Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide
Knowledge Module 2

SA Academy of Applied Competence

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

UNDERSTANDING ECD
Occupational Certificate: Early Childhood Development Practitioner
SAQA QUAL ID: 97542 
NQF LEVEL 4
234201000-KM-02 - Theories and Perspectives of Child Development

Table of Content
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 14
1. Introduction 15
2.1 About the Generic Management Qualification 15
2.2 Learner Support 16
3. Assessment 16

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

3.1 Formative Assessment 16
3.2 Summative Assessment 16
4. Navigating the Learner Guide 17
4.1 Use of Icons 17
5. Learner Administration 19
Learner Tip: 19
5.1 Attendance Register 19
5.2 Learner Registration Form 19
5.3 Programme Evaluation Form 20
KT0101 - Types and application of Child Development related theories 21
Learning Outcomes: 21
introduction 21
so1: develop, facilitate and assess numeracy 23
1.1 (ac 1) - child development theories in numeracy 24
Individual Activity 1.1: 26
1.2 (ac2) - principles and processes of numeracy acquisition 26
Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.2: 30
1.3 (ac 3) - national curriculum in Reception Year 30
Individual Activity 1.3: 35

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

1.4 (ac4) - learning programmes and activities for learners with special needs and barriers to learning 36
Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.4: 38
1.5 (ac5) - Methods and tools for assessing young children's numeracy progress 38
Individual Activity 1.5: 40
So2: Plan a Numeracy Learning Programme 41
Learner Tip: 41
2.1 (ac1) – planning a Numeracy Learning Programme for Grade R. 43
Group Activity / Pair Activity 2.1: 45
2.2 (ac2) - integration of mathematical relationships across other learning areas 46
Group Activity / Pair Activity 2.2: 48
2.3 (ac3) – plans that are child-centred and relate to children's life world interests and experiences. 48
Individual Activity 2.3: 51
2.4 (ac4) - Basic principles for selecting and sequencing learning activities 51
Group Activity / Pair Activity 2.4: 54
2.5 (ac5) - lessons learnt from previous experiences of facilitating numeracy. 54
Group Activity / Pair Activity 2.5: 57
2.6 (ac6) - The application of lesson plans 57
Group Activity / Pair Activity 2.6: 59
So3 - numeracy learning activities. 59

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Learner Tip: 60
3.1 (ac3) - use mathematical language, concepts and numeracy skills. 61
Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.1: 64
3.2 (ac2) - principles and processes the of mathematical concepts and numeracy skills 64
Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.2: 69
3.3 (ac3) - Activities enable children to appreciate mathematical relationships, logic and pattern in number and
space. 69
Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.3: 73
3.4 (ac4) - Activities enable children to develop an appreciation of simple economic principles and
technological processes based on their everyday experience. 74
Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.4: 80
3.5 (ac5) - Activities and materials to are culture-fair and promote an anti-bias approach. 80
Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.5: 86
so4: Implement the planned Numeracy Learning Programme. 86
Learner Tip: 86
4.1 (ac1) – implementing a Numeracy Learning Programme 87
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.1: 91
4.2 (ac2) - creative and critical thinking and problem-solving 91
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.2: 106
4.3 (ac3) - Children working with number, space, shape, data and patterns 107

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.3: 113
4.4 (ac4) - CHILDREN WORK individually, in pairs, and in small and large groups. 113
How to Teach Group Work 115
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.4: 116
so5: Assess children's progress in the Numeracy Learning Programme. 117
Learner Tip: 117
Other People Are Reading 117
5.1 (ac1) – assessing child's progress in the Numeracy Learning Programme 117
Ways to Assess in Math Class 117
Student Assessment Resources 119
Group Activity / Pair Activity 5.1: 120
5.2 (ac2) – numeracy Assessment tools and procedures 120
Group Activity / Pair Activity 5.2: 125
5.3 (ac3) - assessment standards in the national curriculum statement 125
Group Activity / Pair Activity 5.3: 127
5.4 (ac4) – using Assessment records to check children progress 127
Group Activity / Pair Activity 5.4: 132
So6: Evaluate the effectiveness of the Numeracy Learning Programme. 132
Learner Tip: 132

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

6.1 (ac1) - evaluating The effectiveness of the Numeracy Programme 133
Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.1: 136
6.2 (ac2) - strengths and weaknesses in the planning and facilitation of numeracy development 137
Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.2: 140
6.3 (ac3) - facilitation techniques modified to build strengths and deal with weaknesses facilitation of numeracy.
140
Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.3: 142
Portfolio Activity: 142
Resources: 143
Self Assessment 143
MODULE 2 146
us id: KT0102 - Child Development from conception to school-going age, including brain development in the
first 1000 days 146
Learning Outcomes: 146
introduction 146
So1: how literacy is facilitated and assessed. 147
How to facilitate parents’ participation in literacy-enhancing services 150
(ac1) - different kinds of literacies 156
Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.1: 161
1.2 (ac2) - Ways in which literacy is developed are described in terms of relevant child development theories
161

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Cognitive Child Development Theories 162
Behavioural Child Development Theories 163
Social Child Development Theories 165
Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.2: 165
1.3 (ac3) - the principles and processes of literacy acquisition and the importance of understanding and
supporting home and additional language 166
Principles and Practices of Language Experience 167
Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.3: 175
1.4 (ac4) - The requirements of the national curriculum in the foundation phase 175
Curriculum background 175
Group Activity / Pair Activity: 178
1.5 (ac5) - principles of integrating and sequencing learning programmes and activities 178
How to Design a Learning Program 178
Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.5: 180
1.6 (ac6) - Methods and tools for assessing young children's literacy 180
Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.6: 183
so2: Plan a Literacy Learning Programme. 183
Learner Tip: 183
2.1 (ac1) - Literacy Learning Programme 184
Individual Activity 2.1: 188

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

2.2 (ac2) - child-centred learning activities 189
Child-Centered Education 192
Child-centered teaching methods enhance early childhood physical education 193
Individual Activity 2.2: 195
2.3 (ac3) – using previous experiences of facilitating literacy in planning 195
Individual Activity 2.3: 198
2.4 (so4) - culture-fair and anti-bias approach 198
Group Activity / Pair Activity 2.4: 201
So3: literacy learning activities and materials. 201
3.1 (ac1) - Effective Communication for children 202
Effective communication skills for children 202
Individual Activity 3.1: 206
3.2 (ac2) - Learning activities and materials support early literacy development 206
How to Increase Literacy in Early Childhood Education Programs 208
Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.2: 209
3.3 (ac3) - Activities to help children literacy skills in a print-rich and multi-lingual learning environment 209
Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.3: 213
3.4 (ac4) - Learning activities and materials to encourage children to understand the structure and use of
language 213
How to Apply Multicultural Education to a Classroom 214

