International Cuisine

International
Cuisine



International
Cuisine

Jeremy MacVeigh

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

International Cuisine, First Edition © 2009 Delmar, Cengage Learning
Jeremy MacVeigh
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CONTENTS

Preface Summary / 46
Introduction / viii Review Questions / 46
Why I Wrote This Book / viii Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 46
Organization / viii
Ancillary Materials / ix 3chapter Eastern European Cuisine
Conceptual Approach / ix
The Recipes / ix Objectives / 49
Introduction / 49
About the Author / x Historic Culinary Influences / 50
Unique Components / 52
Acknowledgments / xi Significant Subregions / 53
Recipes / 55
SECTION 1 Cuisines of Europe Summary / 65
and the Middle Review Questions / 66
East Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 66

1chapter Cuisines of the Middle East 4chapter Italian Cuisine

Objectives / 5 Objectives / 69
Introduction / 5 Introduction / 69
Historic Culinary Influences / 6 Historic Culinary Influences / 70
Unique Components / 7 Unique Components / 71
Significant Subregions / 9 Significant Subregions / 77
Recipes / 12 Recipes / 81
Summary / 27 Summary / 99
Review Questions / 27 Review Questions / 99
Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 27 Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 99

2chapter Greek Cuisine 5chapter French Cuisine

Objectives / 31 Objectives / 105
Introduction / 31 Introduction / 105
Historic Culinary Influences / 32 Historic Culinary Influences / 106
Unique Components / 32 Unique Components / 110
Significant Subregions / 33 Significant Subregions / 112
Recipes / 34 Recipes / 117

v

vi CONTENTS

Summary / 139 Review Questions / 238
Review Questions / 139 Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 238
Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 140
10chapter Iberian Cuisine
6chapter Cuisines of the British Isles
Objectives / 241
Objectives / 145
Introduction / 145 Introduction / 241
Historic Culinary Influences / 145
Unique Components / 147 Historic Culinary Influences / 242
Significant Subregions / 149
Recipes / 151 Unique Components / 243
Summary / 162
Review Questions / 162 Significant Subregions / 244
Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 162
Recipes / 247
7chapter German Cuisine
Summary / 261
Objectives / 165
Introduction / 165 Review Questions / 261
Historic Culinary Influences / 166
Unique Components / 167 Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 262
Significant Subregions / 169
Recipes / 170 Cuisines of Africa SECTION 2
Summary / 188
Review Questions / 188 11chapter North African Cuisine
Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 188
Objectives / 269
8chapter Scandinavian Cuisine
Introduction / 269
Objectives / 191
Introduction / 191 Historic Culinary Influences / 270
Historic Culinary Influences / 192
Unique Components / 193 Unique Components / 272
Significant Subregions / 195
Recipes / 197 Significant Subregions / 275
Summary / 212
Review Questions / 212 Recipes / 276
Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 212
Summary / 296
9chapter Russian Cuisine
Review Questions / 296
Objectives / 215
Introduction / 215 Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 296
Historic Culinary Influences / 216
Unique Components / 218 Cuisines of the SECTION 3
Significant Subregions / 220 Americas
Recipes / 222
Summary / 238 12chapter Caribbean Cuisine

Objectives / 301

Introduction / 301

Historic Culinary Influences / 301

Unique Components / 304

Significant Subregions / 306

Recipes / 309

Summary / 321

Review Questions / 321

Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 322

CONTENTS vii

13chapter Mexican Cuisine Unique Components / 405
Significant Subregions / 407
Objectives / 325 Recipes / 410
Summary / 423
Introduction / 325 Review Questions / 423
Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 424
Historic Culinary Influences / 326

Unique Components / 327

Significant Subregions / 329

Recipes / 331

Summary / 348 17chapter Chinese Cuisine

Review Questions / 348 Objectives / 427

Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 349 Introduction / 427

14chapter Historic Culinary Influences / 428

South American Cuisine Unique Components / 429

Objectives / 353 Significant Subregions / 431

Introduction / 353 Recipes / 433

Historic Culinary Influences / 354 Summary / 449

Unique Components / 355 Review Questions / 449

Significant Subregions / 358 Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 450

Recipes / 360

Summary / 371 18chapter Japanese Cuisine

Review Questions / 371 Objectives / 453

Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 371 Introduction / 453

Historic Culinary Influences / 454

SECTION 4 Cuisines of Asia Unique Components / 455

Significant Subregions / 457

Recipes / 459

Summary / 471

Review Questions / 471

15chapter Cuisines of the Indian Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 471

Subcontinent

Objectives / 379 Appendix

Introduction / 379 Measurements, Conversions,
and Equivalents / 475
Historic Culinary Influences / 380
References / 482
Unique Components / 382 Glossary / 485
Recipe Index / 521
Significant Subregions / 384 Subject Index / 529

Recipes / 386

Summary / 399

Review Questions / 399

Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients / 399

16chapter Southeast Asian Cuisine

Objectives / 403

Introduction / 403

Significant Culinary Influences / 404

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION To the students reading this text as part of your
education, my advice would be to immerse yourself in
International Cuisine was written to supply culinary the culture of that which you strive to inhabit. If the
arts students and enthusiasts with a reference and culture you strive to inhabit is the culinary arts, then
resource to the cuisines of the world. Chefs today are immerse yourself in it fully by tasting everything you
bombarded with information about foods that come can, absorbing every bit of advice, watching every
from all over the world, and their understanding of aspect of what your instructors do and how they act,
where food products come from and how to use them and being focused on this moment and nothing else.
has never been more important or more challenging. Our trade is one in which success comes from sacri-
One of the most difficult things for a culinarian, future fice. You will be tired, you will feel broken, and you
chef, or food lover to grasp is a sense of the place that will think that you have pushed yourself too far; but
a food comes from. All foods can be unraveled into a in the end, you will grow, you will be proud, you will
story that enlightens us about why they are made the earn the respect and admiration of others, and you
way they are or perhaps why certain ingredients must will realize that you would not have reached the level
be used for them to taste authentic. The understand- that you have if you had decided—years earlier—that
ing of this story is the biggest hurdle an aspiring chef it was too much or it wasn’t coming fast enough or it
in today’s food industry must undertake. After learn- wasn’t fair. By becoming engrossed in what you want
ing the techniques of how to be a good cook in the to do, your senses will expand and enable you to do
kitchen, a chef must acquire the ability to write a things you didn’t know you could. I wish each of you
themed menu or to pair ingredients when developing the kind of daily satisfaction I have been afforded as
new recipes; these tasks are intrinsically linked to the part of our proud profession.
past and to the people and places that created the
ingredients. This text is a step in making the link. ORGANIZATION

WHY I WROTE THIS BOOK The text is organized by geographical region (Europe,
Asia, etc.). Within each section are chapters that cover
The text was written because of a lack of resources how each cuisine developed, what it is that makes
currently available in this specific discipline. I took a each cuisine different from the rest, important culi-
position teaching international cuisine; when I looked nary subregions found within each cuisine, recipes
for textbooks to use to support the learning objectives common to that cuisine, and terms that are com-
of the class, I discovered that what was available monly used. In creating this text, we found—from
lacked information about how cuisines differ and how having industry experts review the material—that
they developed, or the texts just covered a few cuisines there was a strong desire to have a text like this pub-
or simply provided recipes. I began to write my own lished, but that the experts wanted a section on what
outlines because of this lack of information and even- made each cuisine different from the others. As a
tually took on the project of creating this book. This result, a section in each chapter discusses the unique
text answers the questions that I had—and does so for components of the cuisine being covered, and I believe
18 different cuisines that span the globe.

viii

PREFACE ix

the experts were just that—experts—in making this through Europe, North Africa, and the Americas,
suggestion, as this helps to clarify how and why each Section IV focuses on Asian cuisines. A number of
cuisine is original. Each chapter includes the follow- countries are not represented in this text, including all
ing sections: of the sub-Saharan African countries, Australia, and
many more. Although it would be great to include
Introduction these, and others, creating a book that covers the cui-
sines students are most likely to deal with in the United
Historic Culinary Influences States was the priority. The hope is that, by opening
the door to this subject, students (and others) will be
Unique Components encouraged to step inside the world of global cuisine
(and culture) and discover more on their own. The
Significant Subregions subject is complex and vast, but this book is designed
to make it approachable and usable for culinary
Recipes programs.

