The Encyclopedia of World Religions

JESUS 189

JESUS (c. 4 B.C.-c. A.D. 30) The founder of .\CLES, especially HEALING. As presened in both
the Bible and books outside the Bible, Jesus'
Chrisrianit)-. According to Christian tradition, teachings took several basic forms. The most
well-known teachings include parables, stories
Jesus was bom from a Wrgin named .VL\RY (see told to teach a religious lesson, and beatitudes,
VIRGIN BIRTH ) who was engaged to a man named statements beginning "Blessed are . . ."

Joseph. Jesus' importance for Christians is em- Scholars have tned to place Jesus in several
phasized by a portion of the Nicene Creed ( see
CREEDS ), which many Christians use regular!)- in historical contexts. He has some affinities to early
WORSHIP: "We believe in one Lord, Jesus rabbinical JUDAISM (see PH.ARISEES). For exam-
CHRIST, the only Son of GOD."
ple, Jesus taught in SY-NAGOGUES, his followers
Life called him R.\BBI, and his teachings about love,
the commandments, and PR-WTR (for example,
The BIBLE presents two different stories about the the LORD'S PR-^ITRj are all reminiscent of rabbini-
cal teachings, especially the teachings of the
birth of Jesus. The GOSPEL of Matthew tells that school of the Jewish sage Hillel. At the same time,

Jesus was bom in Bethlehem to Joseph and Man' Jesus' emphasis on the KINGDOM OF GOD and the
coming of the Son of Man may link him to other,
during the reign of King Herod the Great (d. 4 more obscure movements that seem to have ex-
pected some sort of social and political upheaval.
—B.C.). NL\GI the Bible does not say how many Some late 20th-centur\- scholars emphasized
—came from the east to present to the child gifts
Jesus' connections to the peasant classes in Gali-
of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Then Joseph, lee. They also saw both Jesus's moral teachings

warned by an angel in a dream, took Man,' and — —and his wa\' of fixing his wandering as a Jewish

Jesus to Egypt to protect the baby from the GaUlean version of the moral advice and way of
fife of Greek-speaking philosophers known as
jealous rage of Herod, who ordered all baby boys Cynics (not to be confiised with "cynic" in its

to be killed. ordinan' English sense).
Jesus was executed by crucifi.\ion under the
The gospel of Luke tells a different story. It
Roman govemor Pontius Pilate, whom sources
connects Jesus' birth with a census that occurred
outside the Bible depict as particularly cruel. The
when Quirinius was govemor of Syria. On the Bible records that on the night before his trial and
execution, Jesus celebrated a final meal with his
least strained interpretation, this event occurred cfisciples (see APOSTLES). During the meal, Jesus
cfistributed bread, which he had broken, and wine
when the territory of Judea (now southern Israel) to his disciples. This act became the model for one
of Christianity's most important acts of worship,
was transferred from Herod's son and successor the EUCFLARIST. Jesus' crucifi.xion began early on
a Friday morning. He is said to have died around
ADto Roman rule in 6, 10 years after Herod's 3:00 P.M The gospels record how Jesus' body was
removed from the CROSS that afternoon and
death. According to Luke, the ANGEL Gabriel placed in a sealed, guarded tomb. The next Sun-
day morning several followers found the tomb
announced to Mar\' that she was pregnant. Be-
unsealed, unguarded, and empty. On that basis,
cause of the census, Mary and Joseph journeyed
and on the basis of appearances of Jesus to them,
to Bethlehem. All the rooms were taken, so Jesus these followers proclaimed that Jesus was the

was bom in a stable. Angels announced Jesus'
birth to shepherds, who came and worshiped

him. \Vhen he was eight days old, Jesus was
circumcised; then he was presented at the Temple

in FERUS.ALE.M, where two pious older people,

Simeon and Aima, praised him.

According to the gospels, Jesus began a spe-
cial mission when he was baptized by John the

Baptist in the Jordan River. With a band of close

followers, he wandered the countrvside from
Galilee (now northern Israel) to Judea and some-

times farther afield, teaching and working MIR-

—

190 JESUS

MESSL\H whom God had raised from the dead Significance
(see RESURRECTION). He is said shortly thereaf-
The earliest Christians became convinced that
ter to ha\e ascended into HE.^X'EN, and he is
expected to return again at the final da\- of judg- —Jesus was God's anointed one the Messiah or
—the Christ prophesied in the texts of the He-
ment (see JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD).
brew Bible. The\' also identified him with the
TE.'\CHINGS
—preexistent principle the Logos or Word
According to one account, Jesus identified two
preeminent commandments: Ix)\e God and love through which God had created the world (e.g.,
your fellow human beings (Matthew 22.34-4:0,
Mark 12.28-34, Luke 10.25-28). In the famous John 1.1-14; Colossians 1.16-17).
Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7), Jesus
shows how far these commandments extend. For Within the first few centuries of Christianity,

example, he teaches that if someone strikes a thinkers developed the idea that God is a TRINITY,
person on one cheek, that person should turn the one God in three persons. They did so partly on
the basis of baptism "in the name of the Father,
other cheek and allow it to be struck, too, and and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." On this
that if someone takes a person's coat, that person \iew Jesus was God incarnate, that is, God who
has become a human being (see INC.ARN-\TION).
should gi\e away her or his cloak, too.
The Christian church began to establish an
At the same time, Jesus is said to have pro- authoritative teaching about who Jesus was at the
Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325). The council con-
claimed that the kingdom of God was at hand. demned the ideas of a teacher named Arius, who
He connected this with the return of a figure taught that the Son of God was the first being
known as the Son of Man. He urged his followers
whom God created. The council preferred the
to watch for the coming of the kingdom, for it
would come as a thief in the night. He is also said — —metaphor of begetting fathering a child to the

to ha\'e gi\-en his followers signs that would indi- idea of creation; it declared that God the Son was
cate the coming of the day of the Lord, beginning
"begotten not made, of one Being with the Fa-
with the destruction of Jerusalem ( Matthew 24,
Mark 13, Luke 21). ther." Roughly 125 years later, at the Council of

Finally, several sayings found in the gospel of Chalcedon, the Christian church settied upon a
common set of formulas to express who Jesus was.
John pertain direcdy to Jesus' own identity. In These formulas emphasized that "the one and
only Son [of God], our Lord Jesus Christ" was
these passages Jesus connects himself ven- closeK actually, fully, and perfectiy diWne and human at
the same time, two "natures" perfecdy united in
with God, whom he calls "Father," for example,
one "person."
"The Father and I are one " ( John 1 He30 ): . also
Later Christians developed many different
characterizes his relationship with his followers
images of Jesus, for example, Jesus as the ruler of
in metaphors: "I am the bread of life"; "I am the
the universe, Jesus as a sacrifice and ransom, and
light of the world"; "I am the vine, you are the Jesus as the model of how to live a perfect life.
Throughout all of these variations, the teachings
branches" (John 6.35; 8.12; 15.5). One of
of Chalcedon have continued to define Christian
the best lo\ed of these passages reads: "1 am the orthodoxy. In the last 200 \'ears, how'e\er, some

good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his tliinkers ha%e seen a great gulf betw een the "Jesus
of historv'" and the "Christ of F.AITH." Christians
life for the sheep" (John 10.11). Some scholars
influenced by this manner of thinking have often
question whether the words about the coming preferred to talk about Jesus not as God but as a

day of the Lord and the teachings in John actually great moral teacher and example.
come from Jesus.

JEWISH FESTWALS 191

JEWISH FESTIVALS rjtu.\LS that are cele- human being, one should ask that person's for-

brated once a year in JUD.-USM. The most impor- giveness before the start of the festi\al.
tant Jewish festivals are the Days of Awe and the
PILGRIMAGE festivals. The Days of Awe, more A few days later, on the 1 5th of Tishri, the
commonly called High Holy Days, are Rosh
ha-Shanah ("Head of the Year," New Year's) and atmosphere changes from solemn to celebratory.
Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). The pilgrim- Tfiis is the beginning of the festival of Sukkot.
Originally Sukkot was a harvest festival. It also
age festivals are Pesach (PASS0\'ER), Shavuot recalls the 40 years that the Israelites vvandered in
the wilderness, and it served as a model for the
(Weeks or Pentecost), and Sukkot (Huts or American celebration of Thanksgiving. Sukkot
gets its name from snkkah, a makeshift temporan'
Booths). The pilgrimage festivals are often simply
Adv\elling built for the festival. sukkah must have
called "the festivals." However, they are also
three sides and an entrance way, it must be made
called pilgrimage tcsti\als because in ancient entirely of natural materials, and one must be able
times people observed them by making pilgrim- to see at least three stars through its roof. Jewish
age to the Temple in JERUS.ALEM. families hang finit and other natural objects as
decorations within the sukkah. They often eat
Rosh ha-Shanah occurs on the first and, for their meals there. Some even sleep there.

traditional Jews, the second day of the Jewish Immediately after Sukkot, on the 23rd of
Tishri, is a minor festival called Simhat Torah
month of Tishri. Yom Kippur occurs on the tenth ("Joy of the Torah"). During the synagogue
service on this day, the last verses of Torah (the
of Tishri. In the Gregorian calendar, these dates first five books of the BIBLE) are read from the
book of Deuteronomy. They are immediately
fall in September or October. followed by the first verses in the Bible, the
creation account in Genesis. Thus, in the course
Rosh ha-Shanah services emphasize that GOD
—of a year, all of the Torah or at least repre-
is the supreme ruler of the universe. They also
sentative portions from everv^ part of the Torah
emphasize God's activities in revealing himself
—is read aloud in Sabbath services.
and redeeming his people. At morning serxices
The two remaining pilgrimage festivals take
the reading and discussion of passages from the place during the spring. Like Sukkot, they were
TORAH, such as ABRAHAM'S expulsion of Hagar originally agricultural, but they also celebrate im-
and binding of ISAAC, pro\ide central dimensions portant events in Israel's prehistor\'. Pesach (Pass-
over), from the 1 5th to the 22nd or 23rd of
of morality and faith. During the course of the Nisan, recalls the freeing of the Israelites enslaved
in Eg\'pt. Fifty days (a week of weeks) later, on
services a shofar, an ancient musical instrument the si.xth and, outside Israel, the seventh of Sivan,
made from a ram's horn, is blown. At home, Jews Sha\TJot (weeks) celebrates the giving of the To-
rah on Mount Sinai. These festivals occur from
often eat apples dipped in honey in the hope that late March to early June.
the new year will be sweet.
Other Jewish festivals are more minor but
Repentance is an important theme of Rosh certainly not unimportant. They include PURIM,

ha-Shanah. It culminates in Yom Kippur. On Yom ha-Shoah (HOLOCAUST Day), Yom ha-
Yom Kippur Jews are supposed to fast from be-
Atzmaut (Israel's Independence Day), Tishah
fore dusk to an hour after dark the next day, a Be'Av ( Ninth of Av, which recalls the destruction
period of roughly 25 to 26 hours. During this of both SOLOMON'S and Herod's Temples in

period they do not eat, drink, or v\ash. Yom
Kippur services include a PR.W'ER known as the

"Al Chet." This prayer lists, in order, SINS whose
names begin in turn with even' letter of the

AHebrew alphabet. public and collective confes-

sion, this prayer symbolically confesses everv pos-

Yomsible sin. Kippur restores one's relationship

to God, but not one's relationship to other hu-

man beings. If one has sinned against another

192 JTHAD

Jerusalem), and a festival especially popular with Jivanmukti refers to the state of being liber-
Jewish children in North America, HANUKK\H. ated while still living in the body. Some schools,
such as the Sai\a Siddhanta, recognize several
JIHAD Islamic notion of the struggle against
stages of jivanmukti. Persons who achieve jivan-
SIN and EVIL. Jihad is often translated as "holy
war," but its meaning is actually broader. mukti are called jivanmuktas.

For Muslims the goal of life is to submit JOAN OF ARC (c. 1412-31) A French
oneself to the will of GOD. But forces opposed to
woman who, inspired by voices, spurred on the
God tempt human beings to abandon God and French against the English in the Hundred Years'
War. When Joan was 13, she began to hear voices.
pursue other goals. In ever\' arena of life, then,
people should struggle to resist temptations and She later said these were the voices of Saints
evil. This struggle is called jihad. Catherine and Margaret and of the archangel
Michael. The voices told Joan that it was her
Jihad includes a personal, internal struggle responsibility' to help Charles, son of King Charles
against temptation (jihad of the heart). It also \T, acquire the throne of France. As a result of
Joan's activities, Charles did become Charles VII.
includes attempts to combat error and spread the
truth of ISLAM orally and in writing (jihad of the Following the instruction of the voices, Joan
tongue and the pen). In addition, because Islam wore men's clothing and joined the French army
does not dichotomize or split religious and secu- as a commander. Her presence reinvigorated the
lar spheres, Muslims believe that it may also be
necessary to fight for God's truth with militar\- French troops. Her first success came in May
means (jihad of the sword). 1429, when she broke the siege that English
troops had made by completely surrounding the
Muslims have disagreed about what jihad
of the sword entails. Muslim scholars tradition- city of Orleans. That July Charles VII was conse-
allv taught that rulers should engage in jihad to crated king in Reims.

extend Mushm rule over the entire world. (This In 1430 Joan was captured by the English.
The INQUISITION tried her for HERESY. Its verdict
ideal apphed to political control; it did not required her to repudiate the voices and wear
advocate forced conversion.) In the late 19th women's clothing. For several days she did so.
and the 20th centuries, modern Muslims But when she returned to her former ways, she
tended to limit militar)- jihad solely to wars of was burnt at the stake.
self-defense. In the second half of the 20th
century, some Muslims who embraced relig- In the mid- 1400s, Charles \TI managed to
ious NATIONALISM advocated aggressive mili- have the verdict against Joan overturned. After all,
tar\' jihad even against fellow Muslims. he had became king largely because of her activi-
ties. In 1920 the Catholic Church recognized
jrVANMUKTI A Sanskrit word meaning Joan as a SAINT. She is remembered annually on
May 30, the day of her death.
"liberation while living." Hindus believe that the
self (ATMANiyivfl) is bound in a series of rebinhs JODO SHINSHU See PURE LAND BUD-
(SAMSARA) as a result of its actions (KARMA). By
practicing various psycho-physical disciplines, a DHIS^L
person may become free of these bonds and
JODOSHU See PURE LAND BUDDHISM.
achieve the state of release or liberation. When
JOHN XXIII See PAPACY, THE.
that happens, the self cannot simply abandon the
body immediately. The effects of past actions still JOHN, SAINT See GOSPELS.
need to work themselves out.

JUDAISM 193

JONAH A book in the BIBLE. It tells the ston- harvests for seven years, followed by seven years
of famine.
of a prophet by the same name. The book of
Jonah belongs to the collection of prophets The king appoints Joseph to supervise the
known as "The Twelve." stockpiling of food for the famine years. When his
family comes to Egvpt fi-om Canaan in search of
Jonah was a prophet who lived in the eighth food, Joseph is reunited with them. In time the
descendants of Jacob become enslaved in Eg\pt.
cenniTN' B.C. (see 2 Kings 14:25). According to
iVIany detailed records from Egvpt have stu--
the book with his name, GOD commanded Jonah vived, but none of them mentions Joseph. Some
elements of his ston,- are clearly legendary-. For
to go to Nineveh and preach repentance. But example, the story of Potiphar's wife essentially
Ninexeh was the capital of the Assyrian Empire,
mortal enemies of Israel and Judah. Jonah had no repeats the Egyptian "Tale of Two Brothers."
desire to preach there, so he booked passage to
That tale was told even before the time of Abra-
Spain. ham.

When a storm came up, Jonah was judged JUDAISM The religion centered on the cove-
responsible. He was thrown overboard and was
nant revealed to MOSES at Mount Sinai and
swallowed b\- a great fish. In the fish's belh- he
repented. Spit out on dr\- land, Jonah went to preserved in the TOR.\H, the first five books of
Nineveh and preached. His preaching had such the Hebrew- BIBLE. Judaism is a major religion.
success that the whole empire repented. But In addition, both CHRISTL\NITy and ISLAM
Jonah was disgusted by this turn of events. So see themselves as continuing the ancient tradi-
tions of Judaism.
God sent a sign to teach him that he should be
History
concerned for all people.
The stor>' of Jonali is a fictional account. The Hebrew- Bible (Old Testament presen-es the
)
Some people question whether Jonah could have
sacred stories of Judaism. It tells the histon- of the
lived in the belly of the fish, but the real difficulty- people of Israel fi-om their first ancestors, ABRA-
is the supposed con\ersion of Nineveh. It never H.\M and SAR.\H (perhaps I8th century B.C.) to
happened. The book probably dates ft^om the the attempts to rebuild the kingdom of Judah
fifth or fourth centurv' B.C. It addressed the Jews (now southern Israel) after the Babylonian Exile
(ended 539 B C).
who had returned fi-om e.\ile in Babylon. Many
of them wanted to form a stricd\' exclusive com- Judaism as we know- it began when the Ro-
munity'. The book of Jonah urged them not to mans destroyed the Second Temple in JERUSA-
LEM in A.D. 70. After that event, a group of
overlook God's concern for their neighbors. religious scholars known as R.VBBIS formulated
the Jewish way of life on the basis of the Torah,
JOSEPH A son of JACOB and great-grandson the first five books of the Bible attributed to
Moses. The rabbis compiled rules of behavior into
of ABRAHAM in the BIBLE. Joseph is the subject a collection known as the Mishnah, then recorded
the meanings of those rules in the T.\LMUD.
of many stories in the book of Genesis (37-50).
From roughly 600 to 1789, Jews developed
A favorite son, he receives fi-om his father a this w-ay of life in several different directions.
Jewish thinkers like Maimonides (1135-1204)
multicolored coat. In jealousy his brothers waylay and Judah Halev-y (before 1075-1141) thought
intensely about the relationship between GOD's
him, sell him into slaven- in Eg\pt, and tell his

father that he has died.

In Eg)pt Joseph works for Potiphar, a mili-

Whentar\' officer. he is falsely accused of sexual

harassment by Potiphar's vs-ife, he is thrown in

jail. There he languishes until pharaoh (the king)
summons him to interpret a dream about seven

fat and seven thin cows. Joseph predicts good

194 JUDAISM

revelation and human reasoning. Other Jews God's Shekinah or manifestation in the mystical

sought to grasp intuitively the ultimate truth writings.
be\ond all words and language; they developed
Jewish mysticism, known as KABBALAH. Begin- Pr.\ctices
ning in the 18th centur>', Jews in eastern Europe
began to emphasize a religion of the heart as The goal of Judaism is to make life holy, to grace
opposed to external observances. They began the the temporal with the eternal and the material
with the spiritual. Jews do this by following God's
movement known as HASIDISM. commandments mitzvot), so far as they can.