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Group Activity / Pair Activity 3.4: 215
So4: Implement Literacy Learning Programme. 215
Learner Tip: 216
4.1 (ac1) – implementing a Literacy Learning Programme 216
Visual Processing Problems in Children 219
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.1: 220
4.2 (ac2) - learning activities organised for individual, pairs, and small and large group work 220
Get Acquainted Activities for Kids in Pairs 222
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.2: 225
4.3 (ac3) - Opportunities for thinking and problem-solving 225
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.3: 227
4.4 (ac4) - Children to plan projects and activities to their own satisfaction 228
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.4: 230
4.5 (ac5) - Theories and Perspectives of Child Development used to support and extend children's learning 230
How to Facilitate Learning through Effective Teaching 232
Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.5: 233
So5 - Assess children's progress in the Literacy Learning Programme. 234
Learner Tip: 234
5.1 (ac1) – assessing Each child's progress 235

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Ways to Assess Preschool Learning 235
Why is Assessment Important? 237
How to Assess children Literacy 238
Individual Activity 5.1: 239
5.2 (ac2) - Assessment tools and procedures 239
Reading Assessment Methods for Preschoolers 239
Assessment Tools for Early Childhood 241
List of Formal & Informal Assessment Tools & Methods 242
Assessment Tools Used in Early Childhood 243
Group Activity / Pair Activity 5.2: 244
5.3 (ac3) - keeping Assessment records for feedback 244
Individual Activity 5.3: 246
So6: Evaluate the effectiveness of the Literacy Learning Programme. 247
Learner Tip: 247
6.1 (ac1) - The effectiveness of the Literacy Programme 248
How to Measure the Effectiveness of a Quality System 248
How to Implement an Effective Quality Management System 249
How to Design Effective Performance Appraisal Systems 250
Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.1: 251

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

6.2 (ac2) - strengths and weaknesses in the planning and facilitation 251
How to Identify Strengths & Weaknesses 251
How to Assess Strengths & Weaknesses 252
How to Learn Strengths & Weaknesses 253
Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.2: 253
6.3 (ac3) - ways of modifying facilitation techniques and strategies 254
Facilitation & Effective Communication 254
Ground Rules for Facilitators 255
Group Facilitation Tips 256
Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.3: 257
Portfolio Activity: 258
Resources: 258
Self Assessment 258
mODULE 3 261
Us id: KT0103 - Domains of Child Development and how they interrelate 261
Learning Outcomes: 261
Introduction 261
so1: develop, facilitate and assess life skills 262
How to Facilitate Learning in Children 262

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

1.1 (ac1) - The effectiveness of the Life Skills Programme 263
Early Childhood Development Theory 263
Theories of Child Development 264
What is Psychosocial Development? 264
Jean Piaget's Background 266
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development 267
Individual Activity 1.1: 269
1.2 (ac2) - principles and processes of life skills 270
Teaching life skills 270
How to Build Life Skills 271
Individual Activity 1.2: 272
1.3 (ac3) - national curriculum in the foundation phase 272
Individual Activity 1.3: 275
1.4 (ac4) - rich programme designed to empower all learners including learners with special needs 275
How to Accommodate Learners With Special Needs During a Classroom Assessment Test 275
How to Teach Special Needs Students 277
Individual Activity 1.4: 278
1.5 (ac5) - Methods and tools for assessing young children's life skills 278
Children & Assessment Tools 278

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Assessing Young Children 280
Individual Activity 1.5: 282
So2 - Plan a Life Skills Learning Programme. 282
How to Plan Educational Programs 282
2.1 (ac1) – planning a Life Skills Learning Programme 283
The inherited situation 284
Individual Activity 3.1: 287
2.2 (ac2) - child-centred activities 287
What Is a Child-Centered Constructivist Approach to Early Childhood Education? 287
Piaget & Early Childhood Development 289
Constructivist Learning Ideas 290
Individual Activity 2.2: 291
2.3 (ac3) - Life Skills Learning Programme appropriate to life experiences of the children 291
How to Encourage Personal Development in Children 291
Activities for Children's Emotional and Social Development 293
Individual Activity 2.3: 294
2.4 (ac4) - culture-fair and anti-bias approach 295
Cultural Fair Ideas 295
Individual Activity 2.5: 298

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

So3 - Prepare Life Skills learning activities and materials. 298
Learner Tip: 299
3.1 (ac1) - development of a positive self-concept and respect for others, different lifestyles, religions,
languages, gender and cultures 300
Positive thinking can help children to feel confident. 300
How to Improve Positive Thinking 302
Help Your Child Have a Positive Attitude & Interact With Others 303
Individual Activity 3.1: 305
3.2 (ac2) - Activities to help children develop creativity and technical skills 305
Early Childhood Development Activities for Teachers 305
The Activities Used to Foster Listening Skills in Early Childhood 306
Individual Activity 3.2: 308
3.3 (ac3) - encourage children to explore and value their environment and society 308
Creating Opportunities for Children to Explore Different Ways of Learning 308
How to Help Children Explore Their Creativity 309
How to Create Opportunities for Children to Explore Different Ways of Learning 310
Individual Activity 3.3: 311
3.4 (ac4) - children's physical development and understanding of health and safety issues 312
Observing physical development 312
Development of fine manipulative skills 312

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

How to Support the Physical Development of a Child 313
How to Encourage Physical Development 314
Health & Safety Activities for Children 315
Individual Activity 3.5: 317
So4 - Implement Life Skills Learning Programme 317
4.1 (ac1) – implementation ensures active and integrated learning 318
Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom 318
Smartboard First Grade Addition Activities 319
Constructivist Teaching in Kindergarten 321
Individual Activity 2.4: 322
4.2 (ac2) – children work individually, in pairs, small groups and large groups. 322
Young Children's Activities 322
How to Get Kids to Work Together & Motivate Them 326
Working Together Games for Kids 327
Portfolio Activity 4.2: 328
4.3 (ac3) - critical thinking and problem solving activities 329
Critical Thinking Skills: Activities for Children 329
How to Teach Critical Thinking Skills 330
What Activities Can Improve Your Critical Thinking Skills? 331

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Critical-Thinking Ideas for Teachers 332
Portfolio Activity: 334
4.5 (ac5) - Children carry out projects according to their own ability. 334
Cognitive Skills, Colours, Numbers & Teaching Activities for Preschool 336
Activities That Help Develop Cognitive Skills in Children 337
Portfolio Activity 4.4: 338
So5 - Observe and assess children's progress 339
How to Track Children's Progress 339
5.1 (ac1) – continual assessment of children’s progress 340
How to Monitor Children's Progress 340
Effective Progress Monitoring 341
Ways to Monitor a Student's Progress 342
Portfolio Activity 5.1: 343
5.2 (ac2) - Assessment tools and procedures 343
Assessment Tools for Children's Development 343
Child Development Assessment Tools 345
Portfolio Activity: 349
5.3 (ac3) - individualised learning experiences for children 349
How to Incorporate Individualized Instruction in the Classroom 349

