacy can reduce a student‘s motivation to learn in the classroom (Zimmerman, 2000),
which may lead to resistance to explore or seek out STEM higher education or careers (Watt,
2006). Identifying levels of self-efficacy and learning how to control irrational or negative
thoughts may be beneficial to student performance in STEM related studies.

164 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

Table 4. Self - Efficacy Activity

Topic Increasing STEM Self-Efficacy

Theoretical Basis Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy

Audience Middle and High School Students

Modality Individual, Group, or Classroom

Time Needed 30 to 60 minutes (depending on length of time devoted to processing)

Materials Needed Handout with chart, writing instruments

Learning Objectives At the end of the session, students will be able to:

Define Self-Efficacy

Identify the Connection Between Self-Efficacy and STEM

Identify Personal Level of Self-Efficacy Towards STEM

Identify internal thoughts about skills and abilities related to STEM

Demonstrate challenging of irrational beliefs to create new thoughts

Lesson

Define Self-Efficacy: The school counselor will introduce the topic of self-efficacy as it relates to STEM. The school

counselor will work with the students to create a working definition of what self-efficacy in STEM could mean to

them. The ideas can be written down for all to see. When the group has exhausted their ideas for the initial
brainstorm, the school counselor will provide Bandura‘s (1997) definition of self-efficacy and compare or contrast

this to what the group developed.

Counselor Note: Self-efficacy is the belief, which can be positive or negative, in a student‘s ability to perform a

specific task related to STEM (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is closely related to self-esteem or self-concept. The

difference lies in that self-efficacy is related to a specific tasks or goal; self-esteem is related to global feelings about

oneself; and self-concept is specific is an overall domain such as math in general (Gist & Mitchell, 1992).

Identify the Connection Between Self-Efficacy and STEM: The school counselor will explain how self-efficacy
positive predicts a student‘s ability to perform a STEM related task. The school counselor will provide a handout of

the chart below illustrating how positive thoughts are related to high performance and negative thoughts are related to

low performance. An analogy to use might be the story of the Little Engine that Could. If students think they can and

believe in themselves, then they can achieve great things. If students think they cannot achieve their goals, then they

may stunt their performance.

Identify Personal Level of Self-Efficacy Towards STEM: The school counselor will prompt the students to put a mark
on chart indicating how positive or negative they perceive their thoughts to be about their abilities with STEM related
work.
Identify internal thoughts about skills and abilities related to STEM: The school counselor will instruct students to
write down two to three thoughts they tell themselves about their abilities with STEM. These will be processed with
the school counselor to identify negative or irrational beliefs.
Demonstrate challenging of irrational beliefs to create new thoughts: The school counselor will collaborate with the
student to dispute negative or irrational beliefs and replace these with more positive beliefs.
Close: The school counselor will challenge the student to dispute the negative thoughts and try to follow the more
positive beliefs when working with STEM activities. The school counselor should follow up with the student to
monitor progress.

Note. Adapted from Ellis, A., & Blau, S. (1998). The Albert Ellis reader: A guide to well-being and
using Rational Emotive Behavioral therapy. New York, NY: Citadel Press. and Rittmayer, A. D.,
& Beier, M. E. (2008). Overview of self-efficacy in STEM. SWE-AWE: Washington, DC. Author.

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 165

Interventions are important for assisting students who struggle with anxiety related to
STEM. In this section, specific interventions are presented to reduce student stress and
anxiety. One intervention utilizes breathing combined with guided imagery (Table 5) and
another is a relaxation technique (Table 6). Students may experience worry, fear,
apprehension, or nervousness related to preparing to do a STEM task, taking an exam, or even
going to class.

Table 5. Coping With Anxiety: Breathing

Topic Coping with STEM Anxiety via Breathing Techniques

Theoretical Basis Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Audience Middle and High School Students

Modality Individual, Group, Classroom

Time Needed 30 to 60 minutes (depending on length of time devoted to processing)

Materials Needed Slips of Paper, Writing Instrument

Learning Objectives At the end of the session, students will be able to:

Define anxiety

Identify the connection between anxiety and STEM performance

Identify personal experience with STEM anxiety

Demonstrate guided imagery and breathing to reduce STEM anxiety

Lesson

Define Anxiety: The school counselor will introduce the topic of anxiety. The school counselor will work with the
students to create a working definition of anxiety. This can include a basic definition, what anxiety feels like in the
body, and what anxiety is like internally via thoughts. The ideas can be written down for all to see. When the group
has exhausted their ideas for the initial brainstorm, the school counselor will provide a clear definition of anxiety.

Counselor Notes: Anxiety is made up of emotional, cognitive, physical, and behavioral components. It is commonly
referred to as a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event, such as a STEM activity,
or something with an uncertain outcome, such as how you might perform on a STEM activity. Anxiety is also
considered a future-oriented mood state where you already bracing from something negative to happen (Seligman,
Walker, & Rosenhan, 2001)

Identify the connection between anxiety and STEM performance: The school counselor can explain that some
students can feel anxiety around STEM, which can include increase heart rate, sweating, racing thoughts, negative
thoughts, procrastinating, etc.

Identify personal experience with STEM anxiety: The school counselor will prompt the students to discuss their

experience of anxiety with STEM. Students can be provided with slips of paper to write down what their anxiety is
like, fold them, and place them in a pile. The school counselor can anonymously read aloud the student‘s comments

about their anxiety with STEM.

Demonstrate guided imagery and breathing to reduce STEM anxiety: The school counselor will start this portion of
the intervention by explaining that breathing can help to reduce anxiety, control your breathing, slow heart rate, and
keep a clear and positive mind. The school counselor can demonstrate deep breathing with the students and have
them practice.

