Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

4.2 (ac2) - learning activities organised for
individual, pairs, and small and large group work

While there's often a real push toward group problem-solving, there should be an equal value placed on
solving problems individually. Moreover, increased advances in technology require more individual problem-
solving skills. Learning to effectively solve problems individually can promote the go-getters at work, or even
make you more attractive to a potential romantic partner because of your independence. Academically, solving
problems individually can lead to academic achievement, since writing essays in college requires deep
introspection and individual analysis. Conversely, there are plenty of drawbacks to solving problems
individually.

Advantage --- Self-Esteem

Part of a young child's self-esteem comes from learning to solve problems individually. The website Love Our
Children USA argues that high self-esteem and independent problem-solving go hand in hand. This
philosophy can extend into an individual's adult years as well. Whenever one accomplishes a task successfully
and independently, there's usually a great sense of satisfaction and pride.

Advantage --- Decreased Competition

Another advantage of individual problem-solving is that there is a decreased sense of competition common in
group projects. Often, this competition occurs subconsciously. Since many egos are involved in group work,
much of the energy is spent diffusing tensions and conflicts. Gary Hadler writes that individuals link their ideas
to themselves. Hence, when a person's idea is squashed in the group, an individual cannot help but take it
personally. Instead of being constructive, this individual goes on to sabotage others' ideas. Not only do
individuals become drained, but the "creative energy" of the group is drained as well. Problem-solving
individually avoids all of the group politics. If there is competition in individual problem-solving, it is against
one's self. Solving problems individually usually yields quicker and more efficient solutions to problems.

Disadvantage --- Teamwork

Despite the draining office politics of group work, resolving these group conflicts and tensions effectively
fosters skills that will go beyond that group project. Humans are social creatures by nature, and no one can live
in isolation for very long. Learning to work in a group fosters essential teamwork skills. Group problem-solvers
also see improved instances of communication skills. When group conflicts are absolved, individuals can learn
to separate their ideas from their egos, higher levels of respect and to listen to their partners more effectively.

Disadvantage --- Fewer Solutions

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Even though an individual can arrive at solutions quickly and efficiently, often her solutions are limited. A
benefit of working in a group is that there is a constant exchange of ideas. For better or worse, these ideas are
still unique ideas. No two individuals think exactly the same or approach the project from the same angle.
Problem-solving individually does not have the constant flux of creativity. One is limited to his ideas and is
rarely challenged when he works alone.

Get Acquainted Activities for Kids in Pairs

Once kids are acquainted, they can work together as a team.
Educators and community leaders often use get acquainted activities for kids in pairs to help break the ice with
a new group of children. Everyone gets to know each other and it builds team spirit. Pair children up randomly
or boy-girl, but do not pair up children who were friends prior to coming into the new class. You want to form
new friendships and create a true getting-to-know-you activity.
Summer Break
Children are most often in a new classroom after summer vacation. Create a getting-acquainted activity by
pairing up all the children for a book report project. Each person shares one memorable summer event while
his partner writes an outline of it as if it were a book. After each child recalls his summer, students write and
illustrate the story into a book report form, broken down into setting, characters and plot. The pairs then go in
front of the classroom and present their reports.
Introductions

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Break the ice with a new group by having each child introduce the person next to him by making up two
statements about him. One statement is the child's favourite colour, and the other is something he likes. The
children can ask each other what their names are. Make sure nobody has really talked to each other before the
introductions so they are silly and completely impromptu. How it works: Group everyone into quick pairs based
on where they are sitting. One child says, "This is Mary. Her favourite colour is purple and she likes to eat ice
cream." Afterwards, everyone can reveal real things about themselves.
News Reporters
Pair the children up to play news reporters. Explain to the children that everyone is going to be a news reporter
and find interesting news stories about his partner. The children can ask each other question about their
families, favourite hobbies and sports. After the news reporting session is over, each reporter gives a report
about his partner. Invite the class to ask each news reporter questions about his subject, such as, "What is the
name of his pets?"
Games
Break the group into pairs for a quick game between each pair. One game idea is rock, paper, scissors, where
the children hold up a fist for a rock, an open hand for paper and two fingers for scissors. In the game, rock
beats scissors, paper beats rock and scissors beat paper. Allow the children to play five rounds and then switch
partners until everyone has played each other. A game breaks up any first-day jitters and introduces everyone
to each other with a fun activity.
About Focus Groups With Children
Focus group research with children requires energy and empathy.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Kids know how to tell it like it is--which is what makes them perfect subjects for focus group research. Focus
groups are a research tool that assembles a group of participants to speak freely and spontaneously on an
identified topic under the guidance of a facilitator. Conducting research with children, particularly in groups,
requires patience, enthusiasm, understanding and organizational skills. Sincere efforts to connect with children
and build rapport will result in quality responses. Methodology and tools used to gather data from the
participants should be adapted to suit a younger age group.

History

Focus groups were once the purview of marketing firms seeking customer feedback on new or modified
products. Social scientists discovered the advantages of focus groups in the 1980s. At first they were used as
an add-on to other methods like surveys and one-on-one interviews, but by the 1990s, focus groups came into
their own. Focus groups with children are a recent methodological approach that has arisen, according to
researcher Myfanwy Morgan and her colleagues, because "children are increasingly acknowledged to have
rights in the determination of decisions that affect them."

Benefits

In general, participants in focus groups feel safer speaking in a group and can use the comments and opinions
of others to develop and refine their own understandings of the topic. According to researchers at the
Department of Family Health Care Nursing, University of California, "Focus groups offer a rich, interactive and
developmentally effective approach to planning, content and evaluation in research with children." When focus
groups use children, data is not filtered through the lens of an adult but is received directly from the source,
and a group setting eliminates the power dynamic between an adult and a single child being interviewed.
Focus groups, as a strategy, do not require participants to be literate, which is an advantage when children are
the research subjects.

Significance

Focus groups are used in every stage of research from preliminary and exploratory phases to mid-stream
program development and post-project evaluation. Focus groups with children have been used in educational
research, including program evaluation. They have also been used in pediatric health care, mental health
studies and in international settings to explore violence. Focus groups with children are also used to gauge
reactions to toys and food.

Considerations

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

"Moderating focus groups with kids is the closest thing I know to being a game show host," says Jenny Schade,
president of JRS Consulting. Facilitators should have experience working with children and be able to easily
develop a trusting and respectful relationship with them. The ideal facilitator will be creative and spontaneous
so that strategies can be modified on the fly if they are not working. Focus groups are best conducted with no
more than five or six children who are approximately the same age. Research has shown that children under
age 6 are not old enough to participate in focus groups. A children's focus group should last no more than 45
minutes for younger children, 60 to 75 minutes for middle school or junior high kids and 90 minutes for high
school students, provided they find the topic interesting.

Strategies

Choose an informal setting where children will feel comfortable. Give children time to warm up and feel safe by
starting with less sensitive topics and moving to more sensitive topics. Ask concrete questions. Wherever
possible, incorporate active components into the focus group, especially activities that use all senses. Drawing,
acting, show and tell and play may all be appropriate. Be creative and have fun. For example, toss a ball around
to participants and ask whoever catches it to give his opinion. Or use a "cool meter" to determine whether
participants like or dislike something. Use body language to control group dynamics whenever possible, using
a smile or nod or glance instead of words.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.2:
1. Demonstrate how effectiveness changes on individual children when they work, individually, in pairs, in
small and in large groups.

