Unesc Gaps Needs Assessment SADC Report

CAPACITY GAPS AND NEEDS
ASSESSMENT STUDY

Climate Services for
Improved Water Resources
Management in Vulnerable
Regions of Southern Africa

01

Contents

List of figures 03

List of tables 03

List of acronyms 05

Acknowledgements 07

Executive summary 08

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 1. Background 10
7, Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France 1.1 Climate services 12
1.2 Study approach 13
© 2021 by UNESCO
2. Mapping existing hydroclimatic products 14
This publication is available in Open Access under the 2.1 Introduction 14
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license 2.2 Objectives 15
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). By using 2.3 Mapping existing hydroclimatic products 15
the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound
by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository 3. Capacity gaps and needs in precipitation 17
(http://www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en). and runoff monitoring and early warning
The present license applies exclusively to the text content of systems 17
the publication. For the use of any material not clearly identified
as belonging to UNESCO, prior permission shall be requested. 3.1 Existing legal and policy framework 17
related to precipitation monitoring and 18
Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations early warning
expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not 18
necessarily reflect the views of UNESCO. 3.2 Overview of existing organizational 19
capacities and gaps in precipitation 19
The Capacity Gaps and Needs Assessment Study is published monitoring and early warning 19
in the framework of the project ‘Needs assessment for
Climate Services for improved Water Resources Management 3.3 Priority areas for capacity building 20
in vulnerable regions to Southern Africa’, executed by the
Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme of UNESCO (IHP) 3.4 Supplementing of field data with satellite 21
and supported through the Flanders UNESCO Science Trust data
Fund (FUST). 21
3.5 Downscaling of GCM products 21
Authors: Mr. Isaiah Gwitira and Mr. Munyaradzi Davis Shekede,
Department of Geography and Environmental Science, 3.6 Capacity in human resources
University of Zimbabwe
3.7 Financial resources
Design and layout: Marike Strydom, Jade Rose Graphic Design
3.8 Individual capacities in precipitation
Cover photo: © stock.adobe.com monitoring

3.9 Highest level of qualification for staff
involved in precipitation monitoring

3.10 Desired situation that would enable
effective monitoring of precipitation

3.11 Knowledge base

3.12 Media for data dissemination and 4.7 Individual capacities for drought and
information sharing
22 flood monitoring and early warning 35
3.13 Geospatial data requirements
22 4.8 Human resources training and knowledge
3.14 Capacity building needs for effective
monitoring of precipitation opportunities required to enhance

3.15 Climate change impacts 22 effective drought management 36

3.16 Existing legal and policy framework or 22 4.9 Priority areas for capacity building to 36
regulations related to runoff monitoring enhance drought and flood management

3.17 Overview of existing organizational 22 4.10 Climate variability and change impacts in 37
capacities and gaps in runoff monitoring the study countries
and early warning
4.11 Hydroclimatic information needed by
3.18 Supporting existing hydrological
observations 23 institutions for organization and planning 37

3.19 Priority areas for capacity building and 4.12 Data needs 37
runoff forecasts to enhance hydrological
observations 24 4.13 Spatial scale of hydroclimatic data 38

3.20 Hydrological data management and 4.14 Communication channels for drought
sharing
early warning 38
3.21 Knowledge base
25 4.15 Criteria for assessing quality of
3.22 Human and financial resources status
and requirements for the organization in hydroclimatic services 38
hydrological observations
25 4.16 Recommendations 39
3.23 Overview of existing individual capacities
and gaps in runoff monitoring and early 26
warning
5. General conclusions and recommendations 40
3.24 Climate change vulnerability and its 26 5.1 General conclusions 40
impacts 40
5.2 Recommendations
3.25 Methods of data acquisition
26 42
4. Capacity gaps and needs in drought References 44
and flood monitoring and early warning 50
systems 28 56
62
4.1 Existing legal and policy framework 28 Appendix 1: 68
related to drought and flood
Assessment of the capacity gaps and needs in
4.2 Evaluation of policies and legislation for drought early warning systems
drought and flood monitoring and early
warning Appendix 2:
29 Assessment of the capacity gaps and needs in flood
4.3 Organizational capacities for drought and
flood monitoring and early warning early warning systems
29 Appendix 3:
4.4 Priority areas for capacity building in
drought and flood early warning Assessment of the capacity gaps and needs in the
30 rainfall (precipitation) monitoring systems
4.5 Human and financial resource status and
requirements for drought and flood early Appendix 4:
warning
30 Assessment of the capacity gaps and needs in the
4.6 Knowledge base runoff monitoring systems

32 Appendix 5:
List of institutions and organizations consulted
during the study

32

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List of figures 10
14
Figure 1: Countries covered by the Zambezi Basin 18
Figure 2: Rainfall trends between 1983 and 2017 in the Zambezi Basin based on CHRS rainfall data at the yearly scale 19
Figure 3: Spatial distribution of precipitation Monitoring Stations in a) Zambia and b) Malawi 23
Figure 4: Spatial distribution of precipitation monitoring stations in a) Mozambique and b) Zimbabwe 24
Figure 5: Types of hydrological observation stations and their adequacy in Malawi 24
Figure 6: Types of hydrological observation stations and their adequacy in Zimbabwe 24
Figure 7: Types of hydrological observation stations and their adequacy in Zambia 31
Figure 8: Hydrometric stations in Mozambique
Figure 9: Status of current policies and regulations related to flood and drought management in the study

List of tables

Table 1: Socioeconomic impacts of drought and floods in the Zambezi Basin 11
Table 2: Existing hydroclimatic products (early warning systems for flood and drought, precipitation and runoff 16

monitoring system) that are active and implemented at national, regional and basin levels in Zimbabwe, 20
Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique 21
Table 3: Orgnizational capacity in precipitation monitoring across the study countries 23
Table 4: Individual capacity gaps and needs in precipitation monitoring 27
Table 5: Knowledge base capacity gaps and needs 29
Table 6: Qualifications of staff dedicated to hydrological observation in Zimbabwe, Malawi and Zambia 31
Table 7: Existing legal and policy framework for flood management in Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe 32
Table 8: Orgnizational capacity in institutions that deal with flood early warning and management 33
Table 9: Orgnizational capacity in institutions that deal with drought early warning and management 33
Table 10: Identified priority areas for capacity building to enhance drought early warning and management 34
Table 11: Existing and required drought monitoring and early warning 34
Table 12: Required versus actual (available) financial resources in drought and flood early warning and management 35
Table 13: Knowledge capacity in institutions responsible for flood early warning system and management 36
Table 14: Capacity levels and gaps of individual in flood monitoring and early warning 37
Table 15: Capacity levels and gaps of individual in flood monitoring and early warning 38
Table 16: Hydroclimatic services available at institutions 38
Table 17: Hydroclimatic services required by respective countries
Table 18: Additional hydroclimatic data required for effective flood management

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List of acronyms

CIEWS Climate Information and Early Warning Systems
CPU Civil Protection Unit
DoDMA Department of Disaster Management Affairs
DWR Department of Water Resources
DMMU Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit
ENSO El Nino Southern Oscillation
ECMWF European Center for Medium -Range Weather Forecast
EWS Early Warning Systems
FEWSNET Famine Early Warning Systems Network
GFS Global Forecast System
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GIS Geographic Information System
HCEWS Hydroclimatic Early Warning Systems
HPC High Performance Computer
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IHP International Hydrological Programme
MESA Monitoring of the Environment for Security in Africa
NAPA National Adaptation Programmes
NIMCEWS National Institute of Meteorology Cyclone Early Warning System
NOAA GHE National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Global Hydro-Estimator
NWRA National Water Resources Authority
RADAR Radio Detection and Ranging
SADC Southern African Development Community
SADC-CSC IDIS Southern African Development Community Climate Services Centre Integrated Climate Information
Dissemination and Early Warning System (IDIS)
SADC HYCOS SADC Hydrological Cycle Observation System
SADC-IDIS Southern African Development Community Climate Services Centre Integrated Climate Information
Dissemination and Early Warning System (IDIS)
SARCIS-DR Southern African Regional Climate Information Services for Disaster Resilience Development
SARDC Southern African Resources Documentation Centre
SARCIS-DR Southern African Regional Climate Information Services for Disaster Resilience Development
TAMSAT Tropical application of meteorology using satellite data and ground-based observations
TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
WARMA Water Resources Management Authority
WMO World Meteorological Organisation
ZAMCOM Zambezi Watercourse Commission
ZESCO Zambia Electricity Supply Company
ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority

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Acknowledgements

The capacity gaps and needs assessment report Climate
Services for Improved Water Resources Management in
Vulnerable Regions of Southern Africa is a product of
wide regional institutional collaboration, with the active
partnership of technical experts from weather and climate
related institutions in Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and
Zimbabwe, under the technical coordination of UNESCO
Regional Office of Southern Africa’s Natural Science Sector
and UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme (IHP),
and with financial support from the Government of Flanders.

Main contributors of the report are as follows:

• Mr Samuel Gama, Department of Disaster Management Affairs (DoDMA), Malawi.
• Mr Revie Manda, DoDMA, Malawi
• Mr Ockens Chipete, DoDMA, Malawi
• Mr Daniel Mandala, DoDMA, Malawi
• Mr Pepani Kaluwa, Deputy Director Water Resources, Malawi
• Mr Laison Musewo, Department of Water Resources, Malawi
• Mr Chilunganomo Banda, Department of Water Resources, Malawi
• Mr Macford Mbama, Department of Water Resources, Malawi,
• Mr Chimwemwe Yonasi, Environmental Affairs Department, Malawi
• Mr Osborne Tsoka, Ministry of Agriculture, Malawi
• Ms Jeniffer Nkosi, Ministry of Agriculture, Malawi
• Mr Dominic Nkoma, Ministry of Agriculture, Malawi
• Mr Domishone Kadokera, Ministry of Agriculture, Malawi
• Mr Stanley, D. Chavhunguma, Meteorological Services in Malawi
• Mr Jonas Zukule, Mozambique Meteorological Services (INAM), Mozambique
• Mr Can Jopela, Department of Water and Hydrology, Mozambique
• Dr Agostino Vilanculos, Department of Water and Hydrology, Mozambique
• Ms Ana Christina, Institute for Disaster Management, Mozambique
• Mr Dennis Guimba, Institute for Disaster Management, Mozambique
• Mr Antinio Beleza, Institute for Disaster Management, Mozambique
• Mr Mataveya, Institute for Disaster Management, Mozambique
• Mr E Nkonde, Meteorological Services Department, Zambia
• Mr D Waitolo, Meteorological Services Department, Zambia
• Mr Swaswa, Meteorological Services Department, Zambia
• Mrs Esnart Makwakwa, Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit, Zambia
• Mr Kabwe, ZESCO
• Mr Mwiko, ZESCO
• Mr Mwanga, ZESCO
• Mr Ndlovu, ZESCO
• Mr Sinyangwe, Ministry of Agriculture, Zambia
• Mrs Beauty Shamboko, Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA), Zambia
• Mr Siwale, Department of Water Resources Management and Development, Zambia

07

Executive summary

The SADC region is one of the most To assess capacity needs and gaps in institutions involved
vulnerable regions to the impacts in the provision of hydroclimatic services, the UNESCO
of extreme weather events with capacity assessment method was adopted that focuses at
droughts and floods being the capacity hierarchically from firstly the systemic or policy level,
most common. Given the increased then secondly the institutional level, and thirdly individual
vulnerability of communities in the levels. To achieve this, a questionnaire was designed and
region to these extreme weather sent to institutions in the four countries. The questionnaire
events there is need to prioritise had questions on EWS for flood, drought, precipitation and
implementation of early warning runoff. The questionnaire survey was complemented by
systems (EWS) to build resilience in a regional workshop that was held in Harare from 30-31
communities. January 2018. The workshop assisted in identifying the need
for hydroclimatic services that are key for improved water
However, the sustainable and effective management of these resources management in vulnerable regions of Southern
climate-related disasters is dependent on the availability of Africa. Finally, technical missions were undertaken in the four
comprehensive hydroclimatic services across all stakeholders countries to get inputs from relevant institutions in Lilongwe
and institutions involved in disaster management. In this (Malawi), Maputo (Mozambique), Lusaka (Zambia) and
regard, early warning systems become a critical component Harare (Zimbabwe). Results from this study show that there
of adapting to and building resilience to climate change. It are capacity needs and gaps in the respective institutions
is against this background that a needs assessment study, dealing with monitoring of precipitation and runoff as well
Climate Services for Improved Water Resources Management as those involved in flood and drought EWS in the countries
in Vulnerable Regions of Southern Africa was carried out with under study.
the support of the Government of Flanders and is being
implemented through the International Hydrological A review of institutional capacity across the study countries
Programme (IHP). indicates that overall, institutions that deal with precipitation
monitoring have policies or regulations that adequately
The objectives of this study: address hydroclimatic services and early warning, including
a plethora of policies that relate to hydroclimatic services
• Conduct a desktop study of mapping existing and early warning systems. However, there is need to
hydroclimatic products (flood, drought, precipitation synchronise the policies so that they are coordinated to
and runoff monitoring systems) that are active and achieve the intended outcomes. Moreover, despite the
implemented at national, regional and basin levels in existence of relevant policy frameworks and procedures
Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. regarding hydroclimatic services and early warning systems,
these are not consistently adhered to, reviewed, updated,
• Conduct a gap and needs analysis on the availability of and or known by staff, which limits effective service delivery.
hydroclimatic services (flood and drought early warning Furthermore, the delivery of hydroclimatic services is
systems) in support of water resources management dependent on fully functional and well-funded institutions.
in Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe, with Results of this study show that institutions involved in the
special focus on the Zambezi river basin region. provision of hydroclimatic services have limited funding,
with some institutions getting an allocation of as low as 0.01
• Propose a large-scale project aimed at increasing the percent of the proposed budgets from the fiscus. The limited
resilience of vulnerable regions in Southern Africa in funding negatively affects the ability of institutions to deliver
the provision of climate services for improved water climate services relevant for water resources management.
management, while securing ecosystem services relevant
to water resources in the selected countries, based on the In general, a key characteristic observed in the four countries
gap and need analysis. is the sparse network of hydrological and meteorological
stations. The sparse network results in inadequate data
To achieve these objectives, a desktop study was carried out being collected which renders the institutions incapable
through Internet searches and using the experience of the of providing the required climate services and EWS. In
consultants in the region to map the existing hydroclimatic situations where the observation and monitoring equipment
products that are active and implemented at national, is available, most of it is obsolete, dysfunctional and therefore
regional and basin levels in Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia hampering the provision of relevant climate services. For
and Zimbabwe. instance, only 15 percent and 45 percent of Malawi and
Zimbabwe’s hydrometeorological stations are functional.
08 Moreover, some of the stations are still manually operated,
thereby failing to provide data in near real time as they need
to be manned by personnel, yet most of the institutions are
under staffed.