Summary THE RECIPES

Review Questions The recipes chosen for the text are representative of
the cuisine of each region and are mostly made using
Common Terms, Foods, and Ingredients either common ingredients or those that can be
obtained by a culinary arts school or at specialty mar-
ANCILLARY MATERIALS kets. Many of the recipes include accompanying pho-
tos of the completed dish, and photos for some of the
For Instructors steps of the more complicated or unique preparations
Instructor’s Manual to Accompany International can also be found in the text.
Cuisine
Each chapter is further supported by an Instructor’s The recipes are in no way a complete represen-
Manual. tation of the cuisine of the region covered, as each
region that has a chapter dedicated to it in this text
For Instructors and Students could easily fill many volumes on its own. The recipes
Online Companion to Accompany International are meant to provide a glimpse into the cuisines by
Cuisine introducing some of the more common, practical, or
An Online Companion is provided to supply additional unique recipes that will help students and others gain
resources for the instructor and the students; it an entry into this vast subject. Additional recipes are
includes test bank questions, PowerPoint slides, and available from the companion site, and surely many
additional recipes. instructors will want to supplement the material
presented in this text with recipes that they are
CONCEPTUAL APPROACH more familiar with. All recipes include details about
the cooking methods employed in creating them and
The chapters begin with the Middle East because the expected yield. As with any other recipe, remem-
many of the characteristics of civilization that led to ber that these are guides; variation in products will
our ability to have distinct cuisines began here. The always necessitate occasional adjustments to com-
rest of the chapters in Section I move mainly from east pensate for moisture contents, degree of flavor, palate
to west across southern Europe, then north through differences, and so forth. One should always use one’s
Europe, and end with the Iberian Peninsula. The senses when cooking.
Iberian Peninsula provides an appropriate transition
to northern Africa in Section II, and then to the Amer-
icas in Section III, because all of these regions are
linked in both history and cuisine. After traveling

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

JEREMY MACVEIGH is a chef instructor at the and with a BS in food science from the University of
Culinary Arts Campus of the Institute of Technology California at Davis, Chef MacVeigh brings a unique
in Roseville, California, where he has taught classes in perspective from both the scientific and artistic aspects
international cuisine, nutrition, garde manger, Asian of the field to this subject. A member of the American
cuisine, and baking and pastry for the last five years. Culinary Federation (ACF), Chef MacVeigh has been
Originally from Needham, Massachusetts, Chef very active in the Sacramento chapter as a board
MacVeigh got an early introduction to the life in the member of the California Capitol Chefs Association
culinary field; his first job, at the age of 15, was in a for the last three years, and as a Team Sacramento
kitchen—and the introduction stuck. As a graduate coach for the student culinary team.
of the Western Culinary Institute in Portland, Oregon,

x

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Wow, where to start? First, I wouldn’t be the type of grateful I did. I had a number of excellent instructors
person who would try to do something like write this at Sacramento City College, including Ken Naganuma,
text if it were not for my mom! Setting examples, Sue Roper, and Ramona Fernandez. I also was lucky
always being supportive, holding the weight of a fam- enough to attend the University of California at Davis
ily of seven on her shoulders without ever letting any and have instructors like Dr. Charles Bamforth and
of us know it was hard, and simply the greatest per- Michael O’Mahony. To all of you, a sincere thanks!
son I have ever known—that is my mom. I know I’m
lucky, and now you do too! Thanks, Mom! My siblings My current colleagues at the Culinary Arts
also have always been there to lend support and to Campus of the Institute of Technology (IT) in Roseville,
check in on their little brother over the years, and I am California, have also been instrumental in providing
forever grateful to have such great brothers and sis- me with their expertise and support. I would like to
ters: Matt, Heather, Shauna, TJ, Mike, and Kathy are thank chefs Don Dickinson, Charlin Wright, Megan
the best six siblings I can imagine. I also have those six Bailey, Rika Mullen, Mark Powell, Robert Mason,
to thank for a posse of 21 nephews and nieces, all of Jacob Knutte, Jared Fondrest, and Sandra Colver for
whom are a true joy to be with. sharing their expertise over the years. I also would like
to thank Robert Enger, Tamara Marsh, Ashley Weech,
I also would not be in this position had it not Jason Sowa, Margaret Pilgard, Laura Goodson, Todd
been for all of the professionals I have worked with Lardenoit, Richard Melella, Rick Wood, Jim Haga, and
over the years, instilling in me a deep sense of pride, the rest of the staff of the Institute of Technology for
passion, and respect for our craft. I would like to thank their support during my time with the school.
the crew at North Hill in Needham: Chef Frank, Chef
Karl, Dr. Ken Gerweck, David Maw, and the rest of One person at IT has had a particularly big
the staff, who initiated my sense of being at home in impact on my entry into education, and subsequently
the kitchen when I was 15. Also, special thanks to this book: Chef Philippe Caillot (I know, I know—he’s
Steve Feeley, Nick and Angelo Catenza, Peter Keenan, French!), whose understanding of and passion for the
Katherine Bliss, John Bays, Patrick Mulvaney, Rick culinary arts have been an inspiration to me (and he
Mahan, John and Rebecca Lastoskie, Amy Zausch, has more than once set me straight on French cui-
Andrew Hillman, Pete Treleven, and Steve Kipgen sine!). Thanks, Philippe. In addition to the great col-
(Kip), for their work ethic and for sharing their knowl- leagues I’ve been privileged to work with I would like
edge and heart in a way that always made me know I to give the sincerest of thanks to all of my former and
was where I should be. current students. You’ve all impacted me in helping
me understand culinary arts more than you know
Many teachers, professors, and friends have left (I try not to let on!) and your enthusiasm and passion
an impression on me or helped keep me headed in a for our craft is inspirational to all of us instructors.
positive direction over the years, and I would like to I feel confident about and look forward to the future
thank them for doing so. Friends like Russell Blake, being in a position to watch the future pass through
Dan Connors, Ted Cosgrove, Ted Olson, Mr. G., and our doors. What a thrill to see minds and hearts
Chris Moore are hard to come by, and I’m forever headed in our direction!

xi

xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would also like to thank Chef Edward G. Tom Beckman
Leonard, CMC, for his professional work in directing Chef Instructor
the production of the food for the photos; Ron The Cooking and Hospitality Institute of Chicago
Manville, for his expert photography; Patricia Osborn, Chicago, IL
for her tireless assistance and guidance in writing this
text; Chris Downey, for making my rambling legible; Bruce Konowalow, CCE
and all those at Cengage Learning for their profes- Director of Culinary Arts
sional work on this project. Schoolcraft College
Livonia, MI
Last, but certainly not least, I have had someone
at my side supporting me, giving up movie nights Joe LaVilla, PhD, CCC
together, eating dinner at 11:00 p.m. when I finally Assistant Academic Director, Culinary Arts
get back, and always encouraging me to keep plug- The Art Institute of Phoenix
ging away at this project, and for that I am forever Phoenix, AZ 85021
grateful. Anna, you’re a constant light in my life, and
I hope you never burn out! Jim Taylor, MBA, CEC, AAC
Chef Instructor
Any comments or suggestions about the text Columbus State Community College
will happily be accepted by e-mail at jmacveigh@ Columbus, OH
sbcglobal.net.
Jay Demers
Sincerely, Department Chair
Jeremy MacVeigh Eastern Maine Community College
Bangor, ME
The author and Delmar Learning would espe-
cially like to thank the following people for their con- Jerry Lanuzza, MS Ed, FMP
tributions to making this book a success: Department Chair, College of Culinary Arts,
Johnson & Wales University
Food Stylist and Recipe Tester Charlotte, NC
Chef Edward G. Leonard, CMC
Master Chef George Karousos
Photographer President
Ronald Manville International Institute of Culinary Arts
Fall River, MA
Reviewers