4.3 (ac3) - Opportunities for thinking and
problem-solving

Creative Problem Solving Activities for Kids

Creative problem solving activities can encourage collaboration.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Educational research shows that a true sign of intelligence is creative thinking. Developing your students' ability
to solve problems creatively will help them advance in life and solve problems by encouraging them to think
outside the box. Giving them problem solving activities helps them exercise their thinking muscles and creates
a fun and challenging learning environment for your classroom.
The Penny Problem: Many Americans are in favour of banning the penny -- even congressmen. In 2006,
Representative Jim Kolbe entered a bill into Congress for eradicating the penny because they are expensive to
make and too many wind up in jars at home. Have your students make up a chart that discusses the pros and
cons of using the penny and creative ways to get pennies back into circulation. You can discuss using coin
counting machines, how to use them as change, and the value of wrapping pennies and if it is worthwhile to
keep pennies in the United States exchange system. Have your students come up with creative ways they can
use pennies in the community, such as collecting them for charity and school fund raising efforts.
Deductive Reasoning: For a quiet solitary activity for your students that will develop their creative thinking
skills, consider introducing logic problems that will help them come up with answers through deductive
reasoning. Teaching children deductive reasoning allows them to think about the answers based not on what
they are told, but what they can reason on their own and allows them to develop their own creative thinking
skills -- logic problems force students to think outside of the box. There are many logic problems available
online for gifted and exceptional students whose minds you will want to challenge in a creative way.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Toxic Waste: With today's students more environmentally-conscious than ever, using an environmentally-
themed project that calls for creative thinking skills is ideal for your classroom. Toxic Waste is a group activity in
which students move imaginary toxic waste to a neutralization container. Create a circle on the floor at least 8
feet in diameter and label this the "radiation" zone. Place a bucket full of water or balls in the center. Give your
kids a selection of tools -- some useful, some not -- to help them transfer the water from the bucket to the
neutralization container that is at least 30 feet away. Suggestions for tools include cane poles (or fishing poles)
and bungee cords, along with smaller buckets, cups and other items that can empty the bucket. There should
be a time limit of 20 minutes as students inside the "radiation zone" will be docked minutes for participation.
This is a great team activity that will cause a great deal of debate and cooperation with a lot of creative thinking
to solve the problem as a group.
The Great Egg Drop: A great cooperative activity that coincides with both Easter and the better weather that
comes with spring is the Great Egg Drop. This is a cooperative activity that will get your students outdoors and
working in groups with a fun theme based on physics, marketing skills and inventiveness. Challenge your kids
to build a single egg package that will sustain a fall from the top of a supermarket shelf, which on average is 8
feet. Give your students as much time as you think necessary and have them work in groups of four or five.
Assemble a sheet of items needed and allow them to bring whatever else they think will work to school, such
as bubble wrap or peanut packaging. Students will also need to make a 30-second advertisement to sell their
idea to potential investors.

How to Teach Your Child Problem Solving Skills: Teaching kids to solve problems gives them the ability to
reason and rationalize.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Teaching children life skills is a daily process for parents. From learning how to care for themselves to thinking
and reasoning, children must acquire the tools they will need to get through life. One topic that requires a little
more planning and insight is the ability to think through and solve problems. Using an assortment of
techniques can help you give your child the advantage of being a problem solver, one who understands the
importance of thinking through issues to find a resolution.

Explain to your child what solving a problem means. Use age-appropriate language and use examples to
illustrate your point. Explain that some problems have a specific, known answer, such as "What does one plus
one equal?" However, other problems involve figuring out the best solution, such as how to fit all the cookies in
the cookie jar.

Work on definitive-answer problems first, as children can see and grasp the concepts more easily. Write down
simple mathematical equations on a piece of paper. Leave the answer portion blank. Have the child do the
math. Explain that what he just accomplished was a form of problem solving.

Create problem-solving activities in your house or outside. For example, hide a stuffed animal in the house,
making sure you remember where you placed the item. Using note cards, write down one hint per card to use
as prompts to help your child figure out where the item was hidden. Give the child one card at a time, and give
him only as many as he needs to find the item.

Ask for your child's input when you encounter problem-solving opportunities on a daily basis. For example,
when you are trying to determine what to make for dinner, ask your child what you should make. Ask the child
to give you an explanation or reason for his answer. Then discuss all the factors that enter into the decision-
making process so that the child understands how to think through all the facets of the issue. For instance,
point out that you may not have all of the ingredients for the meal he initially suggested. Guide him through the
process as you reach a decision. Consistent exposure to situations like this will help to teach the child the
importance of problem-solving skills.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.3:

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

1. Design a program that includes puzzles and games especially something easy to make like a crossword
puzzle to encourage children to think.

2. What are the advantages of getting children in activities that require a lot of think and explain how it
helps in literacy development?

4.4 (ac4) - Children to plan projects and activities
to their own satisfaction

How to Apply Erikson's Theory in InstructionPreschoolers, elementary and middle school children face
different developmental crises.
According to Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, each individual's psyche is shaped through a
series of conflicts called developmental crises. Three of these crises occur during childhood and adolescence,
which means that teachers who believe in Erikson's theory should focus on these crises to ensure that
students develop healthy, fully realized identities. According to Erikson, the key crisis for children between the
ages of three and six is "initiative vs. guilt." From six to twelve, the crisis is "industry vs. inferiority," and for
teenagers, "identity vs. role confusion."
Initiative vs. Guilt
Give children the opportunity to make choices and act upon those choices. Because the crisis of initiative vs.
guilt determines whether a child learns to plan activities on her own or comes to associate self-directed
behaviour with punishment, she must have the opportunity to make decisions. Provide a portion of the day
when children can choose their own activities. Have a classroom library where children can pick their own
books during reading time. This allows children the opportunity to learn how to make decisions for them.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Break instruction and activities down into small steps. This makes it easier for children to succeed and
encourages them to take risks. Without this framework, children may become frustrated by activities and
sense that they are doomed to complete them poorly.

Ensure that any competitive games or activities have well-balanced teams. If children consistently lose at math
games, they may believe they are bad at math. Conversely, even a struggling student may feel confident in her
mathematical abilities if her team performs well overall.

Accept mistakes that result from students attempting activities on their own. If a student damages something
or makes a serious error, show him how to fix, clean or redo it instead of simply punishing him. This will make
students feel more confident in their abilities to attempt activities on their own.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Allow students the opportunity to set realistic goals. Have them create academic and personal goals for each
quarter and revisit those goals every few weeks to monitor their own progress. Break down each assignment
into parts so the students can learn how to set time management goals. For instance, instead of collecting all
parts of a project at once, collect a brainstorming worksheet on a certain date, a rough draft two weeks later
and a final draft the next week. If a child successfully navigates the crisis of industry vs. inferiority, he will enter
adolescence with a sense that hard work and perseverance will pay off. If not, he will feel that he is a helpless
observer of his life.

Assign jobs to the students. Let them stack chairs, feed class pets, hand out and collect papers, take
attendance sheets to the office and so on. Rotate these jobs regularly so all students have a chance to
participate. This will give the students a sense of accomplishment.

Teach children study skills. Explain how to budget time and keep notebooks, binders and folders organized. If
students fail at these organizational skills, their grades will suffer and they may feel that they are stupid or
doomed to failure.

Provide regular feedback to students, particularly those who seem discouraged. Praise them for what they are
doing right and give constructive criticism of what they are doing wrong. If your school has a program such as
Student of the Month, choose students who have academic or behavioural issues but are making strong efforts
at improvement as well as high achievers. This will show them that their efforts are paying off even if they are
not making straight A's.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Provide a variety of positive role models for students. Adolescence is a time of discovering one's own identity.
A teenager who successfully navigates the crisis of identity vs. role confusion will be able to answer the
question, "Who am I?" with confidence. Provide a series of role models to give students a potential identity
model. Teach students about women and minorities who succeeded at a variety of careers, so all students
have a role model to whom they can relate. Mention individuals who made lesser-known contributions to your
academic discipline. A budding poet may feel more kinship with Eavan Boland than Emily Dickinson.
Provide models of exemplary work so students know what an excellent project looks like and can compare
their own work to the model. This will show them how to incorporate academic success into their identities,
essentially providing role models for their work instead of their career goals.
Provide opportunities for students to bring their own interests into projects and assessments, as they may feel
these interests are vital parts of their identities. Allow students to choose between a variety of final projects --
skits, essays, art projects, music compositions, etc. -- so they can either choose a project that appeals to their
interests or explore new aspects of their identities.
Criticize behaviours rather than making personal condemnations of the students themselves. Students are
"trying on" roles at this point, and negative feedback for behaviour may encourage them to drop it and try
another.
Explain the long-term consequences of misbehaviour or poor performance so students will know how it affects
themselves and others. This may encourage them to adopt a more responsible identity.
Encourage and support student interests. Attend school plays, concerts and games to affirm students'
identities as actors, musicians and athletes.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.4:
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of letting children choose their own activities and projects
that they want to engage themselves in.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

4.5 (ac5) - Theories and Perspectives of Child
Development used to support and extend
children's learning

How Do Teachers Facilitate Learning?
Dedicated teachers find ways to help students achieve.