The failure to provide adequate hydroclimatic services © stock.adobe.com
militates against the monitoring of fast occurring
phenomena such as flash floods and tropical cyclones.
Thus, there is need to increase the observation network
for both hydrological and meteorological monitoring as
well as replacing the manual stations with automatic ones
across the four countries to come up with robust EWS.

In addition, adequate human resources are key to fulfilling
an organization’s mandate. In all four countries, it was
observed that there are inadequate human and financial
resources for effective delivery of hydroclimatic services
and EWS. For example, in Zambia, the Meteorological
Services Department only has 95 staff members
involved in forecasting for the whole country. However,
most of the members are not adequately trained as
the highest qualification they possess is a certificate,
which limits their ability to deliver relevant forecasts
and also downscaling climate models in addition to
climate modelling. The situation is the same in the rest
of the hydrometeorological services departments and
disaster management institutions across the study
countries. Information sharing across all stakeholders
involved in the provision of hydroclimatic services is
critical for developing effective early warning systems
and increasing resilience of communities to the effects
of climate change and variability. In this study, it was
observed that there is a lack of information sharing
platforms that negatively affects the dissemination
of information related to hydroclimatic hazards to
the relevant stakeholders. In addition, there are poor
communication structures and lack of coordination
across institutions responsible for providing hydroclimatic
services and early warning.

Given these capacity needs and gaps across the study
countries it is therefore recommended that there is
need for improvement in the hydrometeorological
stations through increasing the density of observation
stations, resuscitation of dysfunctional stations, and
automation of existing manual stations. Increasing
the capacity of staff (through training) involved in
the collection, analysis and provision of hydroclimatic
services, including disaster management, may also
significantly improve service delivery and ultimately
increase the resilience of communities to the impacts of
climate change. Coordination and information sharing
among all institutions involved in hydroclimatic services
provision and early warning is critical to the provision of
hydroclimatic services in the region. A separate project
proposal has been drafted with a view of addressing
some of these shortcomings (see project proposal
document).

09

1. Background

The Zambezi river basin extends The Zambezi river basin area is highly vulnerable to floods
through Angola, Botswana, Malawi, and droughts due to cyclical weather patterns worsened
Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, by climate variability and change (Table 1). For example,
Zambia and Zimbabwe (Figure 1). historical records indicate that extensive droughts affected
the Zambezi Basin in the following years: 1981-82, 1986-87,
With regard to the total Zambezi Basin area, Zambia takes 1991-92, 1994-95, 2001-02 and 2012-16 (SADC, 2010). In
up the largest portion with 41.7 percent. This is followed addition to droughts, floods are also a common occurrence
by Angola with 18.4 percent, Zimbabwe 15 percent, in the basin. Floods occurred in 1999-2000, 2005-06, 2007-
Mozambique 12 percent, Malawi (8%), Tanzania (2%), 09 and 2014-17, according to observations by the Southern
Botswana (1%), and Namibia (1%), according to the Zambezi African Development Community (SADC) in 2010, the
Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) in 2015. Southern African Resource Documentation Centre (SARDC)
in 2015 and by ZAMCOM in 2015. An estimated 70 percent
of the population in the basin depend on rain-fed agriculture
for livelihoods. Therefore, there is a need to come up with
sustainable mechanisms to address vulnerabilities caused by
droughts and floods (ZAMCOM, 2015).

Figure 1: Countries covered by the Zambezi Basin

TANZANIA

ANGOLA MALAWI
NAMIBIA
ZAMBIA

ZIMBABWE

BOTSWANA MOZAMBIQUE

SOUTH AFRICA

Zambezi Basin

10

Table 1: Socioeconomic impacts of drought and floods in the Zambezi Basin

Year Location Description Socioeconomic impacts

1967-1973 Entire region This six-year period was dry across the Decrease in crop productivity and widespread

entire region. livestock deaths.

1981-82 Entire Zambezi Basin Severe drought occurred in most parts USD647.1 million direct losses in agricultural
of Southern Africa. production and costs incurred for emergency
relief operations in Malawi, Mozambique and
Zimbabwe.

1983 Entire basin A severe drought affected the entire A 41% loss in cereal production.
African continent. A 30% loss of the national herd in Zimbabwe,
Botswana, Lesotho and Mozambique.

1986-1987 Entire basin Drought conditions resulted in
prolonged drought.

1991-1992 Entire basin The worst drought in living memory Zimbabwe GDP decreased by ~10%.
was experienced in Southern Africa, More than a million cattle died: 1.03 million (23%) of
excluding Namibia. the national herd died in Zimbabwe.
20 million people estimated to be at ‘serious risk’
from drought.
94.5% drop in water levels in the Kariba dam.

1994-1995 SADC countries Severe drought hit the region, A 35% decrease in crop yield.
surpassing the impact of the 1991- 13 million people were at risk from drought.
1992 drought.

1997 Lower Shire Flash floods occurred. Extensive damage to infrastructure as well as crops
River Valley (Malawi) and livestock.
4 people drowned.
400,000 people were affected.

2000 Most of the Zambezi Prolonged and exceptionally heavy Loss of lives, extensive damage to roads, bridges,
Basin rains compounded by cyclone Eline crops, and communication lines. Outbreak of
caused flooding throughout Southern diseases. More than 200,000 people affected.
Africa. Mozambique was the most Mozambique lost USD550 million and experienced
affected. 6% decrease in GDP.

2001-2002 Provinces in Zambia, Southern Africa experienced Caused damage to infrastructure and loss of lives and
Zimbabwe, Malawi and
Mozambique located in abnormally high rainfall and disastrous property.
the Middle to Lower
Zambezi Basin floods.

2002-2003 A severe drought hit Southern Africa. 13 million people faced food shortages.

2003 Villages near Lake Malawi Rising water levels in Lake Malawi Houses collapsed
submerged nearby villages. 107 families displaced

2005-2006 Parts of Mozambique, Heavy rains resulted in flooding. Considerable infrastructural damage, destroyed
Southern Africa and schools, crops, telecommunications and roads.
Zimbabwe

2006 Lower Shire valley Heavy rains caused flooding. Destruction of houses and outbreak of diseases
(cholera). 37,431 households were affected. 1,794
houses were destroyed.

2007 Mozambique and parts Cyclone Favio induced floods from Destruction of villages and residents forced to
migrate.
of Zimbabwe. torrential rains.

2008-2009 Angola, Botswana, Heavy rains caused flooding. The basin experienced flooding, affecting and
Malawi, Namibia and displacing thousands of people.
Zambia

2015-2016 SADC Severe drought. 41 million people (14% of the population) affected.
28 million people required humanitarian assistance.
643,000 drought-related livestock deaths in
Botswana, Swaziland, South Africa, Namibia and
Zimbabwe.

(Source SARC 2015, SARDC and HBS 2010)

11

© stock.adobe.com The increased vulnerability of communities in the Zambezi
river basin requires prioritization of climate services such as
EWS for floods and droughts, which help to build resilience
in the management of the two natural disasters. One of
the reasons used to explain the increase in vulnerability to
water related hazards such as floods and droughts is limited
access to climate services. Climate services are important
as they provide people and organizations with timely,
tailored climate-related knowledge and information that
they can use to reduce climate-related losses and enhance
benefits, including the protection of lives, livelihoods, and
property (Vincent et al., 2017). In this regard, there is a need
to strengthen basin-wide collection of hydroclimatic data,
information exchange and dissemination for water resources
management at local, national and basin levels. However,
evidence shows that there is inadequate hydroclimatic
information in the basin, which is critical in enhancing full
understanding of climate variability and water resources
management. The hydroclimatic information in the region is
often sparse and characterized by significant uncertainties
and low resolution.

To understand the capacity gaps and needs in the provision
of climate services, the UNESCO International Hydrological
Programme (IHP) with support from the Government of
Flanders, conducted a capacity gaps and needs assessment
study, titled Climate Services for Improved Water Resources
Management in Vulnerable Regions of Southern Africa. The
main objective of this project was to undertake a gap and
needs analysis on hydroclimatic services in four countries,
namely Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The
study aimed at assessing the availability of hydroclimatic
services (i.e., flood and drought early warning systems)
in support of water resources management in Malawi,
Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe, with special focus
on the Zambezi river basin region. The identified gaps and
capacity needs would aid in the proper implementation of
hydroclimatic services in the four countries. Based on the gap
and needs analysis a large-scale project will be developed
that aims to increase the resilience of vulnerable regions
in Southern Africa in the provision of climate services for
improved water management, while securing ecosystem
services relevant to water resources management in Malawi,
Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The next section
provides an overview of the definitions of climate services.

1.1 Climate services

Several definitions have been proffered by a number of
institutions and schools regarding climate services. For
instance, the American Meteorological Society (2012) defines
climate services (CS) as scientifically based information and
products that enhance users’ knowledge and understanding
about the impacts of climate on their decisions and actions.
In the context of the Global Framework of Climate Services
(GFCS), climate services refer to climate information ‘provided
in a way that assists decision making by individuals and
organizations’ (Hewitt and Walland, 2012).

12

On the other hand, the National Research Council of the Climate services provide science-based and user-specific
National Academies (2001) describes climate services as information relating to past, present and potential future
‘the timely production and delivery of useful climate data, climate and address each sector affected by climate at a
information, and knowledge to decision makers’, user‐driven global, regional and local level. Climate services include
development and provision of knowledge for understanding the collection and interpretation of weather- and climate-
the climate, climate change and its impacts, as well as related data (Vincent et al., 2017). This information includes
guidance in its use to researchers and decision makers observations, analysis and forecasts at different time scales
in policy and business. The European Commission (2015) (Vincent et al., 2017). Weather and climate data are mostly
broadly defines climate services as ‘transformation of climate- derived and predicted on three different time scales, namely
related data – together with other relevant information observational (meteorological monitoring), short-term (daily
– into customized products such as projections, forecasts, to seasonal forecasts) and long-term (climate variability and
information, trends, economic analyses, assessments climate change projections).
(including technology assessments), counselling on best
practices, development and evaluation of solutions and any 1.2 Study approach
other service in relation to climate that may be of use for the
society at large’. The study was based on four main approaches. First, a
desk study was conducted through Internet searches,
In this context, the scope of climate services comprises as well as using the experience of the consultants in the
data, information and knowledge that support adaptation, region. Through this approach, the existing hydroclimatic
mitigation and disaster risk management (Street, 2016). products (early warning systems for flood and drought,
Typical examples of climate services are summarized by the precipitation and runoff monitoring systems) that are active
American Meteorological Society (AMS, 2012) as involving and implemented at national, regional and basin levels in
the following: Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique were mapped.
Second, the capacity assessment method (UNESCO 2013)
• Archiving, reanalysis and provision of climate summaries that focuses at capacity hierarchically from (1) the systemic or
of past climate policy level, (2) the institutional level and (3) individual levels
were used in the assessment of capacity gaps and needs
• Observation, monitoring and provision of climate among the institutions that deal with early warning systems
summaries, reports of present climate, including studies for flood and drought, precipitation and runoff monitoring.
on understanding climate variability at scales relevant to
planning The UNESCO capacity needs assessment method (UNESCO,
2013) used in this study generates an understanding
• Forecasts and projections of climate conditions for use in of capacity assets and needs that can serve as input for
mitigation, planning, and adaptation formulating a capacity development response. The objective
is to generate responses that address capacities that need
Five conditions have been identified by the United States to be strengthened, and optimizes existing capacities that
National Academy of Sciences (2001) as critical for successful are already strong and well founded. To achieve this, four
provision of climate services and these are: questionnaires were designed and sent to institutions in
the four countries that deal with early warning systems for
• User-centric of activities and elements of climate services flood, drought, precipitation and runoff (see Appendix 1
• Active research to support climate service function for the tools used in data collection). A regional workshop
• Advanced information at several time and spatial scales was held in Harare from 30-31 January 2018. The workshop
undertook to identify hydroclimate services that are key
to meet national requirements for improved water resources management in vulnerable
• Active stewardship of the climate services knowledge communities of Southern Africa. It created a platform for
technical experts, stakeholders from national meteorological
base and hydrological agencies, non-governmental organizations,
• Active and well-defined participation of stakeholders intergovernmental organizations, and policy and decision
makers from the SADC region to share information and
such as government, business, civil society and academia generate a shared understanding for long-term resilience
building to climate variability and climate change. During the
Thus, the ultimate aim of climate services is to provide workshop, representatives of meteorological, hydrological and
people and organizations with timely, tailored climate-related disaster management institutions presented on capacities
knowledge and information that they can use to reduce and gaps that exist in their institutions that helped the local
climate-related losses and enhance benefits, including the consultants to understand the situation in the different
protection of lives, livelihoods, and property’ (Vaughan countries. The above three approaches were validated by
and Dessai, 2014). In so doing, climate services enhance the fourth approach which involved undertaking technical
productivity and prosperity of society through managing missions in Malawi (Lilongwe), Mozambique (Maputo),
climate related impacts at various spatial and temporal scales Zambia (Lusaka) and Zimbabwe (Harare) to identify inputs
(AMS, 2012). However, effective use of climate services for from relevant institutions involved in early warning.
decision making is dependent on identifying appropriate
entry points (Conway and Mustelin, 2014 ). 13