Robert Dahni
Dahni Inc.
El Segundo, CA

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Section 1

Cuisines of

Europe and the Middle East

TTo most Americans, the cuisine of helps make the cuisine of these wheat as well as pine nuts, pista-
Europe is the most familiar of those regions different from other parts of chios, walnuts, artichokes, asparagus,
covered in this text, because most of the world, specifically with regard to cardoon, cauliflower, caraway, cumin,
the familiar foods of the United the making of desserts. Although broccoli, peas, common cabbage,
States have roots somewhere in sweet foods are eaten in other Brussels sprouts, horseradish,
Europe. On the other hand, the cultures, the idea of an entire course watercress, melons, oregano, and
cuisine of the Middle East is often of sweets—as in the dessert tradition mint. Many of these still play
much less familiar. We have com- of many European countries—is important roles in the local cuisine.
bined these cuisines in this section unique to this region. In other parts of
because much of Europe’s cuisine the world, sweets fit into the meal Although the cuisines of Europe
originated in the Middle East. Wheat cycle differently and are more typical and the Middle East have evolved
was first cultivated in the Middle East, of what most would think of as a over the years, they will forever be
and bread is now perhaps the most snack. Europe is also unique in that it connected by their histories. This
common food on the tables of was, for a period of history, the major book begins with a chapter on the
European countries. The fermentation power center of the world; as such, its Middle East, an appropriate starting
of beverages is believed to have countries held considerable influence point because this region is consid-
been discovered and developed in over many other parts of the world. ered the genesis of many aspects of
the Middle East, and beer and wine The culinary habits of much of Europe cuisine (as well as civilization itself).
now appear regularly on the tables have evolved relatively rapidly over We will travel from east to west,
of most Europeans. The three most the last few centuries, and explora- through the southern reaches of the
common religions in Europe, along tion, colonization, and immigration Middle East and Europe, in this
with their dietary restrictions and have all influenced the culture and section. Then we will move north
customs, developed in the Middle culinary habits of these populations. and east, and finish with one of the
East; today, the religions of Christian- During the same period of time in the southernmost points, the Iberian
ity, Islam, and Judaism all are Middle East, cultural change has been Peninsula—a natural point from
represented in Europe (Christianity is much less dramatic. The preservation which to move on to African cuisine
the most prevalent, but the others of culture has remained a priority for in our next section.
are still significant in some cultures). the people of this region, and there
One facet that binds the Middle have been fewer attempts by Middle Although many of these cuisines
Eastern and European regions Eastern nations to expand into or may be familiar to people in the
together is the importance of wheat in colonize other regions of the world. United States, it is very important for
their diets and cultures. Bread has those aspiring to understand today’s
been a basis of European nutrition for Europe and the Middle East are cuisines of the world to know how
centuries, and other wheat-dependent home to a number of ingredients these cuisines differ and how they
products are common as well. that are used regularly in other parts developed into what they are now. The
Products like pasta and pastry dough, of the world, although their origin in following chapters will reveal many of
in particular, are two common and this part of the world may not always the aspects that make each of these
widespread uses of wheat flour. Pastry be recognized. Some ingredients cuisines unique from one another, as
dough is one of the ingredients that indigenous to Europe and the Middle well as how these cuisines have
East include the aforementioned influenced our own in this increasingly
global culinary marketplace.

3

chapter 1

20˚ 40˚ 60˚
45˚
KAZAKHSTAN 45˚
UKRAINE

MOLDOVA RUSSIA

ROMANIA

40˚ BLACK GEORGIA CASPIAN UZBEKISTAN 40˚
SEA SEA TURKMENISTAN 35˚
BULGARIA
GREECE TURKEY ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN

35˚

SYRIA ELBURZ MOUNTAINS
Tehran

CYPRUS Fertile Crescent
Beirut
MEDITERRANEAN Damascus Euphrates Baghdad
SEA LEBANON
IRAN AFGHANISTAN
30˚
ISRAEL Z
Cairo
Jerusalem River

River
Amman Tigris AG
ROS
IRAQ 30˚

JORDON M
OUNTAINS
KUWAIT

Nile River Persian Gulf PAKISTAN

LIBYA EGYPT QATAR

Gulf of Oman

25˚ 25˚

SUDAN SAUDI ARABIA U. A. E.
YEMEN
capital city OMAN N
river WE
international boundary
20˚ mou4ntains S

0 250 500 km

ARABIAN 20˚
SEA

20˚ 40˚ 60˚

Cuisines of the Middle East

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to
● explain what makes the cuisines of the Middle East unique.
● discuss the significance of religion in the cuisines of the Middle East.
● understand common cooking methods used in traditional Middle Eastern
cuisines.
● recognize common recipes found in the cuisines of the Middle East.
● produce a variety of recipes common to the Middle East.
● define the terms listed at the conclusion of the chapter.

INTRODUCTION

The cuisines of the Middle East are historic, because they have remained heavily

Tdependent on traditions and methods from early cultures that flourished in this
part of the world long ago. These cuisines have, to a large extent, resisted many
outward influences while blending components of the dominant cultures within
this region over the centuries. Whether it be the Persian (present-day Iran) cuisine
that has drifted all the way to Europe, the Ottoman (present-day Turkey) cuisine
that has found a home throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, or the spread
of Arab traditions throughout North Africa and into Southern Europe, Middle
Eastern cuisines have left an indelible mark on most of the world at some point in
history, and the qualities that instigated this spread are the same that have
preserved it.
This chapter examines the cuisine and culture of this region by focusing on
the regions within this large area that have played the most significant role in
both the local cuisine and the influences that have spread from it. A number of
countries that are usually included in this region are not cited in this chapter sim-
ply because there is not enough space to do so. Certainly, entire books can be—and
have been—written specifically about the cuisine of the Middle East.
The Middle East has long been a region of turmoil, both politically and
religiously. The significance of the religions that exist in this region—Judaism,
Islam, and Catholicism are all represented—cannot be overstated in either
the context of its historical events or the development of its cuisines.
Currently, the dominant religion in the area is Islam, and this faith has much to
do with the similarities found in the cuisines of the Islamic nations. All of the
countries examined in this chapter are Islamic nations, with the exception of
Israel and (to some extent) Lebanon, which has a sizable Christian population.
Other factors besides religion certainly are important in the development and
uniqueness of the cuisines found here—climate and resources are significant

5

6 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

ones, for example—but all evaluations of these Persian and Roman Empires
cuisines should be viewed within the context of the
religious beliefs of the culture as well. As the developing empires of the Persians and Romans
battled for control of the lands of the Mediterranean,
What many may be surprised to learn is that the many of the dishes that are now common first devel-
Middle East is the birthplace of much of what is taken oped. The Roman Empire provided expertise in the
for granted in parts of the Western world today. This spread of agriculture; it was the early power in the
chapter will examine some of the contributions the region after the decline of the Greeks. The Romans are
Middle East has made to other cultures, and it will largely credited with providing the structure and
examine some of the most significant influences other experience in irrigation that allowed not only the
cultures have had on this region as well. The culinary spread and greater yield of local indigenous produce
variations within this region are also examined, as are but also the inclusion of new foods from distant lands
some common recipes. in the local crops. This increased productivity and
food wealth assisted in the development of more
HISTORIC CULINARY INFLUENCES sophisticated cuisines, such as those that evolved with
the Persian Empire.
Throughout history, the Middle Eastern countries
have spread their influence in the culinary field during The Persian royalty began a tradition of enor-
periods of conquest and invasion. The crusaders who mous feasts that included such familiar foods as polou
descended on this region during the Middle Ages and chelou (two primary methods of Iranian rice cook-
brought some of their own traditions with them, and ery), dolmas and kebabs (techniques acquired from
they stayed in some areas for nearly 200 years. As the Turkish nomads), marzipan and stuffed dates, and the
crusaders returned to Europe, they brought with them use of ingredients such as yogurt, quinces, and honey.
the culinary influences they had experienced during This period also saw the development of the sophisti-
their time in the Middle East. Muslim armies occupied cated and artful use of spices and fine rice cookery in
Spain and Sicily for hundreds of years before, early Persian cuisine, which is still a hallmark of the
throughout, and after the Crusades. Following the cuisine of Iran to this day. Some of the early spices
expulsion of the Arab armies from Spain, the Spanish used by the Persian Empire include cinnamon, cloves,
exported many culinary techniques and ingredients nutmeg, and mace from the Indonesian islands, and
to the Americas (having been influenced themselves cumin, coriander, and fennel from the Mediterranean.
by the Middle Eastern peoples). Throughout these The production of some of the finest long-grain rice—
periods, the customs and cuisines of the Middle East along with the precise method of cooking it—has
spread across much of the world. given Persian/Iranian rice cookery much of its lofty
reputation.
Although Middle Eastern cuisines undoubtedly
have left their mark on many other countries, the The Emergence of Islam
development of these cuisines was also influenced by
other cultures. The following section examines the Prophet Mohammed of Arabia died in the year 632,
more distinct of these influences, including some that and his followers began the spread of the Islamic faith.
are interregional. The Islamic Empire went on to include all of the Mid-
dle East, northern Africa, much of western Asia,
Ancient Greece Spain, Sicily, and parts of Eastern Europe at the height
of its power. During this period, many of the ingredi-
Some of the earliest influences on the development of ents common to the Middle East began to work their
Middle Eastern cuisine came from the Greek incursions way into the cuisines of Europe and Asia. Sugar trav-
into this area during Greece’s rise as a civilization. The eled from India into Europe; rice extended from India
ingredients that were consumed in the Middle East into parts of the Middle East that weren’t already
during this period include cucumbers, melons, leeks, using it (Iran, Syria, and Iraq grew it already) and into
onions, garlic, lentils, fava beans, garbanzo beans, Europe (specifically, Spain). Ingredients that made
olives, figs, grapes, dates, almonds, and walnuts. The their way from the conquered lands into the Middle
Greeks spread many of these ingredients deeper into East included dried and salted fish, honey, and hazel-
the Middle East than their native range, and they took nuts from Eastern Europe; cheeses, wine, chestnuts,
these ingredients back home with them.