Teachers have the awesome responsibility of helping their students develop to their fullest potential. Although
parents play a major part in their children's education, teachers spend more time with them focusing on
academic skills. As educators, they are compelled to observe and assess to determine learning styles as well
as find ways to meet each child's needs. This is a daunting task and is accomplished only with the help of
supportive administrative staff and classroom assistants. However, the teacher is ultimately accountable for the
academic success and achievement of her students.
Significance: Facilitating involves a concentrated effort by the teacher to gradually release students to learn on
their own. This does not mean that the teacher hands out a worksheet or tells the kids to read the chapter and
answer the questions at the end. Rather, the teacher shows children how to do something, whether it is a math
problem, scientific research or reading skills. Then they practice the skill with them and observe while they
apply what they have learned. If the teacher is the sole source of information, students will not develop
independent learning habits essential either in school or in life.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Function: Teachers must maintain an environment conducive to learning. They should establish and implement
a behavioural plan with clear expectations, rules, rewards and consequences. Students thrive academically
and socially when they feel safe and comfortable enough to ask questions and share concerns. The classroom
setup is also a factor in the learning process. Charts and other visual aids should be clearly visible. Books and
supplemental learning aids and manipulative materials, like blocks, rods and beans, need to be stored in easily
accessible places. This creates a positive learning atmosphere.

Features: Teachers facilitate learning when they motivate students. Although no one can make a student care
about his education, teachers can motivate through their actions. For example, teachers should interact with
students often and encourage them to express their thoughts. When appropriate, teachers can share their own
experiences and struggles. Teachers have to know where to draw the line between being the authoritarian and
a friend, but students need to know that their teacher genuinely cares about them. This will motivate most kids
to try harder.

Types: Teachers also facilitate learning when they find ways to help each child learn. Even teachers with little
experience will soon realize that not all children learn the same way. While it may be extremely difficult to work
one-on-one with each child, teachers can group students by their common learning styles and help each
group with differentiated methods. This takes time and requires support from school officials and classroom
assistants and parents. Hopefully, this will result in almost every child performing better on homework
assignments and tests.

Considerations: Facilitating learning also involves collaborative teaching. Many an educator considers the
classroom as her personal island, where she is isolated from other teachers because of time constraints and
sometimes overwhelming duties. Administrators should make teacher collaboration a priority by having grade
level meetings. These give teachers insight on how to handle students with special needs as well as the
chance to learn from each other. Teachers can discuss ideas, ask for suggestions and give each other support.
The students ultimately benefit when a teacher has a positive outlook and works together with others.

How to Facilitate Learning through Effective Teaching

Improve the ease with which your students can learn.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

While some teachers opt to take center stage in their classroom and educate through lecture, others prefer to
take a backseat role and simply work as a facilitator. By facilitating student learning instead of presenting
students with information as is common in the traditional system of education, teachers can encourage their
students to take an active role in learning. As reported by NCVER, changing the educational paradigm and
forcing students to give up the passive roles that they once took on in the classroom can be highly effective
and lead to increased student comprehension.
Present students with questions instead of answers. Trade lectures for open ended questioning. Instead of
telling students how something works, encourage them to work together and seek out an explanation for
themselves. By finding an explanation instead of just listening to the teacher's versions of events, students are
more likely to internalize the information and place it in their long-term memory banks
Create a learning partnership with students. Instead of taking on the standard roles of teacher and subservient
students, set up a partnership with your pupils. Make it clear that you are all working together as a class group
to discover information and enhance group understanding of content material. Avoid setting yourself up as an
expert in a subject, but instead work as a tour guide leading students through the landscape of education.
Provide application opportunities. If students apply information they have learned they are more likely to
commit it to memory. Create projects specifically designed to encourage information application. For example,
if discussing how to convert units in math, create a task that requires unit conversion to complete. By doing
instead of simply seeing, students will more likely retain the content.
Select activities that appeal to an assortment of different learning styles. While some students learn best
through orally presented directions and lessons, others require visual stimuli, and still others learn best through
movement. Determine your students' learning styles by presenting them with a learning styles inventory. When
planning lessons and activities, try to include activities that appeal to as many of the learning styles as
possible.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Encourage students to interact while they learn. Learning does not have to be a solitary pursuit. By allowing
students to work with each other as they build understanding you increase the likelihood that they remain
engaged throughout the lesson and give them the opportunity to benefit from their classmates' knowledge
and skills.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 4.5:
1. Design a programme that is so convincing on how you can use to support and extend children's learning,
including helping children to reflect on learning experiences and achievements.

So5 - Assess children's progress in the
Literacy Learning Programme. 

Learner Tip:
Typically there are two ways of assessing early literacy. One can be called "traditional testing," which involves
removing a child from the classroom setting to perform a test. An example of a traditional test might be a
multiple choice test on a story they have just read. Another type of testing is called "authentic," which involves
assessment by observing the child in everyday classroom activities. An example of authentic testing might
involve noting the number of words a child uses when asking for a toy from another student.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Oral Language Assessment Tools: One oral language assessment tool you can use is to observe your child's
social communication. Develop a checklist that notes which children use words and which do not. In your
checklist; you might also note how a specific child uses language to join in or plan a shared activity. Another
oral language assessment tool is called "Repeat My Sentence." This tool involves asking a child to repeat a
number of sentences that you utter and recording the responses. The Repeat My Sentence technique will let
you know how well a child understands sentence structures and his ability to articulate English sounds.

Narrative Assessment Tools: Two tools that you can use to assess whether a child understands the contents of
stories are the retelling method and the child's interest method. In the child's interest method you take note of
how the child reads, what type of story (if any) they are interested in and their general feeling toward narratives.
This assessment tool is usually administered using an interview wherein a teacher asks such questions as
"What is reading?" or "What do you like reading about?" When using the retelling method, a teacher will read a
story to an individual or a group of children and ask the children to tell her, for example, what the story was
about, who the characters were and what they liked about it.

Sounds and Letters Assessment Tools: One of the first techniques children adopt when developing their
literacy skills is how to make language sounds and how to write letters. A phonemic awareness test measures
how well a student understands the sound of language. In one of these tests you would ask a number of
questions, like whether the word "cat" and the word "fat" rhyme, or what word is spelled "p-i-n." This test can be
administered over a number of different time periods to measure how well the child is progressing. One way to
measure letter recognition and letter formation is by listing all of the letters in the alphabet on a single page
and asking the child to copy each letter, name each letter or point to the letter that you name.

5.1 (ac1) – assessing Each child's progress

Developmental assessments are a process which allows one to understand a child’s competencies and to
design learning environments which will help a child grow to his or her developmental potential whether this is
from birth to age 8 or third grade. Assessments that are implemented in the classroom and aligned with
Department of Basic Education standards for learning (birth to age 8 or third grade) will help inform teachers
about designing a curriculum that provides multiple learning opportunities that best suits how each child
learns.

A two step process occurred to provide guidance to early childhood programs and school districts for the
alignment of assessment and curriculum to the Department of Basic Education standards for learning for
children birth to age 8. First, a workgroup consistently mostly of members of the original Early Learning
Standards Taskforce was formed. An important workgroup goal was to help make program personnel aware of
available materials that encourage teachers to rely on authentic measures of early learning and development
that link directly to program content and goals, as well as Department of Basic Education standards for
learning, and that sample skills in natural, active learning environments, rather than contrived circumstances.

Ways to Assess Preschool Learning

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Observations, portfolios and parent ratings can all be used to assess preschool learning.
Assessment is an important part of education, even at the preschool level. Assessments help to evaluate
children's growth, as well as evaluate the effectiveness of educational programming; however, preschool
children present unique challenges when it comes to designing both effective and ethical assessments. It is
important for educators to remember that preschool children have unique needs and capabilities and to use
assessments that meet those needs. There are several types of assessments that preschool teachers can use
to track their students' progress.
Standardized Testing: One method to assess preschool students is through standardized testing. Standardized
testing is done in a controlled environment and asks all students to complete the same task. Then, students'
performances are compared to other students or nationalized development standards. While standardized
testing at the preschool limit is often criticized as being developmentally inappropriate, there are times when it
can be useful. For example, standardized testing can help screen all students for disabilities, which enables
early detection and intervention. Common standardized tests given to preschool students include the Peabody
Picture Vocabulary Test, the Achenbach Child Behaviour Checklist and the Battelle test. These exams are
usually only administered by teachers or psychologists who have been trained to administer them.
Observations: Observations, as an assessment, involve more than just watching children. Anecdotal notes
should be taken during the observation. This type of assessment is easy to do and does not intrude upon the
child's activity; however, additional steps must be taken to make observations and anecdotal notes effective
and reliable assessments. The results of the observation should be compared with developmental milestones
or other markers of achievement. Other tools that used while conducting an observation are checklists and
rating scales. It is important for record keeping purposes that preschool teachers keep careful track of when
and where the observation occurred and how long the child was observed.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Portfolios: Portfolio assessments are a representative collection of a child's work used to make a judgment
about that child's growth and progress. Portfolios are a good way to share children's progress with parents.
Portfolios usually include drawings and writings done by the child, as well as photos and other materials
contributed by teachers. Children should have some control over what material goes into their portfolio, as this
encourages a sense of ownership and self-reflection. It is important that portfolios include reflective pieces
that show student growth, instead of just a collection of a child's work.