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

The Best Ways To Incorporate Individualized Instruction in the Classroom 350
How to Use Individualized Instruction in the Classroom 351
What Assessments Can You Use for Differentiated Instruction? 353
Portfolio Activity 5.3: 354
So6: Evaluate the effectiveness of the Life Skills Learning Programme. 355
How to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Training 355
6.1 (ac1) – evaluate the effectiveness of the Life Skills Programme 356
Portfolio Activity 6.1: 358
6.2 (ac2) - programme strengths and weaknesses 359
How to Identify Strengths & Weaknesses 359
How to Assess Strengths & Weaknesses 359
Portfolio Activity 6.2: 360
6.3 (ac3) – modifying facilitation techniques and strategies 361
Classroom Facilitation Tips 361
Tips on Facilitating Training 363
Group Facilitation Tips 365
Portfolio Activity 6.3: 366
Portfolio Activity: 366
Resources: 367

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Self Assessment 367

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This learning material has been entirely developed and organized by Bull’s Business and Skills training institute
(BBT Institute) under supervision of NSA Consulting.

Many people have contributed in various ways to help develop and produce the original version and the later
edition of this manual. We wish to thank all those who have contributed in one way or another.

We are heartily thankful to BBT and NSA agency employees, family and friends, whose encouragement,
guidance and support from the initial to the final level enabled us to compile and have an understanding of this
manual.

Lastly, we offer our regards and blessings to all of those who supported us in any respect during the
compilation of this Manual, especially Services Sector Education and Training Authority, for the practical
support and resources required to put up this manual.

Other sources

N  ational Department of Education
S  outh African Qualification Authority
 SERVICES SETA
D  epartment of labour
 NSA (Nsamba) consulting and training
W  ikipedia

Introduction

1. Introduction

Welcome to 234201000-KM-02 of the Early Childhood Development, this is an NQF registered qualification
Level 4. The primary purpose of this Qualification is to develop practitioners who will be able to facilitate to
learners that are still at the entry level of the education system.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

2.1 About the Generic Management
Quali cation

Based on the qualification description and requirements, the Qualification will be divided into 3 learning units
with learning unit sub-divisions, based on the exit level outcomes and related assessment criteria:

Learner Tip
The modular structure illustrated above will contain a grouping of Modules that pertains to the exit level
outcome and related assessment criteria.
The following table illustrates the Module alignment in this module.
Learning 234201000-KM-02: Theories and Perspectives of Child Development

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ELO NLRD US Title Level

ELO1 KT0103 Domains of Child Development and how they Level

interrelate 04

KT0102  Child Development from conception to school- Level
going age, including brain development in the first 04
1000 days

KT0101 Types and application of Child Development Level

related theories
04

2.2 Learner Support

Please remember that as the programme is outcomes based – this implies the following:

 You are responsible for your own learning – make sure you manage your
study, practical, workplace and portfolio time responsibly.
L  earning activities are learner driven – make sure you use the Learner
Guide and Portfolio Guide in the manner intended, and are familiar with
the Portfolio requirements.
 The Facilitator is there to reasonably assist you during contact, practical
and workplace time of this programme – make sure that you have
his/her contact details.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

3. Assessment

Learning Outcomes:
Please refer to the beginning of each module for the learning outcomes that will be covered per Learning Unit.

3.1 Formative Assessment

In each Learner Guide, several activities are spaced within the content to assist you in understanding the
material through application. Please make sure that you complete ALL activities in the Learner Guide, whether
it was done during the contact session, or not!

3.2 Summative Assessment

You will be required to complete a Portfolio of Evidence for summative assessment purposes. A portfolio is a
collection of different types of evidence relating to the work being assessed. It can include a variety of work
samples.
The Portfolio Guide will assist you in identifying the portfolio and evidence requirements for final assessment
purposes. You will be required to complete Portfolio activities on your own time, using real life projects in your
workplace environment in preparing evidence towards your portfolio.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Portfolio Activity:
DO NOT WAIT until the end – the programme is designed to assist you in evidence preparation as you go
along – make use of the opportunity!
Remember:
If it is not documented, it did not happen!
In some evidence, the process you followed is more important than actual outcome / end-product.
Therefore …
Please make sure all steps for the Portfolio Activities are shown where required.

4. Navigating the Learner Guide

4.1 Use of Icons

Throughout the learning programme icons are used to focus your attention on important aspects of the
learning programme. The following icons are used in this learning programme to direct your attention in using
at as a reference guide.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Group Activity / Pair Activity:

You will be required to complete an activity in your group or in pairs with
fellow colleagues / programme participants, and provide feedback to the
participants in a report back or presentation session.

Individual Activity:

You will be required to complete an activity on your own that relates to
the outcomes covered in the Learning Unit.

Portfolio Activity:
Complete the assessment activity that will be assessed as part of your Portfolio of Evidence for the particular
Learning Unit.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Self Re ection:
Reflect on the question(s) asked to identify the relevance of learning outcomes in your own working
environment.

Learner Tip:
A useful tip or essential element regarding the concept under discussion is given as a basis to further
discussion.

Resources:
Possible sources for further research and study is listed under this icon. Resources may include additional
reading, handouts, web-sites, multimedia

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Facilitators Note:
Content matter that is critical to the understanding of the Learning Unit. The learner must pay careful attention
to this section.

Mentored Discussion:
Refer to your Mentor or Workplace Supervisor to assist in this activity, as they will conduct the assessment or
sign off of the activity once completed.

Learning Outcomes:
Please refer to the beginning of each Learning Unit for the learning outcomes that will be covered per Learning
Unit.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Self Assessment:
You have come to the end of this Learning Unit – please take the time to review what you have learnt to date,
and conduct a self assessment against the learning outcomes of this Learning Unit

5. Learner Administration

Learner Tip:
The following Learner Administration is critical in assisting your provider in managing this programme
effectively.
Please take a moment to familiarize yourself with the requirements.

5.1 Attendance Register

You are required to sign the Attendance Register every day of attendance. Please make sure you sign daily!

5.2 Learner Registration Form

Pease refer to the end of the Learner Guide for the Learner Registration Form. Make sure you complete it using
the Key Document, and submit to your Facilitator before the end of the contact session with a copy of your ID
document.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Learner Tip/Truths:
Without the Learner Registration and ID Documents we will not be able to register you with Services SETA for
certification purposes.