2. Mapping existing
hydroclimatic products

2.1 Introduction Some countries in Southern Africa have placed the
management of risks related to floods and droughts high
Southern Africa warmed by 0.5° Celsius over the last 100 on the national agenda. For example, Mozambique has
years according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate developed policies and infrastructure for EWS since 1999
Change (IPCC, 2007) and the Southern African Development to protect thousands of people threatened every year by
Community (SADC, 2010). To this end the region has been natural hazards such as floods. To this end most synthesis
experiencing increasing extreme climatic events such as reports on EWS for floods and droughts have put more
drought and floods. The region is characterized by limited focus on Mozambique. Thus, there is need to extend these
climate projections due to a combination of factors, such as synthesis reports to other Southern African countries
poor observational records, high levels of inter-annual and particularly those that experience similar hazards as
decadal climate variability that are poorly simulated, and Mozambique, including Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. An
a low level of investment in climate science (Vincent et al., analysis of rainfall patterns in the Zambezi Basin based on the
2017). This is worsened by the fact that Southern Africa is Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS)
pre-dominantly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors, such rainfall data from 1983 to 2017 (Figure 2) does not show any
as agriculture, making the region more vulnerable to the significant trends in rainfall (Ashouri et al., 2015) although
negative effects of climate related disasters (SADC, 2010). For other studies have observed general decline in annual rainfall
example, the 2015/2016 rainy season in Southern Africa was over the basin especially from 20°S towards the equator
characterized by an El Niño-induced drought that resulted (Morishima and Akasaka, 2010). In addition, there has been
in significant reduction in rain-fed agricultural production an observed increase in decadal inter-annual precipitation
on which the majority of the people derive their livelihood. variability over most in Southern Africa that is linked to
In July 2016, SADC declared a regional drought emergency the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (Davis-Reddy and
and launched a regional humanitarian appeal. In this regard, Vincent, 2017). This high temporal and spatial variability of
Southern Africa needs a robust response to natural disasters, precipitation in Southern Africa is associated with drought
especially droughts and floods. Thus, the development of and flood risks.
hydroclimatic information services, particularly early warning
systems (EWS) is important for the region’s economic
development planning.

Figure 2: Rainfall trends between 1983 and 2017 in the Zambezi Basin based on CHRS rainfall data
at the yearly cycle

1000

Rain (mm) 500

0

In terms of runoff, several runoff projections under climate
change predict that river runoff and water availability are
projected to decrease by 10-30 percent in the in most parts
of Africa (IPCC, 2007). The Zambezi river system in particular
is predicted to experience a reduction in runoff of 26-40
percent (Arnell, 1999) as a result of reduced rainfall and
increased evaporation.
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017

Year

The projected increase in frequency of droughts is likely to
result in low storage in dams, which may affect hydropower
generation from dams such as the Kariba and Cabora Bassa
(Yamba et al., 2011). In fact, Cambula (1999) showed that as a
result of the negative effects of climate change, the Zambezi
Basin in Mozambique is projected to experience a decrease
in surface and subsurface runoff of about 40 percent or more.

14

2.1 Objectives © stock.adobe.com

As part of the needs assessment project Climate Services for
Improved Water Resources Management in Vulnerable Regions
of Southern Africa, there is a need for baseline data on the
status of climate services in four of the Southern African
countries that are covered by the Zambezi river basin.
Therefore, the main objective of this work was to undertake
a gap and need analysis on the availability of hydroclimatic
services in four countries: Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and
Zimbabwe. The specific objective was to conduct a desktop
study to map existing hydroclimatic products that are active
and implemented at national, regional and basin levels in
Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique.

2.2 Mapping existing
hydroclimatic products

A review of the climate services in the four countries
indicates that hydroclimatic early warning systems (HCEWS)
are available at various spatial scales (Table 2). The spatial
scales range from sub-national to international scales.
For instance, some climate services are available at the
international scale, but available for use by countries at the
national and even sub-national scale. As an example, the
Monitoring of the Environment for Security in Africa (MESA)
project provides floods and drought services at SADC level.
Despite the international outlook of the services, information
can be accessed at the catchment scale within the respective
countries. Similarly, this UNESCO flood and drought tool is
available at an international scale but providing data at a
localized scale, for example at a 28 km spatial scale. The four
countries also have planned and activated national as well
as sub-national flood early warning systems and frameworks
that address disasters peculiar to the respective countries.

15

Table 2: Existing hydroclimatic products (early warning systems for flood and drought,
precipitation and runoff monitoring system) that are active and implemented at national, regional
and basin levels in Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe

Product (Early Warning System) Precipitation Runoff Flood Drought Status Information Source
Yes Yes No Active http://www.mesasadc.org
Regional No No
Yes Yes
Monitoring for Environment and Yes Yes Yes
Security in Africa (MESA) Flood
Service Yes Yes

MESA Drought Service Yes Yes Yes Yes Active http://www.mesasadc.org
Yes Yes
SADC Hydrological Cycle Observation No No Active http://www.sadc.int/sadc-
System (SADC HYCOS) links

SADC Climate Services Centre Yes Yes Proposed http://www.sadc.int/sadc-
Integrated Climate Information secretariat/services-centres
Dissemination and Early Warning
System (SADC-CSC IDIS)

Southern African Regional Climate Yes Yes Proposed https://www.afdb.org
Information Services for Disaster
Resilience Development (SARCIS-DR)

International

Famine Early Warning Systems Yes Yes Active http://www.fews.net/
Network southern-africa/

UNESCO African Flood and Drought Yes Yes Experimental https://platform.
Monitor princetonclimate.
com/AFDM/interface.
php?locale=en

National Yes Yes Yes Yes Proposed http://www.zmd.gov.zm
Yes Yes
Climate Information and Early Active http://www.zimdrm.gov.zw
Warning Systems (CIEWS) (Zambia) Yes Yes
Active https://www.wmo.
National Flood Management int/pages/prog/dra/
Framework (Zimbabwe) documents/CDSCaseStudy_
Mozambique_V2_
National Institute of Meteorology Withpictures.pdf.
Cyclone Early Warning System
(Mozambique)

Mozambique National Early Warning Yes Yes Yes Yes Active https://www.wmo.
System int/pages/prog/dra/
documents/CDSCaseStudy_
Mozambique_V2_
Withpictures.pdf

Subnational Yes Yes Yes Unknown https://www.wmo.
int/pages/prog/dra/
Buzi Flood Early Warning System documents/CDSCaseStudy_
(Mozambique) Mozambique_V2_
Withpictures.pdf

Community Based Flood Early No Yes Yes No Unknown http://www.adaptation-undp.
No No org/projects/ldcf-ews-malawi
warning Project in Chikwawa District

Evangelical Association

Community Based Drought Early No Yes Unknown http://www.adaptation-undp.
org/projects/ldcf-ews-malawi
Warning Project in Kasungu Christian

Aid

16

3. Capacity gaps and needs in
precipitation and runoff monitoring
and early warning systems

3.1 Existing legal and policy Figure 3 shows the spatial distribution of rainfall monitoring
framework related to stations in Zambia and Malawi.
precipitation monitoring and
early warning In Malawi, there is only a basic sparse network and the main
challenge is that crop weather insurers require automatic
Across the four countries, institutional capacity for weather stations that should be within a 20 km radius,
monitoring of precipitation is available although with which is not feasible with the current arrangement. The ideal
differential levels of adequacy. For example, in Malawi the number of automatic weather stations is 159 to capture the
National Meteorological Act of 1970, which was revised in microclimatic variation in weather. For the volunteer stations
2015, provides the framework for precipitation monitoring. that are available, most of them do not meet WMO standards
The only problem is that the act is inclined towards and therefore do not contribute data to the national
precipitation monitoring for the aviation industry. In Zambia, database.
the meteorological services department does precipitation
monitoring following the World Meteorological Organisation In Zimbabwe, currently only 449 precipitation monitoring
(WMO) standard procedures as the country is finalizing a stations are operational, while 865 are not. The
policy to guide precipitation monitoring. In addition, the meteorological services department issues advance warnings
department relies on extension officers from the Ministry on weather conditions likely to endanger life and property,
of Agriculture as it also monitors precipitation. In fact, most namely rainfall forecasts (weekly, monthly and seasonal
agricultural training centres have rain gauges. In Zimbabwe, that are used for water monitoring) and weather bulletins.
precipitation monitoring is guided by the Meteorological It also produces data on rainfall, evaporation, temperature
Services Act 8 of 2003, which is regarded as adequately and satellites images. The main gap is lack of equipment
providing the framework for precipitation monitoring. In and a sparse network that hinder effective precipitation
Mozambique, the National Meteorology Institute (INAM) monitoring. For Mozambique, INAM operates approximately
is responsible for monitoring precipitation. The institute 1182 rain gauges to monitor precipitation and 576
operates guided by the Ministry of Transportation and hydrometric stations. Figure 4 shows the spatial distribution
Communication; the institutional framework for precipitation of precipitation monitoring stations in Mozambique and
monitoring is regarded as adequate. In general institutions Zimbabwe.
involved in precipitation monitoring highlighted the need
for a common policy on precipitation monitoring across all The organizational capacity in institutions across the four
SADC countries to enable data sharing and comparison of countries is shown in Table 3. It can be observed that
climatic data and trends in the region. organizational capacity varies across the four countries.
In general, the organizations involved in precipitation
3.2 Overview of existing monitoring seem to have well-defined structures that
organizational capacities enhance the attainment of their respective mission and
and gaps in precipitation goals, and programmes with clearly defined precipitation
monitoring and early warning monitoring responsibilities. Moreover, these organizations are
guided by relevant statutes and policies that guide the roles
An inventory into the capacity of the different organizations and responsibility regarding precipitation monitoring.
in the four countries to monitor precipitation revealed
disparities among the countries. For example, in Zambia Although the organizations involved in precipitation
the meteorological department currently operates 258 monitoring have well-established communication structures
precipitation monitoring stations. Forty are monitored that enable dissemination of precipitation information to
manually, 68 are automatic stations, and the 150 additional stakeholders, the institutions lack staff with requisite skills,
stations are voluntary. In Malawi, the present network of thereby failing, which negatively affects their ability to deliver
meteorological stations comprises of 22 full stations, 21 their mandates.
agrometeorological stations and over 400 rainfall stations.
The lack of staff with vital skills, compounded by recruitment
policies that are insensitive to the high staff turnover results
in heavy workloads that compromise service delivery.

17

Figure 3: Spatial distribution of precipitation monitoring stations in a) Zambia and b) Malawi

In addition, the governance structure of institutions • Weather observation, monitoring and analysis – WMO
involved in precipitation monitoring often lags behind the Class 2 (Zambia)
changing needs in precipitation monitoring. Institutions
consulted in the questionnaire survey and country mission • Instrument maintenance (Zambia and Mozambique)
visits also indicated the need for creating opportunities for • Computer applications (Zambia)
enhancing career advancement in precipitation monitoring • Improve rainfall observation network (Zimbabwe)
for employees at all levels. Similar to runoff monitoring, the • Training in climate change and variability (Malawi and
respective countries indicated the existence of a sparse
network of meteorological stations that often fail to capture Mozambique)
the variability of meteorological attributes. The sparse • Radar applications in meteorology (Malawi and
network limits the capacity of meteorological services to
provide fine scale data that is relevant for the purposes of Mozambique)
disaster management.
3.4 Supplementing of field data
3.3 Priority areas for capacity with satellite data
building
Of the countries surveyed in this study only Zambia seems to
Capacity building is key in enabling institutions to deliver on supplement ground station precipitation data with satellite-
their mandates. The study countries prioritized a number of based precipitation estimates. The main satellite derived
areas that included: rainfall estimates used by the Zambian meteorological
services department include tropical application of
meteorology using satellite data and ground-based
observations (TAMSAT) and its tropical rainfall measuring
mission (TRMM).