Parent Ratings: A relatively new method of assessing preschool children is the use of parent reports and
observations. Parent ratings are usually done by completing scales or standard inventory. Parent ratings can be
helpful in disability screenings and can alert parents to the kinds of developmental milestones their children
should be reaching. They also encourage parents to observe their children, gather data and then report that
data back to the teacher. This information is then passed on to teachers who can use that knowledge to help
facilitate academic and behavioural growth.

Why is Assessment Important?

Assessment is important because of all the decisions you will make about children when teaching and caring
for them. The decisions facing our three teachers at the beginning of this chapter all involve how best to
educate children. Like them, you will be called upon every day to make decisions before, during, and after your
teaching. Whereas some of these decisions will seem small and inconsequential, others will be “high stakes,”
influencing the life course of children. All of your assessment decisions taken as a whole will direct and alter
children’s learning outcomes.  Below outlines for you some purposes of assessment and how assessment can
enhance your teaching and student learning. All of these purposes are important; if you use assessment
procedures appropriately, you will help all children learn well.

The following general principles should guide both policies and practices for the assessment of young
children:

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

A  ssessment should bring about benefits for children. Gathering accurate
information from young children is difficult and potentially stressful.
Assessments must have a clear benefit—either in direct services to the
child or in improved quality of educational programs.
 Assessment should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be
reliable, valid, and fair for that purpose. Assessments designed for one
purpose are not necessarily valid if used for other purposes. In the past,
many of the abuses of testing with young children have occurred
because of misuse.
 Assessment policies should be designed recognizing that reliability and
validity of assessments increase with children’s age. The younger the
child, the more difficult it is to obtain reliable and valid assessment data. It
is particularly difficult to assess children’s cognitive abilities accurately
before age six. Because of problems with reliability and validity, some
types of assessment should be postponed until children are older, while
other types of assessment can be pursued, but only with necessary
safeguards.
A  ssessment should be age appropriate in both content and the method
of data collection. Assessments of young children should address the full
range of early learning and development, including physical well-being
and motor development; social and emotional development; approaches
toward learning; language development; and cognition and general
knowledge. Methods of assessment should recognize that children need
familiar contexts to be able to demonstrate their abilities. Abstract paper-
and-pencil tasks may make it especially difficult for young children to
show what they know.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

 Assessment should be linguistically appropriate, recognizing that to
some extent all assessments are measures of language. Regardless of
whether an assessment is intended to measure early reading skills,
knowledge of color names, or learning potential, assessment results are
easily confounded by language proficiency, especially for children who
come from home backgrounds with limited exposure to English, for
whom the assessment would essentially be an assessment of their
English proficiency. Each child’s first- and second-language development
should be taken into account when determining appropriate assessment
methods and in interpreting the meaning of assessment results.
 Parents should be a valued source of assessment information, as well as
an audience for assessment. Because of the fallibility of direct measures
of young children, assessments should include multiple sources of
evidence, especially reports from parents and teachers. Assessment
results should be shared with parents as part of an ongoing process that
involves parents in their child’s education

How to Assess children Literacy

School districts provide kindergarten teachers with assessment materials.

Kindergarten students are not yet sufficiently literate for traditional assessments, so teachers must use
interactive, auditory test methods rather than simply administering written tests. Literacy standards vary from
state to state, and each state has its own kindergarten assessment packet, which walks teachers through the
process. Teachers should follow the instructions in their packets, and tally the students' correct and incorrect
answers on the forms provided; they can analyze the students' successes and errors later to determine where
to focus classroom time and attention.

Show the student a book and have him answer questions about it to assess his understanding of concepts of
print. Ask him to identify the front of the book, where you should start reading, some upper and lower case
letters, an individual word and first and last letters of a word. Read the story aloud, and have him move his
finger under the words as you speak them.

Show the student charts of upper case and lower case letters, not in alphabetical order. Point to each letter in
turn, and ask him what the letter's name is and what sound it makes.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Model rhyming words for the student, including nonsense words. Then give two rhyming words, and ask the
student to think of a third rhyming word, or to make one up if he can't think of one.
Check the student's blending skills by pronouncing words for him one phoneme at a time and asking him to
identify the word. For example, you say "M - aa - d," and the student says "Mad."
Repeat the exercise in reverse by having students break words into their phonemes. For example, you say
"Top," and the student says "T - o - p."
Check the student's sight word literacy by showing her flashcards with the sight words and having her read
them. Mark them as correct only if the student can read the word in two seconds or less, without sounding it
out.
Test blending in reading by showing the student consonant-vowel-consonant words and having him blend the
sounds to read the word. For example, you show him the word "Let," and he reads "lllehhhht."
Assess the student's understanding of the alphabetic principle by asking him to remove the first letter of a
word, replace it with another and identify the new word. For example, ask him to remove the letter "s" from "set"
and replace it with the letter "p." He should tell you the word is now "pet."

Individual Activity 5.1:
1. Demonstrate the best ways to assess preschool learning
2. Explain why assessment is important?
3. Explain how you assess children literacy

5.2 (ac2) - Assessment tools and procedures

Reading Assessment Methods for Preschoolers

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Reading assessments are critical for early literacy. The RTI Action Network reports that, after the third grade,
reading problems become more resistant to intervention and treatment. Reading assessments should not be a
one-time event in a young student's life. Repeated screenings provide a clearer picture of a child's capabilities
or potential difficulties in order to begin remediation promptly, if required.

Standardized Testing: One of the most accepted methods for assessing reading in preschoolers is through
standardized testing. These tests are formal and controlled, allowing for comparisons among test-takers. They
are considered efficient (in time and cost) and objective. However, there is concern about whether standardized
tests are culturally biased or sensitive enough and whether they are effective in use with young children. Thus,
standardized tests are typically not taken as the sole picture of a child's abilities or knowledge, but informal
observations or repeated test outcomes will be observed.

Informal Assessments: Another means for evaluating or assessing reading in preschools is through informal
assessments. These assessments occur in natural settings, not in formal or forced manners. Informal
assessments require the educational tester or observer to be well-trained in the area of reading assessments.
Also, informal assessments can be more time consuming and more expensive than standardized testing.
Students will be observed in terms of mastering reading goals, not as in being able to provide proper guesses
or skilled in rote learning.

Portfolios: The portfolio method for reading assessments relies on collaboration between student, teacher and
parent in collecting and displaying examples of student work. A successful portfolio will not merely showcase
a child's best work if it is to be used as an assessment tool. Rather, it should reveal a child's efforts and his
progress to provide a picture of functioning and mastery of reading skills over time.

Elements of Assessments: Any good reading assessment of preschoolers will include certain core elements.
These include: knowledge of letters (such as matching letter symbols with their associated sounds); phonemic
awareness (being able to manipulate and hear sounds in words); decoding skills used in reading new and
unfamiliar words (by sounding those words out); and fluency. Fluency is typically assessed by allowing
students to read aloud from a passage for one minute. Skipped or incorrectly pronounced words are skipped
and the correct words are tallied to give the oral reading fluency rate.

Assessment Tools for Early Childhood

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Observing the child is an informal assessment method.
Assessments measure a student's ability and track his progress as he improves his skills. The progress aspect
makes assessment an ongoing process for teachers. An evaluation at the beginning of the year creates a
baseline for subsequent assessment tools. A combination of formal and informal assessments gives a better
picture of the young child's skills.
Observation: Observations offer an informal assessment method for everyday use. Watching how the child
performs various tasks, interacts with peers, speaks and moves provides a glimpse of the child's abilities. For a
more structured evaluation, ask each child to perform a particular task as you observe him. For example, ask
the child to identify letters written on index cards. Make notes about the child as you observe him. An
observation notebook allows you to keep all of your notes in one spot.
Checklists and Rubrics: Checklists and rubrics create a more concrete way to evaluate young children. Create
your own checklists and rubrics to focus on the skills you deem a priority. A checklist simply lists the skills that
you want the child to perform. Check off each item she is able to do. A rubric uses a scale to show the degree
of mastery. Include at least three levels for each task. The lowest level means the child is unable to perform
the task. The highest level indicates mastery of the task. The levels in between allow you to indicate the child
falls somewhere in between. Perform a checklist or rubric on each child at regular intervals throughout the
school year to compare progress.
Portfolios: A portfolio contains concrete examples of the child's skills. Gather examples throughout the year to
show how the child's skills change. If possible, ask the child to perform the same task at various times in the
year. One example is to ask the child to draw different shapes. At the beginning of the school year, he might not
have the ability to draw any of the shapes correctly. By the end of the year, you should see progress toward
more recognizable shapes.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Parent Assessments: Parents provide another point of view in assessing young children. Invite parents into the
assessment process for a more comprehensive look at each child's abilities. A conference with the parents
gives you a chance to discuss informally the parents' opinions of the child's skill set. A written survey or
inventory is another way to give parents a chance to evaluate their children.