5.3 Programme Evaluation Form

At the end of the Learning Guide is a Learning programme Evaluation Form. Please complete the form before
the end of the contact sessions, as this will assist us in improving our service and programme material. Your
assistance is highly appreciated!
KT0101 - Types and application of Child Development related theories 

Learning Outcomes:

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

1. Describe how numeracy is developed, facilitated and assessed. 
2. Plan a Numeracy Learning Programme. 
3. Prepare numeracy learning activities and materials. 
4. Implement the planned Numeracy Learning Programme. 
5. Assess children's progress in the Numeracy Learning Programme. 
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Numeracy Learning Programme. 

introduction

Numeracy is defined as the ability to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts. Basic numeracy skills
consist of comprehending fundamental mathematics like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. For
example, if one can understand simple mathematical equations such as, 2 + 2 = 4, then one would be
considered possessing at least basic numeric knowledge. Substantial aspects of numeracy also include
number sense, operation sense, computation, measurement, geometry, probability and statistics. A
numerically literate person can manage and respond to the mathematical demands of life. However, the lack
of numeracy or innumeracy can have a negative impact if the skills are absent. Numeracy has an influence on
career professions, literacy, and risk perception towards health decisions.

Representation of numbers: Humans have evolved to mentally represent numbers in two major ways from
observation (not formal math). These representations are innate; they are not the result of individual learning or
cultural transmission.

They are:

1. Approximate representations of numerical magnitude, and
2. Precise representations of distinct individuals.
Approximate representations of numerical magnitude imply that one can relatively estimate and comprehend
an amount, if the number is large. For example, children and adults were given dot arrays composed of many
dots. After briefly reviewing them, both groups could roughly estimate the number of dots close to the correct
number. However, distinguishing amount differences with larger numbers is more challenging.

Precise representations of distinct individuals demonstrate that people are more accurate in estimating
amounts and distinguish amount differences, when the numbers are relatively smaller. For example, infants
were presented with 2 piles of crackers. One pile had 2 crackers and the other pile had 3 crackers. Cups then
covered both piles of crackers. When given the option to choose a cup, the infant always chose the cup
containing the most crackers because the infant could distinguish the subtle difference.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Both systems have limited expressive power; for instance, neither allows fractions nor negative numbers to be
represented. Further representations require arduous processes that are probably only achieved through
education. Achievement in school mathematics is related to unlearned mathematical ability (specifically, our
approximate number sense).
Theory: There is a theory that innumeracy is more common than illiteracy when dividing cognitive abilities into
two separate categories. David C. Geary, a notable cognitive developmental and evolutionary psychologist
from the University of Missouri, created the terms "biological primary abilities" and "biological secondary
abilities." Biological primary abilities evolve over time and are necessary for survival. Such abilities include
speaking a common language or knowledge of simple mathematics.
Biological secondary abilities are attained through personal experiences and cultural customs, such as reading
or high level mathematics learned through schooling. Literacy and numeracy are similar in the sense that they
are both important skills used in life. However, they differ in the sorts of mental demands each makes. Literacy
consists of acquiring vocabulary and grammatical sophistication, which seem to be more closely related to
memorization, whereas numeracy involves manipulating concepts, such as in calculus or geometry, and builds
from basic numeracy skills. This could be a potential explanation of the challenge of being numerate.

so1: develop, facilitate and assess
numeracy

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Numeracy is the ability to read and comprehend numbers. Much like its reading counterpart, literacy,
numeracy is required for students to successfully understand number-related questions, problems or
situations. Numeracy is not easily quantifiable because it involves the combination of several complex
concepts, as a 2007 Teachers Investigating Adult Numeracy report states. While difficult to assess, primary
teachers can and should incorporate numeracy building activities within their classes to ensure that students
are prepared for mathematical success.

Feature a pictorial number line in your class. When dealing with young children, you can help them become
acquainted with numbers and what each number means by featuring a pictorial number line in your classroom.
This number line should include the digits, along with a picture that corresponds with each digit, showing what
the digit in question means.

Create "Symbol, Word, Meaning" charts with your students. Students can enhance their understanding of
numbers though the creation of a "Symbol, Word, Meaning" chart. To prepare this chart, create a page that is
divided into three columns. Ask your students to write the symbol or digit for a given number in the first
column, the word that corresponds with that digit in the second and a picture to represent that digit in the third.
Allow children to add to their charts as they become more and more familiar with numbers.

Talk though mathematical problems with students. Help students understand math problems by using words
to clearly describe each problem. Instead of saying "two plus two equals four," you can say "If you have two of
something, and you receive two more, you now have four." Using words and phrases that students may
encounter in their everyday speech can make math more accessible to your students and enhance their
understanding of problem-solving.

Study order of operations or mathematical syntax. When dealing with upper primary students, discuss the
order in which operations must be completed. Just like syntax or the order of words necessary to create a
sentence, order of operations in math makes a difference. Discuss this order and explain the impact of
following the order as you continue to build your students' numeracy.

Require students to use words to explain their problem completion steps. Ask students to demonstrate their
understanding of numeracy by writing the steps used to solve a math problem in words. While numeracy can
be hard to gauge, reading a written explanation of the steps used to solve a problem can make it easier for you
to determine how your students are progressing with numeracy.

1.1 (ac 1) - child development theories  in
numeracy

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of history.
Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many
advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth that occur during childhood and
adolescence.

Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th-century, but it tended to
focus on abnormal behaviour. Eventually, researchers became increasingly interested in other topics including
typical child development as well as the influences on development.

An understanding of child development is essential, allowing us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional,
physical, social and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood. Some of
the major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they attempt to describe every aspect of
development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as mini-theories; they instead focus only on a
fairly limited aspect of development, such as cognitive or social growth.

The following are just a few of the many child development theories that have been proposed by theorists and
researchers. More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and identify the typical ages at
which these growth milestones occur.

Psychoanalytic Child Development Theories

Sigmund Freud: The theories proposed by Sigmund Freud stressed the importance of childhood events and
experiences, but almost exclusively focused on mental disorders rather that normal functioning.

According to Freud, child development is described as a series of 'psychosexual stages.' In "Three Essays on
Sexuality" (1915), Freud outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage involves the
satisfaction of a libidinal desire and can later play a role in adult personality. If a child does not successfully
complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult
personality and behaviour. Learn more in this article on Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.