18

Figure 4: Spatial distribution of precipitation monitoring stations in a) Mozambique and b) Zimbabwe

Lack of capacity in remote sensing was cited as one of the 3.6 Capacity in human resources
reasons why satellite-based precipitation estimates are
not being used by Malawi and Zimbabwe. Thus, training Across the countries considered in this study, shortage of
in satellite data processing could increase the uptake of human resources is prevalent and is regarded as one of
satellite-based precipitation estimates in the meteorological the key factors affecting service delivery. For instance, over
services department of the study countries. the past five years (2013-2017), the Zambia Meteorological
Department had between 40 and 51 percent of the required
3.5 Downscaling of general human resources in precipitation monitoring. Similarly, we
circulation mode products observed that the Meteorological Services Department of
Zimbabwe has 51 percent of the required human resources.
Downscaling of general circulation mode (GCM) products The shortage of human resources is even worse in Malawi
produces climate data at scales that are finer than the initial where human resources consist only 33 percent of the
projections. The process results in data that are considered required staff. Given the prevailing shortage of qualified
relevant for climate modelling and decision making. Of personnel in precipitation monitoring, it is critical that the
the three countries that responded to questionnaires on respective meteorological services departments prioritize
precipitation monitoring, only Zambia indicated that it is recruitment of human resources to improve service delivery.
involved in the downscaling of global climate datasets. The
downscaling is done at two main scales; on regional and 3.7 Financial resources
national level. Some of the models used in Zambia include
the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast Although the study countries did not provide specific figures
(ECMWF), the Global Forecast System (GFS) and the National regarding their financial capacity, they indicated that the
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Global Hydro- resources allocated to the respective institutions often fall
Estimator (NOAA GHE). short of the required resources.

19

For instance, the Department of Climate Change and 3.8 Individual capacities in
Meteorological Services in Malawi indicated that it only precipitation monitoring
receives 60 percent of the required budget. The financial
constraints negatively affect data collection, analysis and Individuals’ capacities in precipitation monitoring vary
even maintenance of functional equipment and replacement markedly across the four countries under study (Table 4). In
of obsolete equipment. The Zambian meteorological Zambia and Zimbabwe, personnel involved in precipitation
services department indicated that it also has equipment monitoring and management have the requisite skills in
shortages. For example, while the institution requires over meteorology. Roles and responsibilities of each member
40 information and communication technology (ICT) of staff involved in precipitation monitoring are clearly
equipment (mostly computers), they only have 43 percent of laid down. Similarly, the communication structures within
the required equipment. institutions monitoring precipitation are well-established,
thereby enabling information sharing within and across
institutions.

Table 3: Organizational capacity in precipitation monitoring across the study countries

Organizational capacity checklist Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 The organization has a well-defined structure relevant to its
mission/goals and programmes with clearly defined precipitation
monitoring responsibilities.

2 The organization operates according to the country’s approved
by-laws in terms of precipitation monitoring.

3 The management has clear laid down roles and responsibilities
pertaining to precipitation monitoring.

4 The organization’s communication structures are well-established
and information on precipitation monitoring disseminated.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all positions to achieve
their mission in precipitation monitoring.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers to achieve its
mission in precipitation monitoring.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response to
changing needs in precipitation monitoring.

8 The organization has linkages with other cooperating partners in
precipitation monitoring.

9 The organization has an active recruitment policy to fill gaps
where staff turnover is high.

10 The organization provides opportunities for career advancement
in precipitation monitoring for employees at all levels.

11 The organization has adequate precipitation monitoring stations.

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Zambia and Zimbabwe also indicated that competent and In contrast, the meteorological services of Malawi and INAM
qualified staff are available to operate the meteorological in Mozambique indicated the there are several challenges
stations that enable the institutions to achieve their mandate. that relate to capacity of individuals involved in precipitation
However, the institutions do not have a sufficient number monitoring. There is a shortage of staff with essential skills
of staff in all positions to enable it to fulfill its mandate. for precipitation monitoring. The institutions do not offer
This is worsened by failure of organizations to change development programmes for their staff to enable them to
their governance structures in response to changes in enhance their skills.
precipitation monitoring.

20

Table 4: Individual capacity gaps and needs in precipitation monitoring

Individual capacities checklist Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 Do the members in precipitation monitoring and management
have the requisite skills in the field?

2 Individuals receive support in skills development programmes
related to precipitation monitoring.

3 The management have clear laid down roles and responsibilities
pertaining to precipitation monitoring.

4 The organization’s communication structures are established and
information on precipitation sharing practices are in place.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all positions to achieve
our mission.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers to achieve its
mission in precipitation monitoring.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response to
changing needs in precipitation monitoring and management.

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

3.9 Highest level of qualification Zambia suggested the revamping of 1500 voluntary stations,
for staff involved in increasing the number of meteorologists to an average
precipitation monitoring of two per meteorological station, automation of weather
stations and creation of a database for all meteorological
The level of education greatly influences the ability of stations in the country would significantly improve
individuals to deliver on their roles and responsibilities. This precipitation monitoring in Zambia. Zimbabwe identified
study sought to determine the qualifications of members the installation of a rain gauge in every ward as critical to
involved in precipitation monitoring to understand how enhancing effective monitoring of precipitation.
this influences service delivery. Results from the survey
indicated that the level of education of individuals involved 3.11 Knowledge base
in precipitation varies widely across the countries. While
the meteorological services department of Zambia has Table 5 provides an overview of the knowledge base at
11 meteorological officers who all have diplomas as their institutions involved in precipitation monitoring in Malawi,
highest level of education, the meteorological services Zambia and Zimbabwe. Overall, it was observed that the
department in Zimbabwe has seven meteorologists who three countries have a poor knowledge base as indicated
completed a Master of Science Degree in Agrometeorology. by their failure to conduct key research and knowledge
Malawi has three meteorologists who obtained a Bachelor exchange forums on precipitation monitoring. The
of Science Degree in Agrometeorology. In Mozambique, it organizations rarely conduct internal research to support
was indicated that there is shortage of skilled members but precipitation monitoring effectively, or disseminate or
most workers are meteorologists who hold certificates and share information on precipitation status. Data sharing and
diplomas. dissemination is also hampered by absence of information
and learning centers where people can access precipitation
3.10 Desired situation that would data and information technology (IT) infrastructure and
enable effective monitoring of systems. In addition, the institutions have not yet adopted
precipitation advanced techniques for monitoring precipitation.
However, Zambia and Zimbabwe seem to have knowledge
Institutions were asked to indicate interventions that could management systems that enhance precipitation data and
significantly improve effective monitoring of precipitation information sharing with communities and stakeholders.
in their respective countries. Results from the study showed Zambia and Zimbabwe also indicated that competent and
that different institutions prioritized different interventions. qualified staff are available to operate the meteorological
stations that enable the institutions to achieve their mandate.
However, the institutions do not have a sufficient number
of staff in all positions to enable it to fulfill its mandate.

21

This is worsened by failure of organizations to change Some of the suggested measures for enabling effective
their governance structures in response to changes in monitoring include:
precipitation monitoring. In contrast, the meteorological
services of Malawi and INAM in Mozambique indicated • Increase the density of observation through installment
the there are several challenges that relate to capacity of of both automatic and manual weather stations
individuals involved in precipitation monitoring. There
is a shortage of staff with essential skills for precipitation • Train meteorological officers in Hydrometeorology up to
monitoring. The institutions do not offer development first degree level
programmes for their staff to enable them to enhance their
skills. • Use radar data for precipitation monitoring
• Acquire high-performance computers (for climate

modelling)

3.12 Media for data dissemination 3.15 Climate change impacts
and information sharing
A number of climate change impacts were identified in the
Several media platforms are used for disseminating or study countries. Although the climate change impacts were
sharing information with stakeholders and other institutions deemed positive and negative, they were overall considered
interested in precipitation monitoring. The Internet, radio negative. Some of the positive climate change impacts
broadcasting (national and community radio stations), identified in the study were the availability of more water
newspapers and phones are the commonly used media resources and solar energy. It was observed that all four
channels for data and information dissemination and sharing. countries considered in this study identified precipitation,
Social media is also becoming an important platform for temperature, evaporation and other meteorological aspects
information dissemination and sharing. as the most common impacts of climate change.

3.13 Geospatial data requirements 3.16 Existing legal and policy
framework and regulations
The meteorological services departments consulted in this related to runoff monitoring
study indicated they do not necessarily need geospatial
data. Rather they require an improvement in the density of In terms of runoff monitoring, Malawi, Mozambique and
precipitation monitoring stations to improve on data quality. Zambia have relevant and specific policies that deal with
The density of precipitation stations could be increased to runoff monitoring. In Malawi the Department of Water
within 50 km of each other. Resources (DWR) is responsible for monitoring runoff and is
guided by the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA)
3.14 Capacity building needs Act of 2013. In Zambia runoff monitoring is governed by
for effective monitoring of the Water Resources Management Act of 2011 which gives
precipitation the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA) the
mandate to monitor water resources. In addition, the Zambia
A number of capacity building interventions were identified Electricity Supply Company (ZESCO) complements WARMA in
as important in ensuring effective monitoring of precipitation monitoring. The hydrometeorological data is used by ZESCO
across the study countries. As voluntary rainfall stations were for monitoring water levels that are critical for hydropower
identified as an important component of the observation generation. For Zimbabwe, the current policies or regulations
network, training of observers was seen as key. The training governing hydrological monitoring are the Water Act of
would ensure that rainfall data will be measured and 1998, the Zimbabwe National Water Authority Act (ZINWA)
recorded correctly, thereby guaranteeing good data quality. of 1999, and the National Water Policy of 2012. These Acts
Upgrading the qualification of observers at meteorological and policies provide the framework for runoff monitoring
stations was also identified as an important step towards although there are some gaps, especially failure to cover
improving precipitation monitoring. Currently, a number all aspects of hydrological monitoring. In Mozambique
of meteorological stations are being manned by personnel runoff monitoring is carried out by the National Institute of
who have either diplomas or first degrees in Meteorology. Disaster Management (INGC) and is done concurrently with
The upgrading will not enhance the knowledge base but flood monitoring. Hence, there are no specific policies or
will significantly increase the skills required for effective regulations to govern runoff monitoring. It was highlighted
precipitation monitoring. Establishment of effective that in order to strengthen existing policies, there is need to
communication structures from the meteorological station enforce transboundary water resources management within
to the data collation centres was also seen as important for the Zambezi Basin in addition to providing adequate funding
enhancing precipitation monitoring. to support monitoring operations.

22

Table 5: Knowledge base capacity gaps and needs

Individual capacities checklist Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 The organization conducts key research and knowledge
exchange forums in the form of seminars and workshops on
precipitation monitoring.

2 The organization disseminates or share information on
precipitation status in an effective way.

3 There are knowledge management systems in place that enables
communities to access precipitation information.

4 There are information and learning centres where people can
access precipitation data and information (IT infrastructure and
systems).

5 The organization conducts internal research to support
precipitation monitoring.

6 The organization has adopted advanced techniques for
monitoring precipitation.

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

3.17 Overview of existing Figure 5: Types of hydrological observation
organizational capacities and stations and their adequacy in Malawi
gaps in runoff monitoring and
early warning 160

In terms of organizational capacity, the study pursued to Number of Stations 140
determine the adequacy of the different types of observation 120
stations in Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Zambia. 100
Figure 5 shows the main types of runoff monitoring stations 80
in Malawi and their status in terms adequacy and whether 60
they are functional or dysfunctional. The main types of runoff 40
observation stations used in Malawi are hydrometric, manual 20
stream gauge and automatic stream gauges. Though Malawi
has the ideal number of hydrometric stations (143) required 0 Manual stream Automatic stream
for the efficient monitoring of runoff, only 27 percent of the Hydrometric gauge station gauge station
hydrometric stations are functional. This results in inadequate stations
monitoring of runoff.
Actual number Functional
In addition, although the actual number of manual stream Non-functional Ideal number
gauge stations surpasses the required number for efficient
monitoring of runoff, only 15 percent are functional. This
means some areas are not monitored at all, which results
in lack of data that is critical for informed decision making.
Besides hydrometric and manual stream gauge stations,
Malawi only has 38 automatic stream gauge stations out of
an ideal number of 95. Of the automatic stations that are
available, 68 percent are functional while the remainder is
non-functional (Figure 5).