List of Formal & Informal Assessment Tools & Methods

A teacher may informally test a student by asking him to recall age-appropriate information.
Assessment tools and methods help teachers gauge the development and progress of their students.
Assessment methods encompass the means by which a teacher wishes to assess students. Tools are the
instruments for measurement for each method. Formal methods and tools include standardized tests and age-
related developmental milestones. Informal methods and tools include use of flash cards and anecdotal
records.
Tests: Tests are a method of assessing a student's overall comprehension in a subject. Tests can be both formal
and informal. Standardized tests, such as state assessment program tests, are formal tools for measuring
student progress. Standardized tests use specific question types to gauge critical thinking and problem solving
skills. Informal testing tools include use of flash cards, pop quizzes and oral question and answer.
Observation: Observation is a method for assessing students' social and behavioural progress. Teachers must
plan ahead to use observation and have a purpose for doing so. Observations can be measured against
standard developmental milestone charts and rating scales and they can be made in response to formal
questionnaires and check lists designed to measure development. Teachers can use event sampling and time
sampling to understand student behaviour exhibited during particular events or different times of the day.
Anecdotal records of observations can also be kept to assess social and behavioural development.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Grades: Grading is an assessment tool that truly needs no introduction. Teachers use grading as a method to
score students' performance on individual projects. Grades, like tests, reflect how well a student has learned a
subject and where she continues to struggle in the learning process.
Portfolios: Portfolios offer teachers a review of each student's progress over the course of a year, or, as in
continuous comprehensive evaluation, over the course of one's educational training. Portfolios can be
comprised of all of a student's work or the highlights and lowlights of a student's body of work. In reviewing the
history of the student's progress, the teacher is able to assess the student's continuous comprehensive
development in a subject, course or program.

Assessment Tools Used in Early Childhood

Early childhood is the time when most study skills are built.

Early childhood is an important time for learning, because brains are still developing and study skills are being
built. There are several ways to assess students in early childhood education, and it is most important to take
the ages of these students into consideration before deciding on which assessments will work best.
Question and Answer: Early childhood students aren't usually very good at writing down what they know or
presenting things to a class. The best way to make sure they've understood what you've taught is to ask them.
Ask your class in simple language to recite back to you what they have learned during a lesson. If you notice
that some students aren't answering, take a special interest in those students and find a time to talk to them
individually about what they've learned.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Tell It Back: Young students love to talk about what they know. Once you present them with a lesson or a
concept, ask them to teach it back to you. Once they put a concept into their own words and tell it to you, they
are not only showing you that they know the concept, but also that they are able to know it well enough to put
it into their own words. This shows they've synthesized the information.

Remember When: Play the "Remember When" game for early childhood students to talk about concepts you
learned a few weeks or days ago. Begin by saying "Remember when we talked about ..." and then mention a
concept or lesson you taught. See what students say. If they still remember the concept and can tell you about
it, then you know that you are teaching them in a way that promotes long-term learning.

Tell Someone Else: Have students share what they've learned with their parents or siblings. Send a note home
to ask parents to talk to students about a certain subject and report back to you with an idea of how much
information those students have retained. This way, you will get an idea of how much you are teaching
students that they are taking with them outside of your classroom.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 5.2:
1. Discuss how assessment methods can be implemented in training literacy in Grade R children.
2. Evaluate the different assessment tools for early childhood can be used effectively.
3. List and explain formal & informal assessment tools & methods that can be used on Grade R children.

5.3 (ac3) - keeping Assessment records for
feedback

Feedback is a process in which information about the past or the present influences the same phenomenon in
the present or future. As part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop, the event is said to
"feedback" into itself.

It is defined generally as "information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a
system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way", emphasising that the information by itself is not
feedback unless translated into action.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

"...'feedback' exists between two parts when each affects the other..."
Feedback is also a synonym for:
Feedback signal - the measurement of the actual level of the parameter of interest.
Feedback mechanism - the action or means used to subsequently modify the gap.
Feedback loop - the complete causal path that leads from the initial detection of the gap to the subsequent
modification of the gap.
Self-regulating mechanisms have existed since antiquity, and the idea of feedback had started to enter
economic theory in Britain by the eighteenth century, but it wasn't at that time recognized as a universal
abstraction and so didn't have a name.
The verb phrase "to feed back", in the sense of returning to an earlier position in a mechanical process, was in
use in the US by the 1860s, and in 1909, Nobel laureate Karl Ferdinand Braun used the term "feed-back" as a
noun to refer to (undesired) coupling between components of an electronic circuit.
By the end of 1912, researchers using early electronic amplifiers (audions) had discovered that deliberately
coupling part of the output signal back to the input circuit would boost the amplification (through
regeneration), but would also cause the audion to howl or sing. This action of feeding back of the signal from
output to input gave rise to the use of the term "feedback" as a distinct word by 1920.
There has been over the years some dispute as to the best definition of feedback. According to Ashby,
mathematicians and theorists interested in the principles of feedback mechanisms prefer the definition of
"circularity of action", which keeps the theory simple and consistent. For those with more practical aims,
feedback should be a deliberate effect via some more tangible connexion.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

"[Practical experimenters] object to the mathematician's definition, pointing out that this would force them to
say that feedback was present in the ordinary pendulum ... between its position and its momentum - a
'feedback' that, from the practical point of view, is somewhat mystical. To this the mathematician retorts that if
feedback is to be considered present only when there is an actual wire or nerve to represent it, then the theory
becomes chaotic and riddled with irrelevancies."

Feedback is commonly divided into two types - usually termed positive and negative. The terms can be
applied in two contexts:

1. The context of the gap between reference and actual values of a parameter, based on whether the gap
is widening (positive) or narrowing (negative).

2. The context of the action or effect that alters the gap, based on whether it involves reward (positive) or
non-reward/punishment (negative).

The two contexts may cause confusion, such as when an incentive (reward) is used to boost poor performance
(narrow a gap). Referring to context 1, some authors use alternative terms, replacing 'positive/negative' with
self-reinforcing/self-correcting, reinforcing/balancing, discrepancy-enhancing/discrepancy-reducing or
regenerative/degenerative respectively. And within context 2, some authors advocate describing the action or
effect as positive/negative reinforcement rather than feedback. Yet even within a single context an example of
feedback can be called either positive or negative, depending on how values are measured or referenced. This
confusion may arise because feedback can be used for either informational or motivational purposes, and
often has both a qualitative and a quantitative component. As Connellan and Zemke (1993) put it:

"Quantitative feedback tells us how much and how many. Qualitative feedback tells us how good, bad or
indifferent."

The terms "positive/negative" were first applied to feedback prior to WWII. The idea of positive feedback was
already current in the 1920s with the introduction of the regenerative circuit. Friis and Jensen described
regeneration in a set of electronic amplifiers as a case where the "feed-back" action is positive in contrast to
negative feed-back action, which they mention only in passing. Harold Stephen Black's classic 1934 paper first
details the use of negative feedback in electronic amplifiers. According to Black:

"Positive feed-back increases the gain of the amplifier, negative feed-back reduces it."

According to Mindell confusion in the terms arose shortly after this:

"...Friis and Jensen had made the same distinction Black used between 'positive feed-back' and 'negative feed-
back', based not on the sign of the feedback itself but rather on its effect on the amplifier’s gain. In contrast,
Nyquist and Bode, when they built on Black’s work, referred to negative feedback as that with the sign
reversed. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed
over basic matters of definition."

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Even prior to the terms being applied, James Clerk Maxwell had described several kinds of "component
motions" associated with the centrifugal governors used in steam engines, distinguishing between those that
lead to a continual increase in a disturbance or the amplitude of an oscillation, and those which lead to a
decrease of the same.

Individual Activity 5.3:
1. Define feedback.
2. Explain the importance of feedback to learners in a literacy classroom.

So6: Evaluate the effectiveness of the
Literacy Learning Programme. 