Erik Erikson: Theorist Erik Erikson also proposed a stage theory of development, but his theory encompassed
human growth throughout the entire human lifespan. Erikson believed that each stage of development was
focused on overcoming a conflict. For example, the primary conflict during the adolescent period involves
establishing a sense of personal identity. Success or failure in dealing with the conflicts at each stage can
impact overall functioning. During the adolescent stage, for example, failure to develop an identity results in
role confusion. Learn more about this theory in this article on Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Cognitive Child Development Theories: Theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than
adults and proposed a stage theory of cognitive development. He was the first to note that children play an
active role in gaining knowledge of the world. According to his theory, children can be thought of as "little
scientists" who actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world. Learn more in this article on
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

Behavioural Child Development Theories: Behavioural theories of child development focus on how
environmental interaction influences behaviour and are based upon the theories of theorists such as John B.
Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviours. Development is
considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli and reinforcement. This theory differs considerably from
other child development theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it
focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are. Learn more about these behavioural theories in these
articles on classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Social Child Development Theories

John Bowlby: There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed
one of the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers
play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life. Learn
more in this overview of attachment theory.

Albert Bandura: Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory. According to
this theory of child development, children learn new behaviours from observing other people. Unlike
behavioural theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned
new things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment could
also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new
skills and acquire new information.

Lev Vygotsky: Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on
to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children
learn actively and through hands-on experiences. His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents,
caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for the development of higher order functions.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Individual Activity 1.1:
1. Define child development.
2. List the theories of child development
3. Explain how you can apply the child development theories when facilitating numeracy.
4. Use one theories of child development and demonstrate how it can be applied in numeracy facilitating.

1.2 (ac2) - principles and processes of numeracy
acquisition

DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY NUMERACY

Although research on the numerical skills of children has a history just as long as that on reading processes the
quantity of research on early numeracy is much less than that on early literacy. Furthermore, the transition
between preschool numeracy (e.g., counting) and school-based numeracy (e.g., arithmetic) has received very
little attention in the literature. One possible reason for this neglect is that literacy has traditionally been viewed
as more important than numeracy. In short, parents, teachers, and educational researchers have been less
concerned about children’s numerical skills than about their reading.

Theoretically, this lack of attention to early numeracy may also have arisen from the Piagetian perspective that
children’s quantitative abilities before age 6 or 7 are rudimentary and therefore of little interest. Whatever the
reason, however, the neglect of research on numeracy is beginning to change. The range of articles in this
special issue attests to the burgeoning research interest in a wide variety of numerical abilities and skills that
children acquire before, during, and after the transition to formal schooling.

Geary (1995) proposed that cognitive abilities can be divided into two main categories. First, some abilities can
be termed biologically primary because they have evolved over time and serve some function that has
allowed humans to survive in their environments. Second, other cognitive abilities are biologically secondary,
that is, transmitted or acquired mainly through cultural activities and experiences (such as formal schooling).
Geary suggests, for example, that language is biologically primary whereas reading is biologically secondary.

Similarly, counting small quantities may be biologically primary whereas multi-digit arithmetic operations
presumably are not. Dehaene (1997) makes a related (although not identical) claim that humans acquire some
numerical skills relatively easily whereas other skills require intensive instruction. For example, he suggests
that children easily learn to count (with minimal instruction) because counting takes advantage of universally
available competencies such as exhaustive search, verbal labelling, and one-to-one correspondence.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

In contrast, arithmetic operations beyond simple addition are more difficult to learn because they require
mental activities for which humans are poorly prepared, such as the memorization of a large number of easily
confusable pieces of information (e.g., multiplication facts). Either of these theoretical perspectives leads to the
hypothesis that children may have difficulty with the transition from numerical skills that are acquired prior to
schooling to those taught in school. Consistent with this view, the papers on early numeracy in this special
issue touch on the issue of which numerical skills seem to be acquired early and relatively easily and which
develop more slowly.

Klein and Bisanz’s research in the current issue shows that preschoolers’ numerical understanding goes
beyond being able to recite the counting string or recognize Arabic digits and suggests that at least some
aspects of addition are biologically primary (to use Geary’s term). Importantly, however, working memory
limitations also influenced children’s performance. Lemaire et al. illustrate that the acquisition of numerical
understanding is a long process. The 10-year-olds in their study were just beginning to use computational
estimation on multi-digit numbers.

To become successful estimators, children seem to require both some underlying computational arithmetic
skills (LeFevre, Greenham, & Waheed, 1993) and large enough working memory capacities (Case & Sowder,
1990). Thus, the results of Klein and Bisanz and of Lemaire et al. converge on the conclusion that both
experiential and developmental processes are important in children’s acquisition of numeracy skills.

Miller et al. provide another example of how experiential factors are important in the acquisition of numerical
knowledge. Chinese-speaking children readily acquire the verbal labels for ordinal numbers whereas English-
speaking children acquire ordinal number words more slowly. In Chinese, ordinal names are created by adding
a prefix to the cardinal number name. In contrast, English ordinal number words are irregular and the sequence
is rife with inconsistencies (i.e., first, second, third, fourth). Intriguingly, however, Miller et al. report some
evidence that English-speaking children may understand the ordinal concept better than do Chinese-speaking
children. Cultural influences may work in mysterious ways.

The papers on numeracy in this issue hint at a potentially interesting difference between literacy and numeracy
development. Once the decoding process is mastered, literacy acquisition appears to involve many
quantitative developments (more vocabulary, more grammatical knowledge) as well as some qualitative
changes (improved comprehension strategies).

Numerical developments, however, often involve whole new conceptual categories (consider calculus or
geometry) that build upon basic knowledge (such as arithmetic) but are also distinctive disciplines in their own
right. Thus, literacy development after age 8 or 9 could perhaps be characterized as "more, more, more"
whereas numeracy development has many separate avenues and specific competencies. Excellence in
geometry may be unrelated to performance on algebra tests, for example. These issues of the complexity of
numeracy development may partially explain why research on numerical skills is not as focused as that on
literacy; the field appears to be more diverse, multifaceted, and conceptually fragmented.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

In mathematics achievement, a notable difference exists between males and females, as well as between
ethnic groups. Differences between school-age boys and girls in learning, as well as between high- and low-
achieving students, indicate that some concepts are easier to grasp than others for each respective group. In
the U.S., African American and Hispanic students have been noted to underperform in comparison to Anglo
American students, who, in turn, are outperformed by Asian students. These patterns of performance may be
affected by patterns of course-taking, motivation and self-esteem towards mathematics, speed of math-fact
retrieval, and additional factors such as socioeconomic status and gender-based beliefs

Learning environments that capitalize on students’ current understanding, combined with goals to increase
mathematic proficiency, are a good way to promote development both direct and indirect tasks (referring to
direct instruction or indirect games with numeracy-related targets) are known to be beneficial for teaching
mathematics. Indirect tasks can also be implemented at home, such as by counting the number of peas on a
dinner plate, or pointing out how many red cars can be seen while driving.