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 7

and saffron from the Mediterranean countries; and common throughout the Middle East and beyond dur-
spices such as pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, ing this period, and many of the customs of other
cloves, nutmeg, and mace, which spread further out countries that the Ottomans ruled over flowed into
from their rooted homes in Persia. Turkey as well.

The result of the spread of Islam was not unlike During the reign of the Ottoman Empire, the city
the later discovery of the Americas in the respect that of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) developed into
ingredients, recipes, and techniques from conquered a site of grand culinary feasts and banquets. The rulers
lands flowed into and out of the Middle East. Events of the empire and the nobility held well-documented
such as these cause confusion and debate about the events that included hundreds of dishes and greatly
origins of many dishes that, over time, are adopted impressed visiting guests from Europe and other coun-
and often renamed in many new locations. From a tries. Many of the dishes found in the descriptions of
culinary perspective, everyone won, as is often the these events are enjoyed in countries throughout the
case following any period of unrest and invasion since Middle East today and are embraced as part of this com-
the introduction of new ideas and techniques improves plex cuisine that so many call their own.
the cuisines for all.
UNIQUE COMPONENTS
The other culinary significance of this empire
was the impact that the dietary guidelines or laws that The cuisines of the Middle East differ from cuisines
are part of the Islamic faith have had on the diets of its that are common in the United States in a variety of
followers. Similar to the Jewish faith, which also had ways. These cuisines are ancient and strongly influ-
many followers in the region during this period, Mus- enced by the history, religion, and cultural identities
lims who observed their faith with vigor abstained that unite and divide the populations of the Middle
from eating a number of foods that were common in East. The following section highlights some of the dis-
other Mediterranean cultures at the time. Many Mus- tinct components of these cuisines.
lims avoided pork, shellfish, and alcohol, which was a
notable difference between themselves and the Chris- Influence of Religious Edict
tians in the region. This influence remains one of the
dominant features of Middle Eastern cooking, as most Religious beliefs in the Middle East have had a dra-
Middle Easterners are Muslim and thus followers of matic affect—more than in most other places—on the
the Islamic dietary edicts. diets of the population. Whether this entails the avoid-
ance of pork, alcohol, or any improperly slaughtered
Ottoman Empire animal for a Muslim; the periods of fasting for a fol-
lower of the Jewish faith; or the period of avoidance of
After the fall of the Islamic Empire, a new empire meat during the Lenten months for a Christian,
emerged in the region: the Ottoman Empire. Like the religion reigns strongly in this region of the world.
Islamic Empire before it, this empire also stretched
into Asia and Europe during its height of power. It left The major religion in this region today is Islam;
a lasting impression on these lands, and it felt their its followers are known as Muslims. In the Muslim
influence as well. faith, a number of food edicts exist that greatly influ-
ence the dietary choices of faithful followers. Follow-
The Ottoman Empire was based in present-day ers are required to avoid pork, carnivores, alcohol,
Turkey and included most of the present-day Middle birds of prey, improperly slaughtered animals, and
East, as well as parts of Eastern Europe, northern blood, unless their life is threatened by such avoidance
Africa, and western Asia. This vast empire spread many (such as by starvation or forced feeding). All of these
of its customs and culinary traditions into these lands, foods are considered haram (prohibited) and thus are
and it also brought a number of new ingredients and avoided by strict followers of the faith. On the other
other culinary aspects into Turkey and beyond. hand, Muslims are also encouraged by these edicts to
eat other foods that are considered halal (permitted),
Some of the Turkish culinary contributions that but to eat only for survival and health—self-indulgence
spread with the Ottoman Empire include the simmer- is considered haram. Halal foods include all plant
ing of foods in meat broths, the soup-making tradi- foods, cattle, sheep, goats, camel, venison, rabbits, and
tion, the stuffing of foods (for example, grape leaves), seafood. Muslims are also highly regarded for their
and the honey-soaked pastries for which the Turkish
pastry chefs are renowned. These customs became

8 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

generous hospitality, as it is considered a responsibil- and thus to the dietary habits that accompany close
ity not only to welcome a stranger into your home but adherence to the edicts of these religions.
also to feed that stranger. These edicts are followed by
a large part of the population, and in many ways they The history of this region is part of its very core
not only define the cuisine but also are a significant and identity. The people who live here proudly follow
factor in defining the people. the steps of their ancestors and resist the moderniza-
tion that has occurred in many other parts of the
Israel was formed after World War II to provide a world. There are many examples of foods that are
homeland to the millions of displaced followers of eaten for the observance of religious days or as part of
Judaism, commonly called Jews. Those who are faith- an annual or life ritual, and this history is often visible
ful to the Jewish faith also follow a number of edicts at the table. This connection with the past is a strong
with regard to food that play a significant role in their part of both the character and the culinary habits of
dietary choices. The Jewish faith has many of the same the inhabitants of this storied region.
edicts as the Muslim faith, with some notable excep-
tions. The dietary laws or edicts of Judaism are known Balance of Sweet and Sour
as the laws of kashruth. These laws are some of the
most complex dietary restrictions in the world, and a The cuisines of the Middle East often display a skillful
strict observer follows a custom that ties him or her to art of combining sweet and sour components that
religious brethren from thousands of years ago. balance the acidity of one with the sweetness of
another, to allow the aromas of each to be high-
The laws of kashruth exclude a number of lighted. This unique combination spread from this
foods from the diet and associate many foods with part of the world, as the Persian and (later) the
particular celebrations and other religious days or Ottoman empires spread across Europe and Asia.
periods. The foods that are to be excluded include Many classic European dishes display these combina-
pork, shellfish, fish without scales, crustaceans, birds tions, perhaps as a direct result of the influence of the
of prey, animals that prey on animals or that don’t Middle East.
“chew the cud,” blood, and improperly slaughtered
animals. In addition, milk and meat cannot be eaten Some examples of the sweet ingredients com-
together; thus, dairy and meat are not combined. monly used are figs, dried apricots, dried currants,
There are also many foods connected with religious peaches and pears, sugar, dibs (reduced grape juice),
holidays, as well as foods that are eaten on the Sab- pomegranate molasses, and other syrups. Some of the
bath (Saturday), that tie followers to their faith in sour ingredients common to these cuisines include
culinary matters. sumac, pomegranate seeds, dried limes, lime and
lemon juice, and verjuice (unripe grape juice). Many of
The avoidance of pork, shellfish, and nonkosher these sweet-and-sour components are found in a
foods is perhaps the most noted and distinct difference number of preparations in Middle Eastern cuisine,
from the diets of many Europeans and Americans, but including in many meat dishes, a characteristic that
the observance of religious periods throughout the often helps to identifty foods from this region. These
year—and the foods that are associated with those contrasting elements are used with great skill in these
periods—are of equal significance, and diverge from cuisines, and the unique combinations can be seen in
what is commonly practiced in many other parts of many dishes—from rice dishes to stews and even
the world. desserts.

History Baking, Simmering, Stewing,
and Fire Roasting
This region has made some of the most important
contributions to the culinary world. It was here that The cooking methods most common to the cuisine of
agriculture is believed to have originated in the eastern the Middle East include baking, simmering, stewing,
world, bread was first produced, beer was first fermented, and fire roasting. Historically, much of the cooking in
yogurt was accidentally made, and the three major the Middle East has been done over an open fire or fire
religions and their dietary restrictions originated. The source or in a communal oven, and these methods are
historic importance of this region to the religions of employed in the majority of methods from this region.
Islam, Judaism, and Christianity have made this region
home to many of the strictest followers of those religions, Today, foods are often cooked in an oven at
home, although in many rural parts of the Middle