Next, the school counselor will invite students to engage in a guided imagery around a STEM activity such as taking
an exam. The school counselor will ask the students to get comfortable, close their eyes, and using the breathing tip.
The school counselor will verbally walk students through a school day, taking the test, waiting for the results, and
obtaining the results. The school counselor will prompt students to be aware of their breathing and use their breath to
control their anxiety symptoms. The experience can then be processed with students.

Close: The school counselor will challenge students to use deep, steady, and slow breathing to combat anxiety
symptoms when working with STEM activities. The school counselor should follow up with the student to monitor
progress.

Note. Adapted from Rittmayer, A. D., & Beier, M. E. (2008). Overview of self-efficacy in STEM. SWE-

AWE: Washington, DC. Author. and Velting, O. N., Setzer, N. J., & Albano, A. M. (2004). Update
on and advances in assessment and cognitive–behavioral treatment of anxiety disorders in children
and adolescents. Professional psychology: Research and practice, 35(1), 42–54.

166 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

Table 6. STEM Anxiety: Relaxation

Topic Coping with STEM Anxiety via Progressive Muscle Relaxation

Theoretical Basis Behavioral Therapy

Audience Middle and High School Students

Modality Individual, Group, Classroom

Time Needed 30 to 60 minutes (depending on length of time devoted to processing)

Materials Needed Handouts with Generic Body Shape

Learning Objectives At the end of the session, students will be able to:

Define anxiety and how it is related to physiology

Identify the connection between physiology anxiety and STEM

Identify personal experience of physiological anxiety towards STEM

Demonstrate muscle relaxation to reduce physiological STEM anxiety

Lesson

Define anxiety and how it is related to physiology: The school counselor will introduce the topic of physiological

anxiety. The school counselor will work with the students to create a working definition of anxiety. The ideas can be

written down for all to see. The counselor will also work with the students to identify where anxiety can be

experienced in the body. The below generic body shape can be used for students to indicate tension on hands,

sweating, upset stomach, dry mouth, racing heartbeat, rapid breathing, and more.

Identify the connection between physiology anxiety and STEM: The school counselor can explain that some students
can feel the physical signs of anxiety around STEM.
Identify personal experience of physiological anxiety towards STEM: The school counselor will provide students with
their own generic body shape to report where they tend to experience physiological signs of anxiety in their body
when engaging in STEM activities. Students can share as they feel comfortable.
Demonstrate guided imagery and breathing to reduce STEM anxiety: The school counselor will start this portion of
the intervention by explaining that progressive muscle relaxation can be used to regain control of one‘s body, reduce
anxiety, and better prepare a student for a STEM task. The school counselor will explain instructions will be given to
help students relax their body from head to toe, then they will be guided through a STEM exam. While being guided
through the exposure activity, the students are to focus on keeping their body relaxed and paying close attention to
the areas already identified as commonly being triggered by anxiety.
School counselors will invite students to get comfortable and close their eyes. Then relax the following areas of their
body with slow, spaced prompts: top of head, eyebrows, cheeks, mouth, neck, shoulders, arms, hands/finger, back,
stomach, things, calves, ankles, feet/toes.
After relaxed, the school counselor will remind students to focus on staying relaxed. The school counselor will
verbally walk students through a school day, taking the test, waiting for the results, and obtaining the results. The
school counselor will prompt students to be aware of their body and continue to stay relaxed. The school counselor
will ask students to take a few moments to relax and open their eyes when they are ready to process. The experience
can then be processed with students.
Close: The school counselor will challenge students to use muscle relaxation to combat physical anxiety symptoms
when working with STEM activities. The school counselor should follow up with the student to monitor progress.

Note. Adapted from Jacobson, E. (1938). Progressive relaxation. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 167

The fear of failure or thoughts that he or she may not be able to succeed may trigger
anxiety symptoms and inhibit the student‘s ability to perform well in the activity (Rittmayer
& Beier, 2008). A student‘s ability to identify anxiety and control it may be beneficial to
student STEM performance.

Table 7. STEM Web Resources

This is a resource list that may be helpful with infusing STEM into the culture of a school, classroom instruction,

guidance lessons, prevention, and interventions. This is organized into specific categories that include lists of

organizations that have helpful websites containing example classroom curriculum, videos, professional

development, webinars, and/or resources for each area of STEM across varying grade levels.

Curriculum and Classroom Tools

PBS Stem Education Resource Center http://www.pbs.org/teachers/stem/

The National Science Foundation http://nsf.gov

Engineering is Elementary http://www.eie.org/eie/

Science 2.0 http://www.science20.com/

How to Smile http://howtosmile.org/

ThinkFinity http://www.thinkfinity.org

NASA http://teachspacescience.org/cgi-bin/ssrtop.plex

STEM Career Exploration for Students, Parents, Educators, and School Counselors

STEM Career http://stemcareer.com/students/

Advancing Technology and Humanity http://www.ieee.org/index.html

Career Overview http://www.careeroverview.com/

Occupational Outlook Handbook http://www.bls.gov/ooh/home.htm

O*Net Online http://www.onetonline.org/

Engineer Your Life http://www.engineeryourlife.org

CDM Career Zone http://www.cdmcareerzone.com/index

New York State Career Zone https://careerzone.ny.gov/views/careerzone/index.jsf

Career Clusters https://www.careerclusters.org

CDM Internet http://www.cdminternet.com

STEM Occupational Organizations

Association for Computing Machinery http://computingcareers.acm.org/

Science Career Investigation http://www.finding-your-future.org

BioWorksU http://www.bioworksu.com/

American Association for Zoo Keepers http://aazk.org/

American Institute of Biological Sciences http://www.aibs.org

American Society of Plant Biologists http://www.aspb.org

Atmospheric Sciences http://www.ametsoc.org

American Geosciences Institute http://www.agiweb.org

Gemological Institute of America http://www.gia.edu

American Medical Association http://www.ama-assn.org

American Dental Association http://www.ada.org

Discover Nursing http://www.discovernursing.com/

American Veterinary Medical Association https://www.avma.org

BioLinkBiotechology http://www.bio-link.org

Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence http://aitopics.org/

Promotion of Female Equality in STEM

Rhode Island Commission on Women http://www.ricw.ri.gov/publications/GEH/geh.htm

National Alliance for Partnerships in Equity http://www.stemequitypipeline.org

Society for Women Engineers http://societyofwomenengineers.swe.org/

Engineer Girl http://www.engineergirl.org/

National Academy of Engineering http://www.nae.edu/

Association for Women in Science http://www.awis.org/

Gender Chip Project http://genderchip.org/

National Institute for Women in Trades, Technology, & Science http://www.iwitts.com/