Until 1789, Jews, especially those living in (
Europe, were denied civil rights. But in the 17th
and 18th centuries, an intellectual movement These commandments are taken as a sign of
known as the Enlightenment taught that all peo- God's love and concern. Furthermore, in Judaism
ple had certain inalienable rights. As a result, Jews God is like a compassionate parent. God forgives
began to be integrated mto European society. people when they sincerely repent of their wrong-
The first significant "emancipation" of Jews came doings. The notion common among some Chris-
with the French Revolution in 1789. tians that the "God of the Old Testament" is a
stern "God of the law" presents a totally mislead-
Emancipation posed two challenges. The ing picture of Judaism.
first was the issue of what it meant to be Jewish
in a secular state. Diflirent responses gave rise to The central Jewish observance is keeping the
the Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform move- Sabbath, the time fi-om sundown Friday to sun-
ments (see JUDAISM IN AMERICA). At the same down Saturday. Jews rest on the Sabbath in imi-
time, Jews had to confront the backlash of con- tation of God's resting on the seventh day of
servative Europeans (see ANTI-SEMITISM), seen creation. Sabbath obser\ance varies in strictness
most gruesomely in the HOLOCAUST. One sig- in the dift'erent Jewish movements, but the ideal
nificant response to anti-Semitism and the Holo- is always one of a Sabbath rest. At the Sabbath
caust was ZIONISM and the creadon of the state meal on Friday evening, the mother of an obser-
of Israel in 1948. vant family will light the Sabbath candles and
welcome Queen Sabbath. Observant Jews also
Beliefs generally attend a service at the SYNAGOGUE or
temple on Saturday morning or, among the more
As a religion, Judaism is much more a way of life liberal, on Friday evening. This service consists of
than a set of beliefs. The Talmud, for example, readings ft-om the Bible, PRAYERS, and songs.
concentrates on what one needs to do in order to
follow God's commandments, not on what one During the course of the year, there are sev-
ought to believe. eral major and many minor festivals ( see JEWISH
FESTPVALS). The most holy days are Rosh ha-
Nevertheless, Jews have generally held sev-
eral beliefs. These include the convicdon that Shanah ( the New Year) and Yom Kippur ( DAY OF
ATONEMENT), which occur in the fall. On Yom
there is one, eternal, omniscient, incorporeal God
who created the universe, that he alone deserves Kippur, Jews fast, collectively confess their SINS
WORSHIP, and that he revealed the unchanging to God, and receive God's forgiveness. The other
Torah to Moses as a guide to life. Jews have major festivals arc Pesach (PASSOVTR), Sha\TJot
generally spoken of God in male terms, but (Pentecost or Weeks), and Sukkot (Tabernacles).
feminine images of the divine are not unknown. Originally celebrations of the harvest, these festi-
Primary examples include God's creative Wisdom vals were later connected with the liberation of
in Proverbs (see WISDOM LITERATURE) and the people of Israel fi-om slavery in Egypt (see
EXODUS), the giving of the Torah to Moses on

Mount Sinai, and the wanderings in the wilder-

JUDAISM IN AMERICA 195

ness. The minor festivals include I-L\NUKKAH, within Hasidism, the rabbi, or rather the rebbe,
PURJM, Simhat Torah, and Holocaust Day. assumes an extraordinary position. The leader of

Like most other rehgions, Judaism sanctifies a community that may span the globe, the Hasidic
the rhythms of life. During RITUALS performed rebbe is thought to be blessed with special insight
soon after birth, Jews enter into the covenant into God's revelation and will. His person is
especially revered, his word is taken as close to
with God and receive their names. The ritual for divine revelation, his advice is sought on all mat-
boys is CIRCUMCISION, known as brit milah, ters, and even his presence is spiritually uplifting.
"covenant of circumcision," or more colloquially
The state of Israel, established after the Holo-
as bris and performed on the eighth day of life.
caust, has a special place in the Jewish world. Its
Rituals for girls vary; the traditional ritual is for political leaders have no religious authority, but

fathers to introduce baby girls to the community by its constitution every Jew in the world may
at the synagogue ser\'ice. When boys and, in the become an Israeli citizen. Most Jews outside Is-
more liberal traditions, girls reach the age of 12
or 13, they become BAR or BAT mitzvah, "son Arael strongly support the state. few Hasidic Jews
or daughter of the commandment" respectively,
that is, members of the adult Jewish communip,'. have rejected Israel as a human attempt to do
The ceremom- invokes reading a portion of the what only God should do, restore the glories of
Torah in Hebrew and then commenting upon it.
Distinctive features of a Jewish wedding include ancient Israel.
the huppah, the canopy under which the bride
and groom stand, and the glass that the groom Significance
breaks with his foot at the end of the ceremony.
Judaism also has distinctive funeral practices. At the end of the 20th century roughly 1 5 million
When Jews learn that a close relative has died, people practiced Judaism. Although this is only a
they are supposed to tear their clothes. They also small percentage of the Earth's population, Juda-
observe various periods of mourning; the most ism remains a major religion. In addition, Judaism
intense lasts fi'om the moment of death until has enriched other religions of the world, such as
burial is over. Judaism does not as a rule allow Christianity and Islam, and individual Jews have
cremation. Embalming is forbidden, and ideally made major contributions to the world's culture.
the corpse should be buried within 24 hours.
JUDAISM IN AMERICA The practice of

Judaism in the Western Hemisphere. This entry

focuses specifically on JUDAISM in the United

Organization States. By the end of the 20th century, that Jewish

community was second in importance orJy to the

Judaism is organized according to local congre- Jewish community in Israel.

gations that join together to form national or- As a result of the European intellectual move-

Aganizations. congregation maintains a ment known as the Enlightenment (18th cen-

synagogue, which is a place for prayer, study, and tury), Jews received fijll civil rights. That first

fellowship. It also supports a rabbi, a person who, happened on American soil. With American inde-

after intensive study, is ordained to ser\-e a con- pendence and the adoption of the U.S. Constitu-
gregation's spiritual needs (see ORDINATION). In
Reform, Reconstructionist, and more recentiy tion, Jews could panicipate in the federal

Conservative Judaism, women have been or- government, hold federal office, and seek legal

dained to the rabbinate. Orthodox and Hasidic recourse in the federal courts. The status of Jews
Jews ordain only men.
in the various states was somewhat difJ'erent. For

example, at that time some states still required

Rabbis are generally respected for their learn- GODlegislators to profess their belief in "the
ing and their senice to the community, but
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost." This requirement

196 JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD

excluded from the government not only lews but everchanging civilization. With the rise of Hitler,
Reform Jews began a move to recover traditions
also evenone who was not a trinitarian Christian that they had abandoned. After World War II,
ultraconservative Hasidic communities settied in
(see TRINITY').
the United States (see HASIDISM). A prime exam-
The first Jewish community' in what would ple is the Lubavitch communitv' in New York
later be the United States was estabUshed in
City.
Xcw .\mstcrdam (later New York Cit\) in Sep-
In the second half of the 20th centun-,
tember 1654. At the end of the 18th century American Judaism was still negotiating the con-
( 1800), roughly 2,000 Jews lived in the United flict between preserving traditions and adapting
States. Most of them had assimilated to a large to the American environment. One verv' impor-

—extent into American societ\'. Assimilation for tant issue concerned the place of women in the

example, the use of English in WORSHIP, the communitv-. Reform and Reconstructionist Juda-

—adoption of a Gentile diet was destined to be ism ordained women to the R\BBINATE. The
Orthodox refiised to do so. The Conservative
the issue on which the American Jewish commu- movement eventually decided to ordain women,
nity' would di\ide. but some within the community continued to

During the 19th century, two waves of Jew- resist this move.
ish immigrants approached this issue in two dif-
ferent ways. Until roughly 1880, most Jewish JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD The idea
immigrants were of German background. They
developed far-reaching ideas about how to adapt that after people die, their lives are assessed. It is
Judaism to the American situation. After se\eral especialh- important in CHRlSTL-VN'm' and ISL.\M.
attempts throughout the centur\'. Reform Juda-
ism finally coalesced in the 1870s. In that decade, Religions have many different teachings
the Union of American Hebrew Congregations about what happens after death (see .MTERLIFE
was formed in Cincinnati. It established Hebrew INWORLD RELIGION'S I . Some teach that all people
Union College to train rabbis. lead the same kind of existence, an existence that
is not particularly desirable. Examples include the
Then from 1881 to 1914, a second wave of religions of ancient Mesopotamia and Israel.
Jewish immigration arrived at American shores. Other religions teach that reward for a good life
The new immigrants came from eastern Europe. and punishment for a bad one occur according to
The\- \astly outnumbered the Jews alread\' living "natural" laws. Examples are notions of KARAL\
in Amenca. They also rejected Reform Judaism
in favor of maintaining their traditions, and some m HINDUISM, J.\INISM, and BUDDHISM, and the
formed the Jewish Theological Seminar\' of
America. In 1913 they also established the "bridge of the requiter" that Zoroastrians say the
United Synagogue ofAmerica. These became the dead must cross (see ZORO.\STRL\NISM). Still
central institutions of Consenative Judaism. Al- other rehgions teach that after people die, they
though this new form of Judaism accepted must answer to a judge or panel ofjudges for w hat
change as inevitable, it also insisted on making they have done. Strictly speaking, judgment of the
changes that still respected Jewish traditions. dead refers to this last teaching.

After World War 1, Orthodox Judaism coa- Some religions of the ancient Mediterranean
lesced. Its premier institution was Yeshiva Col- world contain hints of a judgment of the dead.
lege, later Yeshiva University, founded in 1928. The Egyptian Book of Going Forth bv- Day con-
A Conservative thinker, Mordecai Kaplan, added tains a well-known image of a person's heart
yet another vanety of Judaism to the American being weighed in a balance after death. In one pan
mix: Reconstructionism. Reconstructionism em- stands the heart; in the other rests a feather. The
feather symbolizes Maat, the Egyptian GODDESS
phasizes Judaism not as a religion but as an

JUNO 197

of truth and justice (see EGiTTTAN RELIGION). Countiess religious groups, mostiy Protestant,
Some Greeks also taught that the dead appeared have proclaimed that the day of judgment was at
before a panel of judges. According to Plato, in hand. Popular culture has also picked up on the
phrase. For example, in 1991, a mo\ie featuring
his Apology^ the philosopher Socrates identified body-building champion Arnold Schwarzeneg-
these judges as Minos, Rhadamanthus, Aeacus, ger was entitled Terminator 2: Judgment Day.

Triptolemus, and other demigods. The Jewish JUNG, CARL GUSTAV (1875-1961) A
New Year, Rosh ha-Shanah ( see JEWISH FESTI-
VALS), is sometimes called the Day of Judgment. Swiss psychologist famous for his ideas about the
But rUD.\IS.\I has tended to be less specific about collective unconscious. As a young man Jung was
what happens after death than its younger cous- impressed with the ideas of Sigmund FREUD, the
ins, Christianity and Islam. The opening verses of founder of psychoanalysis. Eventually, how-e\-er,
the QUR".\N emphasize the imponance of the he broke with Freud.
judgment of the dead in Islam: "In the name of
ALLAH, the Beneficent, the Merciftil. All praise is Freud sees religion as a symptom of imma-
due to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds, the Benefi- turity and even mental illness. Jung sees religion
cent, the Mercifiil, Master of the Day of Judg- as helping to make a well-integrated person. That
ment" (Qur'an 1.1-3). is, religion helps the different parts of a person's
psyche fit together.
Christians and Muslims share many ideas
about the judgment of the dead. They generally According to Jung, s^'mbols make this inte-
think that the souls of the dead are already with gration possible. Religious symbols are especially
GOD. At the same time, they expect a final judg- important. Jung talks about them in terms of
ment at the end of time. In this final judgment, what he calls .ARCHETiTES. Archetypes are sym-
God, or an agent acting on God's behalf, will bols that all people share. They exist in the "col-
separate "the sheep fi-om the goats" (Matthew lecti\-e unconscious," and they ftinction like
25.32). In both religions, written records of a language. They pro\ide the psychological
f)erson's life form the basis of the judgment. "words" that people use to make sense of their
Those destined for paradise go to the right; those worlds. One example is the archetype of the
destined for HELL go to the left. According to the mother as found in various m\iths.
Qur'an, JESUS himself will return at the last day
and testify- against the Christians, who blas- Perhaps the most famous follower of Jung in
phemed by making him di\ine (Qur'an 4.159). the second half of the 20th centur\- was Joseph

The judgment of the dead is a prominent Campbell. A student of m>tholog\', Campbell is
theme in Christian art. (Islam does not allow
artists to portray people. ) In the time known as well known for his ideas on the archetype of the
the Romanesque period (roughly 1000-1150), hero (see HEROES .\ND HERO XHTHS).
artists such as Gislibertus delighted in portraNing
terrifying images of the last judgment. Later, the JTJNO One of the most important GODDESSES
last judgment figured in the macabre paintings of of the ancient Romans. Juno was enshrined, to-
Hieronymus Bosch ( c. 1450-1516 1. Of the mam- gether with JUPITER and Minena, in the ancient
works on the theme, Michaelangelo's Last Judg- temple on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. She was
ment, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in one of the major goddesses of the city.
Rome (1536-41 ), is perhaps the most notable.
Juno's special sphere was the life of women,
The theme of the judgment of the dead, or particularly childbirth. As a protector in child-
rather, judgment day, has also fascinated North birth she was worsJiiped as Juno Lucina, "Juno
Americans in the 19th and 20th centuries. who brings to light." She was also worshiped in
other forms, such as Juno Sospita, "Juno the

198 JUPITER

Deliverer or Preserver," Juno Moneta, "Juno treaties and oaths. His priests presided over the
who warns," and Juno Regina, "Queen Juno."
most solemn form of Roman marriage.
Juno was most often represented as a mature The days in the middle of the month known
but young woman. As Juno the Deliverer she was
as "Ides" were especially sacred to Jupiter; they
shown bearing arms. An important festival was
the MatronaHa, held in honor of Juno Lucina on may once have been full moon days. The festival
March 1. The story of how she protected the
Capitol in 390 B C. may have given her the name of the dedication of the Capitoline temple took
Juno Moneta. The Gauls were trying a sneak place on the Ides of September. It became the
attack under cover of night. The honking of
Juno's geese ga\e them away. occasion for major Roman games.

Eventually the Romans identified Juno with JUSTinCATION An important idea in Ro-
the Greek goddess Hera. The English month of
June takes its name from her. man Catholic and Protestant theology. Justifica-

JUPITER The supreme god of the Romans. tion is one of the topics that Christians debated

The name Jupiter is related to the Greek name the most during the REFORMATION.
ZEUS and the Sanskrit name Dyaus Piter. TJiis
relationship connects Jupiter with an ancient sky "Justification" is a term that Christians bor-
god worshiped as father. When the Romans en-
countered Greek culture, they identified Jupiter rowed from law courts. In the courts it meant
with Zeus.
"being declared not guilty." The apostie PAUL
From the founding of the Roman Republic
used the word to talk about the forgiveness of
m 509 B C , Jupiter shared a temple on the Capi-
SINS. He said that, although people are guilty of
toline Hill with JUNO and Miner\'a. The Romans
GODsin, justifies them fi-eely. Therefore, Chris-
—called this Jupiter "Optimus Maximus" "Best
tians did not have to obsenx the TORAH ("the
and Greatest." He was their supreme god.
The Romans worshiped Jupiter under many law"). They simply needed to have FAITH in

other names, too. They include Jupiter Lucetius JESUS' death and RESURRECTION.
("Bringer of Light"), Tonans ("Thunderer"), Orthodox CJiristians have not talked much
Fulgur ("Lightning Hurler"), Elicius ("Giver of
Heavenly Signs"), and Latiaris ("God of the Lat- about justification, but Roman Cathohcs and
ins"). Like other sk\' gods, Jupiter watched over
Protestants have. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO used the

idea. Then, during the Reformation, it became an
issue on which the church split. Martin LUTHER

insisted that people are justified by faith alone,

apart fi-om works. Justification is a gift received in

faith. By contrast, Roman Catholics have thought

of justification as a process. Persons prepare for

God's justification. Then they receive it through

faith, hope, love, and SACRAMENTS such as BAP-

TISM and penance.

K

ICAABA ,\rabic for "cube"; the central shrine centun,-. No one knows quite where it came from.

of Islam, located in Mecca, toward which devout It shares some characteristics with earlier forms of
Muslims pray. The Kaaba is one focus of the Jewish mysticism, but the way it talks about GOD
annual PILGRIMAGE to Mecca in ISLAM (see
MECCA, PILGRIMAGE TO). is distinctive. Kabbalah began as an esoteric tra-

The Kaaba is a cubical structure made of dition. That is, it was a private, even secret subject
black granite, roughly 42 feet by 36 feet by 55
feet high. It has only a single door and no win- that a student explored under the guidance of an
dows. Inside it are only gold and silver lamps. The
Kaaba is generally co\ered by a black cloth em- experienced master. The most important writing
broidered with gold thread known as the kiswah.
During pilgrimage time, the "skirts" of this cloth to come from Spanish kabbalah was a book
are raised, so that pilgrims can see the actual named the Zohar, the "Book of Splendor." When

structure. Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, kabbalis-

The Kaaba is said to occupy the spot on Earth Notic activity shifted locations. place became
direcdy under God's heavenly throne. According
to legend, ABRALLAM and his son Ishmael built the more important than Safed in Palestine. It was
Kaaba. At that time the ANGEL Gabriel brought
a black rock down from HEAVEN and gave it to there that the great kabbalist Isaac Luria
them. The rock is now encased in silver in one of
the corners of the Kaaba. ( 1534-72) lived and taught.
In talking about God, kabbalists identified a
At the time of the prophet MUH.\MM.\D (AD,
570-632 ), the Kaaba was filled with idols. But in polarity between what they called the Ein Sofand

the year 630, Muhammad returnecl to Mecca the scfirot. Literally, Ein Sof means "endless, in-
after having fled for his hfe. He emptied the finite." This is God at the greatest distance from
human beings: unnameable, unknowable. Sefirot
Kaaba of all images and established pilgrimage to
Mecca as a major ritual of Islam. During pilgrim- literally means "numbers." It refers to God's
age Mushms circle the Kaaba seven times in
various powers or characteristics, usually 10 in
imitation of the angels, who continually circle
number: kingdom, foundation, eternity, splen-
god's heavenly throne.
dor, grandeur, mercy, stern judgment, wisdom,
KABBALAH From the Hebrew word for "tra-
understanding, and thought. Kabbalists teach
dition"; from the 12th centuPi- .\,D, on, die main that these sefirot somehow proceed or emanate

mform of Jewish mysticism. Kabbalah arose from God. Explanations of how they do so var\'.

northern Spain and southern France in the 12th In any case, kabbalah usually represents the sefirot

as different parts of a cosmic man or tree.

Isaac Luria added to kabbalah his own very
distinctive and influential ideas. He taught that
creation occurred when God withdrew or con-
tracted into himself {tsimtsum). When that hap-

pened, the universe arose in the space that was

left. Light emanated from God and entered ves-

sels that were finite in size, but it shattered them.

199

That shattering created darkness and e\Tj and Islamic alike. He sought instead the true God
resulted in the mixing of sparks of the di\ine light
with dark, material substance. As Luria saw it, the within, the one Realitv'. His ideas resemble ISL.'\M
goal of religious practice is to restore the divine in emphasizing that there is only one God and in
rejecting caste. His ideas also resemble HINDUISM
sparks to the light of God (tikkun). Doing so in that they include notions of K.-yL\LA and rebinh.
prepares the way for the MESSL\H to come.
Kabir composed his poems not in the lan-
Besides de\eloping these ideas, kabbalah guage of the educated but in the language of the
ordinarv' people. The poems quickly became
gave new significance to following the Jewish way popular throughout north India. Kabir exercised
of life. It teaches that human actions actually alter a great influence on N.\N.\K, the first guru of the
God. Obsening the instructions of TORAH Sikhs. Indeed, Kabir's poems appear in the sacred
strengthens God; violating them weakens God. book of the Sikhs, the .\DI GIL\XTH. He did not
Kabbalists also recommend more specific prac- himself establish the group known as the Kabir-
tices. Generally they urge the aspirant to contem- panth, "Kabir's path," but the group continues
plate God in prayer. By that means his or her today to tr\' to put his insights into practice.
intellect will enjoy communion with God. One
kabbalist, Abraham Abulafia (c. 1240-c. 1291), KAMI The gods of SHINTO. Some kami are
formulated techniques that remind one of certain
nature spirits, dwelling in great trees, waterfalls,
practices in yoga: breathing exercises, recitation
rocks, or mountains. Some are the spirits of fa-
of God's names (cp. .VL\NTR.\), and bodily mo- mous persons regarded as kami after their deaths.
tions to accompany the recitation (cp. MUDR.AS). Most originally fiinctioned as protectors of par-
As a result of these practices, the limits of the self ticular communities, clans, families, or occupa-
were supposed to disappear and the person was tions, though some are worshiped by the nation
united with God. as a whole. Although they are limited rather than
all-powerful gods, in the eves of believers, the
Kabbalah is still pursued today. It has also Shinto kami add a sense of life and divine presence
had a wider influence. Especially the kabbalah of to the beautiful Japanese landscape. The Shinto
Isaac Luria played a significant role in the rise of
H.\SIDISM. In addition, kabbalistic ideas influ- shrines seen almost everv'where in Japan, with
enced important European thinkers and poets, their distinctive torii or crossbeamed gateway, are
for example, Pico della Mirandola, Gottfried
Leibniz, and William Blake. all home to one or more kami. Some shrines
honor families of kami: father, mother, and child.
KABIR (1440-1518) An Indian S.\INT. One of the most distinctive sets of shrines, which
are found throughout the Japanese islands, are
Kabir is best known for his poetry, which com- those to Inari, a god of fertilitv' and prosperitv-.
bined Islamic and Hindu elements into a single They have bright red or orange torii with images
of foxes, messengers of this god, on either side of
religious path. them. The ancient Shinto mvthologies, found
primarily in the books called Kojiki and Nihoii-
Kabir belonged to a religious movement in shoki (or Nihonfli), tell the story of how kami
medieval India known as the "sants." This move- made the Japanese islands and became ancestors
ment appealed to people of the lowest CASTES
from all religious backgrounds. The sants rejected of its imperial house.
human religious authorir,' and took the GOD who
KARMA Sanskrit word meaning action and
dwelled within their hearts as their guru.
Kabir was born into a Muslim family of weav- the consequences of action. The word karma is
used in HINDUISM, BUDDHISM, and J.MNISM.
ers. At some point he was heavily influenced by
Hindu traditions. In the end he rejected all sacred
scriptures and much religious RITU.\L, Hindu and

KING, MARTIN LLTHER, JR. 201

Karma-YOGA, taught in the BH.\GAV.\D-GITA, is character ... I ha\'e a dream that one day the state
of Alabama . . . will be transformed into a situ-
the discipline of \'oga or uniting oneself with GOD ation where lirtle black bo\'S and black girls will
through righteous action in the world. The term be able to join hands with lirde white boys and
also commonly refers to the consequences of white girls and walk together as sisters and broth-
ers .. . WTien we let freedom ring . . . we will be
actions, even actions of the mind, reminding us able to speed up that day when all of GOD's
that ever}' thought, word, and deed will haxe children, black men and white men, Jews and
consequences for the doer, good or bad, depend- Gentiles, Protestants and Cathohcs, will be able
ing on the nature of the action. The consequence to join hands and sing in the words of the old
may come out in one's fiiture life, though karma Xegro spiritual, 'Free at last! free at last! thank
is not limited to reincarnation. God Almightx', we are free at last!'"