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 9

East, the communal oven is still in use. Bread is this region and its role in many conquests throughout
included with each meal, and this baking tradition history but also in that it became the route through
has lent itself to the many slow-simmered stews and which spices from the Orient traveled to Europe.
braised dishes that can be cooked using the same heat
source used to bake the bread. Spices from India, Indonesia, and China all
passed through the Middle East in a lucrative trade
The outdoor fire pit that was so common to with European countries that occurred for hundreds
nomadic herdsmen—from whom the ancestors of of years before being circumvented by the Portuguese
these areas originated—is still a part of the cuisine (to some degree) when they discovered a sea route
today. Many kebabs and fire-roasted eggplant dishes around Africa in the late fifteenth century. Prior to this
that are common to Middle Eastern cuisine hark time, and continuing after it at a less feverish pace, the
back to the days of the Turkish tribes and other countries of the Middle East were permeated with such
nomads that roamed these parts in ancient history. spices as cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, peppercorns,
tamarind, ginger, turmeric, and mace, which traveled
Wheat and Rice: Grains of Life in large caravans across the region. Not surprisingly,
the people of the Middle East became experts on how
Rice and wheat make up the majority of the diet to use these spices over time, and the incorporation of
within this region. Wheat is grown extensively many spices into the cuisine of the Persian Empire
throughout the Middle East, and rice is grown in pock- and, later, the Ottoman Empire cemented the use of
ets where ample water is found in more localized these spices in the dishes of the Middle East. These
regions, Iran in particular. Bread is the most common spices are mixed with the spices indigenous to the area,
starch used in the Middle East, and it plays an impor- which include fennel, coriander, and cumin, resulting
tant role in the daily meal patterns of most homes. in a taste that has long been appreciated by visitors
Flatbreads are used as a utensil in the typical meal, from other countries. The use of these spices, along
and as such they are part of most meals. with the spices of the Americas that were introduced
later (chiles and allspice being the most significant),
Bread is sacred in the Middle East; a piece of has resulted in many spice blends common to Middle
bread dropped on the ground will surely be picked up Eastern cooking today.
by the next passerby, who will place it out of harm’s
way while reciting a prayer. Many varieties of bread SIGNIFICANT SUBREGIONS
are found here, but most of them are yeast-leavened
flatbreads that accompany every meal. Wheat is also The Middle East has been home to some of the
used in the form of bulgur and couscous in many greatest empires, as well as some of the greatest
parts of the Middle East. internal unrest. Although borders have shifted and
countries’ names have changed, with regard to
Rice has similar importance in the parts of the cuisine the Middle East consists of the following four
Middle East where it is the focal point of most meals. major regions.
In parts of Iran and Turkey, rice is used to make the
famous polous, chelous, and pilafs that these coun- Persia/Iran
tries are known for around the world. The preferred
rice in these countries is aromatic long-grain rice, Iran is home to one of the most storied and historic of
which is often replaced with basmati when these dishes all of the cuisines of the Middle East, because the Per-
are made in the United States. The varieties that are sian Empire—which rose to prominence before the
grown in the Middle East differ from those available in modern calendar—developed one of the first great
the United States, as very little of the highest grades of cuisines. This cuisine has had a major impact on the
rice in the Middle East ever make it out of the coun- development of the cuisines of all of the other Middle
tries in which they are grown (mostly Iran). Some of Eastern countries and beyond.
the highest-prized rice varieties in Iran are ambar-boo,
darbari, and sadri, and these are usually sought out to Iran is situated between the Persian Gulf and
make polou and chelou dishes. the Gulf of Oman to the south and the Caspian Sea to
the north, with Iraq and Turkey along its western
Spices border and Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan
along the border to the east. Because of its location
The Middle East’s position between Asia and Europe has
played a significant role not only in the development of

10 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

between the other Middle Eastern countries, and as (central Turkey) and eastern Turkish cuisines, which
the gateway to Asia, Iran has long been a strategic have greater ties to Arab neighbors. Of these different
country that has influenced—and been influenced styles, the Ottoman culinary contributions are clearly
by—these neighbors in all matters. more significant in terms of influence over other subre-
gions included in this chapter. The Ottoman Empire
Iran is a mountainous country; the large Zagros once incorporated nearly all of the Middle East and
Mountains run along the western border with Turkey beyond, and during its reign it developed a level of
and Iraq, and down along the Persian Gulf. Another sophistication and a culture of lavish feasts that have
mountain range called the Elburz Mountains, which rarely been replicated anywhere in the world.
ring the shores of the Caspian Sea, dominates the
northern portion of the country. The central region of Geographically, Turkey is often referred to as the
Iran is dominated by a vast semi-arid interior plateau, gateway between the east and the west, as Turkey bor-
which is used primarily as pasture for sheep and goats. ders Europe in the west and the Middle East and Asia
in the east. Turkey is a large country that separates
The northern section of Iran is the most popu- the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, as well as
lated and also the most fertile, with significant pro- bordering Greece and Bulgaria in the western part of
duction of citrus, pistachios, wheat, sadri rice (similar the country, and Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Iraq, and
to basmati), melons, eggplants, and other vegetables. Syria in the eastern part of the country. The northern,
This region has a temperate climate and receives a sig- eastern, and southern sections of Turkey are moun-
nificant amount of moisture in the mountains, which tainous, whereas the western portion mostly consists
provides irrigation to the valleys below. In this region, of valleys surrounded by the waterways that connect
a long tradition of fishing produces some of the the Black and Mediterranean seas. Turkey is a fertile
world’s finest beluga caviar from sturgeon from the country, with significant portions of its land used to
Caspian Sea. raise crops of hazelnuts, olives, grapes, figs, sugar
beets, wheat, and citrus. With multiple seas on its bor-
The southern section of Iran is considerably ders, Turkey is also provided with abundant catches
more arid and has a warmer climate than the north; from these waters; swordfish, tuna, turbot, bonito,
production of dates and citrus is more significant in and anchovies are a few of the prized catches.
this region. The Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman
provide a significant amount of seafood, including The Ottoman Empire began its rise in Turkey in
swordfish, tuna, and shrimp, which are caught in the thirteenth century and continued to rise in promi-
abundance when the stocks are healthy (wars have nence and influence during the following centuries.
had a significant effect on fisheries here). In its grandest years, during the eighteenth century,
elaborate banquets were held in the capital of Con-
The cooking of Iran in many ways still resembles stantinople (present-day Istanbul). During this time,
that of the ancient Persian Empire, with rice dishes the court cuisine of the empire included a virtual
such as polou and cholou still adorning tables, accom- army of chefs and cooks creating a large variety of
panied by kebabs and eaten by hand with breads like specialties that are still common today, as well as in
lavash and barbari. The tradition of making fine pas- many countries that were encompassed by the empire.
tries like baklava and freezing cordials to make sharbat Some of the specialties that were made during this
(sherbet) is also a consistent part of Iranian cuisine. period include kebabs, sherbets, pilafs, jams, and soups,
as well as many types of halvas. The Ottoman influ-
Iranian cuisine has been held in high regard for ence and style includes a penchant for stuffing foods,
centuries for the quality of the rice dishes created here; such as dolmas and stuffed eggplant or peppers, as
the expertise in baking and pastry, including breads well as a great tradition of pastries.
and fine sweetmeats that have spread from Iran into
the rest of the Middle East and Greece; the expertise in On the other hand, the nomadic inhabitants
combining meats with sweet and sour ingredients; and also contributed greatly to the cuisine of the Middle
the deft touch in using the many spices that have trav- East with their practice of grilling foods over a fire
eled across this land from Asia on their way to Europe. with metal skewers (kebabs) and their production of
yogurt. Yogurt is believed to have been discovered and
Turkey popularized by the nomadic people of eastern Turkey,
who also are credited with the introduction of kebabs
Turkish cuisine really includes two main cuisines under (the term is Persian, but the method is believed to have
one roof: the classic Ottoman cuisine that developed
with the great Ottoman Empire during the Middle Ages
and beyond, and the significantly different Anatolian