168 Carol Dahir, Michelle Perepiczka and Megyn Shea

Table 7. (Continued)

This is a resource list that may be helpful with infusing STEM into the culture of a school, classroom instruction,

guidance lessons, prevention, and interventions. This is organized into specific categories that include lists of

organizations that have helpful websites containing example classroom curriculum, videos, professional

development, webinars, and/or resources for each area of STEM across varying grade levels.

Promotion of Minority Equality in STEM

National Society of Black Engineers http://www.nsbe.org/

Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers http://oneshpe.shpe.org/

First Nation Engineering http://www.nativeaccess.com/

Institute for Broadening Participation http://www.ibparticipation.org/index.asp

Sloan Career Cornerstone Center http://careercornerstone.org/diversity.htm

National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering http://www.nacmebacksme.org/

Promotion of Persons with Disabilities Equality in STEM

Entry Point http://www.entrypoint.org

Roadmaps and Rampways http://ehrweb.aaas.org/rr/index.html

Project 2061 Benchmarks http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online

American Association for the Advancement of Science http://www.aaas.org/

STEM Related Student Organizations and Activities

AVID http://www.avid.org/

GEAR Up http://www2.ed.gov/programs/gearup/index.html

Four H http://www.4-h.org

Robotics Programs http://www.usfirst.org/

http://www.cocobest.net

Science Fairs http://www.sciencebuddies.org/

http://school.discovery.com/sciencefaircentral/

http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/

http://www.ipl.org/youth/projectguide/

http://pbskids.org/dragonflytv/scifair/

STEM Summer Camps for High School Students

Michigan Math and Science Scholars High School Summer Program

http://www.math.lsa.umich.edu/mmss/

New York Institute of Technology Summer High School Program

www.nyit.edu

Tech Trek http://aauw-techtrek.org/

Arizona State University College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Joaquin Bustoz Math-Science Honors Program

http://mshp.asu.edu/summer-program

The Texas Academy of Mathematics & Science https://tams.unt.edu/

A list of resources is provided (Table 7) that can be helpful for school counselors in their
work with creating a STEM culture in their school and also intervening with students who are
struggling. A section on curriculum and classroom tools may be helpful when collaborating
with teachers on developing lessons. The websites listed offer helpful curricula, videos, and
activities for students.

References are also offered for school counselors which include links to STEM career
exploration in terms of assessing interest and aptitudes, investigating higher education and
training, as well as reviewing professional organizations‘ websites for students. Intervention
information is provided to support school counselors seeking to advocate for
underrepresented groups in STEM careers. Additionally, school organizations and activities
related to STEM education are presented. These include student organizations that may be
developed in elementary, middle, and high schools to increase student exposure and
involvement into STEM projects and training. Summer camps hosted on college campuses

School Counseling and STEM: Raising Student Awareness and Expectations 169

across the United States are also listed for students who would like to expand their experience
into the summer.

CONCLUSION

School counselors, in collaboration with teachers, administrators and community
members can create a multitude of career awareness opportunities for P-12 students with an
emphasis on STEM potential. Counselors play an influential role in career development for
increasing science, technology, engineering and math interests. Even schools with well-
established career counseling programs ―can leave students with limited opportunities unless
school counselors provide students with a bridge—career assistance leading to a job that will
support a sustainable lifestyle in an expanding economy‖ (Feller, 2010, p. 16). Ultimately, an
increased focus on career development should be the driving force behind supporting
academic development services across all grade levels (Anctil, Klose-Smith, Schenck, &
Dahir, 2012).

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In: STEM Education ISBN: 978-1-62808-514-3
Editor: Satasha L. Green © 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

TEACHER LEADERSHIP: TRANSFORMING STEM
EDUCATION IN K-12 SCHOOLS

Deborah Lynch, Ph.D.* and Jennifer Fleck, M.S.

Chicago State University, US

ABSTRACT

This chapter discusses how teacher leadership can be a crucial component of STEM
implementation in K-12 education. After detailing why STEM and teacher leadership are
synergistic compliments to one another, information regarding STEM curriculum and
instruction as it pertains to teacher leadership is covered. Also included are
recommendations for supporting teacher leaders to maximize their ability to succeed and
persist in their roles. The chapter closes with strategies for implementation. These
include: (a) recommendations regarding professional development, (b) the establishment
of professional learning communities, (c) recommendations regarding collaboration
between classroom teachers and scientists, (d) the promotion of action research, and (e)
ideas for promoting STEM education reform.

INTRODUCTION

―The vision of practice that underlies the nation's reform agenda requires most
teachers to rethink their own practice, to construct new classroom roles and expectations
about student outcomes, and to teach in ways they have never taught before.‘‘

Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (1995)

Change and the School Culture

You are a principal or teacher leader in your school and know that incorporating and
integrating STEM education reforms are vital to providing your students with what are known

* Corresponding author: Email: [email protected].

174 Deborah Lynch and Jennifer Fleck

as 21st Century skills: communication, teamwork and analytical thinking. This requires 21st
century styles of teaching and learning which include hands-on, real world interdisciplinary
learning. This is not currently the norm in many classrooms across the U.S. and will require
major rethinking, reorganizing and redesign. What you do and how you go about doing it will
make the difference between success and failure. What should you do and where should you
begin?