23

In Zimbabwe, similar to Malawi, the main types of runoff Figure 7: Types of hydrological observation
observation stations used are hydrometric, manual stream stations and their adequacy in Zambia
gauge and automatic stream gauges. Figure 6 shows the
number of stations in each category, their status and gaps. 120
The study observes that in addition to the inadequacy of
the observation stations, most of the existing stations are 100
non-functional; only 45 percent of the existing hydrometric
stations are functional. The largest gap in terms of Number of Stations 80
monitoring stations in Zimbabwe exists for the automatic
stream gauge stations where only 20 are available out of a 60
requirement of 2000, and of the 20 that are available, only six
are functional (Figure 6). The gaps that exist in the different 40
types of observation stations result in inadequate monitoring
of runoff. 20

The main types of observation stations used in Zambia 0 Manual Automatic Water
are hydrometric stations, manual and automatic stream Hydrometric level post
gauge stations and manual water level posts. Figure 7
shows the number and status of the existing observation stations stream gauge stream gauge
stations in Zambia. Results show that only 33 percent of the
hydrometric stations required is available; creating a gap of station station
66 percent. Of the hydrometric stations that are available,
79 percent are functional. In addition, ZESCO also has 14 Actual number Functional
hydrometeorological stations that provide data to WARMA. Non-functional Ideal number

Figure 6: Types of hydrological observation Figure 8: Hydrometric stations in Mozambique
stations and their adequacy in Zimbabwe
600
2000

Number of Hydrometric Stations 500

1500 400

Number of Stations 300

1000 200

500 100

0 1983 2006 2014
1975 Year

0 Manual stream Automatic stream
Hydrometric gauge station gauge station
stations

Actual number Functional 3.18 Supporting existing
Non-functional Ideal number hydrological observations

In Mozambique, the study shows that although the To support the monitoring of runoff in Malawi, Mozambique,
number of observation stations has fluctuated over the Zambia and Zimbabwe, the departments that deal with
years, the country currently has an extensive coverage of hydrological observations highlighted that they have
observation network for runoff monitoring. Figure 8 shows structures relevant to their organization’s mission and
the fluctuations in the number of hydrometric stations in the goals and programmes with clearly defined hydrological
country between 1975 and 2014. However, most of these observation responsibilities. In addition, the organizations
stations are owned by donor organizations, a scenario that operate according to the countries’ legislation in terms of
may compromise the sustainability of runoff monitoring. hydrological observations. More so, within the organizations,
the management has clearly laid down roles and
responsibilities pertaining to hydrological observations.

24

The only drawback is that the organizations’ communication However, the model is still being tested and validated. The
structures seem not to be adequately established, resulting runoff forecasts are produced daily and provide people with
in poor dissemination of information on hydrological adequate information on the status of runoff in the country.
observation and inadequate sharing practices. Although The organizations dealing with runoff in these countries issue
the structure of the organizations is clearly laid down in all emergency alerts of threshold exceedance or reports and
four countries, a key challenge is lack of qualified staff with these are issued through daily emails and SMS alerts.
adequate skills in all positions to achieve their missions in
hydrological observations. The situation is worsened by the For Zimbabwe, runoff forecasts are produced before the
fact that the organizations do not have appropriate staff start of the rainfall season, bi-weekly during the rainfall
numbers to achieve their mission in hydrological observation. season and whenever the need arises. For Zambia, water
Organizations involved in hydrological observations also level status reports are issued to the Disaster Management
cited lack of an active recruitment policy to fill gaps where and Mitigation Unit (DMMU) and the Zambia Meteorological
there is inadequate staff as one of the major hindrances Department bi-weekly, while alerts are only issued once
to hydrological monitoring. For the personnel currently exceedance is likely to be reached.
available in the organizations of the study countries, there are
limited career opportunities for advancement in hydrological 3.20 Hydrological data
observation for employees at all levels. The organizations management and sharing
rarely change their governance structure in response to
changing needs in hydrological observation, which affect the For Malawi, hydrological data is collected daily from both
adoption of new techniques available in runoff monitoring. manual gauge plates and automatically from the data
Unlike in Malawi where the Department of Water Resources loggers. The automatic gauge stations transmit data every
(DWR) has linkages with other cooperating partners in hour. There are also automated stations across the country
hydrological observation that helps to improve its operations, and are mainly found in the Shire river basin, an area that
there are limited linkages with other cooperating partners in is prone to floods. The hydrological data is processed at a
hydrological observations in the other three countries. central location using the HYDSTRA database management
system. HYDSTRA is a time-series data management system
3.19 Priority areas for capacity that provides tools to build and maintain, and archive data.
building and runoff forecasts Both the manually and automated data are managed using
to enhance hydrological the HYDSTRA system. In Zimbabwe, hydrological data is
observations collected and quality checked by the catchment councils
and sent to the central database at Headquarters where all
In Malawi, to enhance hydrological observations and the data is processed, analysed, quality checked and stored.
monitoring, the DWR identified priority areas for capacity In Malawi, the data collected from manual and automatic
building. These include training in basic Operational stations is used for flood hazard analysis and mapping to
Hydrology, Flood Forecasting and Early Warning, Water support flood risk assessment, although to a limited extent
Resources Modelling, and the application of Geographic as few officers received training through the SADC-MESA
Information Systems (GIS) in water resources management. Project. Once the data is in the database, organizations
that require the data send requests to the National
For Zimbabwe, the main priority area for capacity building Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHS). The
is in real-near-time stations. This is because the organization responses are either sent through emails or, if the data is
is still using old methods of monitoring. There is also need too bulky, the organizations collect the data from the NMHS
for capacity building in modelling. Zambia, highlighted headquarters. To enhance data sharing, the organization
that to enhance hydrological observations, there is a need has a web portal for data from automatic stations where
for capacity building in the areas of flood forecasting and selected stakeholders access and view data. In Zimbabwe,
hydrological modelling of runoff-rainfall relationships. data is available for research purposes to institutions such
as universities and the findings are shared with interested
Both Malawi and Zimbabwe emphasized that they stakeholders. In addition, data is shared with other riparian
produce runoff forecasts, while Zambia does not states under the SADC protocol on shared watercourses. Just
produce any forecasts due to lack of capacity in runoff like in Malawi, the hydrological data is used for flood hazard
forecasts. In Zambia, there is a disjoint in the institutional analysis and mapping to support risk assessment.
arrangements for runoff forecasts. Reason is the DWR and
the meteorological services department are in different In Zambia, data sharing is available through the website.
ministries, hence there is some bureaucracy regarding WARMA has a website for its information systems where
information sharing, especially on rainfall forecasts. Currently processed data from the telemetric stations can be accessed
Malawi is using the operational Decision Support System by users. This data is used for flood hazard analysis and
(DSS) developed by DHI, an international water software mapping to support risk assessment.
development and engineering consultancy firm with
headquarters in Denmark, for monitoring runoff. 25

3.21 Knowledge base The Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA)
indicated that they do not have sufficient human resources
One of the ways through which organizations improve for hydrometeorological monitoring. This results in huge
their knowledge base is by carrying out key research and workload for the staff on the ground. For instance, Zambia
participating in knowledge exchange forums in the form of currently has one technical staff per seven to 10 stations.
seminars and workshops on hydrological observation. For Also, the organization does not have sufficient human
Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, organizations dealing with capital in the area of hydrogeology and hydro-informatics.
runoff monitoring in the three countries do not conduct Only four of the six catchment councils are functional. The
key research in hydrological monitoring. In addition, the shortage of human resources largely compromises service
organizations do not hold knowledge exchange forums delivery. Although not solely dedicated to water resources
in the form of seminars and workshops on hydrological monitoring, ZESCO has sufficient human resources on the
observations. This is despite the fact that the organizations ground for the purposes of hydrometeorological monitoring.
disseminate or share information on hydrological observation Although no quantitative data was provided for Zimbabwe
in an effective way through emails, web portals and regarding the level of staffing across the country, the
dissemination of internal research to various stakeholders, Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) indicated that
via publications and bi-weekly reports, print media, websites, they suffer from human resources shortages. Zimbabwe also
radio, TV, social media platforms and awareness campaigns. requires installation and migration of data software such as
Although information is communicated in an effective HYDSTRA for data analysis and management.
way in Malawi and Zimbabwe, there are no knowledge
management systems in place that enables communities 3.23 Overview of existing
to access hydrological observation information and data, individual capacities and gaps
nor is there information or learning centres where people in runoff monitoring and early
can access hydrological observation data and information in warning
the two countries. For effective hydrological monitoring in
Malawi, the organisation requires geospatial data sets such In addition to assessing the institutional and organizational
as the hydrological network map of Malawi and flood hazard capacity and gaps in hydrological monitoring, the study
maps. For effective hydrological monitoring in Zimbabwe also sought to assess the level of capacity and gaps that
there is need for mapping of water permits, illegal water exist in individuals involved in hydrological observations in
users and connections, wetlands, silted dams and weirs, small Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It was highlighted that for
farm dams and community dams. the three countries that responded to the questionnaire
survey, some of the available staff members have requisite
3.22 Human and financial skills in hydrological observation while some do not have any
resources status and relevant skills at all. The situation is made worse by the fact
requirements for the that individuals in the three countries rarely receive support
organization in hydrological in skills development programmes related to hydrological
observations observation that would enhance their operations. There
is a shortage of qualified staff in all positions to allow for
In 2017, the DWR in Malawi required 70 staff members to the smooth monitoring of runoff. The qualifications of staff
operate effectively and efficiently in monitoring runoff but dedicated to hydrological monitoring is summarised in Table
only 20 staff members were available. This means only 29 6 for the three countries.
percent of the staff members were available creating a
huge human resource gap of 71 percent which translates In Malawi, to effectively monitor runoff, there is a need
into less effective monitoring of runoff. In terms of financial to recruit trained technicians. In addition, to improve the
resources required for the hydrological monitoring, the performance of individuals within the organization, there is a
organization required USD360,000 for daily operations, but need for refresher courses in Operational Hydrology at post-
the organisation received only 44.4 percent of what they graduate level.
actually needed for effective hydrological monitoring. The
inadequate human and financial resources present a key In Zambia, it was observed that to effectively carry out
challenge to hydrological monitoring, resulting in a lack of hydrological observation, there is a need for more hydro-
data for planning purposes. technicians to carry out station maintenance. In addition,
there is a need to recruit more hydrologists who will carry
out more analysis of the data. There is also a need to increase
funding for hydrological activities to ensure that each station
is maintained at least once every year and that all stations
have an updated rating curve or equation. More so, most
stations should be automated either to full telemetric status
or installed with data loggers.

26

Table 6: Qualifications of staff dedicated to hydrological observation in Zimbabwe, Malawi and
Zambia

Department Position Highest qualification in hydrological Human resources
observation available
Zimbabwe
Engineering and Hydrological Services Director Undergraduate degree 1
Hydrological Services Data and Research Manager 1
Hydrological Services Hydrologist Undergraduate degrees and post-graduate 9
qualification 9
Hydrological Services Data processing officers/ 7
technicians Degree in IT 100
Hydrological Services River Inspector
Hydrological Services 1
Malawi Observer O-Levels 2
Water Resources 1
Chief Hydrologist Master’s degree in Water Resources 15
Water Resources Management
1
Water Resources Principal Hydrologist Master’s degree in Water Resources 1
Management
Water Resources
Zambia Hydrological Officer Post-graduate Diploma in Operational
Water Resources and Information Hydrology

Water Resources and Information Assistant Hydrological Officer Ordinary Level of Secondary Education

Hydrologist Master’s degree in Integrated Water
Hydrologist Resources Management

Master’s degree in Water Resources
Management

© stock.adobe.com

27

3.24 Climate change vulnerability 3.25 Methods of data acquisition
and its impacts
Hydroclimatic data is acquired using a number of
Climate change is one of the greatest global challenges of approaches. Most of the data is measured from the
the 21st Century and there is undisputable evidence that observation network that includes manual and automatic
the climate is changing. One of the key drivers of climate rain gauges and is recorded at the meteorological station.
change is anthropogenic activities through the release The information is then compiled in the form of reports or
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) relayed to the data collation centre by phone. In some cases,
into the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007). Findings by the Malawi data may be extracted as softcopy from the software, for
National Adaptation Programmes (NAPA), developed by example Climsoft. The frequency of data acquisition ranged
the Government of Malawi in 2006, show that Malawi is from daily to decadal time-scales. All the institutions in the
extremely vulnerable to climate change impacts due to its study countries indicated that the hydroclimatic services are
heavy dependence on natural resources, particularly water, freely accessed. This might explain that these institutions are
fisheries and fuel wood from forests. the ones that provide the hydroclimatic services. Countries
also required or anticipated to require hydroclimatic services
The main impacts of changes in climate in Malawi, Zambia at different time scales.
and Zimbabwe include increased frequency of droughts
and floods and more extreme weather events. From the Malawi indicated that it would require hydroclimatic services
survey, it was also highlighted that climate change is on a daily scale while Zimbabwe would require these
resulting in inadequate water supply for agriculture, limited services at the seasonal scale. Zambia requires hydroclimatic
socioeconomic development, and reduced water levels services at both seasonal and annual scale. When asked
in major rivers including Lake Malawi. The reduced water at what spatial scale the institutions would need the
levels have resulted in acute power shortages in the country. hydroclimatic services, responses from these institutions
In Zimbabwe, the most relevant impacts include reduced show that the services are required at various spatial scales.
precipitation, short rainy season, reduced runoff, shift of In Zambia, hydroclimatic services are required on national
seasons and delays in the onset of rains. scale with a special focus on areas such as the southern
area, Lusaka, the central area and in Muchinga Province. The
Hydroclimatic services are delivered by the providers meteorological services department of Zimbabwe indicated
through printed material, digital data, workshops, individual that it requires hydroclimatic services at local and national
consultancy, within networks, newspapers, journals, TV, radio level. For instance, at local level the department requires data
and Web portals. The quality of the hydroclimatic services on provincial level, focusing on important farming areas such
can be evaluated through hydrological bulletins in-country as Mashonaland Central Province. In Malawi, it was shown
and transboundary. For Zimbabwe, the weather data and that the hydroclimatic services would best serve the country
hydroclimatic information that would be useful for informed if available at local and global level. In addition, the country
decision making in real time, short term, medium term and would also require point data to improve service delivery. In
long term are precipitation, temperature and runoff. The Mozambique, daily data during the rainy season will be most
use of these climate services can be affected by outdated ideal for the effective monitoring of precipitation.
software and poor decision making regarding hydroclimatic
information, particularly in Zimbabwe.