At school, open and frequent discussion of mathematics, including mention of numbers and quantities, has
been suggested to improve students’ recognition of mathematical topics. In addition, this strategy can also
help improve students’ ability to use appropriate language to express their mathematical understanding. The
use of manipulative, such as small objects like beans, buttons, or cubes, included to provide a tangible
explanation of quantity, can be helpful as well. These objects can be used as something concrete from which a
child can begin to understand concepts of number and quantity.

In acquiring numeracy skills, children develop a sense of both number and quantity from an early age.
However, even though children are often able to intuitively acquire numerical skills, current research indicates
that the learning environment at home can be particularly useful in facilitating mathematics development.
Within number sense, both non-symbolic and symbolic numerical skills exist; both are acquired through direct
instruction. The child’s understanding of quantity allows for further understanding of the concept of number,
and for the future acquisition of higher order operations involving both number and quantity.

Children from cultures which use numeracy-specific vocabulary to communicate topics pertaining to number
and quantity have been known to more easily acquire and retain numeracy skills. Some cognitive skills, such as
the ability to create mental associations between verbal and print symbols, as well as non-symbolic skills, like
recognizing quantity within groups of objects, also appear to be connected to mathematics. When students
have difficulties with working memory or executive function skills, mathematics skill development is often
affected as well

What can be done?

Parents and Educators

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

I t is important that both female and male students feel capable, included
by parents and educators, and has the opportunity to excel in
mathematics. There is a significant link between parent and teacher
beliefs about stereotypic female mathematics performance and
perceived ability.
 There are increasing opportunities for careers which require a strong
knowledge of mathematics. With such a growing need, both males and
females will be needed to fill this job market niche; an interest in
mathematics must be cultivated in both males and females during the
school-age years.
 Children begin to grasp concepts of number and quantity from an early
age. By providing children with a multitude of opportunities to engage in
numeracy, we encourage children to develop informal mathematics
knowledge. Such support by parents, caregivers, teachers, and early
childhood educators can have beneficial results; an early interest in
mathematics has been known to stimulate later mathematics growth.
I n school and at home, encourage children to openly discuss
mathematics concepts and their reasoning, such as during problem-
solving activities. Verbal discussion of mathematics and of reasoning has
been known to solidify conceptual understanding, skills which can later
be applied in the classroom.

Policymakers

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

M  ore research is required to investigate the (mis)connections between
mathematic competence, skill acquisition, and external factors such as
self-esteem and course-taking behaviours.
C  urrent research indicates that the middle school years can be targeted
for mathematics development; further intervention specific to these
years must be developed to benefit at-risk students.
W  hile gender and ethnicity differences are known to exist within
mathematics learning, it is important for future research to determine
gender differences within ethnic groups.
 A greater understanding of the process by which students come to
develop concepts in mathematics is necessary to provide future research
on appropriate instruction and intervention.
 Further investigation of professional development for teachers and
related professionals to best support mathematics learning is still
required.
 Since not all aspects of number sense, symbolic skill development and
the interplay of cognitive skills with numeracy have been identified, more
research will help to identify areas for potential support and intervention.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.2:
1. Discuss numeracy development.
2. Skill development is normally affected by students having difficulties with working memory or executive
function skills, mathematics. Explain how this can be corrected specifying the role players in the solution.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

1.3 (ac 3) - national curriculum in Reception Year

The curriculum can play a vital role in creating awareness of the relationship between human rights, a healthy
environment, social justice and inclusivity.
In some counties this is done through subjects such as civics. The Revised National Curriculum Statements
reflect the principles and practices of social justice, respect for the environment and human rights as defined in
the Constitution. In particular, the curriculum attempts to be sensitive to issues of poverty, inequality, race,
gender, age, disability, and such challenges as HIV/ AIDS.
The Revised National Curriculum Statement adopts an inclusive approach by specifying minimum
requirements for all learners. The special educational, social, emotional and physical needs of learners will be
addressed in the design and development of appropriate Learning Programmes.
Outcomes-based Education
Outcomes-based education considers the process of learning as important as the content. Both the process
and the content. Both the process and the content of education are emphasised by spelling out the outcomes
to be achieved at the end of the process. In the Revised National Curriculum Statement learning outcomes and
assessment standards were designed down from the critical and developmental outcomes.
The critical and developmental outcomes are a list of outcomes that are derived from the Constitution and are
contained in the South African Qualifications Act (1995). They describe the kind of citizen the education and
training system should aim to create. The critical outcomes envisage learners who will be able to:

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

 Identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and
creative thinking;
W  ork effectively with others as members of a team, group, organisation
and community;
O  rganise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and
effectively;
 Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information;
C  ommunicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/ or language skills
in various modes;
U  se Science and Technology effectively and critically showing
responsibility towards the environment and the health of others;
D  emonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems
by recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation.

The developmental outcomes envisage learners who are also able to:

 Reflect on and explore a variety of strategies to learn more effectively;
P  articipate as responsible citizens in the life of local, national and global
communities;
B  e culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts;
E  xplore education and career opportunities;
 Develop entrepreneurial opportunities.

The Revised National Curriculum Statement attempts to embody and uphold a democratic vision of the
society and the citizens that should emerge from our school system.

By means of the Learning Area Statements, the Revised National Curriculum

Statement identifies the goals, expectations and outcomes to be achieved through related learning outcomes
and assessment standards. The learning outcomes for each Learning Area and assessment standards are
provided later in this document.

The outcomes and assessment standards emphasise participatory, learner-centred and activity-based
education. They leave considerable room for creativity and innovation on the part of teachers in interpreting
what and how to teach.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

The South African version of outcomes-based education is aimed at stimulating the minds of young people
that they are able to participate fully in economic and social life. It is intended to ensure that all learners are
able to develop and achieve to their maximum ability and are equipped for lifelong learning.

A High Level of Skills and Knowledge for all

The Revised National Curriculum Statement aims at the development of a high level of knowledge and skills
for all. It sets and holds up high expectations of what South African learners can achieve. Social justice requires
that those sections of the population previously disempowered by the lack of knowledge and skills should
now be empowered. The Revised National

Curriculum Statement aims to provide for stronger base from, which to enable the development of a high level
of skills and knowledge by all. It does so by specifying the combination of minimum knowledge and skills to be
achieved by learners in each grade and setting high, achievable standards in all the Learning Areas.

Clarity and Accessibility

The Revised National Curriculum Statement aims at clarity and accessibility both in its design and language.
Two design features - learning outcomes and assessment standards - clearly define for all learners the goals
and outcomes necessary to proceed to each successive level of the system. In addition, the Revised National
Curriculum Statement will be available in all official languages and Braille.