As with any advance in a field, bold, wise leadership will be required for successful
implementation of STEM education in today‘s schools. However, unlike other educational
reforms, STEM education will require a new kind of leadership, one requiring its pioneers to
combine content in science, technology, engineering and mathematics and to convey that
content, utilizing pedagogies that differ from those by which most educators were taught.

These content-based and pedagogical skill sets are in addition to the administrative
competencies required for all reforms. This is a monumental area of expertise, requiring both
tremendous breadth and depth of knowledge, nearly impossible for any one leader to have.
Instead, in addition to traditional school leaders such as principals and assistant principals,
STEM education will require a legion of leaders. It provides the perfect opportunity to
develop teacher leadership.

Teacher leaders have the potential to serve as the conduit between administrators
overseeing the reforms in schools, educational experts informing on inquiry-based pedagogy,
and scientists sharing the latest advances in the field. This is in addition to the leadership
required to respond to the infinite array of student questions encouraged by STEM education.

Many past school improvement efforts have failed because the school culture was not
conducive to support change. People resist change if it is imposed, if they do not feel there is
a need for change, or do not have a voice in shaping the change. An effective principal or
teacher leader can support setting the stage for change. Bevins, Jordan, and Perry, (2011)
stated that the challenge for schools is to adopt conditions that will invite teachers to embrace
change and effect improvement in their practice. An environment needs to be created which
supports innovative practice by teachers and allows risk-taking in the classroom.

Merrill and Daugherty (2010) advocated for a community of shared practice as the basis
of STEM education reforms, where a school as a learning community is focused primarily on
the culture of the school, where learning is seen as important work for the entire school. The
goal is for all that are included in the community to increase learning so that the school‘s
ability to build the knowledge, skills, norms, habits, and values necessary to adapt, renew, and
inform classroom practice is securely established.

Creation of such a community can establish several goals. It can serve as a vehicle for
school based professional development and peer and self-evaluation (Merrill & Daugherty,
2010). It can also establish relational trust. Relational trust is structured to develop
relationships involving teachers and students, teachers and other teachers, teachers and
parents, and teachers with their school principals. It is important for individuals in these
relationships to maintain an understanding of their obligation and to have a clear expectation
of others' obligations. Relational trust depends on behaviors observed and the extent to which
these behaviors are interpreted as appropriate. There are several criteria for discerning
appropriate behaviors: (a) respect, (b) competence, (c) personal regard (care) for others, and
(d) integrity (Rhodes, Stevens, & Hemmings, 2011).

Because of the failure of so many well-intended school reforms, Kotter's (2007) eight
step change management process can be useful when considering school transformation. The

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eight stages include: (1) establishing a sense of urgency; (2) creating a guiding coalition; (3)
developing a vision and a strategy; (4) communicating the change vision; (5) empowering
action; (6) generating short term wins; (7) consolidating gains and producing more change;
and (8) anchoring new approaches in the culture.

How would this work for incorporating STEM education reforms? There is much
evidence to support a sense of urgency for implementing STEM education reforms.
Numerous reports document U.S. students‘ comparatively poor performance in STEM
subjects. For example, only one-third of U.S. fourth graders are proficient in science, one
quarter of eighth graders and only 1 percent of twelfth graders have advanced knowledge of
science. Students from low socio-economic backgrounds scored a full standard deviation
lower than their peers, and while students of color represent 14.8% of the population, they are
only 7.3% of STEM professionals (Schmidt et al., 2013). Focusing on this urgency, and
carefully examining the state of STEM achievement in one's own school, may be the place to
start.

Once the sense of urgency is recognized and embraced, the leadership has to establish a
group within the school that supports the change and has the respect and the skill sets to
encourage, promote and support the implementation of the change. This includes a vision of
what STEM-infused teaching and learning looks like, and a strategy for achieving this vision.
This leadership group, which ideally would be representative of all grade levels, departments
and divisions within the school, can elicit involvement and input in the creation of the
implementation strategy. This increases the possibility of buy-in of the strategy and decreases
the resistance to the plan as a top-down mandate. The next step is communication; this vision
of change must be communicated to all, to further cultivate buy-in.

Another role of the leadership, according to Kotter (2007), is to empower action and
remove barriers that impede change. For schools implementing STEM education reforms, this
would include examining the staffing and structural issues (discussed later in this chapter),
and providing the vital professional development and necessary resources to support STEM
education.

Kotter (2007) also advocated for both breaking up the change into small, manageable
steps to create a feeling of progress in implementing the change, and then communicating,
celebrating and rewarding this progress as a means for all to see that the change is happening.
Then leaders use the increased visibility and credibility to produce more change. His final
step is to anchor the change in the culture by linking the change to organizational success, to
have new practices replace the old culture.

Such a positive, change-oriented school culture depends on strong principal and teacher
leadership assert. Rhodes, Stevens, and Hemmings (2011). Theynote that principals play
pivotal roles in the production and maintenance of school cultures and that the most effective
principals bring school actors together in the development of a shared educational vision,
driven by a sense of moral purpose. They further assert that creating and sustaining a positive
school culture is not possible unless schools have intentional structures to support it and allow
"principals and teachers to meet on a regular basis, participate in shared decision-making,
learn together and collaborate on innovative pedagogies‖ (p. 84).

176 Deborah Lynch and Jennifer Fleck

STEM INTEGRATION IN CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

I discovered I had some misconceptions about STEM. Initially, I believed that
teaching STEM just meant integrating science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics. I've since learned that STEM is about more than that; STEM is a shift in
thinking. STEM is the integration of these four content areas in ways that are inquiry-
based, project-based, and set in real-world applications. Much of the learning is
discovery. Students are active participants in building new content understanding. STEM
pedagogy uses the integration of these disciplines to empower students with a sense of
control, appealing to their innate desire to learn. Implementing such a strategy means
teachers must give up a lot of control in the classroom. Instead of teachers dictating the
what, where, how, and when of learning, students determine a lot of the learning (O‘Neil,
Yamagata, Yamagata, & Togioka, 2012, p. 38).