KING, MARTIN LLTTTER, JR. (I929-I968) King also advocated distinctive tactics for
pursuing integration: active but non\iolent resis-
The most important leader of the civil rights tance. These tactics owed a great deal to Gandhi's
mo\ement in the United States. Martin Luther nonviolent campaigns. In his famous "Letter
King, Jr., was born and raised in Atianta, Georgia. from Birmingham Jail" i Spring 1963), King ex-
His father and grandfather were Baptist ministers,
and King followed in their footsteps. He took Thc leader of the ci\il rights movement in the 1960s,
degrees fi-om Morehouse College in Adanta, Martin Luther King, Jr., was also a Baptist minister like
Crozer Theological Seminar)' in Chester, Penn- iiis father and grandfather before him. (By permission of
sylvania, and the School of Theolog\' at Boston Suzanne Kaufman)
Universit\'. During these years he was profoundly
influenced by the writings of Henry Da\'id
Thoreau, especially his essay on "Civil Disobedi-
ence," the social gospel of Walter Rauschen-
busch, the non\iolent resistance movement of
Mohandas GANDHI, and a school of theolog\' in

ABoston known as "personahsm." visit to India

later in life reinforced the impact of Gandhi's
teachings on King.

King's first pastorate was in Montgomery',
Alabama. At that time the Montgomery' public
transportation system required blacks to sit in the
back of buses. King was chosen to lead a boycott
in protest of this practice. It made him into a
national figure. Soon he founded the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference to organize
othenvise fragmented civil rights efforts.

King's goal was to overcome the barriers that
separated whites and blacks. King expressed this
goal perhaps most eloquently in the famous "I
Ha\e a Dream" speech that he gave during the
March on Washington in August 1963: "I have

a dream that my four children will one day live in

a nation where they will not be judged by the
color of their skin but bv the content of their

202 KINGDOM OF GOD

pressed tJie idea behind these tactics. "Nonvio- For most Christians, the kingdom of God is
lent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and coming in the fijture. Christianity teaches that
foster such a tension that a community which has Jesus will return. When he does so, he will judge
constantly refused to negotiate is forced to con- human beings. He will also usher in the kingdom
front the issue. It seeks so to dramatize the issue of God. The book of REVELATION in the New
that it can no longer be ignored."
Testament presents a highly picturesque account
King remained the dominant influence on of what will happen.
the civil rights movement until 1965. Some of his
actions failed, but many achieved results. The At the same time. Christians look upon the
widest success came when the United States Con-
gress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the —kingdom of God as a present reality in imperfect
Voting Rights Act of 1965. The widest recogni-
tion came when King received the Nobel Prize form. According to Luke, Jesus taught, "The
for peace in 1964. kingdom of God is among you" (Luke 17.22).
Many Christians have identified this kingdom
Beginning in 1965, younger members of the with the church. Protestants in the United States
movement became impatient with King's non- have been inspired by the ideal of the kingdom to
violent methods. They began to advocate a more work for many social reforms.
active black power. In 1966 King tried to over-
come segregation in northern American cities. KINGSHIP AND RELIGION The relig-
He targeted Chicago, but his efforts there failed.
In 1967 King spoke out strongly against the ious role and significance of traditional sacred
Vietnam War. At the end of his life he was reach- rulers. In many traditional societies the king is
ing out to the disadvantaged of all races. In April
1968 he traveled to Memphis, Tennessee, in more than just the ruler of the state. He also has
support of a strike by sanitation workers. There,
on April 4, he was assassinated by James Earl Ray qualities of a priest and even a god. History tells
while standing on a hotel balcony. us of such figures as the pharaoh of Eg\pt (see
EGYPTL\N RELIG ION , the emperors of China and
King's contribution to contemporary Ameri-
can culture is immense. In recognition of his )
leadership and achievements, almost every state
in the United States obser\es Martin Luther King Japan (see CHINA, RELIGIONS OF and JAPANESE
RELIGION), and the maimed king in the Holy
day on the third Monday in January. Grail stories of King Arthur, whose land withered
as the monarch fell wounded.
KINGDOM OF GOD A Christian term for
The basic idea is that the king and the land
the ideal society and world. As presented in the are bound up together, and the king faces heaven
on behalf of the land. He is the mediator between
BIBLE, the kingdom of GOD is a central element HEAX'EN and Earth. Sometimes the sacred king
of JESUS' teaching. According to the GOSPEL of has this function because he himself is belie\'ed to
Mark (1.15), Jesus taught, "The kingdom of God be virtually divine. The pharaoh in ancient Egypt
has come near." (The gospel of Matthew speaks was thought to be identical with the god HORUS,
of the kingdom of HEAVEN.) Many of Jesus' and would become Osiris, lord of life and death,
after his own death. The Chinese emperor was
parables tell about the kingdom. His sa\ings talk called son of heaven, and the Japanese ruler was
about entering the kingdom. The LORD'S PR,\YER said to be descended from AMATERASU, the sun
teaches Christians to pray, "Your kingdom GODDESS.
come."
Beliefs like these gave the king legitimacy in
the eyes of heaven as well as of his subjects, and

made his laws, ideally, enactments of the will of
heaven. Western MONOTHEISM, in JUD.MSM,
CHRJSTL-UvlITY, and ISL.VM, could not exactly
identif)' the king with God, since for monotheism

KONKOKYO 203

there was only one God and that God was in for both leaders and ordinary citizens to follow

heaven, but kings were sometimes given titles God's commandments. Now as ever, humanity
that evidenced a close relationship. The caJiphs in
Islam were called "Shadow of God," and for wants its political institutions to have sacred
many centuries. Christians talked seriously about meaning and divine sanction.
the "divine right of kings."
KOAN A riddle or puzzling saying used to
Of course, such an exalted position also had
its disadvantages, as the maimed king learned, for provoke enlightenment, especially in the Rinzai
heaven could hold the king responsible for what
happened in the lands entrusted to him and judge school of ZEN BUDDHISM. One koan is ver\- well
how well he executed his charge. The kings of known in North i\merica: "Show me the sound
of one hand clapping."
ancient Babylon had to confess their SINS with
Koan were first systematized by the great Zen
tears before the gods on New Year's Day if they master Hakuin (1686-1769). Because they pre-
sent the mind with an insoluble problem, MEDI-
hoped to continue as heaven's viceroy on Earth TATION on koan should frustrate the meditator
(see MESrOT.'\MIAN RELIGIONS). The Chinese and ultimately force him or her to surrender
spoke of the sovereign's "mandate of heaven" to reliance on language and reason. In ZEN BUD-
rule the "middle kingdom," and if a dynasty DHISM, language and reason are thought inevita-
became unworthy, the mandate might pass to bly to diston reality. Therefore, they must be
another. When the ruling dynasty had lost the overcome.

—mandate, natural disasters earthquakes, floods, A student receives a koan from a Zen master
—droughts as well as social upheavals would indi-
and is expected to return with an answer. Serious
cate that heaven was displeased, the house in students work on a single koan for a year or more.
power had lost its mandate, and it was time for a Nevertheless, the answer must be spontaneous
better emperor to take power. rather than premeditated. Although students re-
flect on their koan during meditation, many sto-
Many RITUALS of kingship make clear the
religious character of the office. The coronation ries relate how Zen practitioners unexpectedly
of European kings, like the rite installing the king
or queen of England, takes place in a church or discovered answers to their koan while engaged
cathedral in the midst of a religious service. The in quite menial activities.
new Japanese emperor communes with his divine
ancestors in a mysterious SHINTO midnight cere- KONKOKYO One of the "new religions" of
mony called the Daijosai. Annual kingship rituals
also make the same point. The emperors of China Japan, based on revelations in 1859 to its founder,
Kawate Bunjiro (1814-83), called Konko Daijin.
and Japan ritually planted the first rice each spring The revelations were fi"om a deity called Tenchi
and ofi:'ered the first fioiits of the harvest in the Kane no Kami, officially translated as "Parent
fall. At a dramatic winter solstice ceremony at the God of the Universe." They called Kawate to a
ALT.\R of Heaven in Beijing, the Chinese emperor ministrv' of mediation between humans and the
would pray direcd)' to heaven on behalf of the divine. The religion has WORSHIP in a SHINTO
people.
Ast>ie but is monotheistic (see MONOTHEISM).
Sacred kingship is in serious decline in the
modern world, but remnants of it remain, and distinctive feature is a practice called toritsu^i,
sometimes have been transferred to the secular
state. In the United States, people often talk of mediation, whereby believers can formally receive
the countn' as established under God's guidance, personal spiritual guidance fi-om a priest; it has
but say that to keep his blessing it is important sometimes been compared to confession in the

Roman Catholic Church. The religion also puts
great emphasis on the presence of mitama or

ancestral spirits guiding us today. It has spread

204 KORAN

throughout Japan and to Japanese communities the mid- 19th centun', the outside was forcing its
around the world. way in.

KORAN See QUR'.W Roman Catholic and Protestant MISSIONAR-
IES were active, bringing with them Western
KOREAN RELIGION Religious traditions learning. In opposition, a movement called
Tonghak (Eastern Learning), or Ch'ondo-kyo
of Korea. The Korean Peninsula lying between (Way of Heaven Teaching), arose to resist for-
eigners; its activities led to the Sino- Japanese War
China and Japan has a distinctive religious heri- of 1894, after which Japanese influence and sub-

tage. It was strongly influenced by Chinese cul- sequent rule controlled Korea until 1945.
CHRISTIANITY grew in Korea, especially after
ture, from whence it received CONFUCIANISM
and BUDDHISM, and was a major channel of the end of World War II. After the Philippines,
Korea is the most Christian country in east Asia.
communication of the same to Japan. Yet Korea Korea has also produced new religious move-
has also maintained its own identity. ments, the best known worldwide being the
quasi -CJiristian Unification Church of the Rev.
The ancient religion of Korea centered on Sun Myung Moon. Korea remains a mbt of relig-
ious traditions and movements.
SHAM-^NISM. Going into trance states, shamans
KRISHNA A Sanskrit word meaning "black";
would transmit the words and power of heavenly
the name of one of the most beloved of Hindu
gods or gods of the locality. Shamanism persists gods. According to Hindu mytholog}', Krishna is
an AVATAR of the god VTSHNU. For many wor-
today as an important feature of popular spiritu- shipers, however, Krishna is himself the supreme
GOD. Indeed, many scholars believe that Krishna
ality, especially in the form of shamanesses called was at first an independent deit>'. Only later was
he incorporated into the m\ths of Vishnu. Stories
mudanjf, who perform colorfiil rites known as kut of Krishna are numerous. They have given rise to
some of the masterpieces of Indian literature.
for healing, expelling EVIL spirits, or delivering
Ancient traditions know Krishna as a prince,
divine messages. Shamanism has been especially a hero, and a sage. In this form Krishna is called
important as a religious venue for women in a Vasudeva. Vasudeva Krishna appears in the great
Sanskrit EPIC, the Mahabhnrata. That epic pits
highly patriarchal culture.
five brothers, the Pandavas, against their cousins,
Buddhism entered Korea from China in the the Kauravas. Krishna has ties to both groups. In
the final battle of cousins against cousins, his
ADfourth centun' and quickly established itself troops fight on behalf of the Kauravas, while
Krishna himself advises, but does not fight for,
firmly. The golden age of Buddhism was the
the Pandavas. The famous Hindu scripture, the
period of the Koryo dynast}', 935-1392. It was BHAGAVAD-GITA, records a conversation between
Mahayana, with monks meditating in the Zen Krishna as adviser and Arjuna, one of the five
Pandava brothers.
(sun in Korean) manner, and popular devotion
centering on PURE LAND BUDDHISM, the BO- Other stories tell of the birth and youth of
DHISATTVA known as AVALOKITESVARA (Korean, Krishna. This Krishna is known as Gopala, "cow-
herd," because he grows up among a cowherding
Kwan-um), and the coming BUDDHA Maitreya

(Korean, Mi-ruk).

The next dynasty was the Yi, 1392-1910. It

emphasized Confiicianism instead. Indeed, in

some wa\'s the old Korea of those centuries was

virtually an ideal Confijcian state, with emphasis

on literature, the traditional examinations for

entry into public service, and vast national tem-

ples. But this society was very restrictive of

women and was too conser\'ative to meet the

challenges of modern times. Korea was called the
"Hermit Kingdom" because of its unwillingness

to receive visitors or ideas from outside, but bv

KVVANZAA 205

people. Krishna's parents are not cowherds. He KRISHNAISM IN THE WEST The WOR

is born into the ruling lineage of Mathura, a SHIP of the Hindu god KRISHNA by the Interna-
tional Societ)' for Krishna Consciousness.
district in north-central India. But iMathura is in Popularly known as the Hare Krishnas, this form
of BH.\Kri or DEVOTIONALISM was brought to
the hands of the wicked ruler Kamsa. In order to the United States from India in 1965 by A. C.
keep him safe, the gods secretly entrust the infant Bhaktivedanta Svvami (1896-1977). Since then
its chanting, dancing devotees in saftron robes
Krishna to a covvherding couple. After Krishna and shaven heads have been a colorful presence
on American streets. Although its numbers have
grows up, he returns to Mathura, kills the wicked never been large, the mo\'ement has been contro-
\ersial because of its attraction to young people.
Kamsa, and assumes the throne. By the 1980s, however, many of the worshipers
in its temples in the United States were ethnic
Krishna Gopala is a mischievous child and an Hindus.

enchanting lover. The ven' young Krishna is fond KUNDALINI A Sanskrit word for "serpent";

Onof stealing fi-eshly churned butter. one occa- in T.^NTRISM, the energy of Ufe. People who

sion, too, it is said that a witch came to poison practice Tantrism en\ision the energy of life as a
coiled serpent that sleeps at the base of the spine.
him with her milk. But the baby Krishna was Through Tantric practices this energy is awak-
unaffected by the poison. He drank so hard and ened. It gradually proceeds up the spine through
the various CAKRAS or energ)' centers. As it does,
long that he sucked the ven' force of life out of it appropriates the characteristics of these cakras,

Athe witch. somewhat older Krishna is said to for example, the deities who reside in them. Each
appropriation gives the practitioner ever new ex-
haxe cominced the people of the region not to periences, insight, and powers. When kundalini

worship the Vedic god INDR,\. In his anger Indra reaches the highest of these centers, it unites with
sent a torrential rain. But Krishna lifted up Mount the god whose power it is. The result is illumina-
tion and blissful release for the worshiper.
Go\ardhana and held it over the people as a
KWANZAA A kiSwahili word that means "first
gigantic umbrella.
frtuts of the harxest." Kwanzaa is an African-
Krishna's relations with the £opis, the cow- American holiday. African Americans celebrate it
for seven days beginning December 26. In 1966
herding girls, provide favorite stories, for they Maulana Ron Karenga, an African-American ac-
tivist, founded Kwanzaa. He wanted a holidav in
express in graphic terms the relations of God and the time around CHRISTAUS and HANUKK.AH that
the human soul. On one occasion, the gopis were was specifically African American. He also wanted

bathing in a river. Krishna stole their clothes, to celebrate the values, especially family unit)',
that had sustained African .\mericans throughout
which were sitting on the riverbank. Then he the centuries.

climbed a nearby tree, taking the clothes with At the heart of Kwanzaa are seven principles
(in kiSwahili, Nguzo Saba): unity, self-determina-
him. He reftised to give them back until each gopi tion, responsibilitx', cooperation in economic en-
had come naked to the foot of the tree to retrieve

them herself Krishna's fa\orite lo\er is Radha.

Jayadeva's rather explicit poem, the Gitci-

Govinda, celebrates the relations between the

two.

Krishna is shown with dark blue skin. He is
also often shown playing the flute, with which he

enchants the gopis. Places in Mathura associated

with Krishna, such as Vrindavana, Govardhana,

and Gokula, attract millions of Krishna worship-
ers every year. The festivals of Holi, a time of

exuberant license, and Janmashtami, the celebra-

tion of Krishna's birth, are especially important

to this god.

206 KWANZAA

deavors, purpose, creativity, and FAITH. Cele- the family, but always at least one), first fruits,
brants recall these principles on seven successive gifts, and a unity cup used to pour offerings to
days. They use them to greet each other. They ancestors. Children may receive gifts ever\'
also light seven different candles, one for each night. They may also simply receive gifts on

principle. December 31. On that night the most festive

The candleholder is placed on a straw mat celebration takes place.
along with ears of corn (one for every child in

1

LAKSHMI Also known as Sri; the Hindu he would have lived during the si.xth centur)' B.C.
Not much is known about his life, however, and
GODDESS of wealth and prosperin,'. She is also what little is reported reads like legendan' material
worshiped by Jains (see JAINISM). Lakshmi is the developed to illustrate Taoist teachings.
consort of the god VISHNU. When he descends
to Earth in his various AVATARS, Lakshmi often The central event recorded about Lao-tzu
accompanies him. For example, when Vishnu
took form as a dwarf, Lakshmi appeared as Padma Aconcerns his retirement. worker in the Chinese
or Kamala; when he took form as RAMA, she
archives, he is said to have resigned his position
appeared as Sita. at an advanced age due either to discontent or
People worship Lakshmi in order to prosper, political unrest. Having resolved to leave China,
he mounted a water buffalo and headed off to the
whether that prosperit\' is conceived of in agricul- west. At the border he was stopped by a gate-
tural or monetan- terms. She is often shown with keeper, Yin Hsi. Unable to pay the toll with
LOTUS blossoms, for the lotus symbolizes flour- currency, he gave the gatekeeper his wisdom

ishing. A common image shows her standing atop instead: He dictated the 5,000 characters that
make up the central Taoist classic, the Tao te
a lotus flower and holding lotuses in her two Ching, the "Classic of the Way and its Power."
upraised hands. At times she is shown with two
white elephants. Allowed to pass, Lao-tzu rode off into the w-est.