For Malawi the main challenges in the use of hydroclimatic
services are lack of real time data, lack of training on use
of such data and lack of software. To increase the use of
hydroclimatic information, decision makers need to be made
aware of the importance of the data. There is also a need for
publication of hydroclimatic data on a monthly basis and to
have trained professionals in analysis of hydroclimatic data.

28

4. Capacity gaps and needs in drought
and flood monitoring and early
warning systems

4.1 Existing legal and policy Zambia has legislation and policy frameworks that guide
framework related to drought drought and flood early warning and management. These
and flood include 1) the Disaster Management Act, 2010 (No. 13 of
2010), 2) the National Disaster Management Policy of 2015,
A review of existing legal and policy framework supporting 3) the National Disaster Management Manual of 2015
drought and flood management in the study countries and, 4) the National Policy on Climate Change of 2016.
shows that none of the four countries have a policy or The Disaster Management Act guides the management
legislation that specifically deals with drought and flood of disasters including floods in Zambia. The act provides
management (Table 7). The various pieces of legislation and for the establishment and provision of a system for the
policies provide an overall framework for the management anticipation, preparedness, prevention, coordination,
of disasters or have some elements of drought and flood mitigation and management of disaster situations and the
management. For instance, Zambia and Zimbabwe have organization of relief and recovery from disasters. In addition,
legislation on disaster management which covers all forms the act established the National Disaster Management and
of disasters relevant to the countries, including droughts Mitigation Unit (DMMU) that provides for the declaration of
and floods. Similarly, Malawi lacks a stand-alone drought disasters, as well as the National Disaster Relief Trust Fund
and flood management policy though it has two polices among other provisions.
that have provisions for drought and flood management,
namely the Malawi National Water Policy (2005) and the Apart from the Disaster Management Act, Zambia also
National Water Resources Master Plan (2014). The National has the National Disaster Management Policy of 2015. The
Water Policy provides for the establishment of preparedness Disaster Management Policy of 2015 is a revised version
and contingency plans for water-related disasters and of the 2005 policy. The policy promotes sustainable
emergencies as an integral part of water resources development among vulnerable communities to improve
management. The policy also advocates for the development their resilience, thereby enabling them to contribute towards
of systems for early warnings on floods among other national development. The Disaster Management Policy
disasters. provides a policy shift from disaster management to disaster
risk reduction, climate change and decentralization. To
operationalize the National Disaster Management policy, the
National Disaster Management Manual was crafted in 2015.

Table 7: Existing legal and policy framework for flood management in study countries

Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 The Malawi National Water Water Policy (1991) Disaster Management Act No Civil Protection Act 10:06 of
Policy (2005)
13 of 2010 1989

2 The National Water Resources Water Law (1995) National Disaster Management No drought policy yet,
Master Plan (2014)
Policy (2015) country is working on a policy

document

3 National Climate Change National Strategy for Water National Disaster Management
Management Policy (2016) Resources Management Manual of 2015

4 Meteorological Services Act of National Policy on Climate

1970 (revised in 2015) Change of 2016

5 Climate and Meteorology Policy Agriculture Policy of 2014
(not yet operational)

6 National Action Plan for the Water Resources Management

Reduction of Absolute Poverty Act (2011)

29

The manual stipulates the roles, responsibilities and To strengthen existing policies, countries suggested a number
procedures relating to the management of disasters in of interventions, that are peculiar to respective national
Zambia. In addition, the manual provides guidelines on circumstances, to further strengthen existing policies relating
coordinating disaster management services in the country. to drought and flood early warning and flood management.
The proposed interventions are as follows:
In Zimbabwe, the Civil Protection Act of 1989 (Chapter
10:06) provides for the establishment of the Civil Protection • Malawi suggested the need to establish a special Task
Organisation in the country that comprises national, Force on Flood Forecasting and Early Warning Systems
provincial and district civil protection committees. The act from responsible institutions on flood management in the
also provides for the operation of civil protection services country
in times of disaster as well as the establishment of a fund to
finance civil protection. The Civil Protection Organisation is • Zambia indicated the need to review existing policies to
involved in the prevention and mitigation of disaster risk, include elements of climate variability and change
preparedness planning, timely early warning, and response
to rehabilitate affected elements. • Zimbabwe suggested the urgent need to have the new
bill on disaster management passed into law
For Mozambique, drought and flood management are
provided for under a number of several pieces of legislation • Mozambique suggested that the DWR need to sign
and policies, namely the Water Law (1995), the Water Policy a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) which
(1991), the Meteorological Act of 1970 revised in 2015, as well enhances information and data exchange between
as, the National Strategy for Water Resources Management. the water resources management department and the
Specifically, the National Strategy for Water Resources meteorological service.
Management details projects and plans for water resources
management and provides for, among other things, flood risk 4.3 Organizational capacities for
analysis and disaster management. In addition, Mozambique drought and flood monitoring
has the National Action Plan for the Reduction of Absolute and early warning
Poverty that aims to reduce absolute poverty by mitigating,
through a systematic approach, the negative effects of Tables 8 and 9 provide an overview of the organizational
droughts and floods. Similar to other study countries, capacity of institutions in the four countries. The institutions
Mozambique does not have stand-alone policies that address involved in drought and flood management have relatively
drought and flood management. strong organizational capacities as enshrined in their vision
and mission statements. In addition, the institutions in
4.2 Evaluation of policies and the study countries have well defined structures relevant
legislation for drought and to their mission and goals and programmes with clearly
flood monitoring and early defined drought and flood management responsibilities.
warning The mandates for these organizations are derived from their
respective country’s legislation thereby providing a legal
Responses from institutions dealing with drought and basis for managing drought and floods. In this respect, the
flood early warning indicate that respective countries have management have clearly laid down roles and responsibilities
policies and/or regulations that guide drought and flood pertaining to droughts and flood early warning. Institutions
early warning and management (Figure 9). However, the dealing with drought and flood early warning and
policies and regulations governing these disasters are management have strong linkages with cooperating partners
regarded as ineffective and do not adequately provide that facilitate the delivery of their mandates. For instance, the
for the management of drought and floods. A further Department of Civil Protection in Zimbabwe has created and
weakness identified in the survey is the failure by institutions strengthened links with institutions such as NGOs, the private
to consistently adhere to, review or update policies and sector, government departments and other stakeholders in
procedures related to drought and floods. disaster management.

In the worst case, the policies and procedures are either not Although institutions indicated the availability of active
known or are misunderstood by staff. The situation is further recruitment policies to fill gaps where staff turnover is high,
exacerbated by lack of relevant ICT policies for guiding the observation of shortage of human resources across
drought and flood early warning and management. Given the four countries implies that the recruitment policies are
the shortcomings of the existing policies and regulations not being implemented. In fact, the institutions indicated
governing the management of these two hydroclimatic that they do not have sufficient human resources with the
hazards, there is a need to review and update policy mandatory skills to enable them to fulfil their mandate.
frameworks within respective institutions in line with global Moreover, the institutions’ governance structure seems not
best practices. to be responsive to changing needs in drought and flood
monitoring and management. For example, Zimbabwe is
30 still guided by the outdated Civil Protection Act of 1989
(Chapter 10:06) whose provisions are out of sync with global
frameworks for disaster management such as the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.

Figure 9: Status of current policies and regulations related to a) flood and b) drought management in
the study countries.

Policies and
regulations

address

Policies and
regulations are

effective

Relevant ICT
Policy

Current
policies need
improvement

Consistent
policies,

Reviewed

012345 0 1 23 4 5
Drought (Score)
Flood (Score)

Mozambique Malawi Zambia Zimbabwe

1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree

Table 8: Organizational capacity in institutions that deal with flood early warning and management

Organizational capacity Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 The organization has a well-defined structure relevant to its
mission/goals and programmes with clearly defined flood
management responsibilities.

2 The organization operates according to country’s approved by-
laws in terms of disaster risk management.

3 The management have clear laid down roles and responsibilities
pertaining to flood early warning.

4 The organization’s communication structures are established and
information on flood management sharing practices are in place.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all positions to
achieve our mission.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers to achieve its
mission in flood management.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response
to changing needs in flood monitoring and management.

8 The organization has linkages with cooperating partners that
enables us to work together.

9 The organization has an active recruitment policy to fill gaps
where staff turnover is high.

10 The organization provides opportunities for career advancement
in flood management for employees at all levels.

The organization has good gender diversity and makes
11 active efforts to diversify its management, which makes flood

management effective and successful.

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

31

Table 9: Organizational capacity in institutions that deal with drought early warning and
management

Organizational capacity checklist Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 The organization has a well-defined structure relevant to its
mission/goals and programmes with clearly defined drought
management responsibilities.

2 The organization operates according to country’s approved by-
laws in terms of drought risk management.

3 The management have clear laid down roles and responsibilities
pertaining to drought early warning.

4 The organization’s communication structures are established and
information on drought management sharing practices are in
place.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all positions to achieve
our mission in drought monitoring.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers to achieve its
mission in drought management.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response to
changing needs in drought early warning and management.

8 The organization has linkages with other cooperating partners in
drought monitoring.

9 The organization has an active recruitment policy to fill gaps
where staff turnover is high.

10 The organization provides opportunities for career advancement
in drought management for employees at all levels.

The organization has good gender diversity and makes active
11 efforts to diversify its management which makes drought

management effective and successful.

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

4.4 Priority areas for capacity 4.5 Human and financial resource
building in drought and flood status and requirements
early warning for drought and flood early
warning
The four countries identified a number of capacity building
initiatives that could enhance effective delivery of services Adequate human resources are critical for organizations
in drought and flood early warning (Table 10). Apart from to achieve their set mandate. An assessment of human
hydroclimatic related capacities, countries also prioritized resources status in the four countries revealed severe
capacity building in geospatial technologies, earth inadequacies in human and financial resources. Table 11
observation and mobile data collection technologies. provides a summary of the required versus available human
resources in institutions responsible for drought and flood
32 management across the four countries. It is observed that
virtually all institutions have deficit in human resources
ranging from just less than 60 percent to 100 percent. Over
the past five years, the Disaster Management and Mitigation
Unit of Zambia has been manned by eight people against a
requirement of 21 people, indicating a deficit of more than
62 percent in human resources. Similarly, the DWR that deals
with flood management in Malawi is currently manned by
four people against a staff requirement of 20, resulting in a
staff deficit of 80 percent.

Table 10: Identified priority areas for capacity building to enhance drought early warning and
management

Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 Capacity building in climate Capacity building in seasonal Build capacity in drought Use and analysis of earth
observation images to monitor
change, mitigation and and sub-seasonal climatic monitoring drought and dry spell related
indices
adaptation forecast

2 Capacity building in monitoring Flood and drought risk Training on basic GIS and

drought using standardised surveillance, monitoring and remote sensing, data

precipitation index management management and analysis of

in-situ data collection

3 Capacity building in dry spell Capacity building in climate Data collection methods, e.g.,
detection during the season change and adaptation and ODK and analysis of data
mitigation

4 Capacity building in flood GIS, geodatabases and remote GIS, geodatabases and remote

mapping and flood modelling sensing sensing

Table 11: Existing and required drought monitoring and early warning

Human Resources Country Existing Required Deficit %
*4 (12) 13 (60) 69 (80)
Drought monitoring and Malawi 0 5 100
early warning 8 21 62
Mozambique 10 70 86
4 20 80
Zambia
8 21 62
Zimbabwe

Flood monitoring and Malawi
early warning Mozambique

Zambia

Zimbabwe

* Numbers in bracket indicate staff situation in the meteorological services department of Malawi

Regarding human resources in institutions responsible for The institution dealing with drought management in
drought, statistics reflect similar human resources constraints Zimbabwe indicated that it is manned by 10 people against
patterns that are similar to those experienced in institutions a staff requirement of 70 people, resulting in 86 percent
involved in flood early warning and management. In general, shortfall in staff. The human resources situation is even
the four countries have inadequate human and financial worse in Mozambique where the meteorological services
resources to effectively deal with drought management department requires about five people to be dedicated
activities. In Malawi, the Department of Water that is to drought monitoring, yet from 2013 to date, drought
responsible for drought monitoring had only 31 percent monitoring has not been done at all due to staff and financial
of the posts filled, reflecting a shortfall of less than 69 shortages.
percent in human resources. In fact, all regional and district
monitoring stations is currently operational in only 12 The survey revealed that institutions involved in drought
hydrological districts instead of the optimal 60, due to staff and flood early warning and management also face serious
challenges. Moreover, the national meteorological services shortages of financial resources (Table 12). It can be seen
in Malawi currently have four members against a minimum that the financial resources allocated to these institutions fall
staff requirement of twelve. In addition, the institute has way below the required. The shortfalls are within the region
three trained agrometeorologists, but these have since of 54-98 percent for Zimbabwe and 75 percent for Malawi.
been promoted to managerial positions thereby leaving The Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit of Zambia
inexperienced and unqualified personnel in those positions. indicated that it requires USD200,000 for drought early
In Zambia, the Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit has warning and management, but nothing is coming from the
more than 60 percent shortage in human resources. fiscus.