Science and mathematics have long been included in K-12 curriculum. The overt
inclusion of technology is more recent, and many current STEM initiatives feel that by
including engineering, either as a stand-alone course or through an interdisciplinary approach,
their implementation is complete. This notion that STEM is equally defined as integration
across the four disciplines and driven by the process of student inquiry as it is by the inclusion
of engineering and technology in coursework, is a hallmark found throughout literature on
STEM education. Labov, Reid, and Yamamoto (2010) asserted that, ―the most important
modern conception of STEM education might be the notion of integration--meaning that
STEM is the purposeful integration of the various disciplines as used in solving real-world
problems‖ (Breiner et al., 2012, p.5). This has implications for the structure of coursework
and instruction. For example, teachers will have to utilize more inquiry and project-based
approaches in their teaching as well as integrate science, technology, engineering, and math
(STEM) curricula that more closely resembles the work of scientists and/or engineers
(Breiner, Johnson, Harkness, & Koehler, 2012). STEM is as much about who decides the
topics of study, and how the knowledge about those topics is acquired, as it is about which
disciplines are included.

Unfortunately, this is not the case in many U.S. classrooms today. Many times teachers
find it difficult to plan lessons that reflect the natural interconnectedness of STEM
components and the real world of research and technology development (Katehi, Pearson, &
Feder, 2009). The lack of interconnectedness has consequences for students‘ interest and
performance in science and mathematics, and their development of technological and
scientific literacy (Roehrig, Wang, Moore, & Park, 2012). This disconnect also makes it
difficult for students to see the relevance of the subject matters to their own lives (Breiner et
al., 2012).

There are several educational challenges relateing to implementing K-12 STEM
education. There are few general guidelines or models that exist for teachers to follow
regarding how to teach using STEM integration approaches in the classroom. Furthermore, a
main concern with regard to STEM is that there exists a knowledge and communication gap
between policy makers, universities, K-12 school districts, parents, and the general public
(Roehrig et al., 2012).

As such collaboration results in new curriculum for STEM classrooms, teacher leaders
with expertise in curriculum development will be required. Many times teachers lack the
knowledge and skills to effectively design comprehensive curricula (Handler, 2010);

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therefore, teacher leadership must be developed. In order to be a leader in curriculum
development teachers must understand the purposes of education in school, what experiences
in education are likely needed to serve those purposes, and how to effectively organize and
assess those educational experiences (Handler, 2010). Furthermore, as state mandates dictate
curriculum more and more, it is imperative for curriculum leaders to have current knowledge
of state and national educational policy development and implementation (Fullan, 2001;
Handler, 2010). How can these and other STEM concerns be met? Teacher leadership
provides an incredible resource and is one of many strategies school administrators can look
to when incorporating school-wide STEM education reforms.

Strategies to Incorporate STEM Reforms

The Bayer Compendium of Best Practice K-12 STEM Education Programs (2010)
included the following criteria for identification as an effective STEM program: (1)
challenging content/curricula which includes inquiry-based real world applications, critical
thinking and problem solving and teamwork, reflective of state and/or national standards; (2)
an inquiry learning environment, an environment where teachers and students are active
learners and teachers have the necessary access to and time for professional development and
resources; (3) defined outcomes and assessments where success in achieving goals is
measured by assessment tools and is the basis for continuous improvement; and (4) sustained
commitment and community support which involves strong leadership, continuity of funding
and community support which includes parents and private industry (p.8).

Providing access to high quality professional development. Darling Hammond and
McLaughlin (1995) noted that helping teachers rethink practice necessitates professional
development that involves teachers in the dual capacities of both teaching and learning. This
model of professional development, they maintain, ultimately requires a fundamental change
in the institutional structures that have governed schooling as it has traditionally existed.

Teachers must transform their pedagogy to reflect the needs of students in 21 century
classrooms. Students need to learn more complex analytical skills; therefore teachers must
provide opportunities for students to develop higher-order thinking and performance
(Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995). In order for teachers to provide more
sophisticated teaching which is required for this task, schools must make available more
effective high quality professional development. Much of the research in this area has
concluded that high-quality professional development must be ―useful and emphasize active
teaching, assessment, observation, and reflection rather than abstract discussions‖ (Darling-
Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995, p. 597).

In a national survey by Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, and Yoon (2001), teachers
reported that their knowledge and skills grew, and their practice changed, when they received
professional development that was coherent, focused on content knowledge, and involved
active learning. When whole grade levels, schools, or departments are involved, they create a
critical mass for changed instruction at the school level. This is especially important when
considering approaches to a school-wide emphasis on incorporating STEM practices.

The design of professional development experiences must also address how teachers
learn. In particular, active learning opportunities allow teachers to transform their teaching
and not simply layer new strategies on top of old ones (Snow-Renner & Lauer, 2005). Many

178 Deborah Lynch and Jennifer Fleck

teachers in the U.S. do not have access to quality professional development opportunities
other than what are derisively called one-shot, "drive-by workshops" which in many cases are
not very useful. Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) found that, while 59% of the teachers in their
study gave positive evaluations of content-related learning opportunities, fewer than half of
their nationally represented sample of 130,000 teachers found the professional development
they received in other areas to be of much value. Darling-Hammond et al. also found that,
while teachers typically need "substantial professional development in a given area (close to
50 hours) to improve their skills and their students' learning, a majority in their study said
they had received no more than 16 hours (two days or less) during the previous 12 months on
the content they taught‖ (p. 5).