The festival of lights, known as Divali or Among other things, this story illustrates the
Dipavali, is particularly sacred to Lakshmi (see
HINDU FESTrVALS). It takes place in October or Taoist principle of wu-wei^ the abandonment of

November. On this occasion Hindus offer the deliberate, acquisitive action.
goddess food, money, clothing, and jewels. Men
Other stories about Lao-tzu also illustrate
also gamble, for Lakshmi is the goddess of good Taoist teachings. For example, Taoists believe

luck. that people who act entirely in harmony with
nature do not dissipate any vital energy. The most
LAMA, LAMAISM See TIBETAN RELIGION.
modest claims suggest that Lao-tzu lived to an
LAO-TZU (sixth century B.C.) Chinese for advanced age of, say, 160 or 200 years. Taoists
were also intensely interested in .\LCHEMY, a "sci-
"old master" or "old man"; the alleged founder ence" that tries to mature substances that have
of the Chinese religion, TAOISM. Lao-tzu is also been born prematurely. One legend relates that
the name of a book attributed to Lao-tzu, more Lao-tzu spent a considerable amount of time
commonly known as the TAO TE CHING.
inside his mother's womb. When he was born, he
Lao-tzu has long been identified with Lao
Tan, an older contemporary of CONFUCIUS was already an old man.
(551^79 B.C.). If that identification is correct. Still other stories reflect tension between

Taoism and its religious neighbors in China. For
example, some say that when Lao-tzu left China,

208 LATTER-DAY SAINTS

he went to India. There he became the BUDDHA disappeared, but several witnesses claimed to have
seen them before they disappeared. With the help
and taught Buddhist DI-L\RM^. There are indeed of special instruments. Smith translated the writ-
some similarities between Taoism and BUDDHISM; ings on the plates into English. The result was the
for example, the Sanskrit word for the Buddha's Book of Mormon. Smith published the book in
teachings, "dharma," was first translated into Chi- 1830. In the same year he officially organized
nese as "Tao." But the stor\' also bears witness to what would become the Church of Jesus Christ
the antagonistic relations of the two religions. Simi- of Latter-Day Saints.
larly, Taoist accounts like the CHUANG-TZU dispute
the ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS, which show Lao Smith and his followers moved from New
Tan to be Confucius's respected teacher. In the
York to Ohio and later to Missouri. Eventually
Taoist writings, Confijcius comes off as a fool who the\- founded the town of Nauvoo, Illinois, on the
is too dull to understand Lao Tan's teachings. banks of the Mississippi River. In Nauvoo Smith
taught things that disturbed more conser\'ative
In time, notions of Lao-tzu's longevit>' gave Mormons. He taught that a man could ha\e more
way to the idea that he was immortal. Beginning than one wife, that human beings who practiced
in the second century A.D., the Chinese state Mormon teachings would become divine, and
that those who had died without knowing the
established sacrifices to Lao-tzu. Some Chinese truth could be sa\'ed if family members were
treated him as a savior to whom they could pray baptized on their behalf
for help. Others made him into the physical
embodiment of an eternal principle that continu- Smith's teachings aroused opposition among
non-Mormons. Indeed, persecution had driven
ally incarnated itself to advise the Chinese kings. the communit)' from Ohio and Missouri. In 1844
Religious leaders known as the Celestial Masters Smith was killed by a mob after being imprisoned
saw themselves as Lao-tzu's representatives on in Carthage, Illinois. He is buried in Nauvoo.
Earth. The faithful have dedicated a large number
of shrines to Lao-tzu in these forms. After Smith's death, the communitii' split.

LATTER-DAY SAINTS People who prac- Most Latter-Day Saints followed Brigham
Young, leader of the governing body of the
tice an American offshoot of CHRISTIANITY. They church at the time Smith died. He and his follow-
are popularlv called Mormons. ers continued to accept the teachings and prac-
tices that Smith had begun in Nauvoo. In 1846
History they moved to Utah. They became the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.
The Latter-Day Saints trace their history back to
a prophet named Joseph Smith, Jr. (1805^4). Other communit)' members rejected the
Nauvoo teachings. The largest group of dissent-
Smith lived in upstate New York along the banks ers insisted that Smith's descendants should lead
the community'. (In this they somewhat resemble
of the Erie Canal. This was at the time of the Shi'ite Muslims [see SHFITE ISU\i\l], who insist
Second Great Awakening in American religious that descendants of the prophet MUFIAMM,\D
life. People in the area enthusiastically supported should lead the Islamic community.) As a result,
many different Christian denominations. That thev followed Smith's son, Joseph Smith III.
left the young Smith confiised. At the age of 14 Thev made their headquarters at Independence,
Missouri, because during his lifetime, the prophet
he received a revelation from GOD the Father and had identified Independence as Zion. This group
lESUS that cleared up his conftision. He learned became the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Dav Saints.
that all varieties of Christianitv' then being prac-
ticed were wrong.

In 1827 Smith claimed that he had discov-
ered, with the help of an ANGF.L named Moroni,
gold plates near his father's farm. The gold plates

LATTER-DAY SAINTS 209

In Utah the Laner-Day Saints openly pro- Distinctive Mormon RITU.\LS include B.\r-
claimed the practice of polygam\'. They also TISM and endowment. Mormons generally bap-
tize around the age of eight. They also baptize by
talked of establishing a Mormon kingdom. This proxy those who have previously died. This has
led them to be intensely concerned with geneal-
led to difficulties with the United States govern- ogy. The ritual of endowment provides a Latter-
ment. After President James Buchanan sent in Day Saint with special temple clothes that are
the army in 1857, Young lost his position as worn under regular clothing. Saints also learn
governor of the territory. It was not until 1890,
however, that the church abandoned its teaching secret passwords and handshakes.
on polygamy.
In personal life Latter-Day Saints obser\'e
From the very founding of the church, rules and cherish values that others sometimes
Latter-Day Saints were active in mission work. find very strict. They are encouraged not to use
That activity continues up to the present. They alcohol, tobacco, coffee, and tea. They must ob-
have been especially successful in Europe and the ser\e a dress code. In addition, good members of
Western Hemisphere. the church tithe, that is, they give 10% of their
income to the church.
Beliefs
Organiz.\tion
Mormons accept the BIBLE as the word of God.
Traditionally only males hold office in the church.
The\- maintain, however, that it has been trans-
lated improperly. The proper translation, they They become deacons, teachers, and priests when
believe, predicts the coming of Joseph Smith.
they turn 12, 14, and 16 years old, respectively.
Mormons also accept the Book ofMormon. It tells
of Hebrews who allegedly immigrated to North At the age of 1 8 they may become elders and enter
America around the year 600 B.C. Their story
involves themes familiar from the Hebrew Bible: into missionar)' work for 18 months (A smaller
SIN, punishment, and repentance. The Book of
Mormon also teaches that Jesus appeared in the number of women undertake missionary work in
Western Hemisphere as well as in Palestine.
their early twenties.). Until 1978 only white men
The Latter-Day Saints who belong to the
church based in Utah have many distinctive be- could be priests in the Utah-based church. In
liefs. They teach that human beings can become
1978 men of color were admitted to the priest-
divine, and that this has already happened in the
case of God. They teach that what orthodox hood. The Reorganized Church has always rec-
Christians consider three persons of the TRINITY
are actually three distinct gods. They teach a ognized black priests; it has also opened the
detailed scenario for the RESURRECTION of the
dead and the end of the world. They teach that priesthood to women.
God's revelations continue today. In particular,
their prophet-president receives revelations from Several executive bodies govern the church.

God that apply to the whole church. The most important are a three-member Presi-

Practices dency, the Council of the Twelve APOSTLES, and

Latter-Day Saints worship in both temples and the Quorum of the First Seventy. A General

meeting-houses. Only practicing Mormons can Conference, which all Mormons may attend, ap-

enter a temple. Onproves actions by these bodies. the local level

Mormons are organized into congregations.

Significance

In many ways Mormonism is typical of religions
that have arisen in the United States. Its charac-
teristic concerns have been with the possibility of
progress, the end of the world, and acceptable
behavior. Today Mormons are known for empha-
sizing the traditional family. They are also known

for valuing hard work. An important example is Hindu sect. For example, those who worship SIVA
the large number of young people in their late
teens and early twenties who devote 18 months see the dance by which Siva creates the world as
of their lives to the work of the church. lila. But lila has been especially important for
worshipers of VISHNU. It is most especially impor-
LENT In CHRISTIANITY, the period of 40 tant for those who WORSHIP the young KRISHNA.

days before EASTER, beginning with the day The mytholog\- of the youthfril Krishna em-
known as Ash Wednesday. Lent has traditionalh' phasizes his mischievous, playful exploits. His
been a time of fasting and penitence, though the worshipers see their ultimate goal as participating
discipline may range from an almost complete
fast to abstaining from meat on certain davs to forever in Krishna's play.
a personal practice of giving up luxuries. Lent
LILITH A female demon in Jewish folklore.
is obsened in the Roman Catholic, Eastern Or-
thodox, Anglican, and some Protestant churches. Lilith seems to be historically related to the Baby-
lonian spirits known as Lilu and Lilitu. She ap-
LEVI STRAUSS, CLAUDE (1908-94) pears only once Ln the BIBLE, in ISAIAH 34.14. In
later folklore she is said to snatch children, espe-
French anthropologist and a leading figure in a
cially babies, to threaten women in childbirth,
kind of analysis called structuralism. Levi-Strauss
and to seduce men, especially in the middle of the
was concerned with exploring the way people night. According to some traditions she was

think. In doing so, he created an approach called — —Adam's first wife, renowned and rejected for

structuralism. It was inspired by work in linguis- her independence. She also came to figure promi-
nendy in KABBALAH.
tics, that is, the scientific study of language. ( Lin-
Traditionally, Jews used amulets, or charms,
guistics is different from learning to read or speak to ward oft" Lilith. Today, they generally dismiss
her as outdated superstition. In the late 20th
a language.) century, however, some Jewish feminists saw in

Levi-Strauss tried to identifj- the codes that LiMth's independence from Adam a positive
mythic image of womanhood, which they have
enabled human beings to think. He was especially
sought to recover.
interested in human beings that earlier anthro-
LITURGY An ordered form of WORSHIP, es-
pologists had called "primitive" or "savage." Ac-
pecially in CHRISTL\NITli'. The word liturgy comes
cording to Levi-Strauss, mental codes were made from a Greek word meaning "public work." Be-
fore Christianity', a liturgy was any public work
up of "binary oppositions," such as nature and that people with money had to sponsor. These
public works included religious festivals.
culture, or raw and cooked.
In Christianity liturgy refers to a fixed order
Levi-Strauss focused most of his anention on for worship. It applies especially to the order for
worship used to celebrate the EUCEL\RIST in Or-
mythology. He argued for a striking position. In thodox and Catholic Christianity (see EASTERN

his view, one did not find the meaning of a myth ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY and ROMAN CATHOLI

Ain the story itself or its symbolism. myth's CISM). In the Orthodox churches this worship
ser\ice is actually called the Divine Liturgy. In
meaning was the code that underlay the myth. Catholic churches it is called the Mass.

Structural analysis was the way to uncover that During the REFOIUL^TION some Protestants,
such as Anglicans and Lutherans, retained the
code. (See also RELIGION, STUDY OF.)

LILA A Sanskrit word for "sport" or "play."
Hindus explain the relation of GOD to the world
in se\eral ways. One way uses the term lila. God

creates and sustains the world bv playing, that is,

through action that lacks any purpose or self-in-
terest. The term lila is not limited to any particular

LOTUS SUTRA 211

traditional liturg\- (see .\NGLICANISM and power and the glory are yours forever. Amen."
LUTHEIL\NISM). Other Protestants rejected it.
They adopted freer forms of worship in an at- This practice appears to be very old, because the
tempt to return to the practice of the earliest Didache, a book of Christian instruction written
in the middle of the second century, ends the
Christians. Lord's Prayer with a doxology. Later the doxol-
ogy found its way into some manuscripts of the
During the 19th and 20th centuries there gospel of Matthew.
was a liturgical re\i\'al. Catholics tried to make the
Mass more accessible to ordinary people. Protes- LOTUS An aquatic flowering plant of special
tants tried to recover traditional forms of worship
that had been abandoned. religious significance in HINDUISM and BUD-
DHISM. The range of meanings connected with
LOKI A god in Norse mynhoiog},'. Loki is an the lotus and its bloom are extensive.

ambiguous figure. Renowned for his cleverness, In cormection with LAKSHMI, the Hindu
GODDESS, the lotus symbolizes wealth, beaut>-,
he helps the gods. For example, he gives birth to and fertility. One common image shows Lakshmi
standing on an open lotus and holding two lotus
the god Odin's horse, who has eight legs. blooms in her upraised hands.
(Among other abilities, Loki can change sex. ) He
also helps the god Thor get his hammer back. At In TANTRISM the oudine of an open lotus
the same time, Loki opposes the gods. He fathers appears in many YANTRAS and MANDALAS, which
are symbols for the forces of the universe. Lotus
Fenriswolf, the enemy of the gods. He kills the forms also define the various CAKRAS, which are
energ)' centers of the human person.
god Balder with a mistietoe arrow.
Because the lotus grows from mud but re-
Loki's fate is like that of Prometheus in Greek
mains clean, it sometimes symbolizes a going
Hemytholog}': is tied to a rock. In Loki's case, beyond or transcendence of the world. Examples
include lotuses in association with the Buddha
the ties that bind him are his own sons' intestines. Amitabha (AMIDA) and the BODHISATTV'A known
as AVALOKITESVARA. Amitabha and Avalokites-
A poisonous snake hangs above him. His wife sits vara shower gifts of compassion on human beings
but remain untouched by the world. The lotus is
by his side to catch the poison that drips from its also associated with YOGA. The cross-legged sit-
ting posture that yoga practitioners frequend)'
mouth. Legend says that Loki will return at the adopt is the well-known lotus position.

end of time. He w411 lead the armies of his daugh- LOTUS SUTRA A Mahayana Buddhist scrip-

ter Hel, "death." ture. The Tendai and Nichiren schools of Japa-
nese BUDDHISM consider the Lotus Sutra
LORD OF THE ANIMALS See PREHIS
absolute truth.
TORIC RELIGION.
The Lotus Sutra was written in Sanskrit
LORD'S PRAYER Also known as the "Our around the first century A.D. and translated into
Chinese in the third cennar>'. It develops a \'er\'
Father"; the most sacred PRAYER in CHRISTIAN- high view of the BUDDH.'K. It teaches that the
Buddha is an eternal being that appeared in his-
ITY. lESUS teaches his followers the Lord's Prayer tory' in the form of the Buddha Sakyamuni
(Siddhartha Gautama). It also invites people to
as part of the famous Sermon on the Mount
(Matthew 6.9-13). The prayer is made up of
seven petitions, each of which resembles prayers
that RABBIS at the time taught. According to
Jesus, the prayer embodies the ideal of simplicity.

A similar, even simpler prayer appears in the

GOSPEL of Luke (11.2^).
It has been customan,' in some churches to

conclude the Lord's Prayer with a doxology or
statement of praise; "For the kingdom and the

212 LUTHER, MARTIN

attain enlightenment not by following the path plenarv' indulgences in a nearby town. They were
of Thera\ada Buddhism but by relying on the called plenan- indulgences because Tetzel prom-
grace and favor of various BODHISATR'AS. Chap- ised that if people bought his indulgences, they
ter 25 is particularly important; it celebrates the would receive forgiveness for all their sins. Dis-
bodhisatt\a A\'.\LOKlTES\'AK\. turbed by this practice, Luther posted 95 theses
or statements for debate on the door of the Casde
The Japanese nationalist Buddhist leader Church at Wittenberg on October 3 1 . The theses
Nichiren ( 1222-82) estabhshed a school of Bud- were published elsewhere, and the debates
dhism centered on chanting the phrase "Namu quickly grew to include fundamentals of church
Myoho-Renge-Kyo," roughh', "Hail to the Mar- teaching and authorin,'. Luther's differences with
velous Teaching of the Lotus Sutra." the Catholic Church of his day proved to be
profound and irreconcilable. He was excommu-
LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546) Ger nicated on January' 3, 1521.

man priest whose disagreements with the Roman Technically an oudaw, Luther received sup-
Catholic Church began the REFORMATION. port from several German princes. From May
1521 through March 1522 he lived in hiding at
Life the Wartburg Casde overlooking Eisenach. ^\fter
returning to Wittenberg, he devoted the rest of
Luther was born on November 10, 1483, in
Eisleben, Germany. His father, a businessman in his Ufc to organizing the breakaway church. He
the mining industr}-, sent Martin to school, with
the intention of having him become a lawyer. But translated the Bible as well as the Mass (see
one day in Jul)' 1505 Luther was walking through LITURGY) into German. To encourage congrega-
a severe thunderstorm. According to tradition, he tional participation in WORSHIP, he wrote a
called out to the patron saint of miners, "Saint number of hymns, such as the well-known "A
Ann, save me, and 1 shall become a monk!" Might)' Fortress Is Our God." And he wrote two
Having survived the storm, he entered the catechisms, a smaller and a larger one, for use in
Augustinian monastery in Erfurt. Ordained to teaching las^jeople the fondamentals of the Chris-
the priesthood, he was sent in 1508 to the re- tian faith. In 1525 Luther married a former nun,
cendy founded University of Wittenberg, where Katherina von Bora. Together they had six chil-
he soon became professor of BIBLE.
dren. He died in Eisleben, the town of his birth,
During this period, Luther was wracked with
worries about the certainty of his SALVATION. on February 18, 1546.

How could he do enough to make satisfaction to Teachings
GOD for his SINS? Reading a passage from the
At the center of Luther's thought stands the
apostle r.AUL's letter to the Romans helped alle- notion of justification. Following the apostie
viate his anxieties: "The one who is righteous will Paul, Luther insisted that people attain a right
live by faith" (Romans 1.17). Reflection on this
passage and others led Luther to his characteristic relationship with God only as a result of God's
insistence that human beings are saved by God's grace, not of an\thing that they do. They learn
GRACE received through F.MTH.
about God's gift through the Bible, the ultimate
In Luther's day the Roman Catholic Church religious authority, and they accept it through
had a virtual monopoly on religion in Europe ( see
faith.
RO.VLAN CATHOLICISM). Luther unintentionally
ended this monopoly and started the Protestant Luther called these ideas the GOSPEL, as dis-
Reformation. In 1517 a preacher named Johan- tinct from the law, which human beings cannot
nes Tetzel had begun to sell what were known as fulfill and which therefore leads to condemnation.
But Luther was not one to resolve oppositions
quickl)'. God's Word, he said, always comes to

LUTHERANISM 213

human beings as both law and gospel. Christians History
are at one and the same time justified and sinful.
And God himself, as human beings experience Martin Luther began the Protestant REFORALA-
him, has nvo aspects: the hidden God who insists
on justice and the revealed God of grace and TION in Oaober 1517, when he nailed 95 "the-
mere)'. Luther teaches in his Small Catechism that
people should respond to this God with fear, ses" or propositions to be debated to a church
love, and trust. door in Wittenberg, Germany. The Reformation
eventually produced many forms of PROTEST.ANT-
SlGNIFIC.\NCE
ISM. Those who followed Luther's teachings be-
By the 1520s Luther's dispute with the leaders of came known as Lutherans. In Europe they are
the Catholic Church had incited people with found especially in Germany and Scandina\ia.
somewhat different perspectives to rebel as well.
The result was a split ofWestem European Chris- Lutheranism spread in the 1500s to Scandi-
tianit)' into two branches, the Roman Catholic na\ia, where it became the established or official
Church and the Protestant churches (see PROT- religion of various states. In Germany Lutherans
ESTANTISM). In response, the Catholic Church
reformulated its teachings at the Council of — —lived in a state of war literally with Catholics
TRENT (1545-63) and eliminated abuses about
which the devout had complained for years. until 1648. Then Lutheranism became the estab-
lished religion of various German principalities.
But Luther's significance was more than In both settings, in a war for survival and as state
religious. Even though the Reformation re- church, Lutheran leaders emphasized the need to
sulted in religious fragmentation and wars, it maintain "pure doctrine," which meant the truth
helped to crystaUize a feeling of political and of Chrisdanit)' as Luther had taught it. Luther-
cultural independence among German peoples. anism became a detailed set of beliefs to which
.\nd because Luther insisted that God comes to people had to subscribe.
human beings not through human actions but
through God's Word, his interest in and impact A reaction to this kind of religion began in
on the German language was immense. His
writings, especially his translation of the Bible, the late 1600s. It was called Pietism. Pietism
helped to estabhsh a common German idiom emphasized what it saw as a genuine religion of
and made him a pioneer in the development of the heart, as opposed to a sterile religion of the
modern German hterature.
head. When Pietists put this emphasis into prac-
LUTHERANISM The branch of CHRISTLAN
tice, they founded charitable institutions such as
ny that marks its rise directiy from Martin orphanages. They also engaged in missionan,'
work.
LUTHER. Lutheran churches sometimes call
themselves "evangelical." This term goes back to In the 1700s another intellectual and cultural
German usage. It means something quite differ- movement, the Enlightenment, influenced some
ent from "Evangelical Christianity" in the British Lutheran theologians. Thinkers and philosophers
context (see E\'.VsGELICAL .\ND FUN'DAVIENT.U. of the Enlightenment rejected MIR.\CLES and su-
1ST CHRISTLVNTTi').
pematuralism. Theologians whom this move-

ment influenced advocated a religion strictly
consistent with the laws of nature.