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 11

been popularized by Turkish tribesmen). The cuisine Ashkenazi Jews have many culinary traditions
of the central and eastern portions of Turkey tends to that mirror the lands they lived in, including borscht,
be spicier and more rustic, and it relies heavily on the goulash, knishes, potato latkes, and gefilte. The Ashke-
use of wheat—mainly in the form of bread and bul- nazi adopted the food customs of the European and
gur (burghul)—lamb, yogurt, and pulses, of which Asian countries they immigrated to, making adjust-
lentils and chickpeas are the most common. ments to some of the foods to follow the dietary edicts
of kashruth, such as replacing pork with poultry when
With its contributions from both the Ottoman making schnitzels. There were (and still are) signifi-
Empire and some of the nomadic herdsmen, Turkey cant numbers of Jewish immigrants in Germany and
has had a major influence on the cuisine of not only the Russia, as well as in eastern and central European
Middle East but many other parts of the world as well. countries, and those who immigrated to Israel brought
the food customs of these countries with them.
Israel
In the case of the Sephardi Jews, the culinary
Israel was created as a homeland for displaced Jews customs are much different; these groups have devel-
after World War II, and in culinary and cultural terms oped primarily alongside Muslim men and women.
it is quite different from the other countries of the Mid- The Sephardi Jews came from other countries in the
dle East. The creation of Israel as a Jewish homeland Middle East, as well as North Africa and India. Their
contrasts its population sharply with that of its neigh- culinary practices are much like those of the Middle
bors, all of which have a majority population of Mus- East, with dishes such as tabbouleh, falafel, hummus,
lims. The population of Israel also is made up primarily baba ghanoush, polou, and other classic Middle Eastern
of immigrants who returned to their native land from dishes serving as mainstays of their diet as well.
all over Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and the
Americas. Both the religious differences and the role The cuisine of Israel is one of constant evolu-
of immigrants (and the cuisines that they brought tion, because of the influences from these two main
with them) play a significant role in making this cui- groups of Jews and the many countries from which
sine unique from the others in the Middle East. they have come. In many ways, this development mir-
rors that of the United States, where significant immi-
Two main branches of Judaism have resulted grant populations contribute to creativity and an
from the periods of Jewish migration out of the Middle abundance of styles. These groups of immigrants also
East. Because of the significant amount of migration are coming to learn to understand and appreciate the
throughout history of followers of the Jewish faith, cultures and specialties of one another, resulting in a
the Jewish culture developed very differently depend- cuisine of inclusion that inspires chefs as they form a
ing on what part of the world the followers lived in. A culinary identity.
general delineation of these groups based on where
they lived includes Sephardi Jews and Ashkenazi Jews. The Fertile Crescent and Egypt
The followers who migrated into Eastern Europe,
Russia, and the Caucasus are known as Ashkenazi The area known as the Fertile Crescent includes the
Jews. The other groups, known as Sephardi Jews, are countries of Iraq, Jordon, Syria, and Lebanon. These
those who once settled in India and other Asian countries, along with Egypt, have similar culinary
countries, northern Africa, Middle Eastern countries, customs. The Fertile Crescent is regarded by many as
Spain, and southern Italy. The significant difference the cradle of civilization, because historical evidence
between these two groups is that most of the coun- indicates that settled communities with complex
tries in which the Ashkenazi Jews settled were social structures began here. Egypt is also a region
Christian countries that, for the most part, persecuted with an ancient history, and the ancestors of this
the Jews when they lived there, whereas the Sephardi country played important roles in the development of
Jews lived in mostly Muslim countries (Spain and its early cuisines as well.
parts of Italy were once under Arab rule) and were
more accepted by the Muslim populations than were The Fertile Crescent is so named because
their relatives in the Christian world. Because of these humans are believed to have first cultivated wheat
differences, the two groups have very divergent cui- and domesticated sheep here; it may also have been
sines; both groups are represented in present-day the first region to develop a written language. The
Israel in major proportions (the Sephardi Jews are a methods of using olives to extract oil and grapes to
slight majority). make wine are also believed to have been a part of
very early forms of civilization in this region.

12 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Similarly, Egypt is well known as the birthplace the local crops. The exception to this is the fertile val-
of both bread and beer, two techniques that forever ley in southern Iraq that surrounds the rivers of the
changed the course of humankind. Leeks, onions, Euphrates and Tigris and the region of the Nile River
okra, and fava beans all were indigenous to this region, in Egypt. These river valleys produce many of the
and their incorporation into the cooking of the ancient fruits and vegetables for these countries, including cit-
Egyptians can still be seen there today. rus, pomegranates, squashes, beans, olives, grapes,
and stone fruits. The more arid regions are turned
These regions are steeped in history; without over to grain crops such as wheat, millet, and barley
their important developments, much of what we for raising sheep, as well as the production of dates,
know as food today wouldn’t exist.The Fertile Crescent which were once (and still are for small groups of
and Egypt share a common religion, Islam, and have nomadic people) a food relied on for sustenance.
many of the same culinary practices as well. In the
Fertile Crescent, bread is a part of every meal (usually These countries have developed what is often
one of the many styles of Arab flatbreads, and often referred to as an Arab cuisine that is steeped in history
seasoned with za’atar, a spice blend); in Egypt, bread is and religious culture. Great respect is given to the gen-
also a staple and is likely to be flatbread called battawa erations that came before, and the customs that are
and probably seasoned with fenugreek. Sweets such passed on from one generation to the next are followed
as halvas (sweetmeats) are common in both regions, with pride and skill. In this region, the cuisine is con-
as is the use of bulgur (called burghul). sidered an important aspect of historic identity.

There are some important differences among RECIPES
these regions, as well. In the Fertile Crescent, the use
of rice in dishes such as pilafs and lamb in dishes such The following recipes provide an introduction to the
as kibbeh (lamb and bulgur paste), or in making fillings cuisines of the Middle East by revealing some of the
such as hashwa (seasoned lamb and rice), is more more common and significant types of food found in
common. In Egypt, couscous is a very common use of this region. Many more recipes could have been
wheat, and pulses such as fava beans (called fool or ful) included in this section, and further exploration of
and lentils make up a more significant part of the diet. this cuisine will yield additional recipes that—together
with these—make up these storied cuisines.
With regard to climate, this region is now mostly
arid desert that relies heavily on irrigation to produce

*Baharat MIDDLE EAST As in many other cuisines, spice blends are commonly used in Middle
(SPICE BLEND) Eastern recipes. This blend provides the typical flavor profile of many
Ingredients Arab dishes and works well for a number of recipes, including the
preserved lamb fat recipe in this chapter.
1 Tbsp Whole Black Peppercorns
Yield: 1/3 cup
2 tsp Whole Coriander Seeds
Cooking Method: Dry Toasting of Whole Spices
1 Tbsp Whole Cumin Seeds
Procedure
1/2 tsp Whole Cloves 1. In a small sauté pan, toast the whole spices over a low flame until
the spices become fragrant.
1 tsp Cardamom, ground 2. Once fragrant, remove them from the heat and allow them to cool
at room temperature. Transfer the spices to a spice mill with the
1 tsp Cinnamon, ground other ingredients, and grind to a smooth mixture.
3. Store in a tightly covered container in a cool, dry, and dark place until use.
1 tsp Nutmeg, ground

2 tsp Limu, ground (dried Persian
lime, also called loumi; if
unavailable, dried lime
zest can be used as a
replacement)

1 Tbsp Paprika

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 13

*Za’atar MIDDLE EAST This spice blend is common throughout the Middle East, where it is
(MIDDLE EASTERN SPICE BLEND) used to season flatbread dipped in olive oil and as a seasoning mixture
in recipes. This is a wet version in which fresh herbs are used and
Ingredients are emulsified with olive oil, yielding a somewhat different version of the
3 oz Sesame Seeds, toasted Middle Eastern classic. The traditional za’atar is made by crushing dried
2 oz Shallots, minced herbs between the hands, sifting the resulting powder, and combining it
1 tsp Salt with sumac and crushed sesame seeds to yield a dry and coarse mixture
2 oz Sumac that can be used.
4 oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil
Yield: 12 ounces
1.5 Tbsp Fresh Thyme, minced
1.5 Tbsp Fresh Oregano, minced Mixing Method: Emulsion Using Mortar and Pestle

2 Tbsp Fresh Parsley, minced Procedure
1. Using a pestle, crush the sesame seeds until they turn into a paste.

2. Add the shallots and salt to the mortar, and continue to grind
ingredients until a paste is formed.

3. Add the sumac to the mortar, and slowly grind the sumac into
the shallot/sesame paste while slowly drizzling in the extra virgin
olive oil.

4. Once all of the olive oil has been incorporated, mix in the minced
herbs and grind slightly more to draw out some of the flavors of the
herbs into the paste. Store the unused za’atar in a well-sealed
container, away from heat and light, when not being used.

*Za’atar MIDDLE EAST This version of the popular spice blend is more like the traditional one
(MIDDLE EASTERN SPICE BLEND) found in most Middle Eastern homes; it is used to season the flatbread
that is common throughout the cuisines.
Ingredients
1 oz Sesame Seeds Yield: 1 cup
1 oz (by weight!) Dried Oregano
Crushing Method: Hand Crushing and Sieving
1/2 oz (by weight!) Dried Thyme
1.5 Tbsp Sumac, ground Procedure
1. Preheat oven to 325°F.
1 Tbsp Kosher Salt 2. Place the sesame seeds in the oven, on a baking sheet, and bake for
3 to 4 minutes or until seeds just begin to color. Remove the sesame
seeds from the oven, and set them aside to cool.
3. Make sure that the dried herbs being used are good quality and
have a nice, strong aroma. If they are old and smell musty or are
unidentifiable, discard them and start with newly dried herbs.
(continues)

14 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Za’atar 4. Crush the herbs using clean, sanitized, and dry hands over a drum
(continued) sieve or a sifter set over a mixing bowl to catch the sifted/sieved
particles.

5. Pick up all of the particles that do not sift through the sieve or sifter
and crush again, using your hands, until most or nearly all of the
herb pieces have been sieved or sifted.

6. Combine the sumac and salt with the crushed herbs, and add the
now-cooled and toasted sesame seeds to the mixture; mix well.