It is common practice in teacher preparation for elementary teachers who will teach
STEM to receive only two semesters of college level math and two semesters of science (Fulp
as cited in Nadelson, Seifert, Moll, & Coats, 2012). Many high school teachers, though
certified in a STEM discipline, are teaching outside of their subject expertise and/or have
little or no experience with subject integration or inquiry-based instructional approaches. The
link between learning and affective variables such as confidence, anxiety and efficacy has
been well established, particularly when implementing innovation (Nadelson et al., 2012);
further, "the relationship between teachers' content knowledge and their effectiveness may be
attributed to the established association between content knowledge and comfort, confidence
and instructional abilities" (p.71).

Nadelson et al. (2012) developed their own STEM teaching institute in response to "the
anticipated lack of teachers' exposure to higher levels of inquiry in their academic preparation
and the corresponding lack of exposure to authentic inquiry models" (p. 71). They found that
high quality professional development programs, which addressed teacher self-efficacy and
self-confidence and motivation, reported consistent gains in self-reports of self-assurance,
confidence and motivation in approaching teaching and learning in the STEM disciplines.

Other important findings from Darling-Hammond et al. (1995), have implications for
STEM education reform which includes: (1) sustained and intensive professional
development for teachers as related to student achievement gains; (2) collaborative
approaches to professional learning that can promote school change which extends beyond
the classroom; (3) effective professional development that is intensive, ongoing and
connected to practice; and (4) professional development that is focused on the teaching and
learning of specific academic content and is connected to school initiatives and builds strong
working relationships among teachers.

Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (1995) also found that research on effective
professional development confirmed the importance of collaborative and collegial learning
environments that help develop communities of practice to promote school change beyond
individual classrooms. This will be essential in the school-wide adoption of STEM education
reforms. "Enhancing the quality and quantity of K-12 STEM education is inextricably linked
to continued professional development of teachers"(Nadelson et al., 2012, p. 69). But as
noted, most practicing elementary teachers have not had in-depth preparation in STEM
subjects, and most high school teachers have had little preparation in subjects other than their
own. The report Engaging Diverse Learners Through the Provision of STEM Opportunities
by Southwest Educational Development Laboratory [SEDL] (2012) explained that elementary
teachers face constraints in teaching STEM, including a lack of content knowledge,
confidence, resources and support structures. Secondary school teachers are not specifically

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trained in STEM pedagogy or subject integration. Teacher preparation programs are now
recognizing the need to provide greater exposure to STEM content, processes and skills,
along with instructional strategies for integration and collaboration.

Studies of newly developed STEM-focused professional development opportunities
(Zhang, McInerney, & Frechtling, 2011) have found that the most common and consistent
activities conducted by STEM university faculty for K-12 teachers emphasized general
content and/or pedagogy. Researchers noted that "teachers were often less concerned about
the content itself; what they needed was how to get the concepts across...content in context"
(p. 281). Zhang et al. also found that greater content knowledge and pedagogical skills often
led to higher confidence. For example, Nadelson et al. described a 4-day summer institute
which focused on participants' comfort in teaching STEM, their pedagogical commitment to
STEM and knowledge of how to implement inquiry to teach STEM. They found comfort or
contentment with teaching STEM, when it was related to teacher perceptions of their efficacy,
led to increased teacher efficacy. They described this experience as "transformative" for
teachers in a number of ways, including how participants defined, planned for and perceived
how they implemented STEM. The level of sophistication with regard to the responses
indicated that the intervention was effective for increasing teachers‘ perceptions of
engagement, their ability and knowledge of STEM education. Teachers were highly
motivated to teach STEM content.

The literature is replete with calls for teacher professional development that is sustained
over time, focused on important content, and embedded in the work of Professional Learning
Communities (PLCs) that support ongoing improvement in teacher practice. Well designed
professional development opportunities help teachers to master content and teaching skills,
evaluate their performance, and address changes needed in teaching and learning in their
schools (Darling-Hammond et al., 1995).

As previously noted, most teachers receive less than two days of professional
development annually. The challenge for school leaders is finding the time for such sustained,
focused, learning, and to also ensure that the learning is ongoing, supported and embedded in
practice. Many school districts provide a half-day per month of professional development for
teachers and staff. Some maximize the scheduling to provide for weekly common planning
periods for teacher teams. Still others seek grant or foundation funding to provide stipends for
teachers to have such learning opportunities before and/or after the regular school day. The
issues are finding the time and using the time well. A school with a school-wide commitment
to integrate STEM education must have that "guiding coalition", the STEM leadership team,
to ensure the coherence and cohesiveness of the school's professional development activities.

Establishing Professional Learning Communities

Studies have shown that Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are the new
paradigm for professional development. In addition, sustainable and intensive professional
development can be related to student achievement (Darling-Hammond et al., 1995). PLCs
can help to sustain effectiveness, job-embedded, collaborative teacher learning strategies. At
its core, the concept of a PLC rests on the premise of improving student learning by
improving teaching practices.

180 Deborah Lynch and Jennifer Fleck

Dufour and Eaker (1998) defined a PLC as "educators [creating] an environment that
fosters mutual cooperation, emotional support, and personal growth as they work together to
achieve what they cannot accomplish alone" (p.1). They described six characteristics of the
PLC: (1) a shared mission, vision, and values; (2) collective inquiry; (3) collaborative teams;
(4) action orientation and experimentation; (5) continuous improvement; and (6) a results
orientation. Through collaborative inquiry, teachers explore new ideas, current practices, and
evidence of student learning using processes that respect them as the experts on what is
needed to improve their own practice and increase student learning. Bolam et al. (2005) found
that results of student achievement gains varied with the strength of the PLC in the school.

The productive teacher learning communities studied by Little (1990), engaged in what
she came to call joint work--"thoughtful, explicit examination of practices and their
consequences" (p. 520) that emerged from collaboration on concrete tasks such as curriculum
development, problem solving around students and their learning, and peer observations.
These communities created norms that valued mutual aid above privacy and shared
responsibility for instructional improvement and supported teachers' initiative and leadership
with regard to professional practice.