In the early 1800s the king of Prussia tried to
join Lutheran and Calvinist churches (see PRES-
BYTERIAN .\NT) REFORMED CHURCHES) into a
single Protestant church. Some Lutherans reacted
strongly both to the Enlightenment and to the
"church union." They insisted on preser\ing the
traditional teachings of Lutheranism as found in
written summaries known as the "confessions."

214 LUTHERANISM

At the same time, large numbers of Luther- Lutherans presented to the Holy Roman Em-
ans began immigrating to the United States. peror at Augsburg in 1530.
Lutherans had hvcd especially in the mid-Atlantic
region even earlier. But American Lutheranism Lutherans insist on one basic principle: S,.\L-
grew tremendously from the immigrations of the VATION by GRACE through FAITH. They teach
19th century. The Lutheranism that resulted was that people are sinners and cannot earn a proper
extremely fragmented. People of various nation- relationship with God. Therefore, God sent his
son lESUS to establish that proper relationship.
—alities Germans, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians, This proper relationship is given freely as a gift.
—Finns preferred to WORSHIP in their own lan-
Human beings do not need to do any "good
guages in their own national churches. At the
works" in order to receive it. They simply have to
time of the Civil War, the oldest American Lu- accept God's gift. This acceptance is known as
therans even split into Northern and Southern
churches. In addition, Lutherans influenced by faith.
the confessional movement in Germany did not
consider other Lutherans genuinely Lutheran. To express these ideas, Lutherans often dis-
tinguish between "law" and "gospel." The law is
The watchword of the 20th century was what a person must do. It is usefiil, for example,
unification. But Lutheran unification was not in governing people. But following the law can-
total unification. At the end of the century there not save people. The gospel is the message of
were two major American Lutheran bodies. The God's gift of salvation.
larger body, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in
America, included the Lutheran churches Practices
founded in colonial days as well as many of the
19th-century national churches. The other body, TraditionalK', Lutherans talk about two "means"
the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, preserved or ways by which human beings receive God's
the heritage of the German confessional move- grace. They call them "word" and SACRAMENT.

ment of the 19th century. On a global scale, "Word" refers to communicating the gospel.
In Lutheran worship services this takes place in
20th-century Lutherans began to work together two main ways: through readings from the Bible
in the Lutheran World Federation. and through the PREACHING of a sermon.

Beliefs "Sacrament" refers to two acts that Luther-
ans say were established by Jesus himself: BAPTISM
Lutherans acknowledge the BIBLE as the Word of and the EUCHARIST. Lutherans insist that both
GOD. They differ on what that means. Some insist sacraments are effective not because they are hu-
that every word of the Bible is Uterally true. man acts but because in them God gives his grace
Others say that, while the Bible may contain to human beings. In keeping with this view,
historical and scientific errors, what is important Lutherans continued the Catholic practice of
baptizing infants. They have also insisted that in
is the message underlying the biblical account. die eucharist Jesus' body and blood are really
Lutherans also accept a distinct set of writ- present, regardless of the faith of the person who
eats the bread and drinks the v\ine.
ings known as "confessions." After the ancient
CREEDS, two writings from the Reformation are Lutheran worship ser\ices generalK' presence
the most important confessions: the Small Cate- the form of the Catholic Mass, but they have
chism and the Au£sburg Confession. The Small always been in the ordinary language of the peo-
Catechism is a book Luther wrote to teach the ple. Lutheran worship also has a distinctive tradi-
basics of Christianity^ to children. The Augsburg
Confession is an account of Lutheran beliefs that tion of hymn writing and singing that stretches

back to Luther himself

LUTHERANISM 215

Or.g.\nization The Evangelical Lutheran Church m America
accepted women ministers. The Lutheran
Lutheran congregations belong to state and na-
Church -Missouri Synod did not.
Notional churches. official, council, or organiza-
Significance
tion has authority' over all Lutheran churches.
Lutheranism has been most important in Ger-
Lutherans often call those in charge of the many, Scandinavia, and places where emigrants
churches in a specific region "bishops." The from those countries settled in sizable numbers.
It has not, however, had great influence on the
power of bishops is balanced b\' elections both broader currents of American religious history-.
In the United States the most influential form
within individual congregations and in regional of Protestantism has tended instead to be Cal-

and national assemblies.

Each Lutheran congregation has one or

more ordained ministers, who may be married.

At the end of the 20th centur\', Lutherans were

split over whether women could be ministers.

en

MAGI The priests of Persia (Iran) before IS- proverbial sticking of pins into a doll in Caribbean
culture; perhaps a hair or some other item belong-
L.\i\I. In the time of classical Greece and Rome, ing to the intended victim can be used to put the
the magi were the traditional Persian priests. doll in harmony with that person. "Correspon-
The\- practiced ZOROASTRIANISM and were very-
important in preser\'ing its writings. The Greeks mdence" is the ancient idea, found ancient Greek
respected their wisdom a great deal. They also felt
that these priests had special, secret knowledge. magical texts, that there are magical relationships
This attitude ga\e us the English words "magic" between apparendy disparate things, as bet\\'een
and "magician," which come from magi.
gemstones, parts of the human body, certain
According to the GOSPEL of Matthew chants and spells, and astrological signs. These
(2.1-15), magi came to Wsit JESUS soon after his correspondences can be used to work magic both
birth. The BIBLE does not say anything specific good and bad.
about them. Early legend suggested that they
were kings. In the Middle Ages these kings were Finally, there is the magic of evoking super-
said to be three in number. They were gi\'en natural aid. The traditions of BJTL'.\L magic or
names and kingdoms: Balthasar, king of Arabia; high magic, going back to the Middle Ages and
Melchior, king of Persia; and Caspar, king of before, are meant to call up gods, ANGELS, de-
mons, and other spirits to help the magician and
India. to do his will. The vivid performances of this
school, involving the ceremonialist standing for
The Orthodo.x churches celebrate the visit of
the magi on CHRISTAi\S Day. The Catholic his own protection in a magic circle, and evoking
Church and some Protestant churches celebrate
it on Epiphany (January 6). an entit\' into a triangle with the help of sword,
wand, and \ehement words of command, are the
IVIAGIC The use of means outside ordinar}- height of magical drama.
cause and eft'ect to achieve desired objectives. In
modern terms, it implies means outside the laws Many practitioners of magic teach that the
of conventional science and technology. It would ultimate meaning of the art lies in the power of
mean the employment of seemingly irrelevant will. The mind can change things on its own if
gestures or chants (abracadabra or magic spells),
or even just concentrated thought, to reach a thought is powerfijl and concentrated enough;
goal, rather than ordinary labor or engineering. the instruments of magic, like a doll or gems, or
the e\ocations of ritual magic, are really simply
There are several t\'pes of traditional magical devices for helping the magician concentrate his
means, as defined by Sir James George FBAZER. or her will.
"Sympathetic magic" indicates doing to an object
what you want done to something else, like the Although it is sometimes said that magic and
religion are two completely different things, there
is clearly some overlap. Religious PR-WTR and rites
can be used like magical charms, while magic can
call forth feelinus of awe toward the mysteries of

216

MALCOLM X 217

the universe, which approach the religious. Both Suffering, disruption, and cnminal behavior
in\ol\e ideas of supernatural forces and powers, characterized Malcolm's childhood and young
bv whatever name the\' are called. Religion, how-
e\er, sorts them out rigorousl)- berv^een good and adulthood. He was born Malcolm Little in
bad, and ideally is concerned with a highly giving, Omaha, Nebraska. His father. Earl Little, was a
loving, and moral way of life. Magic can be more
ambiguous. Baptist minister and follower of Marcus Gar\-ey,

MAHAVIRA A(sixth centiiT)' B.C.) Sanskrit who preached black separatism. The Litde family

word meaning "great hero"; a title applied to lived under threats from white racist groups.
Vardhamana, the founder of JAINISM. Jains con-
sider him the 24th ththankara or "ford-maker." —When Malcolm was six, his father died allegedly

A tirthankara is one who makes it possible to ford murdered by whites.

or cross the stream of SAMSARA (rebirth) and Malcolm's mother found the strain of raising
the family alone too much to bear. She was
achieve liberation. hospitalized. Malcolm lived for a while with a
Mahavira lived in roughly the same place and foster family in Michigan. Then he dropped out
of school and moved to Boston to live with his
—time as the BUDDHA northeast India in the sixth
sister. In Boston and later New York he ran drugs
century B.C. Like the Buddha, he was part of a
movement that rejected the BJTU.ALS of SACRI- and engaged in burglary. E\entually he was
FICE described in the sacred books known as the caught and imprisoned.

—\^DA. At the age of 30, he asked his brother his It was in prison (1946-52) that Malcolm
—parents had died for permission to renounce discovered the Nation of Islam. It changed his
life. The Nation's teaching that "the w-hite man
ordinan.' life. Receiving it, he adopted the life- is the devil" made intuitive sense to Malcolm.
st\'le of a wandering beggar. Instead of shaving Even more important, in the Nation of Islam
his head, he pulled out his hair. Either immedi- Malcolm found pride and self-respect as a person

— —ately or after 13 months traditions \ar)' he of African descent. On release from prison, Mal-

gave up every last possession, including the wear- colm proved to be especially good at public speak-
ing of clothes. ing and in using radio and television. He became
the most effective Black Mushm spokesperson.
As a beggar Mahavira strictly observed
Malcolm's goal was quite different from that
.\HLMSA, that is, non-injury. He practiced severe envisioned by Dr. Martin Luther KING, Jr. King
and his associates promoted integration. Malcolm
austerities and suffered vile abuse fi^om others. advocated separation. In his eyes, African Ameri-
Roughly 12 years after his renunciation he cans could develop a sense of dignity only if they

achieved complete insight. He is said to ha\-e then had their own nation and their own businesses.
Integration would simply continue to make
reformed the teachings of an earlier tirthankara, blacks dependent upon whites. Malcolm ex-
pressed this in typical fashion when he reacted to
Parsva. He also reorganized the institutions that King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech. Mal-
colm said that while Dr. King was having a dream,
Parsva had estabhshed. In doing so he created most African Americans were living a nightmare.
Jainism as we know it.
Malcolm also differed from King on what
At the age of 72 Mahavira entered the ulti- tactics were acceptable for their follov\ers. King
mate NIRVANA. emphasized nonviolence and civil disobedience.
In Malcolm's eyes, that was the wrong approach.
MALCOLM X (1925-1965) The best known It did not invite African Americans to discover
their own dignitx' and self-worth. It simply invited
preacher of the Nation of Islam, popularly -
known as the Black Muslims 1 see ISLAM, NATION

OF), He advocated black nationalism and black

pride.

2 1 8 MAIXNOWSKI, BRONISLAW

color, are brothers and sisters. It was his second
eye-opening experience.

WTien Malcolm had become a Black Muslim,
he had adopted the name Malcolm X. After \isit-
ing Mecca he changed his name again, to El-Hajj
Malik el-Shabazz. He renounced the teaching
that white people are devils and adopted SUNXI
ISLAM. He also began to talk about human rights
rather than ci\il rights. But Malcolm did not have
the chance to develop these ideas. He was killed
in a ballroom in Harlem in 1965. Official reports
attribute his death to gunmen operating under
orders from the Nation of Islam.

In the 1990s there was a "Malcolm re\ival"
among African Americans. His message of pride,
self-sufficienc\', and personal responsibility
seemed to many to be just what the communit\'
needed.

MALINOWSKI, BRONISLAW (1884-1942)

•Anthropologist who was bom in Poland and

worked in England. Malinowski was one of the

founders of the movement known as FUNCTION

He.ALIS.M. is important for several reasons.

Before Malinowski's time, those who studied

Malcolm X, leader ot the Black Muslims, in Washington, the religions of indigenous peoples simply relied
D.C., in 1963. (Courtesy of UPI/Corbis-Bmmann.)
on reports of travelers, missionaries, and colonial
them to suffer more public degradation and liu-
miliation. Malcolm said that African Americans officials. Malinowski actually lived among the
should pursue their goals "by any means neces- Pacific islanders about whom he wTote. He estab-

—sar^''' a statement that disturbed many white lished the practice of "fieldwork," which is now-

Americans. expected of all anthropologists.
Malcolm eventually became leader of the
Malinowski also developed important ideas
second most important temple in the Nation of
Islam, Temple No. 7 in Harlem. But in 1963 he about religion, MAGIC, and m\th. As he devel-
compared the assassination of President Kennedy
to "chickens com[ing] home to roost." This oped these views, he criticized the ideas of think-
incensed the leader of the Nation of Islam, Elijah
Muhammad, and Malcolm left. In 1964 he ers like Emile DURKHEIM and Sigmund FREUD.
made PILGRIM.\GE to MECCA. There he encoun-
In Malinowski's \new, religion functioned to
tered traditional ISLAM. He experienced first-
comfort people when they experienced anxieD,' or
hand its teaching that all people, regardless of
tragedv. Magic was an acti\it)- to which people

resorted when they could not be sure that practi-

cal, goal-oriented acti\nt\' was going to work.

M\th proxided a societx- with its "charter." It

made societi,- legitimate by tracing its parts back

to the acti\it\- of religious beings.

Malinowski's ideas dominated the study of

religion by anthropologists imtil the 1960s. Since

MANICHAEISM 219

that time many anthropologists have been more truths that the BUDDH.\, Z.^KATHUSTKA, and JE-
interested in religious symbols and meanings. SUS had taught. Mani carefully recorded his
[See also RELIGION, STXDVOF.]
teachings in writing so that his own views would
MANDALA Sanskrit for "circle"; a sacred dia-
not be distorted. These writings, however, have
gram used in HINDUISM and BUDDHISM, espe- largely disappeared. In addition to writing, Mani
cially in secret RITUALS known as Tantric rituals. traveled widely. His first missionar\- journey took
The same basic shape underlies most mandalas: a him to the area near present-day Pakistan. Mani's
point at the intersection of two perpendicular teaching aroused the opposition of the Zoroas-
axes, located at the center of a square or circle. trian priests. Under their influence, Bahram I,
The area of the circle or square is further subdi- king of Persia, interrogated Mani for four days,
vided in conformit)' with the axes, often by means imprisoned him for 26, and executed him. These
of concentric circles or other designs. events, known as "the Passion," took place
around A.D. 276.
A mandala is a schematic representation of
MISSIONARIES must always translate their vi-
the cosmos. Its various areas are often seen as the sions of truth into terms that other people can
abode of various deities, BUDDH.\S, and BO- understand. The same was true of Mani and his
DHISATTV'AS. By using mandalas in rituals and as followers. In some places Manichaean beliefs ap-
objects of MEDIT.\TION, practitioners aim at real- peared more Christian. In others, they appeared
izing within themselves the central force that more Zoroastrian or Buddhist. In general, Mani
sustains the universe. taught that the world was made of two principles,
light and darkness. These principles were not
Mandalas have been rendered in a \ ariety of created. They have existed from etemitv'. Mani
media. They have pro\ided the grids upon which also divided the history of the universe into three
architects have built Hindu temples. Similarly, stages. In the past, light and darkness were sepa-
the mountain-like STUP.A at Borobudur in Indo- rate. Now, light and darkness are mixed together
nesia is a massive Buddhist mandala. Mandalas and battie one another. In the fliture, they will
have also been executed in less permanent media, again be separated. Manichaeans help free light
such as paint or ink on paper or cloth, and with from darkness.
colored powders or sands. Tibetan than^-kas or
scroll paintings are particularly well-known exam- Like the Buddhist S.VNGHA, the Manichaean
ples of these sorts of mandala. community consisted oftwo classes. Manichaeans
called them the elect and the hearers. The elect
MANICHAEISM Religion founded by the had several levels of leaders: a maximum of 360
stewards under the direction of a maximum of 72
prophet Mani ( c. .\.D. 216-c. 276). At one time deacons under a maximum of 12 APOSTLES led by
or another Manichaeism was practiced in Europe
and Asia, from Spain to China. It died out for a figure some call the Manichaean pope. Women
good around A.D. 1500. The name comes from
"Manichaeos." This term transcribes the tide, could be members of the elect, but they could not
Mani Hayya, "Mani the Living," into Greek. hold any higher offices.

Mani was bom around .\.D 216 in what is Manichaean hearers performed several
RITUALS. They prayed four times a day. They
today southeastern Iraq. In the year 240 an an- fasted on Sundays and for a month prior to the
gelic messenger, "The Twin," appeared to him. major festival (celebrated at the spring equi-
It told him to leave his religious communit\- and nox). They confessed their SINS. They tithed;
that is, they gave a tenth of their earnings to the
begin teaching. He did. elect. Thev also renounced violence.
Mani saw himself as the Seal of the Prophets.

He combined into one supreme truth the partial

.

220 MANTRA

The Manichaean elect abstained from \io- MANU The first man in Hindu m\thologA
lence, sex, and impure food, including all meat.
They were always to tell the truth; they also had Most North Americans are familiar with the storv
no possessions. The ideal life for the elect was one
ofwandering. With time, however, Manichaeism, of NO.\H and the uni\ersal FLOOD. Manu figures
like BUDDHISM, developed monastic institutions
at specific places. Manichaeans believed that in a similar ston-. Hindu mNthologx' relates that,
when the elect ate the food that the hearers gave
them, they purified it, releasing particles of light. thanks to the help of \1SHNU in one of his AVA-

Christian, Muslim, and Zoroastrian rulers all TARS or appearances on Earth, Manu sur\i\ed
\igorously persecuted Manichaeism. For exam- the flood. He was the only human being who
did so. When Manu set foot on dr\' land, he
ple, in 527 the Roman Empire, which was Chris-
tian, made it a crime punishable by death to be a performed various RITU.U^ that produced a

Manichaean. As a result of this opposition the "daughter," named Ida or Ila. With her he popu-
head of the Manichaean hierarchy shifted his
lated the Earth.
residence to Samarkand, now in southern Uzbek-
istan. Manichaeism also suffered in east Asia. The As the first man, Manu is also the ultimate

Chinese go\ernment banned Manichaeism in Heancestor of all royal d\'nasties. ga\e rise to the
843. Nevertheless, Manichaeism seems to have
sursived for several centuries in China as a secret solar d\nastTi- through his son Iksxaku and to the
societ)-. It finally died out around 1500.
lunar d\nast>' through his grandson Pururavas.
MANTRA Sacred \\ords or phrases in HINDU-
An ancient sage, Manu is also alleged to have
ISM and BUDDHISM. Originally mantras were
statements made during the SACRIFICES de- authored the most influential of the Hindu law
scribed in the sacred books known as the \'ED.A.
As RITU.VL words they had power over the uni- books, the Laws of Manu.
verse. 0\er time the meaning of the w ord mantra
expanded. It came to include anv powerfiil word MAORI RELIGION See r.\ciFIC OCE.\N RE

or phrase. LIGIONS.

Mantras ma\' produce benefits in this world. MAPPO Japanase for "laner law." It is the
They may also lead to liberation. In traditions of
notion that we are liWng in a degenerate age in
YOGA it is common to meditate on mantras. In which no one can achieve enlightenment through
one's own efforts.
the devotional traditions of BR\KTI mantras often
Mappo is the last of three stages of histor\'.
combine various names of GOD. A good example In the first, people practiced the BUDDUVs teach-

is the mantra that gives "Hare Krishnas" their ings and attained enlightenment. In the second,
nickname: "Hare KRISHNA Hare Krishna . . ."
it became rare for those who practiced the Bud-
Buddhists use mantras in much the same dha's way to attain enlightenment. Todav people
way. Some Japanese followers of the Buddha
are unable even to practice the Buddha's way.
AMID.^ repeatedly sa\' the iiembutsii, a phrase
that means "Praise the Buddha Amida," to be Japanese Buddhists believed the age of
mappo began in 1052. The idea became ven-
reborn in Amida's Pure Land at death. A com- significant for medieval Japanese BUDDHISM, es-
mon mantra among Tibetan Buddhists reads
Om mani padmc hum, literally, "Om, the jewel pecially the PURE L\ND BUDDHISM schools
founded by Honen (1133-1212) and Shinran
in the lotus, hum." ( 1 175-1262 ). These t\vo preached that in the age
of mappo our own power is inadequate. There-
fore, we must rely on the "other-power" of the
Buddha .\AUDA.