33

Table 12: Required versus available financial resources in drought and flood early warning and
management

Financial Resources Country Existing Required Deficit %
USD90,000.00 USD150,000.00 40
Drought monitoring and Malawi Nil USD300,000.00 100
Early warning Nil USD200,000.00 100
Mozambique USD300,000.00 USD6,500,000.00 54
USD20,000.00 USD1,700,000.00 99
Zambia (USD2,000.00) (USD80,000.00) 98

Zimbabwe USD50,000.00 USD200,000.00 75
USD80,000.00 USD5,000,000.00 98
Flood monitoring and Malawi
Early warning

Mozambique
Zambia
Zimbabwe

Apart from financial and human resources shortages, 4.6 Knowledge base
institutions consulted in this survey indicated that they
do not have sufficient equipment, ICT and organizational Creation of a strong knowledge base is critical for the
resources. The shortage of these resources profoundly efficient delivery of mandates by an organization. Institutions
affects the delivery of services by these institutions. In assessed in this study have varying knowledge base in the
Mozambique the organization requires USD150,000 annually area of drought and flood early warning and management
and ICT equipment (three PC’s and three laptops for drought (Table 13). Mozambique and Zimbabwe conduct knowledge
early warning) and yet they do not have this money and exchange forums, seminars and workshops on flood early
equipment. With regards to monitoring equipment, Malawi warning and management. Zambia indicated that it does not
is allocated a USD25,000 against a requirement of USD30,000 hold knowledge exchange forums, while Malawi infrequently
worth of equipment. Similar observations were made in holds these seminars. In addition, the four countries need to
Zambia and Zimbabwe. Such shortages in human and improve dissemination of information to areas likely to be
financial resources profoundly affect the delivery of services affected by floods.
by these institutions.

Table 13: Knowledge capacity in institutions responsible for flood early warning system and
management

Knowledge base checklist Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 The organization conducts knowledge exchange forums in the
form of seminars and workshops on flood early warning and
flood management.

2 The organization disseminates or share information to areas that
are likely to be affected by floods in an effective way.

3 There are knowledge management systems in place that enables
communities to access information on flood occurrence.

4 There are information and learning centres where people can
access information on floods (IT infrastructure and systems).

5 The organization conducts internal research to support flood
early warning systems and flood management.

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

34

Regarding drought, none of the institutions considered 4.7 Individual capacities for
in this study seems to be conducting serious research drought and flood monitoring
(whether internal or collaborative research) and knowledge and early warning
exchange forums on drought and flood early warning.
Furthermore, neither of these institutions have knowledge To effectively execute their duties, staff involved in drought
management systems in place to enable communities to and flood management need to have the required skills
access information on drought and flood occurrence, nor and knowledge. However, mixed results were obtained
information centres where people can access information regarding the individual capacity within institutions involved
on these natural hazards (IT infrastructure and systems). in drought and flood management. Malawi and Zambia
Nonetheless, organizations dealing with drought early indicated that their staff do not have requisite skills in flood
systems disseminate or share information to areas that management (Table 14). At the same time, individuals
are affected by drought in a fairly effective way. Countries involved in early warning and flood management often
also need to develop knowledge management systems do not receive support in skills development. In contrast,
and establish ICT infrastructure and systems to enable Zimbabwe indicated that it has staff with the necessary
communities to easily access information on flood skills in flood management who often receive support
occurrences. The organizations need to engage in internal in skills development in flood early warning. Institutions
research to support flood early warning systems and flood also indicated that they have clear laid down roles and
management. responsibilities pertaining to flood early warning though
these need to be improved in Malawi and Zambia.

Table 14: Capacity levels and gaps of individual in flood monitoring and early warning

Individual capacities checklist Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 Do the members in flood monitoring and management have the
requisite skills in flood management?

2 Individuals involved in flood early warning and flood monitoring
receive support in skills development.

3 The management have clear laid down roles and responsibilities
pertaining to flood early warning.

4 The organization’s communication structures are established and
information on flood management sharing practices are in place.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all positions to achieve
our mission.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers to achieve its
mission in flood management.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response to
changing needs in flood monitoring and management.

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Furthermore, institutions in Malawi and Zambia have weak Institutions identified the following geospatial data as key
communication structures and flood management sharing in effective implementation of flood management: satellite
practices. To enable effective management and achieve their imageries needed to update geospatial layers, satellite
missions, organizations in these two countries need to have images for floods monitoring, and mapping and reporting.
appropriate staff numbers with requisite qualifications as Regarding drought, results of this study indicate that the
well as change their governance structures to ensure that skills base of members involved in drought monitoring
they are responsive to changing needs in flood monitoring and management across institutions is relatively strong
and management. Also, institutions identified capacity for Zambia and Zimbabwe, but weak for Malawi and
building and appropriate technologies and equipment (both Mozambique.
hardware and software) as important.

35

Moreover, individuals in these drought institutions rarely However, there is need to improve support in skills
receive support in skills development programmes development programmes related to drought early warning
related to drought early warning and monitoring, and drought monitoring. Furthermore, organizations
although management have clearly laid down roles and involved in drought early warning do not have the adequate
responsibilities pertaining to drought early warning. number of qualified and appropriate staff, which negatively
Institutions dealing with drought management have well- affects execution of tasks. Mozambique and Malawi seem to
established communication structures including information have serious weaknesses in almost all areas considered in this
sharing practices on drought management. study (Table 15).

Table 15: Capacity levels and gaps of individual in drought monitoring and early warning

Individual capacities checklist Malawi Mozambique Zambia Zimbabwe

1 Do the members in drought monitoring and management have
the requisite skills in drought management?

2 Individuals receive support in skills development programmes
related to drought early warning and drought monitoring.

3 The management has clear laid down roles and responsibilities
pertaining to drought early warning.

4 The organization’s communication structures are established and
information on drought management sharing practices are in
place.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all positions to achieve
our mission.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers
to achieve its mission in drought management.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response to
changing needs in drought monitoring and management.

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

In terms of human resources, it was indicated that in 4.9 Priority areas for capacity
Mozambique, the Head of the Water Resources Department building to enhance drought
has a PhD while one senior technician has an MSc and the and flood management
other two senior technicians hold BSc Honours degrees and
a diploma. In Malawi, only the chief hydrologist has an MSc To effectively manage droughts and floods, the study
degree in Water Resources Management. countries prioritized the following aspects of capacity
building:
4.8 Human resources training and
knowledge opportunities • Climate information and services (Zambia)
required to enhance effective • Risk surveillance and management (Zambia)
drought management • Climate adaptation (Zambia)
• Drought monitoring using precipitation-based and
Countries indicated that to effectively enhance drought
management performance resources status and satellite-based indices (Mozambique)
requirements for drought early warning they would require • Training in water modelling
skills in the following areas: • Flood forecasting (Malawi)
• Research on flood management (Malawi)
• Drought monitoring • Training in flood modelling
• Drought risk surveillance and management • Climate information and services
• Capacity building in climate change and adaptation and • Risk surveillance and management
• Climate adaptation
mitigation • Technical capacity building
• Drought monitoring and surveillance • Catchment management
• Running SPI and relating SPI to ENSO events • Use of drones for understanding the spatial coverage of

floods
• Flood risk maps

36

Capacity needs • Precipitation (rainfall)
• Temperature, evaporation and other meteorological
The following are the capacity building needs that were
identified as key for smooth management of drought-related variables
disasters. • Runoff and water availability
• droughts / water scarcity
• Climate information and services • floods
• Risk surveillance and management • shift of seasons
• Climate adaptation
Hydroclimatic services available at Institutions

4.10 Climate variability and change Table 16 provides an overview of the hydroclimatic services
impacts in the study countries available at institutions dealing with flood monitoring and
management in the countries under study. The number of
All of the institutions consulted in this study indicated that services varies by country with Malawi offering the most
climate change and variability are negatively impacting climate services while Zimbabwe offers the least number of
different sectors in the respective countries. The most hydroclimatic services.
relevant climate change impacts identified in this survey
include:

Table 16: Hydroclimatic services available at institutions

Malawi Zambia Zimbabwe Mozambique

Floods and drought early warning systems
Rainfall
Temperature and runoff monitoring system
Water flows, water levels, flood return periods, flood height, flood forecast

4.11 Hydroclimatic information • Drought datasets
needed by institutions for • Land use and land cover change
organization and planning • Spatial datasets
• Meteorological and hydrological maps
Institutions identified the following information as key in
enabling organization and planning of activities related to The hydroclimatic information is required for a number of
drought and flood early warning and management: applications that include flood assessment and contingency
planning. The information is also required for flood
• Data (rainfall/river flow/temperature/ evaporation, etc.) forecasting and reporting, to raise awareness in communities,
• Maps, graphics for disaster preparedness and to plan for emergencies.
• Methods Institutions indicated that they would want the information
• Early warning systems to be obtained in digital format with some of it coming from
• Decision support tools satellite data as well as from ground-based stations.
• Processed data Climate services are obtained at various temporal scales
• Metadata depending on how the services are generated as well as
• Synthesis reports on the needs. For instance, information on temperature
• Guidance documents and rainfall is accessed on a daily basis while information
on seasonal climate outlook, flood and drought early
4.12 Data needs warning is provided on a seasonal scale. Currently,
hydroclimatic services are accessed free of charge in all
Institutions dealing with drought monitoring and the study countries. Institutions dealing with flood early
management indicated that they would need the following warning and management indicated that they anticipate
geospatial data sets to enable effective implementation of requiring hydroclimatic services at various temporal scales.
drought early warning and management: For example, current and past datasets are required for
understanding long-term trends in floods, rainfall and flood
zoning. The hydroclimatic data is also required at seasonal,
annual and even at a 30-year, climatological temporal scale.

37

4.13 Spatial scale of hydroclimatic When countries were asked whether they require additional
data data to enable effective management of floods, Malawi
indicated that it does not require any additional data while
In the survey, institutions indicated that they require different Zimbabwe indicated that it needs data on ecosystems and
hydroclimatic data at spatial scales ranging from local to groundwater level (Table 18).
national level. Institutions were also interested in point area
averages. The key hydroclimatic data required included
precipitation, temperature, wind as well as their derivatives
(Table 17).

Table 17: Hydroclimatic services required by respective countries

Malawi Zambia Zimbabwe Mozambique

Minimum temperature
Maximum temperature
Mean temperature
Number of dry days
Wind speed
Wind direction
Precipitation onset
End of rainy season
Precipitation (daily, monthly, season, annual, mean, maximum)

Table 18: Additional hydroclimatic data required for effective flood management

Malawi Zambia Zimbabwe Mozambique
No additional data required
• Socio-economic data • Ecosystems • Hydrology
• Emission scenarios • Groundwater level • Groundwater level
• Hydrology
• Ecosystems
• Groundwater level
• Demographic data
• Elevation
• Aridity index
• Drought index
• Evaporation data

4.14 Communication channels for The meteorological services in Mozambique highlighted that
drought early warning it does not disseminate or share information to areas that are
likely to be affected by drought because they do not have
Institutions mainly use formal channels to contact the service drought products to do so and there is lack of capacity.
provider. In addition, hydroclimatic services are delivered by
the providers using several channels. These include: 4.15 Criteria for assessing quality
of hydroclimatic services
• Printed material
• Digital data To evaluate the quality of hydroclimatic services, countries
• Workshops suggested that they could review seasonal forecasts at the
• Newspapers and journals end of the season and see whether and to what extent the
• TV, radio forecasts depart from what was observed on the ground.
• Web portal social media In addition, the accuracy, timely and comprehensiveness of
• Random SMS alerts hydroclimatic services could be used as a measure of the
• Public address systems quality of the services.

38

Regarding which weather data and hydroclimatic
information would be useful for decision making, countries
indicated that they would like to generate data at all
temporal ranges, namely near real time, short-term, medium-
term and long-term weather and hydroclimatic information.