Progression and Integration

The principle of integrated learning is integral to outcomes-based education. Integration ensures that learners
experience the Learning Areas as linked and related. It supports and expands their opportunities to attain skills,
acquire knowledge and develop attitudes and values encompassed across the curriculum.

It is important that the curriculum sets out progressively more complex, deeper and broader expectations of
learners. Conceptual progression is a term used to describe this feature of a curriculum. In the Revised National
Curriculum Statement, the assessment standards in each Learning Area Statement provide the conceptual
progression in each Learning Area from grade to grade.

At the same time, learners should not deal with assessment standards in isolation. Links must be made within
and across learning outcomes and Learning Areas. The achievements of an optimal relationship between
integration across learning areas and conceptual progression grade to grade are central to this curriculum.

The ongoing development of teachers, school management teams and departmental support personnel is an
important facet of this goal.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

STRUCTURE AND CONCEPTS USED IN THE LEARNING AREA STATEMENTS

Each Learning Area Statement consists of:

An Introduction: This section introduces the particular Learning Area – its goals and unique features. Its
emphasis is on the Foundation Phase. A generic introduction to all learning areas on the National Curriculum
Statement is in chapter 1 of this document.

An section on learning outcomes and assessment standards: These express the requirements and
expectations of learners by grade at the Foundation Phase (Grades R-3). The Foundation Phase focuses on the
primary skills, knowledge and values to ensure the development of further learning. The learning outcomes
and assessment standards should be seen as minimum or essential knowledge, values and skills to be
covered but should not be all that is taught. They indicate what is essential for progression through the system
and are designed in relation to the Grade 9 requirements.

A section on assessment: This section outlines principles guidelines for assessment and makes suggestions for
recording and reporting assessment.

Learning area glossary: This section includes a glossary of the particular learning area.

Reference lists: This section usually includes abbreviations, acronyms and a glossary.

What is a Learning Outcome?

A learning outcome is derived from the critical and developmental outcomes. It is a description of what
(knowledge, skills and values) learners should know, demonstrate and be able to do at the end of the General
Education and Training band. A set of learning outcomes should ensure integration and progression in the
development of concepts, skills and values through the assessment standards. Learning outcomes do not
prescribe content or method.

What is an Assessment Standard?

Assessment standards describe the level at which learners should demonstrate their achievement of the
learning outcome(s) and ways (depth and breadth) of demonstrating their achievement. They are grade
specific and show how conceptual progression will occur in a Learning Area. They embody the knowledge,
skills and values required to achieve learning outcomes. They do not prescribe method.

How different is an Assessment Standard from a Learning Outcome?

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

The learning outcomes describe what learners should know and be able to do. Assessment standards
describe the minimum level, depth and breadth of what

Learning Programmes per Phase

In the Foundation Phase, there are three Learning Programmes: Literacy, Numeracy and Life Skills. In the
Intermediate Phase, Languages and Mathematics are districting Learning Programmes. Learning Programmes.
Learning Programmes must ensure that the prescribed outcomes for each learning area are covered
effectively and comprehensively. Schools may decide on the number and nature of other

Learning Programmes based on the organisational imperatives of the school, provided that the national
priorities and developmental needs of learners in a phase are taken into account.

In the Senior Phase, there are eight Learning programmes based on the

Learning Area Statements

Teachers will be responsible for the development of Learning Programmes. The Department of Education will
provide policy guidelines for the development of Learning Programmes in order to support this process.
Provinces will develop further guidelines where necessary in order to accommodate diversity.

Teacher education programmes will build the capacity of teachers, school management teams and
departmental support personnel to develop, implement, manage and support the development of learning
programmes.

Learning Programme Guidelines

To ensure achievement of national standards set by the Revised National Curriculum Statement, policy
guidelines for relevant and appropriate Learning Programmes will be developed at national level in
collaboration with provinces. These guidelines will emphasise the principle of integrated learning and the
achievement of an optimal relationship between integration across learning areas and conceptual progression
from grade to grade. The National

Education Policy Act (1996, section 3, paragraph 4) empowers the Minister of Education to determine, among
other things, such a national policy guideline for the development of Learning Programmes.

These policy guidelines will provide information and guidance on:

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

I ntegration within and across learning areas;
C  lustering of assessment standards;
R  elationships between learning outcomes;
 Time allocation;
A  ssessment;
B  arriers to learning;
 Designing a Learning Programme;
P  olicy and legislation;
 Training, development and delivery;
R  esourcing and support;
 Planning and organisation

These guidelines will be applied within the context of existing policy and legislative frameworks such as the six
White Papers on Education, the National Education Policy Act (1996), the South African Schools Act (1996) and
the Employment of Educators Act (1998). Learning Programme guidelines will offer a framework to address
specific learner and contextual needs.

Individual Activity 1.3:
1. Describe the new educational curriculum
2. State the advantages of the new curriculum over the old one
3. Compare and contrast the new and the old curriculum according to how it is applied to numeracy.

1.4 (ac4) - learning programmes and
activities for learners with special needs
and barriers to learning

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

How to Accommodate Learners With Special Needs During a Classroom Assessment Test

Accommodations change the way a student receives classroom instruction and assessments.
All students receiving special education services must participate in classroom assessment tests according to
the Individuals with Disabilities Act. Those students receiving special education or related services may have
accommodations during the administration of tests. The decisions about accommodations are set forth in each
student's Individualized Education Program (IEP). The decisions regarding accommodations must be based on
the needs of the individual special learner rather than on the category of the disability. These accommodations
should enable students to receive grade-level instruction and to demonstrate achievement on tests.
Provide the special learner with an alternate setting for taking the assessment if such a provision is stated in
the IEP. Choose a different room from the rest of the class. For example, use individual testing away from the
group if the student requires standing or moving about during the test.
Give the test to the student using a different format or mode of access if required. Such formats may include
auditory, multisensory, visual or tactile. For example, a vision-impaired student may require Braille or large
print. Audio recordings may be used if so stated in the accommodations provided in the IEP.
Provide accommodations that allow the student to respond to test questions in an alternative manner. He may
use an assistive device to organize the test items and respond to each one. For example, assign a scribe to
record the student's oral answers if writing is a problem. If the IEP designates the use of a graphic organizer, he
must be allowed to use it during testing.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Alter the time restraints for testing. The test administrator can increase the amount of time allowed for
completing the assessment or break the testing down into more manageable periods of time. For example,
allow the student multiple days to complete the entire assessment rather than attempting to finish it in one
day. The IEP team may make this recommendation based on a student's inability to focus for extended periods
of time.
Assessment Tools for Special Need Learners