MARA A Sanskrit word for "death"; the em-

bodiment of EVIL in Buddhist legend. Mara con-

stantly strives to frustrate the efforts of the BUD- tor\', or at least essential for one's fiiU complete-

DR\ and his followers. ness as a human being fiilfilling one's adult role
in the community. Others, like HINDUISM, BUD-
Mara's most famous appearance in Buddhist DHISM, and CHRlSTIANITlf, have recognized
traditions occurs just prior to Siddhartha Gau- CELIBACY, as MONKS AND NTJNS, priests, or even
tama's enlightenment as the Buddha. Mara is
disturbed that Siddhartha will escape from the la\persons, as a valid alternative to marriage. In
realm of desire and rebirth (see NIRV.\x.\).
Therefore, he appears before Siddhartha and some cases, it is considered to be spiritually supe-
tempts him. The temptation culminates when rior to the married state.
Mara offers Siddhartha his three daughters.
Discontent, Delight, and Desire. Siddhartha re- However, the great majority of human beings
Rises. WTien the sun goes down, Mara departs. throughout histon.' have been married, frequentiy
During the night that follows, Siddhartha attains in RITUALS demonstrating the religious character
enlightenment. of the occasion. These rites characteristically em-
phasize both the communit)' and family nature of
Later Buddhist tradition talks of literally mil- the event and its obviously special meaning for
lions of Maras or demons. Their overseer is the the couple. The act of joining in marriage may be

Mara who tempted Siddhartha. symbolized in various interesting ways: b>' tying a
sacred string between the two in Hinduism, dip-
MARRIAGE AND RELIGION The reUgious ping hands together in a bowl of water in Bur-
mese Buddhism, exchanging rings in Christianity,
background and meaning of the institution of and in Judaism eating together in a place of
marriage. Marriage, the socially recognized un-
seclusion.
ion of a particular man and woman for the pur-
The regulation of mating and procreation for
pose of li\ing together and ( if of the right age and the good of society as a whole is probably among
capable) procreating and raising children, is the oldest fiinctions of human religion. Issues
found in every culture of the world. It is basic to such as appropriate conditions for divorce or
the establishment of the family, the foundational annulment of a marriage, interracial marriages,
institution of all societies. It is therefore acknow- Lnterreligious marriages, and same-sex marriages,
ledged by the religions of all cultures to be sanc- although not new, have been the subject of much
tioned by the diNine powers that made the world religious debate in the 20th centur\-. Marriage,
and regulate the social order. In many societies family, and the moral issues surrounding them
and religions, marriage is also seen as a religious remain a central concern of all religion. [See also
F.\MILY AND RELIGION, THE.]
state in its own right, not just a civil circumstance,
and the wedding or marriage ceremony that es- MARS The second most important Roman
tablishes it as a religious rite. The pair may be
brought together by family, or community ar- god. Mars was the second god in a ver\' ancient
triad of Italian gods: lUPITER, Mars, and Quirinus
rangement, sometimes without ever having met, (a god of the common people). He was a god of

or of their own will on the basis of love. In many war. He was also a god of agriculture, at least in
the sense that he protected fields. The Romans
societies, marriages seal important family alli-
ances as well as indi\ idual preferences and may worshiped Mars especially in March and October.
include major expense, usually on the part of These months began and ended the seasons for
the bride's family, in the form of dow ries and fighting and planting, WTien the Romans encoun-
the wedding celebrations. tered the Greeks, they identified Mars with Ares.

Some religions in their traditional form, such Mars had his own high pnest iflamen). At
as traditional COXFUCIANIS.M, ISL.\iM, and lUD.V some of his festivals ancient priests known as the

ISiM, have regarded marriage as virtually obliga-

222 MARTIAL ARTS AND REUGION

Salii danced in antique armor. Mars also enjoyed life, who acts in accordance with nature, and who
a particular kind of SACRIFICE. It was a sacrifice has the ability to live in the present moment with

of a pig, a sheep, and a bull. When the Romans total awareness. Thus, he is able to act immedi-
atelv and spontaneously with precision to achie\e
declared war, one of the two consuls (highest the goal, whether hitting the target with an arrow
political leaders) shook his sacred spears and cried or felling a foe with a single blow of the sword.
out, "Mars, stay awake." According to Roman
m\tholog\', Mars was the father of Romulus, the MARTYRDOM Giving up one's life instead of
founder of Rome. The month March gets its
name from him. renouncing one's religion. The word "mart>T"

MARTIAL ARTS AND RELIGION Fighting comes from a Greek word meaning "witness." A

techniques \iewed as spiritual practices. In many marrvr's death "witnesses" to her or his religion.
societies the way of the warrior has been seen as
having a religious significance. Sometimes warri- Martyrs inspire those who remain behind. They
ors are members of a fighting caste with its own also provide them with examples to imitate. Re-
code of conduct, like the chivalr\' of Europe's ligions may teach that mart\TS receive special
medieval knights or the bushido of Japan's samu- rewards in the next life. The New Testament book
rai. Sometimes particular skills of combat, called of RE\'EL,^TION imagines the mart\'rs ruUng with

martial arts, are perceived to ha\'e value as spiri- JESUS tor a thousand years (20.4). Islamic tradi-
tual training or as a means of exercising spiritual tion teaches that martyrs stand closest to GOD's
insight as well. This has especialh' been the case throne. In ISLAM, marty-rdom is closely connected
with certain arts of swordsmanship, archery, or
hand-to-hand engagement developed in India with giving one's life for God or in defense of the

and east Asia. Among the martial arts best known F.MTH (see IIHAD).
Man^Ts have been especially important in
in the West are Chinese kung-fu, Okinawan ka-
rate, Korean taekwando, and Japanese judo JUDAISM, CHRISTL\NITi', and ISL^M. Judaism has
(wrestiing), kendo (swordsmanship), kyudo a long history' of martyrdom. One important
(archer>0, and the modern general method called ancient example is Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph. Some
Aikido. These terms, ending in do (in Chinese, traditions say he was burned to death in a TOIL\H
tao), meaning "way," suggest that these arts, like scroll, others that he was flayed alive for teaching
budo or bushido, the way of the warrior, are seen Judaism in public. The first Christian martyr was
as indicating an entire way of life as well as a
Stephen, who was stoned to death for blasphemy
particular skill. (Acts of the Aposdes 7). Those who died in
According to tradition, the spiritual source ancient persecutions include the apostles PETER
and PAUL. The Martyr's Mirror^ by Thieleman J.
of the east Asian martial arts was the Shaolin van Braght, preser\'es the memory of Anabaptist
martyrs who were killed for their beliefs at the
monaster\' in China, where the monk BODHI- rime of the Protestant REFORJvUTION. The most
DHARM\, who also had brought the Chan (Zen) famous Muslim martyr is probably Husayn, the
son of Ali, who is especially revered in SHI'ITE
school fi-om India to China, devised fighting skills ISLAM. He was killed in A.D. 680 when he tried to

to afford his monks exercise and defense. Com- assume the political and religious position that his
grandfather, MUIL\M\LAD, had held.
bining both Taoist and Buddhist (chiefly Zen)
themes, they emphasize the activation of chi (in JMARX, KARL (1818-1883) German social
Japanese, ki), the life force or spiritual energy- that
with training can be projected and directed thinker. Marx is important as the founder of a
through spontaneous action. The warrior is then socialist movement, Marxism, that many people

one who has realized the full potential of his inner

MARY 223

Hein the 20th centun' saw as a religion in itself. remained a sirgin for the rest of her life. Protes-

is also important for his ideas on religion. tants object to this. They point out that the New
Marx accepted what earlier critics had written
Testament talks about Jesus' brothers. Catholics
about religion. Therefore, he did not write much hold that these brothers were not children of
about religion himself. What he did write draws
attention to the relationship benveen religion and Mar>'.
economics, especially the struggle between the
rich and the poor. In the ancient church, the idea that Jesus
had a mother was especially important in argu-
Marx's most famous sentence on religion ments with Gnostics (see GNOSTICISM). Gnos-
calls it the "opiate of the people." Just as the
wealthy turn to opium to relieve their pain, Marx tics denied that Jesus was a real human being.

— —said, poor working people the proletariat turn In the fourth centur\' Christians also argued
over whether Jesus was the creator or a created
to religion. But this move only saps the proletariat being. They decided on the first option. As the
of strength. Instead, they should eliminate the Nicene CREED puts it, Jesus is "begotten, not
class structure that keeps them in povert)'. Then made, of one being with the Father." But that
they will no longer need religion. led to another question: If Jesus is GOD, should
Christians call Mary "Mother of God?" In the
During the 20th centur\' many theologians
accepted much of Marx's criticism of religion.
They saw it as a call not to reject religion but to

reform it.

MARY Often called the Blessed Virgin Mar\' or Statue of Mar^- \%'ith a crown of 12 stars. (By permission
of [he Crosiers./
Our Lady; the mother of JESUS. In the BIBLE
Mary appears especially in the GOSPEL of Luke.
There she is prominent in stories about Jesus'
birth and one stor\' about his childhood. Indeed,
Luke claims that Mary is his source for these
stories (Luke 2.51). In the gospel of Matthew,
Mar\' appears in stories about Jesus' birth and
early years that are not found in Luke. In Mark,
Jesus' mother (unnamed) tries to convince him
to quit making a spectacle of himself (3.31-35).
In John, she stands at the foot of the cross
(19.25-27). Mary last appears in an assembly of
the first Christians (Acts of the Aposties 1.14).

Christians have many teachings about
Mary. These teachings sometimes ha\e ver\' old
sources outside the Bible. An especially important
example is a writing called the Protoevangelium

ofJames.
The most important teaching about Mar\' is

the VIRGIN BIRTH. This teaching says that Mar\'
became pregnant with Jesus before she had sexual
relations. Almost all Christians maintain this po-

sition. Roman Catholic Christians add that Marv

224 MASKS AND RELIGION

fifth centun' v.vo councils of bishops decided .'\n indigenous .-Wicrican dancer in costume. (Councsy
that they could use this phrase. of the Image Bank.)

The Roman Catholic Church also adopted of PRIMAL RELIGION, and though not a central
other teachings about Mar\'. From ancient times aspect of most contemporary reUgion, is still
many Catholics had believed that Man' never seen at HALLO\raEN, in various traditional
committed an actual SIN. The medie\al philoso- European quasi-rehgious festivals (St. Nicholas
pher Dims Scorns taught that she was fi-ee Day, Mardi Gras ), and in some sacred dances of
from original sin, too. The second idea, known such traditions as SHINTO, TIBETAN RELIGION,
as the "immaculate conception," became official and HINDUISM.

Cathohc teaching in 1854. In 1950, the Cathohc Masks are frequendy employed in Native
Church officially adopted another teaching American religions. The flmdamental purpose of
about Mar\': She did not cLe but was taken ph>si- RITLWL masks is to enable the wearer to identift'
cally into HE.^V'EN. This teaching is known as
the assumption.

No Christians WORSHIP Maiy, but Roman

Catholic and Orthodox Christians "venerate"
her. Holy da\s celebrate her birth, immaculate
conception, the .^NGEL's announcement of Je-
sus' conception, and Mary's purification in the
Temple after Jesus' birth. Many Christians call
upon Mar)' to intercede for them with Jesus and
God. One way to do this is with the PBAYER Arc
Maria, "Hail, Mar\' . . ." Many great works of
European art depict Mar\'. She is often shown
with the baby Jesus or standing at the foot of the
cross. In the last 500 years, Man' has also ap-
peared to various people. For example, she ap-
peared at Guadalupe, Mexico, in 1531; Chiapas,
Mexico, in 1712; Lourdes, France, in 1858; and
Fatima, Portugal, in 1917. During the second
half of the 20th centur\', Mar\' appeared to several
individuals in the United States.

Not even'one accepts these teachings,
claims, and practices. Orthodox Christians re-
ject the idea that Man,' never sinned. Most
Protestants reject all veneration of Mar\'. Tra-
ditional Muslims accept the virgin birth of
Jesus, but Jews and many modern scholars,
including more liberal Christians, reject it.
Many feminists also criticize the image of Mary
as continuing male-centered stereot)'pes.

MASKS AND RELIGION Disguises put on

for religious reasons. The wearing of masks as a
part of a rehgious occasion is a common feature

MAYA RELIGION 225

ttith or represent a god or spirit, including de- Central America before Europeans discovered the
monic and ancestral spirits. This can be done for Americas. The Maya may be considered the classic
dramatic purposes, as when mask-wearing is part ci\ilization ofpre-Columbian America. Their cul-
of a sacred play, dance, or rite in which supernatu- ture established panems that all other
ral entities must be portraxed in order to instruct Mesoamericans adopted. The Maya ci\ilization
an audience, or as an offering to the deities began as early as 300 B.C The classic period,
themselves. They can also, as in the case of sha- associated with sites such as Tikal in Guatemala,
mans going into trance, be a part of the per-
former's own subjective identification with a god ran from roughly AD 300 to 800. At the end of
or spirit. Many religious masks are of remarkable
artistic power and afford deep insights into the the classic period Maya civilization did not disap-
pear; the postclassic xVIaya built wonders such as
culture's spiritual consciousness. those at Chichen Itza in Mexico.

MAY DAY The first day of May, traditionally Maya culture fiilly deserves the name "civili-
zation," a term that denotes a way of life based
a day for celebrating fertility and the coming of on cities. Maya culture concentrated at ceremo-
spring. In the British Isles, May Dav was a con- nial centers. The most outstanding religious fea-
tinuation of Beltane, the pre-Christian Celtic tures of these centers remain: tall, stepped
spring festival. Its celebration remained impor- pyramids. They provided a base for Maya temples
tant in rural England into the 1 9th century-. and a platform for the performance of RITU-\LS.
Remnants of the old May Day can still be found The well-known Maya ballcourts, shaped like a
in special dances, processions, the erecting of capital "I," were the sites of ritual ballgames.
maxpoles, and the gathering of spring flowers for
may- baskets in various places in Britain and Maya rituals were primarily sacrificial. The
North America. Maya sacrificed animals and, especially in the
postclassic period, human beings. They also pre-
MAYA A Sanskrit word for "appearance," sented offerings of their own blood. Thev col-
lected blood from a varietv* of bodv' parts:
sometimes translated "illusion." Maya is espe- tongues, arms, legs, earlobes, and genital organs.
For example, in one ritual the queen pulled a
cially important in the Indian philosophical thomed rope through her tongue. This use of
blood may shock some North Americans todav,
school known as Advaita X'ED.^NT.^. who tend to overlook the extensive use of blood
According to Ad\ aita \'edanta, there is no imagerv' in CHR]STL\NITY. Some scholars suggest
helpfiilly that in giving blood, the Maya entered
ultimate difference between the realit)- that un- into a relationship of exchange with the forces of
derlies the universe (BR.\HAL\N) and the realit\- life in the universe. These forces gave the Mava
that underlies the human person (AT.\L\N). The life; the Maya gave them life in return.
question naturally arises: If multiplicit)' and dif-
ference do not characterize reality, what is the The most remarkable feature of Maya civili-
source of the multiplicit>' and difference that zation was its elaborate conception of space and
everyone perceives? The Advaita answer is mava. time. The Maya divided space into four quadrants
Multipliciti,' and difference are merely appear- surrounding a center point. The four quadrants
ances. They arise fi-om ignorance of the true represented the four cardinal directions. Each
nature of realit)'. Because of maya, our percep- direction, as well as the center point, was associ-
tions are mistaken, in the way that a person may ated with a tree. Each was also associated with a
step on a rope at night and mistake it for a snake.
color: blue-green for the center, red for the east,
MAYA RELIGION The reUgion of the peo- black for the west, white for the north (perhaps
better, the zenith), yellow for the south (perhaps
ple li\ing in the Yucatan Peninsula and northern

226 MECCA, PILGRIMAGE TO

bener, the nadir). During the day the sun Pilgrimage takes place during the first half of
was said to traverse seven (or 13) layers of sk\'; the last month of the Islamic year. (Muslims use
during the night it traversed fi\e (or nine) layers a lunar calendar, so as the years go by, the date of
of the under^vorld. the pilgrimage slowly progresses through all the
seasons.) Pilgrims traditionally arrive at Jidda on
The Maya calendar was extremely elabo- the coast of the Red Sea. They put on a simple,
rate. It was based on patterns or "rounds" of white garment worn specifically for the pilgrim-
recurring series, similar to the days of the week age. They also \ow not to cut their hair or their
and the months of the year in North America fingernails or to engage in sexual activity during
today. One pattern combined a series of 20
names and 13 numbers, for a round of 260 the course of the pilgrimage. To enter the sacred

days. A second pattern contained 18 "months" area, which includes the other sites to be visited
as well as Mecca, a person must be able to dem-
of 20 da\s, followed by fi\'e extra da\ s, for a onstrate that she or he is Muslim. The Saudi
round of 365 days. The two patterns ran simul- government does not recognize separation of
taneously. Once ever)' 52 years the first dates in religion and government, so the government
each of the two rounds would coincide. Schol-
ars call each 52-year period a "calendar round." controls entrance to the sacred area. Since .VD.
The longest running Maya dating system was 630 ver\' few non-Muslims have entered the sa-
the Long Count. It began in 3114 B C It will
be completed on AD. December 23, 2012. cred area. One who did was the English explorer

In the 16th cenrur\' Spain conquered the Richard Burton (1821-90), in 1853.
Maya, as it did the rest of Mesoamerica. But
Maya religion did not disappear. It gave a dis- The first act most pilgrims perform is a ritual
tinctive character to the rituals, festivals, and circling of the Kaaba. They circle the Kaaba seven
saints in the religion of the conquerors, RO.VL\N times, in imitation of the .\NGELS, who are con-
CATHOLICISM. tinually circling GOD's heavenly throne. During
the circling, pilgrims also kiss or at least gesture
MECCA, PILGRIMAGE TO One of die in the direction of a black stone built into the
corner of the Kaaba. It is said that the angel
"five pillars" of ISL.\M. In i\rabic, the PILGRIM- Gabriel brought this stone down trom heaven as
AGE to Mecca is known as the Hajj. Mecca is the a sign of God's tavor to Abraham when he built
site of the holiest shrine in Islam, the KAAB.A. The the Kaaba.
Kaaba is said to have been built by .\BRAH.\M and
his son Ishmael. Before the rise of Islam, people The next act consists of running back and
in the region used to make pilgrimage to the forth seven times between two hills, then drinking
Kaaba. In the year.\ D. 630, the prophet .MUHAAI water fi'om the well of Zamzam. This action
XL\D purified it of the 360 images it contained. recalls the plight ofAbraham's wife Hagar and her
son Ishmael. Abandoned by Abraham at this spot
He also established pilgrimage to Mecca as an in the desert, Hagar frantically ran to what she
thought \\ ere pools of water at the foot of the
important Islamic RJTL'AL. All Muslims should hills. When in desperation she returned to her
tr>' to make pilgrimage to Mecca at least once. son, she found that in plaving he had kicked open
But this requirement should not pose any hard- an artesian well. Pilgrims recall that all human
ship. Muslims are not allowed to make the pil- beings, like Hagar and Ishmael, depend upon
grimage if they ha\e debts or must incur debts to God's gracious gifts to sustain life.
do so, if they are too ill to traxel, or if their
participation would mean difficulties for those The most important ritual of the pilgrimage
left behind. takes place from noon to sundown on the ninth
day of the month. Pilgrims stand at the Mount of
Mercv and the Plain of Aratat in front of it. Here

MELANESIAN RELIGION 227

they beseech God for forgiveness. Islam teaches Loyola and Francis de Sales. Devotees were asked
that at this spot God reconciled .\D.\M and EVE to picture in their minds scenes fi'om the life of
when they quarreled. It also teaches that at this CHRIST or church teaching. Visuahzation is also
spot all of us will appear for the final judgment at found in BHAKTI (devotional) HISTJUISM in rela-
the end of time. tion to its gods, and in BUDDHISM, especially
TIBETAN RELIGION, wherein one's patronal BUD-
On the tenth day pilgrims hurl stones at three
DHA or BODHISATR'A is evoked before one's
pillars. Then, if finances permit, they sacrifice a
goat. In doing this, they recall the faithfulness of iimer eyes through a combination of .\LANTRA

Abraham and Ishmael. \Mien God commanded (chant), MUDRA (hand gesture), and mental con-
Abraham to sacrifice Ishmael, the devil appeared
to Ishmael and urged him not to cooperate. In centration. In JUDAISM, meditation has particu-
larly been associated with KABBALAH and
response, Ishmael threw stones at the de\Tl. At concentration on Hebrew letters and words.

the last minute, God rewarded Abraham and Quieting the mind in order to go beyond all
forms and concepts in the mind, sometimes called
Ishmael by substituting the sacrifice of a goat. At contemplation or contemplative prayer rather
Mina, too, pilgrims leave the special state of than meditation in the West, is found in older
pilgrimage by ha\ing at least three of their hairs versions of Christian MiSTICISM, which were un-
cut. They may also \isit Mecca and circle the der the influence of N'eoplatonic philosophy with
Kaaba again. Many pilgrims take the opportunity its teaching that fully to experience the One the
of their journey to %isit other sacred sites, such as contemplative person should rise above all
thought to absorption in oneness. This form of
the town of Medina where the prophet Muham- meditation can be found in Roman Catholic and
mad is buried. Eastern Orthodox mysticism in all periods.