Louis, Kruse and Marks (1996) examined the conditions necessary for such communities.
In terms of structure, they found that smaller school size and common planning time were
key. They also found that lower staffing complexity (more staff who were directly involved in
teaching and learning), and the empowerment of teachers as decision makers, were highly
correlated with professional community. The human and social resources needed for
professional community included supportive leadership, mutual respect steeped in strong
professional knowledge, and a climate that invited risk taking and innovation.

Results of studies on the relationship between PLCs and student achievement suggested
that well-developed PLCs have a positive impact on both teaching practice and student
achievement. Louis and Marks (1998) examined the nature of the impact of PLCs on
pedagogy and achievement. They concluded that the focus on the intellectual quality of
student learning within PLCs boosts achievement because it pushes teachers toward the use of
authentic pedagogy. Bolam et al. (2005) also found the links between the strength of PLC
characteristics and student achievements were statistically significant at both the primary and
secondary levels. Student achievement was significantly higher in schools with the strongest
PLCs. This effect was so strong that the strength of the PLC accounted for 85% of the
variance in achievement in this study.

Russo (2004) described a report by the Consortium for Policy Research in Education
(CPRE) which stated that school-based coaching, an aspect of many PLCs, also fills "a
particular and promising niche in the larger scope of school districts' improvement efforts‖ (p.
3). Russo reported that coaching is increasingly relied upon by schools and districts across the
nation to train teachers on a particular set of instructional techniques and practices. He further
noted that both the spotty track record of traditional professional development, and the
success stories that have emerged from coaching, suggest that this new strategy may have a
great deal of untapped potential.

School-based coaching, having a teacher colleague provide direct support in the
classroom, either through modeling or observation and feedback, also supports teacher
learning and the improvement of practice in a reflective, supportive setting. Coaches serve as
liaisons between research and practice, bringing the latest findings to the classroom. Collins
(2010) believed that providing such extensive support to new teachers, as well as veteran

Teacher Leadership 181

teachers, is an investment in improving science and math for all students and makes teachers
more likely to remain in the profession.

SEDL (2012) found that STEM PLCs had the following effects on teacher knowledge,
beliefs/attitudes and focus: (1) engaged teachers in discussions about content knowledge and
how to teach it and/or enhanced understanding of content knowledge and pedagogical
strategies; (2) advanced teacher preparedness to teach content or attitudes toward teaching
methods; (3) increased teacher focus on students‘ mathematics or science thinking; (4) reform
oriented teacher practices; (5) attention paid to students‘ reasoning and understanding
increased; (6) engaged students in more diverse modes of problem solving; and (7) enhanced
student learning or achievement in math.

The implications of PLCs for school-wide STEM incorporation and integration are
enormous, given the great need for STEM teachers to collaborate and engage in reflective
practices. Such reflective discussion, coaching and support have been shown to be essential
for the challenges of effective STEM subject integration and instruction.

Collaborating in Teams and Outside Experts

Collins (2010) noted that:

We need to make sure that teachers are masters of content, and that they‘re supported
as they continually expand their instructional skills through a methodological sequence of
professional learning activities designed to help them connect students to rigorous
content. Teachers need a supportive framework and culture that values peer-review and
intellectual renewal where new thinking, risk taking, and professional growth are
encouraged. … (p. 2)

She believed that in order to improve teaching, a deep focus on content knowledge and
instructional innovations is required. Teachers must be given opportunities to learn from
experts and one another in order to pursue teaching as a scientific process in which new
approaches are shared, tested and continually refined (Collins, 2010).

According to Murphy and Mancini-Samuelson (2012) the components of a productive
STEM collaborative are based on the four-phase process model which includes the following:
(1) a facilitator with responsibility to coordinate the group, task management, accountability
to the group and to the facilitator; (2) group formed around a common goal and objectives; (3)
developing vocabulary and respect for the different disciplines; (4) funding to cover faculty
time and additional resources; (5) administrative support and encouragement; and (6)
communication between the group, their departments, and the administration (p. 23).

Many of the effective STEM teacher support initiatives involve the collaboration with
outside experts in addition to within-school collaboration. Bradley (2012) asserted that ―you
really need someone who really understands the content piece and someone who understands
the pedagogy piece. You need both of these experts to make it work‖ (p. 9). Some examples
of such effective programs can be seen in Table 1.

182 Deborah Lynch and Jennifer Fleck

Table 1. Examples of Effective STEM Programs

Math, Science Partnership (MSP) The Math, Science Partnership (MSP) involved the
engagement of university science, technology,
i-STEM Summer Institute engineering, and mathematics (STEM) faculty in
Teacher Action Research Cluster supporting K-12 teachers in implementing STEM
(TARC) reforms. The findings suggest that K-12 teachers
benefited from the engagement in terms of improved
Collaboratives for Excellence in approaches to teaching and learning, increased
Teaching Program (CETP) knowledge of subject matter content, and increased
confidence. STEM faculty benefited from new ideas
about teaching and learning, insights into research, more
knowledge of the K-12 education system, and a broader
understanding of education overall. Student achievement
also improved, although direct attribution to faculty
involvement is somewhat unclear (Zhang, 2011).

This Institute included a four-day summer institute with
130 hours of learning throughout the school year, with
the ongoing support from university faculty. The focus
was on increasing participants‘ comfort with teaching
STEM and knowledge of how to implement inquiry to
teach STEM. The project resulted in increasing
participants‘ engagement, knowledge and motivation for
teaching STEM (Nadelson et al., 2012).