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 mandates special education for students with special
classroom needs.
Every student learns differently and all teachers need to take their students' individual learning styles into
account. Sometimes students with special educational and occupational needs are mainstreamed in regular
classrooms and sometimes they're placed in special classrooms tailored to their needs. The Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act of 1975, in conjunction with the Rehabilitation Act of 1975 and the Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990, mandates appropriate learning environments for children with special needs.
Determining Student Needs: Parents have the right to request evaluations of their children to determine
whether they have special needs, what those needs are, and what methods might work to compensate for
those needs. This assessment may contain several different areas; children may undergo psychological
evaluation, speech and language tests, behavioural assessment and occupational therapy screening. The team
of specialists performing the tests will suggest courses of learning tailored to the student's individual needs
and capabilities.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Individualized Education Plans: An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is plan drawn up by teachers and parents
working together to provide the most effective learning services for a particular student. Disorders that qualify
students for IEPs are diverse and include learning disabilities, ADHD, autism, speech delays, mental retardation,
emotional disorders or speech, and hearing or visual impairments. Referrals for IEPs usually start with a teacher
who notices a child having difficulties; the teacher would then generally bring this issue to the attention of a
psychologist or counsellor, as well as the student's parents. An IED could place a child in an entirely special-
needs environment or just take a child out of a regular classroom for extra help during certain sessions.

Special Needs Students in State Assessment Tests: Students with special needs are more and more often
being included in state and national educational assessment environments in the 21st century. Students with
special needs are being included in the National Assessment of Educational Progress exams as well as state
assessment exams as dictated by No Child Left Behind; often, they're being accommodated with specific
testing environments and extra time to take tests. Albert E. Beaton of Boston College, however, recommends
altering expectations for students of different educational levels and different testing needs. Excluding
students from these tests altogether, Beaton argues, would skew the results. Thus, reasonable standards for
students with special needs should be set and factored into the scoring and analysis of results.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 1.4:
1. Explain what is meant by learners with special needs.
2. What are the most commons challenges faced with learners of special needs?
3. How do you counter the problems identified? Be specific of at least 2 examples and their solutions

1.5 (ac5) - Methods and tools for
assessing young children's numeracy
progress

How to Assess the Needs of learners in numeracy

Teachers need to assess the numeracy skills of their second graders.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

The primary grades lay the foundation for the curriculum that will be taught in the higher elementary grades.
Students in first, second and third grades are taught the basics in literacy and numeracy. Second graders are
expected to be able to perform basic addition and subtraction. Before teachers can attempt to teach second
graders to add and subtract double-digit numbers, teachers should assess the needs of their students and
determine if they are already proficient computing single digit numbers.

1. Prepare a basic worksheet with simple addition facts. Use only single-digit numbers. For example, 3+2=?
Start with smaller numbers that total less than 10. Include some larger numbers near the end of the
worksheet, such as 9+3=?

2. Prepare a similar worksheet for subtraction. Use numbers smaller
3. Have the students work on the worksheets individually in class. Make note of which students complete

the worksheets more quickly than their peers. Allow the slower students to have more time if required.
Make note of which students take longer than most other students.
4. Collect the worksheets and correct them. Prepare similar worksheets with more challenging addition
and subtraction facts if most of the students complete the first worksheet quickly and accurately.
5. Write some addition and subtraction facts on the board. Have students provide the answers orally or
have them write the answers on the board while the other students check if the answers are correct.
6. Work individually with the slower students who appear to be having difficulty. Provide additional addition
and subtraction facts for them to demonstrate their level of mastery.
7. Test the weaker students and drill them on simple basic number combinations, starting with small
numbers less than 5. Retest them after several practice sessions to determine if there has been any
progress.
Numeracy Assessment Tools

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

"Foundations for Success," the final report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel in 2008, identified
slipping mathematical prowess as a serious educational and social concern. From the high mathematical
standards of the 20th Century, America is losing ground and runs the risk of not being able to sustain a work
force with adequate mathematical skills. Currently, technical mathematical talent is imported from abroad to
address this gap. Assessing students’ mathematical abilities is important, as without the basic skills, they will
have trouble studying algebra, the benchmark of higher mathematical success. There are a number of
assessment tools to measure mathematical knowledge.

Teacher Tests: A standard way to assess a student's mathematical skills and abilities is for the math teacher to
prepare a test. This assessment tool may be used at the end of a chapter to test particular concepts, at
designated times during the year or as a final exam of the year's work. Teachers working in the same school
jurisdiction sometimes share tests, as their students use the same materials to study mathematics.

Standardized Tests: A school district, state or educational assessment organization may design standardized
mathematics tests to assess the acumen of students in a given geographical area. Mathematics is the subject
that best lends itself to standardized tests, as the answers are either "right" or "wrong," so subjective evaluation
doesn't enter into calculating the results. Educators use standardized mathematics tests as an assessment tool
to measure the students against the "norm." Standardized tests change every year, and back-issues are often
used to help students prepare for upcoming assessments.

Computer Tests: As the Internet grows and develops so does the mathematics assessment tools that are
available online. No matter if you want to test kindergarten mathematical skills about basic numbers or get
some help studying for the GMAT, there are resources that can help. Computer-based testing tools have the
benefit of providing instant assessments, which a lot of students find helpful when they are testing their
mathematical ability.

Measure of Academic Progress: The Measure of Academic Progress -- or MAP as it is commonly known in
education circles -- is a computer-generated tool that tests students in English, math and science in the
primary grades. Each test is unique, in that if the student is good at mathematics, the assessment questions
will get increasingly more difficult. The same is true if the student is struggling with mathematical concepts.

Individual Activity 1.5:

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

1. Define assessment tool.
2. Define assessment method.
3. Explain how you would assess a learner who is doing numeracy that is the methods of assessment.
4. List and describe the ways of operation and how you would implement two methods of assessment in

numeracy.

So2: Plan a Numeracy Learning
Programme

Learner Tip:
LEARNING PROGRAMMES
The Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9 (Schools) will be implemented in schools by means of
Learning Programmes. Learning Programmes are structured and systematic arrangements of activities that
promote the attainment of learning outcomes and assessment standards for the phase.
Whereas the Revised National Curriculum Statement stipulates the concepts, skills and values on a grade-by-
grade basis, Learning Programmes specify the scope of learning and assessment activities per phase. Learning
Programmes also contain work schedules that provide the pace and the sequencing of these activities each
year as well as exemplars of lesson plans to be implemented in any given period. The underlying principles
and values of the Revised
National Curriculum Statement also underpins the Learning Programmes. Learning Programmes must ensure
that all learning outcomes and assessment standards are effectively pursued and that each learning area is
allocated its prescribed time and emphasis. Learning Programmes will be based on relationships amongst
learning outcomes and assessment standards, without compromising the integrity of Learning Areas.
Learning Programmes Per Phase

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2