7. Store any unused za’atar in a tightly sealed container in a cool, dry
place.

*Qawrama SYRIA, LEBANON, AND IRAQ
(PRESERVED LAMB FAT)
Ingredients Qawrama is a common cooking medium in both vegetable and meat

8 oz Lamb Stew Meat (or dishes in Arab cuisine, and it provides a unique flavor to dishes. In the
trimmings from other cuts) Middle East, the species of sheep commonly used are varieties that

2 lbs Lamb Fat (fat taken from have very thick and fatty tails—the tails are used to make this fat. A
racks, trimmed from legs or significant amount of salt is used in making this, to assist in preserva-
other fat, can be used to tion, which needs to be taken into consideration when this fat is used.
replace the tail fat from the This fat can be used to cook lamb kafta or any of the many meat and
Middle Eastern variety)

1 Tbsp + 1 tsp Kosher or Sea Salt dried fruit stews that are common to Middle Eastern cuisine; it provides

1 tsp Freshly Ground Black Pepper additional flavor and texture.

2 Tbsp Baharat Spice Blend Yield: 1 to 1.5 pounds (depending on rendering and trimmings used)

Cooking Method (Meat Trimmings): Searing

Cooking Method (Lamb Fat): Slow Rendering

Procedure

1. Heat a heavy-bottomed pot or pan over a medium-high flame until
hot, and add the lamb stew meat or other trimmings to the pan,
along with a small amount of the lamb fat. Sear over the heat until
the meat pieces are well browned all over.

2. Turn the heat down to a low flame and add the remaining lamb fat.
Render the fat very slowly to extract as much liquid fat from the
trimmings as possible (this will take at least 2 hours).

3. Once it appears that all of the fat has been rendered, add the salt,
black pepper, and baharat, cover the pot or pan, and continue to
cook over a very low flame for an additional 2 hours (can also be
transferred to an oven set at 200–225°F for this period).

4. Once the mixture has cooked for a total of at least 4 hours (a couple
hours longer is fine), remove the pot or pan from the oven or stove,
and strain the fat through cheesecloth and into a storage container.
Set aside to cool.

5. Once cooled, this fat can be kept covered in a cool, dark place for a
least a few months (just check to make sure there is no water in the
bottom of the container, which will hasten spoilage).

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 15

*Dibs Rim’an LEBANON/SYRIA There are several types of pomegranates in the Middle East, and some of
(POMEGRANATE MOLASSES)
Ingredients

24 Pomegranates, seeds the sour varieties are used to make a thick syrup that is used to season a
removed and retained variety of dishes, including combinations with eggplant and muhammara,

1 qt Water a seasoned walnut paste that is enjoyed with flatbread in Lebanon.

12 oz Sugar Yield: About 3 cups
4 oz Lemon Juice Cooking Method: Slow Simmering/Poaching

Procedure

1. Remove the skin of the pomegranates, and remove the majority of
the white membrane that separates the segmented seed sections
within the pomegranates.

2. Place all of the seeds into a pot just large enough to hold them,
with only a couple of inches above the seeds (to the rim of the pot).

3. Add the remaining ingredients to the pot, and place the pot over a
medium flame to bring the mixture to a gentle simmer.

4. Once the mixture reaches a gentle simmer, turn the heat down to a
very low flame to very slowly reduce the mixture, pressing occa-
sionally with a slotted spoon or potato masher to force the juice
from all of the seeds.

5. Continue to cook over a low flame for 2 hours, and then remove the
pot from the stove. Strain the contents through a fine china cap
into a smaller pot, pressing all of the seeds to extract as much liquid
from them as possible.

6. Once all of the liquid has been captured, return it to the stove and
bring it back to a gentle simmer over a medium-low flame. Con-
tinue to reduce until the mixture begins to thicken slightly and
reaches a temperature of 200°F.

7. Remove from heat once the temperature reaches 200°F, place in
sterilized jars, and immediately put on lids.

8. Allow the jars to sit upright for 2 minutes, and then turn them
upside down to sterilize them. The pomegranate molasses can be
stored at room temperature until opened, at which time it will need
to be refrigerated.

*Torshi Limu IRAN/PERSIA These Persian specialties are a common accompaniment to many com-
(PICKLED LIMES)
Ingredients

4 lbs Limes (about 20 limes) mon Persian dishes, such as polous and kebabs, and they are pretty

1.5 qts Distilled Vinegar or White easy to make. Use seedless limes, and only make these during drier
Wine Vinegar months of the year to prevent potential spoilage.

8 oz Kosher Salt Yield: Two 1-quart Jars (about 3 pounds of finished limes)

(continues)

16 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Torshi Limu Preservation Techniques: Salting, Air Drying, and Final Preservation in
(continued) Acidic Vinegar

Procedure

1. Using a grating tool, grate off all of the green zest of the limes by
rubbing them against the grater; set the zest aside.

2. Combine the zest from the limes and the vinegar, and transfer this
to a couple of mason jars or another suitable storage container; set
aside in a refrigerator until the limes are ready (at least a few days).

3. Once all of the limes have had their zest removed, roll the limes in
the kosher salt until they are completely covered. Transfer them to
a stainless steel or aluminum wire drying rack, and allow them to
sit for 20 minutes.

4. After the limes have sat for 20 minutes, roll them again in the salt
so that they are liberally covered, and then set the rack either
outside in the sun (protected from pests by netting or cheesecloth
but still exposed to open air through the cloth) or in a very warm,
dry room to allow the limes to dry completely. This may take a
number of days (the amount of time needed to cure the limes will
depend on the humidity and the temperature of the ambient air).
The limes should be dry and hard to the touch.

5. Once the limes are dried out, brush the excess salt from the surface
of the limes and pack them into the two 1-quart mason jars or
other suitable storage containers that contain the lime-zest–infused
vinegar.

*Taratoor MIDDLE EAST This versatile sauce is common throughout the Middle East, where it is
(SESAME SAUCE) used as a dip for fried foods, as a seasoning in other recipes, and to
Ingredients accompany fish.

1 oz Garlic Cloves, minced Yield: 1 quart
1.5 tsp Salt
14 oz Tahini Paste Mixing Method: Emulsification by Whisking
Lemon Juice, chilled
6 oz Cold Water Procedure
12 oz 1. Using a mortar and pestle,
combine the salt and garlic
Crushing the garlic with salt for the first cloves and turn to a paste
step of the Taratoor sauce by grinding.

2. Transfer the garlic/salt
mixture to a mixing bowl
and add the tahini paste.

3. Using a whisk, beat in the
lemon juice and then slowly
beat in the cold water—a Finished Taratoor sauce; note the
small amount at a time—to consistency
yield a thick, creamy sauce.

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 17

*Baba Ghanoush ARAB COUNTRIES
(EGGPLANT PURÉE WITH SESAME AND LEMON)
Ingredients This well-known vegetable purée is often served as a starter as part of

3 lbs Eggplant a mezze table and is common in all of the Arab countries of the Middle
2 oz Olive Oil East, where eggplants are held in high esteem.

4 oz Taratoor sauce (see recipe) Yield: 3 pounds
5 oz Lemon Juice Cooking Method (Initial): Fire Roasting
.5 oz Garlic Cloves, minced Cooking Method (Secondary): Oven Roasting
1 Tbsp Salt

3 oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil Procedure
Salt and Taratoor, to taste 1. Preheat oven to 325°F.

2. Using a sharp paring knife, pierce each of the eggplants 4 or
5 times, in various places on each.

3. Coat the outside of the eggplants with the olive oil (not the extra
virgin).

4. Place a metal skewer through each of the eggplants and char all
over, over an open flame (you can use burners on the stove or open
fire for this step).

5. Place the charred eggplants on a sheet pan, and put them in the
preheated oven. Bake for 15 minutes or until eggplant becomes soft
throughout.

6. Remove the eggplant from the oven and, once it is cool enough to
handle, remove the charred exterior; place the interior on a cutting
board, and mince to a pulp.

7. Transfer the pulpy interior to a mixing bowl, and mash in the
taratoor sauce, lemon juice, minced garlic, salt, and extra virgin
olive to form a purée.

8. Adjust seasoning, if necessary.

*Fool Mudammas EGYPT Fool mudammas is a very popular Egyptian breakfast dish that is eaten
(MASHED AND SPICED FAVA BEANS)
Ingredients

1 lb Dried Small Fava Beans (called throughout the Middle East today. The type of fava bean (also called
fool misri ), soaked overnight broad bean) that is used to make this has a brown skin and is smaller

1 oz Garlic Cloves than the typical dried fava bean found in the United States. Look for

1.5 tsp Salt smaller fava beans, if possible, and serve with a flatbread and olive oil.
1 tsp Fresh Dill, minced Yield: 2.25 pounds, or 8 portions (4–5 ounces/portion)
1 Tbsp Fresh Parsley, minced Cooking Method: Simmering
2 Tbsp Tahini

2 oz Lemon Juice Procedure
4 oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil
Salt, Tahini, and Lemon Juice, 1. Drain the soaking beans and place them in a small pot; cover with
to taste fresh water, by a couple of inches, and bring to a boil over high
heat.