Over a million Muslims make pilgrimage to In the East, ways of stopping the stream of
Mecca every' year. It is a powerfiil, \isual demon- consciousness (or the "monkey mind" as it is
stration of the universality of Islam and the sister- sometimes called) are widely taught. The idea
hood and brotherhood of all human beings. After behind these "one-pointed concentrations" is
making pilgrimage to Mecca in 1964, the Black that if the mind can be brought to rest on one
Muslim leader, .VULCOLM X, began to teach that object, the stream of consciousness will cease;
not all white people were de\ils, as he had pre- eventually perhaps even that one point can be
\iously thought. taken away. Such point of focus may be \isual; a
simple symbol, a candle flame; auditory, as a
MEDITATION Quieting the mind in order mantra chanted inwardly; or mental, a point of
light, a picture, a word held still in the mind. The
to focus deeply on religious experience and idea of this kind of meditation is to let the mind
religious reality. For some people, meditation take a vacation, ceasing its acti\it\' in order to find
just means to think deeply and seriously about out what it is when it is not thinking about
something. In a religious context, however, it anything in particular. According to the religious
is more likely to indicate either \isualization philosophies behind such practices, that will en-
of a religious topic, such as a symbol or a scene able it to get in touch with its true nature: BRAH-
fi^om the scriptures, with appropriate feelings MAN, Buddhahood, GOD.
and thoughts, or a stopping of the acti\it\- of
mind altogether in order to experience religious MELANESIAN RELIGION See P.^CIFIC

reality directly. OCE.\N RELIGIONS.

The former method, \isualization, is particu-
larly associated with ROAL\N C^THOLICIS.vi in the
Counter- Reformation period (1 6th- 1 7th centu-
ries) and in the w ritings ofsuch SAINTS as Ignatius

228 MENNONITES

MENNONITES A Christian group named af- not to conform to the ways of the world. For

ter Menno Simons ( 1496-1561 ), a Dutch priest. some, but only for some, that has meant a rejec-
During the Protestant REFORMATION, groups in
Switzerland and the Netherlands came to reject tion of modem dress and comeniences. For ex-
the practice of infant BAPTISM. They belie\ed that
only persons who were able to attest to their ample, "black bumper Mennonites" have black
F.\ITH should be baptized and that people who
cars with no chrome. Most Mennonites, however,
had been baptized as infants should be baptized
again. As a result, they were known as Anabap- nurture a life-sri le of simpliciti,' and discipleship
tists, "re-baptizers." Some of the earliest Anabap-
tists used force in trying to order societ\' in while wearing contemporars- clothing and using
accordance with GOD's commands. But bv 1535
their attempts had failed. Ever since then .Anabap- modem conveniences.

tists have followed Menno Simons in ad\ocating From the 1530s on, Mermonites ha\'e reflised
a strict separation of church and state. Thev are
now known as Mennonites. to carr\- arms, hold public office, and take oaths.

From the 17th to the 19th centuries, many That beha\ior has caused various governments to
Mennonite groups immigrated to the United
States and Canada. The earliest immigrants question their loyalt\-. But the tradition of paci-
were important in the settlement of Pennsylvania.
Perhaps the best known group is an offshoot fism and, more broadly, the desire to put the
called the .\MISH. They separated from other
Mennonites in the 1690s. At issue was how to teachings of Jesus into practice have given Men-
enforce the communit\'s discipline or way of life.
The Amish believe that those who \iolate the nonites a well-developed social conscience. Un-
discipline should be shunned, in other words,
totally avoided. Other Mennonites find this pen- like some liberal branches of North American
alt\' too harsh. Today, other subtie differences
also separate the Old Order Amish from the PROTEST.\NTISM, Mennonites have not generally
"plain" or most traditional Mennonites. For ex-
ample, even plain Mennonites allow buttons on tried to reform societ\'. Instead, they have been
clothing; the Old Order Amish allow only hook-
extremely active in disaster relief, in promoting
and-eye fasteners.
world peace, and in fostering economic develop-
Although Mennonites have drawn up state-
ments of belief, they recognize the BIBLE as the ment, especially among indigenous Americans
only authorit)-. Mennonite WORSHIP senices
tend to be simple, emphasizing reading from the and people living in the Third World. The Men-
Bible, preaching, and congregational singing.
Mennonites sometimes celebrate the EUCHARIST nonite Central Committee (MCC), founded in
or communion in the context of a "love feast."
This involves not only eating and drinking but 1920, coordinates these efforts for the Mennon-
also washing one another's feet in imitation of
JESUS at his last supper. ite and Brethren churches in North America.

In accordance with a teaching in the New (The Brethren are similar to the Mennonites but

Testament, Mennonites have deliberately tried have a different historx.) At the end of the 20th

MCCcentur\' the was active in more than 50

countries worldwide as well as in the United

States and Canada.

2VtESOPOTAAUAN RELIGIONS The an-
cient religions of the area that is now Iraq.

Mesopotamian religions existed from the begin-
nings of cit>-based culture down to 539 B.C.,
when Mesopotamia was conquered by the Persian
Empire.

HISTORY

Mesopotamia means "the land between the riv-
ers." It refers to the land betvveen the Tigris and
the Euphrates rivers. In ancient times the north-
ern and western half of this region was known as
.\ss\Tia. The southern and eastern halfwas known
as Babylonia. Both regions figure prominently in

MESOPOTAAUAN RELIGIONS 229

the BIBLE. The Assyrians destroyed the northern allowed the Jews who were living in e.\ile in
kingdom of Israel; the Babylonians destroyed the Babylon to return home to Jerusalem.
southern kingdom of ludah, and uith it SOLO
MON-s Temple in JERUS.^LEM. In the earliest days, Beliefs
Bab\lonia was itself di\ided into nvo parts. Its
northwestern half was known as Akkadia; its The names of some Mesopotamian gods clearly
southeastern half was known as Sumer. connect them with forces in nature. Inanna's
name means "mistress of the sky," Enki's means
.\round 3500 B C ci\ilization, that is, cir\-- "lord of the earth." But the Mesopotamians
based culture, emerged in Sumer. Earlier there thought that their gods looked like human be-
had been small cities in other parts of the Near ings. They also thought that the gods of the
East. But Sumer appears to have been the earliest dilTerent ciries were relarives of one another,
civilization. The historian Samuel Noah Kramer and that they met in assembly to discuss their
once claimed that "historj- begins at Sumer." He
had in mind the many "firsts" that the Sumerians differences.
could boast. They devised the first system of
writing; they were the first to have mass produc- By the third millennium B C. (3000-2001
tion (they had mass-produced dishes); and thev B C), Mesopotamians had ranked their gods in
built the first monumental temples. order of importance. The highest god was An,
god of the sk\- and father of the gods. Enlil, the
The Sumerians lived in independent cit\- god of wind and storms, w as the leader of the
states, each with its own special god. The Sumeri- assembly of gods. Other important gods included
ans imagined that the gods of their cit\-states met Xinhursaga (GODDESS of the foothills), LN.\XXA
in assembly. At any given time, the most influen- and her lover Dumuzi, Ereshkigal (queen of the
tial god in the assembly was the one whose cit\- dead), and Enki. These gods were eventually
had the most power on Earth. Each city's gods eclipsed in importance by Assur, god of Assv'ria,
and Marduk, god of Babylon.
—resided in image form in temples. Sen'ants that
—is, priests tended to their needs. They were The Mesopotamians developed a rich litera-
ture. It explored some topics that are still pro-
supported in part b\- the land that the god owned. found today. The story of GILG.\MESH tells of a
For several centuries various cit)'-states com- powerful king who is disturbed by the fact that all

peted tor power. One citv- would take control of people, himself included, must die. A poem
known as "Enuma Elish" tells how the world
an area. But its rule never lasted ven- long. In came to be. One stor\- attributes human sickness
about 2350 B.C., that pattern began to change.
and disease to a drunken argument between the
Rulers arose who sought to dominate all of Meso- god Enki and the goddess Ninhursaga.
potamia. In the end two regional powers, Baby-
lon and .\ssyria, competed with each other to be The stor\- of Atrahasis is equally pessimistic
supreme. VVTien .Assyria wa.s in charge, its god about the place of human beings in the world.
Assur w as thought to be the greatest; when Babv- The gods did not wish to work, it says, so they
lon ruled, its god Marduk was supreme. killed a god, mi,\ed its blood with dirt, and made
human beings. But human beings were too
But neither the Assyrians nor the Bab\ioni- noisy for Enlii, so he tried to kill them ofl'with a
ans could maintain their rule indefinitelv. They great FLOOD. He failed, but only because
could not resist the rising power of Persia to the
east, in the area known today as Iran. In 539 — —Ea Akkadian for Enki told Atrahasis to build
Cyrus the Persian conquered Babylon and thus
became the ruler of the entire region. If Cyrus's an ark. When the flood came, Atrahasis, his fam-
viaor\- is remembered today, that is because he
ily, and representative animals entered the ark and
were sa\ed.

230 MESSIAH

Pr.\ctices asv Organization ancientlsrael,and through it on JUDAISM, CHRIS-
TL\NIT1', and ISLAM.
The Mesopotamians thought that their gods
lived in heaven, but they also felt that the gods MESSIAH .\n English adaptation of the He-
dwelled on Earth in image form. These images
were kept in special buildings known as temples. brew word mashiah, which means "anointed with
It was there that much of Mesopotamian RITUAL oil." Technically, the messiah is a figure in Jewish
took place. tradition. He will come in the fiiture to restore
the glories of Israel at the end of time and estab-
Tw o kinds of rituals were performed at the lish peace among the nations. Christians claim
that the messiah has already come in the person
temples. In daily rituals the needs of the gods
were met. Priests would change the image's —of JESUS. In fact, the word CHRIST and thus the
clothes according to a regular schedule. They also —name for the religion derives from the Greek
placed food in front of the image at meal times
word for "anointed with oU."
for it to eat. When the god was finished, the food
would be distributed among the priests them- More loosely, messiah refers to any religious
figure who will come and rescue a group ofpeople
selves and perhaps the king. from situations of suffering and usher in a golden
age. The Mahdi of ISLAM fits this description. He
A second kind of ritual comprised the festi- will come at the end of time to reestablish order
and faith in GOD when all around has become
vals that occurred throughout the year, such as chaos. Similar figures, more or less messianic,
include the fiature incarnation of the Hindu god
the New Year's ritual. On these occasions the \TSHNU known as Kalki; the BUDDHA who is to
come known as Maitreya; and many religious
sacred image was brought outside the temple, leaders among colonized peoples in the 19th and
and people besides priests would take part in early 20th centuries.
the celebration. Some influential scholars have
called these festivals sacred dramas. They ha\e The word "messiah" is not used in the He-
identified several difterent dramas: the sacred brew BIBLE ( Old Testament ) in any ofthese ways.
marriage, death, the journey, ritual plowing, and Instead, the word refers to people who have
ritual combat. received a special ofiice through a RITUAL of
anointing. It refers especially to priests and kings.
Not all Mesopotamian worship centered on The Hebrew Bible does contain passages that
images in cit\' temples. Individuals had their per- emision a future golden age. But none of the
visionar\' passages connect this restoration with a
sonal gods, whom they thought of as parents. figure called the messiah. IS.\LAH comes closest to
doing so. He calls Cyrus, the king of Persia,
They worshiped these gods daily on altars at "iTIWH's ("the Lord's") messiah (Isaiah 45.1).
home. In addition, Mesopotamians were particu- That is because, acting on \TTVVH's behalf, C\tus
larly interested in learning the will of the gods. had conquered Babylon and allow-ed the Jews to
The\' believed that at times gods appeared to return home.
them in dreams. They also believed that they
could determine the character of the universe at A litde before the time of Jesus, the idea of a
a given moment by examining the entrails of
sheep and, in the later period, by watching the messiah was joined to expectations of a fijture
stars and planets. bliss coming at the end of time. Jews began to
look for many messiahs. Some of them were
Significance
Apriesdy in nature; some were kingl\'. commu-
Although Mesopotamian religions are no
longer practiced, they have left behind a rich
legacy in the world's oldest literature. As the
stor\- of Atrahasis shows, Mesopotamian relig-
ions also had an impact on the religion of

METHODISM 231

nit\- connected with the DEAD SEA SCROLLS seems bility of developing Christian perfection. Wesley
to ha\e expected two messiahs, one ot each kind.
preached especially to the poor. He also author-
In this climate the early followers of Jesus
proclaimed that he was the messiah. They com- ized laypersons to preach.
bined the idea that the messiah will come at the Wesley formed his followers into a society
end of time with a notion that the messiah had
already come. They also separated the ideal of within the Church of England, but that relation-
the messiah from the nationalist aspirations of ship to the church did not last. One reason it did
the Jewish people. Ver\- early on CHRISTL-^NITi' not was the North American experience. Meth-
odists had brought Wesley's form of Christianit)'
became a mosement among non-Jews rather to the British colonies of North America. Francis
Asbun,', a blacksmith by trade, was the most
than Jews. successfiil early preacher. After the Revolution
With the destruction of the Second Temple American Methodists did not want to remain in
the Church of England. In 1784 they organized
(A.D. 70) and the failure of Bar Kokhba's revolt an independent church. That same year Wesley
(A.D. 135) expectations of a messiah grew within established a General Conference in England to
JUDAISM. These expectations addressed the lite of govern Jiis societ\' when he died. In 1795, four
an excluded and persecuted minorin.'. Not only years after Wesley's death, the Methodists in Brit-
did Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) list belief ain also broke with the Church of England.
in a coming messiah as one of the 13 beliefs that
all Jews shared; messiahs often actual!)' came. The Methodism was particularly successful in
the United States. Because its ministers trav-
most famous was Shabbatai Tsevi ( 1626-76). He eled, they could meet the needs of settlers push-
ing the frontiers west. But Methodism paid for
proclaimed himself the messiah and gained a large its success with division. African ^\mericans
following among Jews in Turkey. Some of his found themselves second-class members of the
followers refused to abandon their belief in him white-dominated churches. They formed the
even when, imder pressure, he committed the African Methodist Episcopal Church (1816)
unpardonable sin of converting to ISL.A.VL and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion
Church ( 1820), which still flourish today. Dur-
The experience of such false messiahs had its ing the Civil War, the Methodists split into
effect. Today many Jews downplay any expecta- Northern and Southern churches. During the
tions that a messiah will come. But some, such as 19th century other Methodist churches were
Abraham Kook (1865-1935), have connected organized as well. The Hohness movements
ZIONISM with messianism. And shordy before emphasized ecstatic rehgious experiences; they
RABBI Moses Menachem Schneersohn, the leader caused some people to leave Methodism alto-
of the Luba\itch Hasidic community', died in gether (see PENTECOSTAL CHRISTL'\NITi).

New York in 1994, many of his followers ex- During the 20th centun,' fragmented Meth-
odist groups reunited in both Britain and the
pected that he was the messiah. United States. In Britain the largest Methodist
body is the Methodist Church, formed in
METHODISM A variety ofCHRISTL\Niri' be- 1932; in the United States it is the United
Methodist Church, formed in 1968. Methodist
gun by JOHN WESLEY ( 1703-91 ). Wesley was a MISSIONARIES have also met with considerable
priest in the Church of England (see .-VNGLIC^N-
ISM). In 1738 he experienced a "strange warm- success overseas.
ing" of his heart. It led him to undertake a
distinctive form of ministry. Instead of preaching Methodism respects the traditional teachings
in a particular parish, he traveled and preached of Christianit)', but unlike some other churches it
tJiroughout the country. His preaching empha-
sized the power of GOD's GR.\CE to save sinners,
a personal relationship with God, and the possi-

232 MICAH

does not insist on doctrinal unity. It prefers in- Micah came fi'om the countr\'side, not the
stead to emphasize that God's spirit has the
power to change Hves and to encourage Cliris- capital cit)'.
tians to cultivate a personal relationship with
God. Thus, Methodism has a profound personal Micah prophesied that Jerusalem would ac-
dimension. At the same time, Methodists have
actively embraced social concerns. —tually be destroyed a prophecy that was rela-

Methodist WORSHIP sometimes takes the tively rare. Among Christians he is best known for
form of a LITURGY; sometimes it is freer. Serv-
ices generally include the PREACHING of a ser- associating the Messianic ruler with Bethlehem.
mon, readings from the BIBLE, PRAreRS, and Micah also envisioned a time of universal peace in
singing. Hymn-singing has been a particularly stirring and influential images: "they shall beat
important part of Methodist worship life. John their swords into ploughshares, and their spears
Wesley promoted the use of hymns. His into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword
brother Charles wrote some of the best loved against nation, neither shall they learn war any
hymns in the English language, for example, more" (Micah 4.3).
the well-known CHRISTM.\S carol, "Hark, the
Herald Angels Sing." MICRONESLAN RELIGION See PACIFIC

Methodist churches have ditferent institu- ()CE.\N Rt;LIGIONS.
tional structures in different parts of the world.
The Methodist churches in the United States are MILLENARIANISM Religious movements
episcopal; that is, they are governed by bishops.
Traditionally Methodism employed itinerant that expect S.ALV.\TION to come ver)' soon in this
ministers, sometimes called "circuit riders." world. (The word comes from the Christian be-
These ministers would travel from group to lief, taken from the book of REVELATION, that
group, preach, and supervise spiritual progress. speaks of a coming millennium, or golden age of
Todav Methodist ministers in the United States a thousand years.) Millenarianism expects salva-
are more tied to specific localities. tion to come to believers as a group, to come in
this world through a miraculous total transforma-
MICAH A book in the BIBLE, and the name of tion of it into a paradise. LIsually these beliefs have
an apocalyptic character (see .'U'OCALYTTIC LIT-
the prophet whose words it supposedly contains. ER.\TURE) as well, that is, they say that though
Micah is one of the prophetic books that make things may seem to be ver>' bad, and getting worse
up the collection known as "The Twelve." and worse in this world, that is really just prepa-
ration for the new world. Suddenly, when least
Micah is the least well-known of a group of expected by all except those in on the secret, GOD
eighth-centur\' prophets in ancient Israel and
will act, perhaps a savior will appear, a surprising
Judah. Other prophets in this group included
and radical change will take place. Then the RAITH
ISAIAH, Amos, and HOSEA. They emphasized of those who believed in the coming change, even
during the darkest hours, will be vindicated.
YHWHworshiping ("the Lord") alone and ftir-
A good example would be CARGO CULTS,
thering social justice.
those movements in colonialized areas, especially
Like Isaiah, Micah was a prophet in the in the South Pacific, which said that ships or
planes would come from the old gods to bring to
southern kingdom of Judah. He witnessed the native peoples goods like the white man's, and
that this would start a golden age. In the Buddhist
fall of Samaria, the capital of the northern king- world, a succession of movements has been based
dom, to Assyria around 72 1 B.C. and the Assyrian on expectation that Maitreya, the coming BUD-
siege of JERUSALEM 20 years later. Unlike Isaiah, DHA of the fijture, would arrive soon.