Learner Tip:
Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result. When something is deemed effective, it means it
has an intended or expected outcome, or produces a deep, vivid impression.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Efficacy, efficiency, and effectivity are terms that can, in some cases, be interchangeable with the term
effectiveness. The word effective is sometimes used in a quantitative way, "being very effective or not very
effective". However, neither effectiveness, nor effectively, inform about the direction (positive or negative) and
the comparison to a standard of the given effect. Efficacy, on the other hand, is the extent to which a desired
affect is achieved; the ability to produce a desired amount of the desired effect, or the success in achieving a
given goal. Contrary to the term efficiency, the focus of efficacy is the achievement as such, not the resources
spent in achieving the desired effect. Therefore, what is effective is not necessarily efficacious, and what is
efficacious is not necessarily efficient.

Other synonyms for effectiveness include: clout, capability, success, weight, performance. Antonyms for
effectiveness include: uselessness, ineffectiveness.

Another source of confusion regarding the term effectiveness is its relationship with the term effectiveness.
Due to the similarity in the way these two words are spelled, they are often confused with each other and used
incorrectly. The term effectiveness (noun) is derived from the root word affective (adjective) meaning
concerned with arousing emotions or affection or relating to moods, attitudes or feelings. In a simple word
effective means output and efficiency means outcome.

6.1 (ac1) - The effectiveness of the Literacy
Programme

How to Measure the Effectiveness of a Quality System

Measuring the effectiveness of your company's quality system is an essential part of your overall quality
control program. Even if your quality management system isn't registered to one of the International Standards
Organization's set of standards, ISO9001 being an example, your customers will very likely audit your system.
For this reason is important that you have provisions to measure your system's effectiveness.

Create an organizational policy which states the company's intent with regard to measuring the effectiveness
of the quality system. This should be a broad view of the overall quality system which touches on the areas you
will monitor such as waste reduction, process improvements and error proofing. Ensure that your management
review agenda accounts for review of the current quality performance against historical performance and
company benchmarks.

Document all of the areas where you will measure quality against a baseline of existing data. If you don't have a
baseline, establish one at the outset of your planning for this initiative. Your quality objectives need to be
measurable and relevant to your quality policy. Some suggestions include: waste reduction, both internal and
external; cycle time improvements; request for quotation turnaround times; supplier development; and
inventory reduction. Choose areas which offer the most long-term benefit to your company.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Review and document your progress for every category. Regular review of the effectiveness of your quality
initiatives forms the basis of measurement for the overall effectiveness of the quality system. Negative
outcomes aren't necessarily indicative of an ineffective system. How your organization responds with corrective
actions and shows demonstrable improvement over time will yield positive results.

Audit your program regularly. While the internal auditing program itself is one of the metrics for determining
the effectiveness of the quality system, the program should review the progress of all quality objectives as a
sub-component of the same effort by checking employee performance on the floor and review of quality
records. It will serve as exceptional objective evidence that your organization is taking overall quality very
seriously and that you have quality records demonstrating both monitoring and measurement of your quality
management system.

How to Implement an Effective Quality Management System

More than a policy that's written and then promptly forgotten, implementation of an effective quality
management system requires management to create a culture of pride, patience and tolerance. This will help
encourage acceptance of individual and group responsibility and a desire for joint achievement of company
goals that can be embraced by workers and management, without rancour and with mutual respect between
management and labour to build an environment of mutual trust. An effective quality management system is
an integral part of the production process.

Establish a "constant learning environment." Both management and labour must be willing to talk with and
learn from each other, without fear of repercussions. Directed "bull sessions," safety meetings or any other
informal gathering of the employees represents the opportunity for a free exchange of ideas between
management and labour, if management and labour understand these teaching/learning sessions are for the
benefit of all. An effective quality management system is a process of reducing the number of errors and
omissions through questioning, learning and remodelling.

Promote the use of real-time feedback and discourse at--and between--all levels of management and labour.
If a process is not working, fix it; don't wait for it to fix itself. If someone--no matter what their level of expertise
or job classification--sees a problem or a solution to a problem, they must be encouraged to come forward. It is
everyone's job to see problems and construct solutions, not just the job of management. Management has the
additional task of sorting through solutions offered by personnel "on the ground" to determine the viability of
those solutions to quality of process and production.

Use positive reinforcement throughout the implementation phase and beyond. Creating an environment of
trust sometimes means ignoring bad behaviour while rewarding good behaviour; only when that trust is
established can a sense of community between workers and management thrive. The implementation of a
quality management system represents a profit center for any business; implementing a quality management
system can be a gruesome task but will pay handsome rewards in the quality of goods and in employee
retention and loyalty.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Use everyone to follow up on each stage of the implementation process and fine-tune the process as required.
If you see that one part of the implementation process is faltering, find out why things are going awry; make the
necessary changes to bring the process back on track.

Follow through to ensure the quality management system is achieving the planned results. Giving direction is
only half of the job; the other half of the job is ensuring directions are followed and are achieving the desired
goals. In terms of the implementation of an effective quality management system, this means results will be
measured by a reduction of customer complaints, a reduction in returned goods and a reduction in wasted
effort and materials.

How to Design Effective Performance Appraisal Systems

Designing good performance appraisal systems can be challenging.

Performance appraisal systems are mechanisms to measure the success and contribution an employee makes
to his employer. The human resources department creates and manages the system, and it is administered by
company management. Typically, the appraisals are conducted quarterly, and employees are issued raises and
bonuses in the fourth quarter based on their performance appraisal. Effective appraisal systems can be created
in many ways, but their design follows a basic procedure.

Determine how the company's strategy, vision and goals relate to the employees' role. This will tell you how
your employees can contribute to the success of the organization.

Select a measurement strategy. Two strategies are employed when creating performance appraisal systems.
Management by objectives is a strategy that sets goals from the highest level of the organization to the lowest
level; all employees contribute to the overall goals of the company. Total quality management assesses the
performance of employees and the organization's structure.

Establish tools that accurately measure an employee's performance and the job expectations. The tools are
referred to as metrics, and they are the measurable actions of an employee in relation to the job she performs.

Select a method to rate performance. You can choose to compare employees to each other or to rate
individuals. Simple ranking lists employees from highest to lowest. The forced-distribution method assigns a
percentage of employees to categories. Individual employees can be rated on a graphic scale. The scale lists
characteristics; the characteristics are rated, and the employee is compared to each characteristic.

Test for rating errors. The manager or supervisor issuing the appraisal can cause errors without realizing it.
These errors include leniency, strictness and the halo effect. In these instances, the manager rates employees
based on factors other than performance.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Explain how each expectation will be rated and measured. This allows employees to modify behaviour based
on expectations, and the appraisal process will appear fair and unbiased.
Schedule a time to issue the performance appraisal and to give and receive feedback.

Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.1:
1. Discuss how effectiveness is measured and how a quality assurance system is implemented?
2. Demonstrate how an effective performance appraisal system is designed and implemented.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

6.2 (ac2) - strengths and weaknesses in the
planning and facilitation

How to Identify Strengths & Weaknesses

Learning the positives and negatives about yourself requires that you look at yourself in an objective manner.
Honesty is a requirement in the search to identify your strengths and weaknesses. Answering this riddle can
help you move from a life mired by continuous struggle to a focused and successful one.

Think about what attracts you. Strengths are often more difficult to identify than weaknesses, and one of the
first things that indicates a personal strength is your level of attraction. Things that you like to do will often be
strengths simply because you will spend more time focusing on and practicing them.

Test out your abilities. Try different activities such as sports or school or work projects, giving your best effort
each time. Personality graphing tests can also give you insight on your positive and negative abilities. The
broader the spectrum of new activities you attempt, the more data you have on which to base a conclusion.

Graph your progress honestly. Without attaching to results or interpretations, take note of your aptitudes. Write
down the things you enjoy doing and feel are strengths in yourself. Also note weaknesses. Draw from your
personal experience, whether successes or failures. Pulling out some of your old accomplishments or awards
will help lead you in a positive direction.

Analyze your findings. Asking yourself about specific tasks will yield more information. Sort out and categorize
the information you've collected. Making a leap of improvement in a short amount of time or receiving
accolades for your efforts would indicate strengths. If you have put consistent effort into something and haven't
seen improvement or you notice that your desire to do something is lacking, consider these areas as
weaknesses.

Obtain a second opinion. Seek the objective opinions of others on things you can improve on and things you
excel at. Teachers and bosses are good places to start; these people have a bird's-eye view of your actions on
a regular basis and can offer useful feedback.