Factors affecting the use of hydroclimatic
information at institutions

Institutions identified a number of factors that are affecting
the use of hydroclimatic services in their respective countries.
Some of the identified impediments include:

• Inadequate early warning systems
• Lack of appropriate skills
• Poor network of hydrometeorological stations
• Lack of information sharing platform
• Lack of data standards

Ways to increase use of hydroclimatic
information by institutions in decision making

Countries suggested a number of interventions that could be
done to increase the uptake of hydroclimatic information in
decision making. The suggested interventions are as follows:

• Capacity building in water resources management for all
stakeholders

• Need to strengthen service providers of early warning
information

• Build capacity to interpret and understand climate data
• Enhance network of hydrometeorological stations
• Build information sharing platforms
• Agree on data standards

4.16 Recommendations

The results of this survey have shown that institutions
dealing with flood and drought in the respective countries
have a number of challenges that need to be addressed if
they are to effectively manage these two disasters. Some of
the interventions to address the identified problems include:

• Reviewing of the existing policy documents to include
aspects of climate variability and change

• Recruiting appropriate and desired staff in flood and
drought management

• Supporting institutions to acquire appropriate equipment
• Encouraging institutions’ need to engage in research

related to the respective early warning system and
management

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39

5. General conclusions and
recommendations

5.1 General conclusions In this case there is need for capacity building for staff
members already employed. Capacity building of the existing
The study established that SADC countries that lie in the staff members is limited by underfunding of the organization
Zambezi Basin are vulnerable to climate extremes such as as highlighted above. The lack of qualified staff limits the
drought and floods that are being exacerbated by climate ability of the organizations to make drought and flood
change. To effectively deal with vulnerability induced by forecasts as most of the staff available do not possess such
drought and floods, there is a need for timely and relevant skills.
climate services that support early warning systems in the
different countries. This is because the effective management The study also found out that there is limited research that is
of climate related disasters, such as drought and floods, used to support the operations of the different organizations
is dependent on the availability of relevant climatic and that deal with precipitation, runoff, drought and flood
hydroclimatic services for early warning. It is against this monitoring. This results in most organizations not being in
background that UNESCO in partnership with IHP supported touch with modern techniques. This is exacerbated by lack
a study on climate services for improved water resources of funding and exchange programmes that allow members
management aimed at identifying capacity gaps and needs to be exposed to new technologies. For example, climate
in the provision of climate services within the Zambezi Basin, change is an emerging issue in the provision of climate
focussing on Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. services, yet few staff members within these organizations
are fully aware of how climate change affects the provision of
Across the four study countries, it was noted that although climate services. There is also a need for data and information
institutional frameworks for the monitoring of runoff, sharing particularly given the fact that the problems that the
precipitation, floods and drought exist within the different four countries face are transboundary. In this case countries
institutions that are mandated to do such monitoring, there need to coordinate the climate services they generate to
are capacity gaps and needs that require to be addressed. have a common and shared responsibility.
In general, policies addressing early warning systems and
hydroclimatic services exist in the respective countries. It was also observed that most of the initiatives to provide
relevant climate services in the four countries were mostly
However, policies seem to be inadequate and scattered through donor funded projects with the government
across different institutions and thus there is need for contributing very little to support the activities. As a result,
synchronization and coordination of related sectors. The there are problems of continuity and sustainability of the
development of early warning systems for drought and project once funding has stopped, resulting in the projects
floods needs coordination between disaster management coming completely to a halt at the expiry of the funding
departments and the departments that generates the period.
products that are used for early warning. An important
observation from the study is that departments and 5.2 Recommendations
institutions that deal with precipitation, runoff, drought
and flood monitoring are underfunded. This is despite the The study makes the following recommendations aimed
acknowledgement that provision of relevant hydroclimatic at improving the provision of climate services for improved
services is dependent on well-funded and fully functional water resources management in the four countries studied:
institutions. The limited funding in the respective institutions
and inadequate equipment impedes effective monitoring 1) There is need to increase the runoff and precipitation
of relevant hydroclimatic variables. The lack of equipment observation and monitoring network to improve the
also results in poor observation network coverage in the four network coverage. Where appropriate, institutions need
countries, meaning that the data that is used to generate to develop network designs and optimization techniques
climate services is based on sparse observations which limit that integrate diverse sources of data and approaches
the accuracy of the climate services. e.g., integration of satellite data, automatic and manual
stations in precipitation monitoring. In the same vein,
Another key observation from the study is shortage of institutions can optimize and prioritize investments in
skilled manpower and understaffing in most organizations observation infrastructure in areas that are in critical
that deliver climate services used for flood and drought need of hydroclimatic services. An important vehicle
monitoring. Understaffing arises from the fact that in all four for improving coverage as well as maintenance of an
countries, there is a freeze on recruitment of staff needed observation network is through fostering of public-
for the proper function of the organizations. In addition, out private partnerships. This may result in improved forecasts
of the available staff, there are a few qualified personnel to for precipitation, flood and drought occurrence.
deliver relevant climate services.

40

2) There is a need to review the institutional frameworks
that support the monitoring of precipitation, runoff,
drought and flood so as to update and make them
more relevant. Sector policies need to be synchronized
to enhance coordination of actions that will result in
both vertical and horizontal integration. These could
be operationalized through developing of robust and
integrated national action plans and procedures for
hydroclimatic services.

3) There is a need for capacity building for existing staff
in the different organizations responsible for the
provision of climate services. Capacity building could be
achieved through introduction of career management
and training programmes that enhance professional
growth. Furthermore, institutions can take advantage
of external financial opportunities to fund capacity
building opportunities. In the same manner institutions
need to develop and sustain partnerships with academic
institutions to facilitate training of professionals in
hydroclimatic services and early warning. This will
enhance the quality of products they generate and
therefore help in building resilience in vulnerable regions
of the four countries. Countries in the Zambezi Basin
are also encouraged to share data and information on
the monitoring of runoff, precipitation, drought and
floods to enhance coordination of activities, particularly
given the fact that the provision of climate services is
a transboundary issue. This could be achieved through
development of a low-cost common data portal with
some interoperability capabilities that can be accessed by
relevant institutions in the basin.

4) There is also need to make sure that organizations
involved in the provision of climate services relevant for
water management are adequately staffed with skilled
personnel to enhance the delivery and generation
of relevant climate services. Institutions involved in
hydroclimatic services could improve working conditions
thereby ensuring the retention of skilled staff.

5) As end users are a critical component of the
hydroclimatic services chain, there is need for creation
of a platform or community of users who are constantly
engaged through feedback mechanisms such as
customer satisfaction surveys. Moreover, there is need to
enhance service dissemination channels to ensure that
the service delivery is not only timely and accurate but
also appropriate.

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41

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Appendix 1

Assessment of the capacity gaps and needs in drought early warning
systems

Name of institution……………………………………
Country……………………………………………………..

a) Institutional capacities

1. Based on the institution capacity in drought monitoring and drought early warning, select the statement that best
reflects your institution’s capacity needs and gaps.

Institutional capacity checklist Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
disagree agree

The policies or regulations in the institution adequately
addresses drought early warning and drought
management.

The current policies and regulations governing drought
management are effective.

The institution has relevant ICT policy to support drought
early warning and drought management.

The current policies and regulations governing drought
management need improvement.

The institution has policies and procedures regarding
drought that are consistently adhered to, reviewed and
updated and known and understood by staff.

2. List any existing legal and policy framework or regulations governing drought related management in your
institution.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3. Suggest what could be done to further strengthen existing policies relating to drought early warning and flood
management.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

b) Organizational capacities

1. Based on the organization’s vision and/or mission statements listed below, select the statement that best reflects
your organization in drought monitoring.

44

1 2 3 4
The vision and/or mission of The vision and/or mission in The vision and/or mission in The vision and/or mission in
the organization is not clearly terms of drought monitoring terms of drought monitoring terms of drought monitoring
stated and the description of is moderately clear and it is is clear, and specific helping is a clear, specific and
what the organization aspires rarely used to direct actions the organization to meet its forceful. There is
to achieve in terms of or to set priorities in drought aspirations in drought understanding of what the
drought monitoring is not early warning and management. The vision is organization aspires to
clear. management. well-known to most but not become or seeks to achieve.
to all staff and it is The vision is well-
sometimes used to direct communicated and broadly
actions and to set priorities held within the organization.
for drought management. Consistently used to direct
actions and to set priorities in
terms of drought
management.

2. Based on the organization’s characteristics listed below, indicate how you view your organization’s capacity using
the checklist below.

Organizational capacity checklist 1 23 4 5
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
disagree agree

The organization has a well-defined structure relevant to its

1 mission/goals and programmes with clearly defined drought

management responsibilities.

2 The organization operates according to the country’s approved by-laws in
terms of drought risk management.

3 The management has clear laid down roles and responsibilities pertaining

to drought early warning.

4 The organization’s communication structures are established and
information on drought management sharing practices are in place.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all positions to achieve our
mission in drought monitoring.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers to achieve its mission
in drought management.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response to
changing needs in drought early warning and management.

8 The organization has linkages with other cooperating partners in drought
monitoring.

9 The organization has an active recruitment policy to fill gaps where staff
turnover is high.

10 The organization provides opportunities for career advancement in
drought management for employees at all levels.

The organization has good gender diversity and makes active efforts to

11 diversify its management, which makes drought management effective

and successful.

3. List the priority areas for capacity building to enhance drought early warning and management.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

45

4. Complete the table below indicating the human resources status and requirements for your organization in
drought early warning

Year Human Actual Financial Actual Institutional Actual ICT ICT
resources human resources financial resources organizationa equipment equipment
required resources required resources required l resources available required
available required Drought available
2013 monitoring Drought
2014 equipment monitoring
2015 equipment
2016
2017

5. What human resources training and knowledge opportunities do you require to effectively enhance drought
management performance?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...................................

6. List the priority areas for capacity building to enhance drought management.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

c) Individual capacities

1. Based on the table below, indicate the level of capacity and gaps that exist in individuals who are involved in
drought early warning and monitoring.

Individual capacities checklist 1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree
Strongly
disagree agree

1 Do the members in drought monitoring and management have the
requisite skills in drought management?

2 Individuals receive support in skills development programmes
related to drought early warning and drought monitoring.

3 The management has clear laid down roles and responsibilities

pertaining to drought early warning.

4 The organization’s communication structures established and
information on flood management sharing practices are in place.

5 The organization has qualified staff skills in all are positions to
achieve our mission.

6 The organization has the appropriate staff numbers to achieve its
mission in flood management.

7 The organization changes its governance structure in response to
changing needs in flood monitoring and management.

2. Indicate the highest level of qualification of staff dedicated to drought management.

Department Position Qualification in drought Human resources available and
management competence in drought
management

46

3. What is the desired situation that you wish should prevail for you to effectively carry out your mandate in drought
monitoring?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

d) Knowledge base

a) Based on the checklist below indicate the level at which you place your organization in terms of its knowledge
base.

Knowledge base checklist Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
disagree agree

The organization conducts key research and knowledge
exchange forums in the form of seminars and
workshops on drought early warning and drought
management.
The organization disseminates or share information to
areas that are affected by drought in an effective way.
There are knowledge management systems in place
that enable communities to access information on
drought occurrence.
There are information and learning centres where
people can access information on drought (IT
infrastructure and systems).
The organization conducts internal research to support
drought early warning systems.

b) How does your organization disseminate or share information to areas that are likely to be affected by drought?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) List the geospatial data needs and gaps that, if availed, will help in effective implementation of drought early
warning and management.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

d) List the capacity building needs that are essential for smooth management of drought disasters.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

47

e) Climate variability and change impacts on your country

a How is climate change impacting o Positive
your country? o Negative
o Neutral
b State the specific impacts. o Positive
o Negative
c Select the most relevant climate o Neutral
impacts. o Precipitation (rainfall)
o Temperature, evaporation and other meteorological data
d Select the hydroclimatic services o Runoff and water availability
available at your institution. o Droughts and water scarcity
o Floods
e Specify the type of information o Shift of seasons
your institution needs for your o Other (specify)
operations and planning. o Temperature change
o Rainfall
f How is the information specified o Floods and drought early warning systems
in (e) used? o Precipitation
o Temperature and runoff monitoring system
g How is the information specified o Data (rainfall/river flow/temperature/evaporation etc.)
in (e) obtained? o Maps, graphics
o Methods
h How regularly do you obtain o Early warning systems
climate services such as o Decision support tools
information on temperature o Processed data
change, rainfall, floods and o Metadata
drought early warning? o Synthesis reports
o Guidance documents
i Do you pay for such hydroclimatic o Other (specify)
services?
For which time period do you o Daily
require, or anticipate requiring, o Weekly
o Decadal
j such hydroclimatic services? o Monthly
o Quarterly
k On which spatial scale do you o Seasonal
need hydroclimatic services? o Once a year
o Not often
l Which parameters do you need? o Yes
o No
o Past
o Present
o Seasonal
o Annual
o 2-5 years
o 10 years
o 20 years
o 30 years
o Other (specify
o Local (indicate area)
o Regional (indicate area)
o National (indicate area)
o Global
o Point data
o Area averages
o Minimum temperature
o Maximum temperature
o Mean temperature

48