MIRACLES 233

In lUD.MSM and CHRISTI.\.NIT\', a succession with pagan miracles. In fact, people in virtually
of millenarian movements has predicted the im-
minent coming of the MESSWH. In Judaism, per- every religion have experienced miracles.
haps the best known is that centered on Sabbatai
Tsevi 1626-76), whose claim to be the messiah Some miracles are events that affect our natu-

( ral surroundings. The anthropologist Clifford

caused great excitement within that tradition. In Geertz once noted how some residents on the

ChristianitN', SEV'ENTH-DAY ADVENTISM was island of Bali saw spiritual force at work in a
originally based on the teachings of William
Miller 1782-1849), who predicted the second large, rapidly growing mushroom. In the fall of

i 1995 images of the Hindu god GANESA created a

coming of CHRIST in 1844. The Jehovah's Wit- stir in India and around the world when they
nesses have also kept alive millenarian faith. Some
more liberal Christians have interpreted millen- seemed to drink milk. Miracles of nature may be
nial belief to mean a gradual, progressive coming
of the kingdom of God. connected with SALVATION and deliverance.

Millenarianism usually implies a discouraged YHWHWhen ("the Lord") freed the people of
view of the world, a strong sense of the difference
between the way things are and the wa\' one Israel fi^om Egypt, he did so with many miracles.
would wish them to be. It may sometimes seem
to be merely "wishful thinking," more wanting In the 1960s lava from Mount Agung on Bali
to escape from the world than want to change it.
Yet Millenarian movements have often had a miraculously missed a temple of SI\".\ that it
profound historical impact. They have vigorously
expressed the discontent of mistreated people, should have destro\ed.
and mobilized them for eventual action on politi-
cal as well as religious levels. Their visions of a Miracles do not happen just in nature; they
better future have inspired both Utopians and happen to human beings, too. Miraculous heal-
reformers. They have started religious move-
ments that, sometimes with changes, have sur- ings are ideal examples (see HEALING, RELIG-
vived as important denominations. .'Vnd they have IOUS). Shamans (see SH,\M\NISM) heal by means
repeatedly demonstrated the richness and power that we might consider miraculous. In the ancient
of religious VISIONS of the ideal world.
Mediterranean world sick people often slept in
MIRACLES Extraordinary events that people the temple of Asklepius; some experienced

claim point to religious truth. It is not quite dreams and were miraculously healed. iVIountain
correct to say that miracles are "supernatural" ascetics in Japan known as yamabiishi healed the
sick and cast out demons. In the United States
events. Some religions say that miracles happen
today some people offer miraculous healings over
by perfecdy natural but unusual processes.
television sets.
Many people throughout history have used
ChristianitN' claims miraculous powers for IE
miracles to argue that their particular religions are
SUS. The New Testament presents him as healing,
true. Those who practice Hindu YOGA claim that
siddhis, miraculous powers, show that they have casting out demons, and performing other mir-
acles. BUDDHISM says the BUDDH.A could perform
reached certain stages of realization. Celsus, an
ancient opponent of CHRISTI.\NIT\', thought that miracles but was skeptical of them. He once met
Christian claims were nothing special compared a person who, after years of spiritual discipline,
could walk on water. He lamented that this per-
son had wasted so much time; it is relatively cheap

to hire a boat. According to the QUR'.AN the
prophet MUHAMiVL\D's miracle was having re-

ceived God's revelation of the Qur'an.

In the Muslim tradition of SUFIS.M those
close to God are believed to have performed

miracles. Christian SAINTS are believed to have

done so, too. Indeed, the Roman Catholic
Church declares people to be saints only if they
have performed authenticated miracles. The \'ir-

234 MISSIONARIES

gin M\RY has miraculously appeared to Roman Other religions, however, have seen it as a
Catholics on many occasions. RELICS often per- religious duty to spread their truth throughout
the world. If success is measured by the number
form miracles, too. of people converted, the most successful prosely-
Not everyone accepts miracles. The ancient tizing religions have been BUDDHISM, CHRISTI-
ANITi', and ISLAM. At best, missionaries present
Roman philosopher Cicero rejected them. The their religions and allow other people to accept
two most important leaders of the Protestant or reject them in complete freedom. They adapt
REFORAWTION, Martin LUTHER and John their messages to fit the cultures of the peoples

CALVIN, encouraged their followers not to look whom they are prosehtizing. They also exhibit a

for miracles. In his Enquiry Concerning Human genuine concern for other people, for example,
by sharing medical advances. Albert Schweitzer is
Understanding (1748 ), the Scottish philosopher a good example of a medical missionary.

David Hume laid down a principle upon which Not all missionaries have observed these prin-
ciples. Some missionaries have achieved conver-
many have rejected miracles. According to sion through physical coercion. For example,
Hume, we can accept evidence that a miracle has after defeating the Saxons (an early German peo-
occurred on only one condition: If it would be an ple) in battle. Emperor Charlemagne gave them
even bigger miracle for the evidence of the mir- two choices: Be baptized or die. Many missionar-
ies have declared local cultures depraved and
acle to prove unreliable. sinfial. For example, in the late 20th century some

Many still find miracles meaningful today. African Christians still refiised to use traditional
African music in worship because European and
According to the Protestant theologian Paul TU- North American missionaries had earlier con-

lich, any event that reveals God is a miracle, demned it. Some missionaries have also resorted
to deception. At the end of the 20th century some
regardless of whether it violates the laws of na- frmdamentalist Christians were passing them-
ture. The psychologist Carl Gustav JLJNG ex-
plored miracles in his notion of "synchronicity." selves oft' as "messianic" Jews. In this v\-ay they
Philosophers of science such as Paul Feyerabend hoped to convert unsuspecting Jews to Christian-
have argued that "worldviews" that reject mir- ity. Such excesses are not hmited to Christianity,
acles are no more valid than those that accept but North American readers are likely to under-
them. Just as significant, many religious people stand these examples more readily.
still retain their traditional views. For them, mir-
acles are part of what happens when human be- BUDDHIST Missions
ings encounter religious power.
According to tradition, the BUDDHA himself sent
IVUSSIONARIES People who attempt to out the first Buddhist missionaries. He instructed
convert other people to their religion. Not all monks to earn,- the DH.ARMA of Buddhism in every
direction. The places where Buddhism is prac-
religions proselytize, which is the attempt to
convert others. In many religions, people practice ticed today are a witness to their success. Only a
small number of Buddhists live in India, the land
their own religions, and they expect other people, where Buddhism arose. But Buddhist missionar-
ies from India had a profound influence on south-
usually living in other places, to practice theirs. east, east, and central Asia. Buddhist missionaries
from China established large Buddhist communi-
Good examples are lUDAISM, some of whose ties in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
branches also do not accept converts, and the
lAPANESE RELIGION of SHINTO. Other religions
have not proselytized for practical reasons. The

— —PARSEES modern Zoroastrians are a good ex-

ample. They do not even accept converts. Ac-
cording to tradition, when the Parsees migrated
to India, they were allowed to live there on one
condition: that they promise not to proselytize.

MISSIONARIES 235

Buddhism has general!)' spread in nvo ways. Europe. Indeed, C^hristian missions often played
Buddhist monies otten traveled with merchants. a very important role in spreading European
The\- walked the ancient routes to southern India; domination over the rest of the world. In the 16th
they traveled by ship to southeast Asia; and they
followed the Silk Road to China. Rulers who and 17th centuries, Roman Catholic missionaries
favored Buddhism have also spread it. Examples
include .\SOK.\, an emperor in India in the third converted Mexico, Central America, and South
centurs' BC., and rulers in China and Japan. America to Christianity. They were also active in
India, China, and Japan. In the 19th century
After roughly A.D 1000 there was relatively Protestants caught the missionary' fervor and
litde missionar\' eft'ort in Buddhism. But starting formed many missionary societies. Missionaries
in the late 19th century, Buddhists began to from most Protestant churches were extremely
proselytize once again. They did so largely in active in European colonies overseas. That is es-
response to European colonization and Christian pecially true of missionaries from Great Britain,
missionary effons. Buddhist missionaries created the United States, and Canada.
a small Buddhist revival in India. They also at-
tracted many North »\mericans and Europeans to Muslim Missions
Buddhism.
The QUR\\N teaches that no one should be forced
Christlvv! Missions to accept Islam by physical coercion. People
should become Muslims because they are per-
Tradition says that JESUS, like the Buddha, sent suaded that Islam is true. But Europeans and their
his followers out into the world to spread his descendants have tended to emphasize the role of
message. The most famous early missionary was military power in the spread of Islam. That is due,
at least in part, to past European history. Islamic
the ,\POSTLE PAUL. He carried the message of armies threatened Europe on several occasions,
from the battie of Tours, France (732 or 733), to
Christianity to non-Jews living in the north- the conquest of Constantinople (1453) and the
eastern Mediterranean region (modern Greece sieges of Vienna, Austria (1529, 1683).
and Turkey). Tradition says that other aposties
Islam spread rapidly at first. One hundred
were missionaries, too. The COPTIC CHURCH years after the prophet MUR^MAdAD began receiv-
claims to have been started by Mark, who wrote ing messages from GOD, Islam stretched from
Spain through all of North Africa to present-day
one of the gospels. Christians in the southwestern Iran. In later centuries it spread in much of central
Indian state of Kerala claim that the apostie
Thomas started their church. Asia, Africa south of the Sahara, and in south and
southeast ^\sia. Indeed, Indonesia is today the
In its first few centuries, Christianin,- spread most populous Islamic countn,'.

especially in the Roman Empire, which control- The main net\vorks for the spread of Islam
were trade, education, and expansion led by
led the area around the Mediterranean Sea. Be- militar}' rulers. This was true of the early expan-
ginning in A.D. 600 Christian missionarv' efforts sion in North Africa and the Near East. It was
also true of the expansion of Islam into south
focused on Europe. The Roman Catholic Church Asia. In south Asia people adopted Islam be-
cause they found its teachings and civilization
converted western, northern, and central Europe. attractive. Many also found that Islam allowed
The Orthodo.x churches were active in eastern them to escape from the limitations of their
Europe and especially Russia. Monks were ex- caste (see CASTE, IN HINDUISM).
tremely important to this process. They often
established their communities in lands that were
not previously Christian.

With the discovery of the Americas and the
beginning of European overseas colonization.
Christian missionaries turned to areas outside of

236 MTTHRA

Dev'elopments in the Twentieth Centuri' if they have no permanent homes or live off by
themselves (hermits). If a group of people adopts
During the 20th centun' many Christian mission- a special life-st\le but has no connection to a
aries became embarrassed by some of the acti\i- wider religious communitv', its members are not
ties of their predecessors. They no longer told monks and nuns. They belong to a sect, for
others that Christianit>' was right and other relig- example, the ESSENES in the late Second Temple
ions were wrong. Instead, they practiced interre- period of Judaism (the time of JESUS).
ligious DL\L0GUE. In such dialogue people tried
to understand each other's version of the truth. Monks and nuns topically relate to the more
general religious communit\' in one of two ways.
In addition. North America itself became a In Christianit>% monks and nuns are "exemplan";
tertile mission field for other religions. Hindu, that is, they form groups that help and inspire the
Buddhist, Muslim, Sikh (see SIKHISM), BAH,VI, broader community'. They are respected for their
and other missionaries were all active in North special religious devotion. But CHRISTLANTTY can
America. Their success was generally limited, but and has existed without them.
they did help make North America more relig-
HINDUISM, T.\oiSM, and ISL.\M also have
iously plural. institutions that could be called "exemplan' mo-

MTTHRA A deit\' originally from Persia, nasticism."

u here he became a leading subordinate of Ahura The situation in Buddhism and Jainism is
Mazda in ZORO.ASTRL^NISM. In the days of the different. In these religions monks and nuns are
Roman Empire, Mithra moved west to become not marginal but central. They adopt a life-st\'le
the central figure in a religion called Mithraism. that ultimately leads to release from SAMS.ARA or
rebirth. Thus, they li\e the kind of life that ever\'
He was identified with light and was closely person ideally should live. Other Buddhists and
associated with the sun. In Mithraism the god is Jains generalK' hope to live this kind of life in some
fijture birth. In the meantime, they make a begin-
usually portrayed killing a bull, the animal repre- ning. Thev obser\'e the simplest of the "precepts"
or instructions. They also acquire spiritual benefit
senting darkness and chaos; this sacrifice made by gi\ing monks and nuns what they need to live.
possible the creation of the world. Mithraism, The relationship bet\%een the "elect" and la\peo-
which offered several stages of initiation, a cere- ple in .\LASTCH.\EISM was also of this kind.
monial meal and a sort of B.\PTISM, was popular
among soldiers in the Roman army and was an In both kinds of monasticism, people go
earl\- rival of CHRISTL^NTTl'. through a special initiation ritual to become
monks and nims (see INITLWION, RELIGIOUS).
MONKS AND NUNS Men and women who They may also spend several years as "no\ices" to
see whether this life is right for them. As novices
adopt a special, religious way of life. This life and then as monks and nuns they follow a disci-
usually means that they do not marn', have fami- pline. Disciplines generally regulate diet (see DIET
lies, or work at secular jobs. .AMD RELIGION). They ma\- also require monks
and nuns to wear special clothes. But above all,
Not all religions have monks and nuns. JU- disciplines organize daily actixities. They make
DAISM has taught that marriage and family life are
—time tor religious practice in Christianit>% per-
religious duties. Protestants ha\e generally re-
jected monasticism, too. But man>' religions do haps the dailv ser\ices known as hours, in ZEN
BUDDHIS.M perhaps ZAZiS or seated MEDITA-
have monks and nuns. Monasticism has been TION. They may also require monks and nuns to
particularly imponant in BUDDHISM and spend time in study.
I.MNTSM, as well as in ROAL\N CATHOLICISM and
E_^TERX orthodox CHRISTL\Nm'.

Monks and nuns always belong in some way
to a wider religious community'. That is true exen

MONKS AND NUNS 237

Most religions that ha\e monks also have pher, Sankaracarya (see S.\NK.\R.\) established sev-
nuns. But religions ha\e often been more willing
to allow men to adopt this lifestyle than to allow eral important monasteries. Ideally, a Hindu man
women. For example, it is said that although the adopts a monastic life-st>'le at the end of his life.
BL'DDHA established an order for nuns, he was But many do not wait that long. Even more never
reluctant to do so.
adopt it at all.
iMoxKS ,\XD Nuns in Asl\n religions
Christl\x Monks .\nd Nuns
The oldest monastic traditions in the world are
Christian monasticism began in Eg^pt. The first
found in Buddhism and Jainism. These two relig- Christian monks and nuns were hermits; each
lived by himself or herself, although they con-
ions arose during the sixth centur\' B.C. in India. tinued to see themselves as belonging to the
wider religious communit). They were inspired
They did so among groups of ascetics known as by the example of St. Anthony ic. 251-355),
sramanas. No one knows precisely when the who lived in the Egyptian desert for 20 years.
sramana movement began. In the time of the
A Uttle later a retired soldier named Pachomius
Buddha and .\L\H.^MR.\ followers of this tradition
(c. 290-346) formed the first Christian com-
rejected the life of the householder and w andered munit\' of monks. He also founded a commu-
nit%' of nuns for his sister.
the countryside begging. They also rejected the
Different rules organize monastic life in
religion of householders, that is, the sacrifices
ChristianitN'. Of these, the most important are the
described in sacred texts known as the \'EDA.
rules of Basil of Caesarea for the Orthodox
Both the Buddha and Maha\ira formed their churches and Benedict of Nursia for the Roman
Catholic Church (see BE.N'EDICTINES). In both
religions around groups of monks and nuns that the Orthodox and Catholic worlds, the monastic
ideal influenced the way churches were organ-
are sometimes called S.\NGH,\S. In rime these ized. For example, all Orthodox bishops must be
monks, and all priests ordained in the Roman
communities split over issues of teaching and Catholic Church must be celibate. Roman Ca-
thoUcism also developed several different monas-
practice. Buddhist monks and nuns also devel-
tic "orders." Of these, the Benedictines have
oped different traditions in different parts of Asia,
historically been the most important. (Techni-
such as Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Japan. Today there cally, DOMINICANS, Franciscans, and JESUITS are
"religious" but not monks.) Roman Catholic
are two major groups of Jain monastics: Digam- monks and nuns have made tremendous contri-
butions to European culttire, especially during
bara and Svetambara. The names refer to the the \Iiddle Ages.

—clothing that these monastics do or do montcs and nuns in the
—not wear. Digambara monks are "skN-clad"; Twentieth Century

they wear no clothes. Svetambara monks and The 20th century saw important developments in
the practice of monasticism. The Buddhist mo-
nuns wear white clothes. In theory, all Buddhist nastic communit)' in China and Tibet suffered
tremendously as a result of the communist revo-
monks and nuns obser\e a discipline whose San- lution in 1949. Elsewhere in Asia, monks and
nuns took part in efforts to expel former colonial
skrit name is pratimoksha . The prarimoksha is

recorded in different languages, and each version

Ahas a different number of regulations. tew

Buddhist schools, such as the True Pure Land

school in Japan, have abandoned many of these

regulations (see PURE L.\XD BUDDHISM). For

example, their priests marr\' and live in societ\'.

Taoism created monasteries and convents in

imitation of Buddhism. Hinduism also found a
place for those who wanted to reject the ways of

the world. They become SADHUS and sadljvis. In

ADthe eighth century the great Hindu philoso-

238 MONOTHEISM

rulers. Many Americans will never forget the Monotheistic religion has a different charac-
images ofVietnamese monks burning themselves ter from poKtheism or monism. By emphasizing
during the Vietnam War. Some Buddhist monks one God, monotheism says that, despite appear-
and nuns also moved to North America. By the ances, the whole universe has one origin, one rule,
end of the centur)* a number of North American and one center of meaning. Things do not work
Buddhists had taken monastic vows (see BUD just by impersonal fate or lav\s of science, but
DHISM IN .AMERICA). ultimately by the personal will of a supreme intel-

During the 20th century Christian monks ligence. To many people this thought is verj'
and nuns continued their traditional acti\'ities, reassuring. Personal monotheism also says that
such as teaching and social work. They began
conversations with those who practiced other people can have a close relationship with this
forms of monasticism. For example, the Trappist personal God, as one would with another person,
monk Thomas Menon was \er\' interested in through loving PRAYER and ser\ice. Monothe-
Buddhist techniques of meditation. In North
America monasteries also began to hold retreats isms tend to see God as male, or to use masculine
of limited duration for those who had not taken language for God.
religious vows, especially college students.
Monotheism also most often says that the
A few- Protestants became interested in mo- personal God is the Creator of the universe. If
God is in control of the cosmos through his
nasticism during the 19th century; that interest personal will, at some point he must have
started the process through a personal act of
continued into the 20th centun'. A good example creation. Further, if the universe began at some
definite point, it presumably will end at some
of Protestant monasticism is the community of point in time, or rather at the end of time. This
Taize, France, founded in 1940. means that monotheistic religions usually take
histor\' seriously. They say it began through
MONOTHEISM Belief in one personal GOD. God's creation and will end when his plan is
completed, at a last judgment, and with the
It ma\- be contrasted with POLYTHEISM, or belief beginning of a paradisal world.
in many gods, and w ith monism, usually taken to
mean that everything is really part of one imper- Personal monotheism also has God working
sonal absolute, like the BR.\HMAN of Advaita
VED.-VNT.^ Hinduism. in the world, in history, toward the accomplish-

The three great Western religions, JUDAISM, ment of his purpose. If God is personal, and can
CHRISTL\N1TV', and ISL.\M, see themselves as act freely in accordance with his will, it would be
traditionally monotheistic. They all stem ulti- surprising if, ha\ing made the world, he did noth-
mateh- from the faith of .^RAH,\M and from the ing to help it keep on track as it mo\es to the
religion of ancient Israel. Another very important fialfillment of the divine plan. Thus monotheistic
monotheist rehgion is ZORO,\STRL\NISM, the religions generally say that God has indeed re-
FAITH of ancient Iran, which may ha\e influenced \ealed himself within human history', through
the Western monotheisms. It should also be
pointed out that Hindu devotion to one of the sending prophets and saviors, through sacred
great gods, such as \1SHNU, SI\'A, or KRISHNA, scriptures, through MIRACLES and the divine
is generally actually monotheism of that deity, guidance of his S.AINTS and the true religion. But
for though the worshiper may grant that the
god may be worshiped under other names, it is because God respects the men and women he has
honored as the one supreme sustainer of the
universe. Another religion of India, SIKHISM, is made, these signs are not such as to override
human freedom.
definitelv monotheistic.
Monotheistic religions have then tended to
emphasize God's sovereignty, God's will, and