How to Assess Strengths & Weaknesses

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Assessing your strengths and weaknesses isn't always easy, but it is necessary.
When looking into a new job, many interviews revolve around not only discussing a candidate's experience but
his strengths and weaknesses. Sometimes, this can reflect the type of work ethic people have in their careers
while also showing the employer the kind of person who is interviewing for the position. Being honest and
open-minded about your strengths and weaknesses is key--it allows you to be sincere during an interview and
gives you an idea about what things you need to work on. You can do a few things to start looking at your
strengths and weaknesses--always know, though, that weaknesses can be improved upon.

Make a list of the things you've done in previous positions and roles that make you stand out. Were you the first
to organize weekly company meetings, for instance? Make a note that you take initiative and have a keen eye
for detail. Write down the sorts of things for which you've been recognized and appreciated, and the kind of
work ethic you bring to your job. Are you always early, helpful toward others and positive in times of company
trouble? Your strengths don't only have to be in the form of accomplishments. They can be aspects of your
personality.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Make a list of things you'd like to work on in your personal and professional style or behaviour. According to the
website, Risk Communication, if a person has a tendency to be very academic at all times, some people in the
workplace who prefer a more human explanation may see it as a weakness. Look at things you may be doing
to isolate your co-workers or things that you can improve upon: getting to work on time, staying positive on the
job or meeting deadlines. Be honest with yourself.

Look at how you can foster the continuation of your strengths and how you can find solutions to your
weaknesses. Make a list of reasons why you may have those weaknesses and note ways you can change. Also
look at the sorts of things you do well and keep those points in mind. Don't be harder on yourself than you
need to be, and commend yourself for a job well done. According to Global HR News, work on your
weaknesses before focusing on illuminating your strengths. In the end, it will balance out.

How to Learn Strengths & Weaknesses

Whether you are a college freshman or someone entering the workforce as a new professional, knowing your
personal strengths and weaknesses is an important aspect of being successful at life's endeavours.
Dr. Randall S. Hansen and Dr. Katharine Hansen, authors of "Using a SWOT Analysis in Your Career Planning" for
quintcareers.com, refer to strengths (and weaknesses) as internal positive (and negative) aspects that are
controllable.
From the senior account executive to the McDonald's manager, one should learn what her strong points and
weak areas are.

Draw a vertical line down the middle of the sheet of paper, using the black or blue ink pen.

Jot down all the good things about you and things you are good at on the left side of the paper, using the red
ink pen. It could be any good character traits you possess, or what you love doing. These are your strong
points, your strengths.

List all the things you could improve about you on the right side of the paper, using the black or blue ink pen. It
could relate to any personality traits or things you find difficult to do. These are your weak points, your
weaknesses.

Circle all the things on the right side of the paper with the red ink pen you would like to see on the left side of
the paper. These are your weaknesses that you may want to turn into strengths.

Re-do the right side of your paper if the things you listed are more than what you have on the left side of the
paper

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.2:
1. Demonstrate how strengths and weaknesses are identified.
2. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses identified in a learning programme on literacy
3. Discuss the importance of learning from past mistakes.

6.3 (ac3) - ways of modifying facilitation
techniques and strategies

Facilitation & Effective Communication

You will get better results from your meetings by using effective communication techniques.
Acting as group facilitator can be a difficult task. Successful facilitation involves understanding how your group
functions. By adapting activities to suit the particular group of people you are working with, you can ensure that
the goals of a meeting are met. Solicit feedback from the group during breaks so you can also modify the pace
and structure. The idea is to allow everyone to participate and promote mutual respect. Establish some ground
rules for communicating during the meeting to help make it flow smoothly.
Create a Successful Environment

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

You may facilitate a group for many different reasons, such as discussing a volatile issue, planning an event or
reflecting on a past meeting. Before the meeting, find out how well the attendees know each other and
determine if there are pre-existing problems that could derail your meeting. Address these at the start to
establish open communication. Be sure that you display the meeting's purpose and agenda. Discuss the
participation rules. Get everyone's agreement that each person is there to make a contribution without being
interrupted or denigrated. As facilitator, your job is to create an atmosphere that is safe and courteous for all.

Ensure that all participants observe the rules for start and end times. Get consensus on the meeting mission by
taking a democratic vote. During the meeting, disallow side conversations and off-topic ramblings. Manage
conflict by using active listening techniques, such as paraphrasing positions by beginning with phrases like "in
other words" or "to summarize your point." Encourage dialogue, but keep the group on track. You may
designate a meeting scribe, or participants may take turns documenting the proceedings.

Visually depicting discussion points that result in a concept map can assist the group's ability to understand
any complex issues. Guide the team to work on just one issue at a time, as difficult as this may be to achieve.
Clarify topics as necessary by listing the pros and cons when a decision needs to be made. Establish a process
for deferring topics to another meeting when they do not meet the criteria for inclusion in the current meeting.

Finally, conclude your meeting with an action plan that includes individuals responsible for completing
assigned tasks within an established time frame. Communicate this summary with the rest of the group,
particularly with those who were unable to attend (if their input and approval are required).

Ground Rules for Facilitators

Facilitators follow common ground rules to keep a meeting on track.

Facilitators can help assist with all types of meetings, from small affairs to large roundtable group discussions.
The facilitator makes sure that a meeting starts out in--and keeps moving in--the right direction. A facilitator
establishes ground rules for the participants in a group or meeting, and the facilitator also must adhere to
common

opic Neutrality

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

The facilitator ensures that a meeting agenda moves forward and that sessions do not get off track. The
facilitator makes sure that sensitive topics do not lead to detrimental comments by attendees, and should such
comments occur, the facilitator remains neutral and simply brings the conversation back on topic. The
facilitator refrains from stating her own views on a topic; one of the ground rules for a facilitator is to avoid
injecting personal opinion during a meeting.
Rules and Agenda Communication
One of the ground rules for a facilitator is to make sure that everyone participating in the meeting or session is
aware of and understands all ground rules and the topics to be covered during the meeting. A facilitator must
convey this information in an easy-to-understand (yet not demeaning) manner. The facilitator needs to allow
for time both at the beginning of and during the meeting to explain the purpose and goals of the meeting and
to verify that all attendees understand the reason for their attendance. The facilitator must answer attendees'
questions clearly and concisely and without making attendees feel inferior to the facilitator or other meeting
leaders.
Comfort and Convenience
A facilitator helps establish convenience and comfort to ensure a successful meeting. The facilitator ascertains
that enough seats are available for all attendees and that the environment is comfortable. The facilitator should
arrive at the meeting space before others do and see that seating is correct and the area is neither too hot nor
too cold.

Group Facilitation Tips

Leading groups can be challenging

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Your role as facilitator is to help a group reach its goals. Successful group leaders work to understand the
group's dynamics and adapt the activities scheduled to suit the situation at hand. By responding to feedback
from the group, you can modify the structure of group events and pace of proceedings to best suit the
interaction style so members of the group can focus on producing results in a balanced manner.

Preparing for Group Meetings

Groups form for a variety of reasons: to discuss common interests, plan work, share knowledge or resolve
problems. Establishing that your group includes the right people at the right time for the right reasons is the
first step to ensuring success. Find out how well the participants know each other and whether there are pre-
existing issues that could be mitigated before embarking on the current challenge.

Next, you need to schedule meetings which have a clear purpose and agenda. At the first meeting, discuss the
rules for participation. The objective is to provide an opportunity for each person to make a contribution
without unnecessary interruptions. Creating an environment that is safe, respectful and courteous is your job as
facilitator. Managing the start and end times of meetings ensures that the group stays attentive to the
objective. Create a document format to record the mission or charter of the group as well as the agenda for
each meeting.

Managing Group Dynamics

During group meetings, minimize the number of side conversations and off-topic discussions. Manage conflict
in the group by practicing active listening, using phrases such as, "In other words," "My understanding of the
situation is," and "So you are saying," to reflect comprehension of the dialogue. Meetings may end with a plan of
action, with designated individuals responsible for completing tasks and communicating with the rest of the
group regarding the status and time line for each task's completion.

Documenting Group Activities

During meetings, consider assigning the role of scribe to one of the participants or include another person in
the meeting specifically for this purpose. Visually depicting relationships and other discussion points can assist
the group's ability to comprehend complex issues. Guide the group to work on one issue at a time, clarifying
the topic as necessary with pro and con points. Establish a process for identifying and dealing with matters that
are out of scope for the current group's concern.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Group Activity / Pair Activity 6.3:

1. Discuss the importance of facilitation and effective communication
2. Evaluate the following:
3. Facilitators’ ground rules
4. Group facilitation requirements

Portfolio Activity:

1. Explain what is meant by learning programme.
2. What is the importance of a learning programme.
3. Give a detailed explanation on how literacy is developed, facilitated and assessed.
4. Demonstrate how a very good literacy learning programme is planned.
5. Explain how you assess children’s progress in the literacy learning programme.
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the literacy learning programme.