The Teacher Action Research Cluster involved science
teachers and college of education faculty who designed
and engaged in classroom-based action research. The
goal of the research was that reflection would become
the vehicle to enhance learning to bring about change in
the classroom and enable the teachers to self-evaluate.
Reflective practice was fostered through such tools as
discussions, audio reflections, a self-evaluation tool and
an online blog. Teachers were asked to reflect not only
on their action research process and their interventions
but on their own learning also. Participating teachers
stated that collaborative discussions during the
professional development days and the school visits had
enabled them to reflect closely on their practice (Bevins
et al., 2011).

NSF's Collaboratives for Excellence in Teaching
Program (CETP), which was designed to improve the
preparation of future science and mathematics K-12
teachers through the use of STEM faculty, found that
although CETP and non-CETP teachers generally
reported similar frequencies of using instructional
strategies, students of CETP teachers reported higher
usage of real world and more challenging problems by
their teachers than students in the comparison group
(Berlin, 2012).

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Yale National Initiative (YNI) Yale National Initiative included teachers in
participating cities in seminars with university faculty in
COSEE/CGLL- Center for Ocean the humanities and science. Participating teachers
Science Education worked with university faculty who are research
Excellence/Center for Great Lakes scientists to write curriculum units for their classes
Literacy (Adam, 2011).

Center for Ocean Science Education Excellence/Center
for Great Lakes Literacy supports connections between
scientists and classroom teachers. These include
providing workshops to help scientists to effectively
communicate with students and teachers, providing
workshops which allow teachers and scientists to engage
in work together, and helping teachers to connect to
authentic data sets (Center for Great Lakes Literacy,
2013).

STEM innovation requires extensive content knowledge. While it is impractical to
believe that all educators are prepared to successfully plan for and facilitate inquiry based
STEM, it is practical to believe that all educators will successfully plan for and facilitate
inquiry based STEM with the appropriate supports. Collins (2010) stated that in addition to
assigning STEM teachers based on their knowledge of science, technology, engineering, and
math subject areas‖ (p.37), the support of teacher leaders and professional development, that
partnerships with scientists are another valuable asset. Additionally, K-12 teachers who work
with STEM faculty have a positive impact on their students (Zhang et al., 2011). Furthermore,
Harwell et al. (2001) studied teachers' integration of technology within the classroom and
concluded that professional development for classroom teachers must combine the expertise
of researchers and the knowledge of teachers (Bevins et al., 2011). This is further supported
by Merrill and Daugherty (2010) who found that the disciplinary faculty hold the content
knowledge that K-12 teachers need and that if the faculty are substantially involved, teachers'
disciplinary knowledge will be strengthened, resulting in improved student achievement.
Scientists and engineers can also serve as a lifeline for teachers dealing with students‘
complex proposed inquiry projects (Zhang et al., 2011). Schools can support STEM education
by encouraging teachers to collaborate with scientists and engineers in the field and academia,
and by scheduling field trips and other opportunities for classes to work directly with
scientists and engineers.

Promoting Action Research

The concept of action research presents another vehicle for advancing community,
collegiality, and professional development around STEM education. Mettetal (2002) defined
action research as classroom action research (CAR). It is systematic inquiry with the goal of
informing practice in a particular situation. Mettetal described CAR as a way for teachers to
discover what works best in their own classroom situations, thus allowing informed decisions
about teaching. CAR utilizes a range from teacher reflection to traditional educational
research. CAR is data-based driven, but less formal than traditional educational research.

184 Deborah Lynch and Jennifer Fleck

Instructors use data readily available from their classes in order to answer practical questions
about teaching and learning in their classrooms.

Many effective programs use action research as the focus of professional development
programs. Merrill and Daugherty (2010) stated that ―insider research‖ involves the values of
the practitioner, change or improvement and collaboration. They quoted Calhoun as stating
that action research ―can change the social system in schools…so that continual formal
learning is both expected and supported‖ (p.18). Finally, they noted that reflection is the key
in a four-step action research process which includes: (1) clarifying the vision and targets of
the research; (2) articulating a theory; (3) implementing action; (4) collecting data; and (5)
reflecting on the data and planning informed action. This is particularly important for STEM
educators because the field is changing so rapidly.

Developing Teacher Leadership to Promote STEM Education Reforms

Teacher leaders are important in education because they are positioned to influence
school policies and practices, student achievement, as well as the teaching profession
(Murphy, 2005). In order to affect this type of change, teacher leaders must be able to (a)
understand and navigate the school organization, (b) work productively with others, and (c)
build a collaborative enterprise. Teacher leadership is another important element of the Math,
Science Partnership (MSP) Programs.

The benefits of embracing teacher leadership, according to Johnson and Donaldson
(2007) include: (a) teachers being able to share expertise with others; (b) reducing the
isolation, which is prominent in teaching; and (c) offering opportunities to vary
responsibilities and expand influence. The roles of teacher leaders can be broken into two
categories: (1) formal or (2) informal.

Wise leaders wishing to anchor new STEM approaches in the school culture will identify
and maximize the talent and respect of teacher leaders in initiating and sustaining the
important changes to be made. Many well-intended educational reforms have failed because
of resistance to top-down mandates which did not take into account the needs of the front line
professional staff expected to implement them. Good leadership involves those professionals
in shaping the change and, in doing so, generates ownership, buy-in and lasting
institutionalization of the reform.

This may occur in the areas of creating and sustaining PLCs, designing professional
development, writing curriculum, and in modeling innovative instruction for peers. With the
endless possibilities for STEM content, as well as the fact that there are constant new
discoveries at the forefront of STEM, it is impractical to develop the depth of knowledge in
all teachers required for STEM implementation and curriculum development. Instead, it is far
more practical to develop teachers to become content experts in particular aspects of STEM.
These teachers may then serve as resources for their colleagues in STEM implementation and
curriculum development in their schools.

This is in line with recommendations made by professional organizations and
researchers:

Throughout the 1990s, reports from national commissions, professional
organizations such as the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) and the