Resources:

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

h  ttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_literacies
h  ttp://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/childdevtheory
 http://www.ehow.com/how_8010010_do-acquire-literacy-language-
development.html#ixzz2Ka4RtZ57
h  ttp://www.ehow.com/list_7630733_early-literacy-assessment-
tools.html#ixzz2KayiGafS
h  ttp://www.howkidsdevelop.com/prekPrograms.html
h  ttp://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/child-centered-
teaching-methods-enhance-early-childhood-physical-education
h  ttp://www.ehow.com/about_6641075_focus-groups-children.html

Self Assessment

Self Assessment:
You have come to the end of this module – please take the time to review what you have learnt to date, and
conduct a self assessment against the learning outcomes of this module by following the instructions below:
Rate your understanding of each of the outcomes listed below :
Keys: - no understanding
- Some idea
- Completely comfortable

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

NO OUTCOME SELF RATING

Notes
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

mODULE 3

Us id: KT0103 - Domains of Child Development and how they interrelate 

Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe how Life Skills are developed, facilitated and assessed. 
2. Plan a Life Skills Learning Programme. 
3. Prepare Life Skills learning activities and materials. 
4. Implement the planned Life Skills Learning Programme. 
5. Observe and assess children's progress
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Life Skills Learning Programme. 

Introduction

Life skills are behaviours used appropriately and responsibly in the management of personal affairs. They are a
set of human skills acquired via teaching or direct experience that are used to handle problems and questions
commonly encountered in daily human life. The subject varies greatly depending on societal norms and
community expectations.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Enumeration and Categorization
UNICEF states "there is no definitive list" of life skills but enumerates many "psychosocial and interpersonal
skills generally considered important." It asserts life skills are a synthesis: "many skills are used simultaneously
in practice. For example, decision-making often involves critical thinking ("what are my options?") and values
clarification ("what is important to me?"). Ultimately, the interplay between the skills is what produces powerful
behavioural outcomes, especially where this approach is supported by other strategies..."
Life skills can vary from financial literacy, substance abuse prevention, to therapeutic techniques to deal with
disabilities, such as autism. Life skills curricula designed for K-12 often emphasizes communications and
practical skills needed for successful independent living for developmental disabilities/special education
students with an Individualized Education Program (IEP). However, some programs are for general populations,
such as the Overcoming Obstacles program for middle schools and high schools

so1: develop, facilitate and assess life
skills

How to Facilitate Learning in Children

Learning in children

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Children learn best when they are actively involved in the learning process. This can be achieved by presenting
students with problems that require critical thinking. Group students and allow them to share ideas while they
complete the assignment. For example, instead of asking students to reread Shakespeare's play "Romeo and
Juliet" in order to list the actions of Juliet in chronological order, ask students to work in pairs to create a daily
diary from the point of view of Juliet. As groups reflect on Juliet's actions in the play, they will analyze her
motives and determine the cause of her actions, as well as their effects. Present students with a written
assignment sheet, along with a scoring rubric detailing how the project will be graded.

Put students in groups of two for this assignment. Allow for time for each pair to discuss Juliet's actions in the
play. Role-playing the part of Juliet can be an effective way to review.

Have a class discussion to arrive at a scoring rubric or matrix to address such issues as the number of diary
entries, the amount of detail in each one, correct use of point of view, creativity and presentation.

Distribute an assignment sheet explaining clearly what is expected to complete the assignment, and allow
time for questions. You may want to give specific questions, such as "How did Juliet react when the nurse was
slow to tell her Romeo's answer?" and "How do you think she felt about her father after his tirade?"

Encourage students to talk to each other, read selections that support their ideas, write down notes, role-play
and reflect on the best way to create Juliet's diary. All of these actions promote active learning and
engagement on the part of the cooperative learning groups.

Distribute construction paper, coloured pencils, lined paper and yarn. Make hole punchers available. Have each
group design a cover using construction paper and coloured pencils. This cover might be an illustration of a
scene from the play involving Juliet.

Ask students to use the lined paper to write the diary entries, using the first person point of view. Encourage
them to elaborate on Juliet's thoughts, hopes, fears and other emotions.

Direct the groups to put the diary together with a construction paper front and back and lined paper in the
center. Holes can be punched on the side, and students can use yarn to tie the diary together. Have each
group share the completed diary with the class.

1.1 (ac1) - The effectiveness of the Life Skills
Programme

Early Childhood Development Theory

Here, children both play and learn.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Early childhood development theories stress how children learn. The basic issues are what variables are most
important in a child's development. There are three general approaches to early childhood development, and
each stresses a different set of variables that matter most. The first two approaches stress that children are
basically automatic learners. The last concept says that children are active learners.
Types: Three general types of early childhood development theory exist. Maturation theory holds that
development is the same in children as in other animals. It is based on biological imperatives that occur
automatically (that is, naturally) in children with little input from parents and others. The environmentalist or
behaviourist school holds that children learn by being given the proper stimuli and reinforcements. Finally,
constructivist theory is based on a child-centered idea of learning where kids actually create their own set of
interests.
Maturationism: Patience is the main feature of the maturation school. Time rules all, as child development is
based on working out biological imperatives. All will be accomplished, and any child that is slower in
development just needs more time. Interaction with others is irrelevant since development is already “hard-
wired” into the child's biology and cannot be changed. Education needs to reflect those changing imperatives.
Environmentalism: Rote learning is the main issue here. Children learn through repetition and, when the answer
is correct, the child is rewarded with praise. This reinforces the learning process. Like maturation theory,
interaction is not important, but providing the right information is. Unlike maturation theory, behaviourism holds
the environment as the central variable in early childhood development. The biological imperative must be
assisted from outside.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Constructivism: Constructive theory holds that children should be involved centrally in their learning process.
Teachers should be facilitators, while the child should be encouraged to move from place to place, interest to
interest. Creative participation is the main buzzword in this approach, and interaction is at the center of all
learning. The only real job of the teacher is to make sure the materials the children play with or manipulate are
age appropriate.

Significance: Only constructivism holds that good, solid relationships between parents and children, or
teachers and children, are important. Some behaviourists hold that these bonds are good for reinforcement
purposes, but little else. Maturationists hold that these bonds mean little. For behaviourism and maturationism,
children learn with little effort. Only behaviourism stresses the correct environment as the only real variable
that matters. The child takes it from there. Constructivists hold that children need to be empowered to begin
the active learning process.

Theories of Child Development

The study of human development is a rich and varied subject. We all have personal experience with
development, but it is sometimes difficult to understand how and why people grow, learn, and act as they do.
Theories of child development provide a useful framework for thinking about human growth, development,
and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behaviour, understanding
these theories can provide useful insight into both individuals and society. The following are just a few of the
major theories that have emerged to explain various aspects of human development:

What is Psychosocial Development?

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in
psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike
Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the
whole lifespan.

One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity.1 Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego
identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions
with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviours
and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the
stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength
or ego quality.2 If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In
Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop
that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

T  he first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in
life.2
 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is
based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
I f a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure
in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or
rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

T  he second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes
place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a
greater sense of personal control.
L  ike Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this
process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of
Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily functions
leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
O  ther important events include gaining more control over food choices,
toy preferences, and clothing selection.
C  hildren who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-
doubt.

What is Psychosexual Development?

According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a
large role in personality development and continue to influence behaviour later in life.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial.
Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido,
was described as the driving force behind behaviour.

If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are
not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier
psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a
person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation
through smoking, drinking, or eating.

Jean Piaget's Background

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving his doctoral degree at age 22, Piaget formally
began a career that would have a profound impact on both psychology and education. After working with
Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his
observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.
Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves
changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.

Key Concepts

Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience
has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then
that the child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously
existing schema to include this new information.

Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information
somewhat to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labelling it "dog" is an
example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2

Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas,
as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress
through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing behaviour to account for new knowledge (accommodation).
Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Stages of Moral Development

Moral development is a major topic of interest in both psychology and education. One of the best known
theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg who modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's
work to form a theory that explained the development of moral reasoning.

Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg's theory of moral development
outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral
development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.

"The Heinz Dilemma"

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A series of moral
dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to determine the reasoning
behind their judgments of each scenario.

The following is one example of the dilemmas Kohlberg presented"

Heinz Steals the Drug: "In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug
that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him
to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.

The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get
together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him
to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make
money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the
husband have done that?".

ECD NQF 4 - Student Guide Knowledge Module 2