(continues)

18 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Fool Mudammas 2. Once the beans come to a boil, reduce the heat to a gentle simmer
(continued) and continue to simmer beans until they are tender throughout
(the amount of time will depend on the size of the beans).

3. Once the beans are cooked through, drain them and transfer to a
mixing bowl; set aside.

4. Using a mortar and pestle, crush the garlic and salt together to
form a paste.

5. Once a paste has been formed, mix in the minced herbs and tahini,
using a spoon to combine.

6. Mash some of the cooked beans by pressing them with the tines of
a fork while also working in the garlic and tahini paste from the
previous step.

7. Stir the lemon juice into the beans, and slowly drizzle in the olive oil
while mixing to fully incorporate it.

8. Taste the mixture and adjust seasoning, if necessary; serve warm
with flatbread.

Three common Middle Eastern preparations, clockwise from upper left: baba ghanoush, tabbouleh,
flatbread with no topping, and fool mudammas, and all served on flatbread

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 19

*Ta’amia or Falafel EGYPT This is an ancient dish that has been popular in Egypt—and now the
(SPICED FAVA BEAN FRITTER) rest of the Middle East—for centuries. Fava beans have a tough skin on
Ingredients the outside that covers the two segments of the inner beans, and this
recipe requires dried beans that have had that part removed prior to
2 lbs Dried, Skinless Fava Beans drying. These are white-grey in color and may be labeled “split fava” (or
1.5 Tbsp Cumin Seeds, whole “broad”) beans. If only the typical brown-skinned variety that still con-
tains the skin is available, it will be necessary to cook the beans for a bit
1 Tbsp Coriander Seeds, whole to soften them, and the resulting strained and puréed paste will need to
2 oz Garlic Cloves be pushed through a drum sieve to remove the skins.
1 Tbsp Salt
2 tsp Baking Powder Yield: Approximately 32 two-ounce Falafels
12 oz Yellow Onion, grated and
Preparation Method (Fava Beans): 24-Hour Soaking
drained
1/2 bunch Green Onion, minced Preparation Method (Spices): Dry Toasting

1 cup Packed Parsley Leaves, Cooking Method: Panfrying
minced

1 cup Packed Cilantro Leaves,
minced
Salt, to taste

16 oz Vegetable Oil (for pan-frying), Procedure
or as needed
1. Soak the fava beans for a full day in ample cold water (cover by at
least 3 inches; they will expand).

2. Drain the fava beans once they have soaked for a full day, and set them
on a sheet tray to air-dry slightly while other ingredients are prepared.

3. In a small sauté pan, dry-toast the whole spices over a low flame
until they become fragrant. Once cool, grind them in a spice mill or
coffee grinder to a powder, and then set aside.

4. Using a mortar and pestle, crush the garlic cloves with the salt to
form a paste, and then set aside.

Falafel served with Taratoor sauce 5. Using a food processor, turn the soaked split fava beans,
ground spices, garlic salt paste, baking powder, and grated
onion into a smooth paste/dough.

6. Mix in the remaining ingredients, and test for seasoning and
consistency by frying a small amount in the preheated fryer;
taste.

7. Adjust seasoning or consistency (using flour or water), if
necessary.

8. Once mixture is ready, divide the paste/dough into approxi-
mately 2-oz portions and set aside.

9. Heat 2 oz of the vegetable oil in a sauté pan over a medium-
high flame, and pan-fry a few falafel at a time in the hot oil
until golden brown on both sides.

10. Drain the fried falafel on paper towels, and serve while still hot.

11. Continue with steps 9 and 10 using the remaining oil and
portioned fritter paste until all of the falafel has been cooked.

NOTE: These are often coated in sesame seeds and may be served with
hummus bi tahini (see recipe in Chapter 2, “Greek Cuisine”) or Taratoor
sauce. These are commonly made using cooked chickpeas (or garbanzo
beans) in place of the fava beans as well.

20 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Tabbouleh LEBANON/PALESTINE
(BULGUR AND HERB SALAD)
Ingredients This well-known salad utilizes the abundant and very common fresh

1 lb Bulgur, Fine or Medium (size herbs that are used in the fertile Mediterranean region of the Middle

will dictate soaking time) East. Bulgur, wheat that is cooked, dried, and then cracked to varying

2 cups Parsley Leaves, packed sizes, is also a common ingredient in this part of the Middle East.
(about 2.5–3 bunches) and Yield: 2.25 pounds, or 9–10 portions (approximately 4 ounces each)
then minced

1.5 cups Mint Leaves, packed (about Method (Bulgur): Rehydration
2 bunches) and then minced
Procedure
1/2 cup Green Onions, minced 1. Soak the bulgur in cool water until the grains are soft and hydrated
(usually less than 10 minutes for medium grain bulgur; be sure to
8 oz Ripe Tomato, seeds removed
and diced small

1 tsp Salt get bulgur and not cracked wheat, which has not been precooked

1/4 tsp Freshly Ground Black Pepper and would need to be cooked if using in place of bulgur).

3 oz Lemon Juice 2. Drain the grains once they are hydrated, and set aside.

5 oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil 3. Place the minced herbs, green onion, and tomato in a mixing bowl;
add the hydrated bulgur, and toss to combine well.
Salt, Pepper, Lemon Juice,
and Olive Oil, to taste 4. Add the salt and pepper to the bowl; while mixing with a spoon,

add in the lemon juice to distribute well.

5. Add in the extra virgin olive oil while mixing.

6. Taste and adjust seasoning, if necessary.

7. Serve the tabbouleh over whole romaine leaves, or cut up the
romaine lettuce and use it as a bed for presentation.

NOTE: Tabbouleh is traditionally served with Arab flatbread.

*Kibbeh LEBANON AND SYRIA This is considered one of the best dishes throughout much of the Middle
(POUNDED LAMB AND WHEAT)
Ingredients

For the Lamb Mixture East, and it is prized for its quality of ingredients—much as the similar
steak tartare is prized in European cuisine. This is traditionally made by
2 lbs Very Lean Lamb (such as loin) pounding together the meat and the soaked bulgur wheat to produce a
7 oz paste that is then seasoned and served with traditional Arab flatbread.
Bulgur Wheat, fine or
medium

3 cups Very Cold Water However, because this is an impractical procedure for most kitchens, the

1 tsp Freshly Ground Black Pepper following recipe calls for freshly ground lamb instead of pounded lamb. If

1 tsp Allspice, ground the traditional texture is desired (it has a pastier texture due to the pounding

1/4 tsp Cinnamon, ground versus grinding), it can be achieved by pounding the lamb and soaked

1/4 tsp Cayenne Pepper, ground bulgur using a large mortar and pestle. Because this is an uncooked rec-

2 tsp Salt ipe that uses meat, it is very important to buy high-quality meat from a
3 oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil respected purveyor and follow strict sanitary guidelines throughout.
Salt and Freshly Ground
Black Pepper, to taste NOTE: Be sure to wash and sanitize all equipment and hands when making

this dish.

Yield: 8 portions (5 ounces/portion)
Special Method: Fine Sanitary Grinding of Raw Meat

(continues)

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 21

*Kibbeh Procedure
(continued) 1. Ensure that all equipment is cleaned and sanitized, and then place
grinder parts into a freezer (for at least an hour) and allow them to
For Serving get very cold.

2 Tbsp Minced Parsley 2. Go over the lamb to see if there is any significant fat or
1 Tbsp Minced Fresh Mint connective tissue that can be removed, and do so if necessary
2 oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil (this may mean you will need to get more lamb if some is
discarded or removed).

3. In a bowl large enough to hold the bulgur and water, combine the
two and allow the bulgur to soak for 15 minutes. Remove and
strain through cheesecloth, and squeeze out any excess water; set
aside the soaked bulgur.

4. Cut the lamb into strips that will fit into the food grinder; grind
through the medium plate, catching all of the ground lamb in a
bowl set over ice to keep it very cold.

5. Run the ground lamb through the grinder again, this time
using a fine plate to yield a very finely ground lean lamb. Once
done, cover the ground lamb and set it in the refrigerator until
called for next.

6. Using a mortar and pestle, grind together the soaked bulgur, spices,
and salt to form a paste.

7. Transfer the spice and bulgur paste to the ground lamb and,
using clean and sanitized hands, mix the two together very
well.

8. While mixing the lamb/bulgur mixture, slowly drizzle the 3 oz of
extra virgin olive oil into the mixture, to incorporate and emulsify
into the meat and wheat mixture.

9. Taste the mixture for seasoning and adjust, if necessary, with salt
and pepper.

10. To serve, place 5 oz of the kibbeh on a serving plate (it is often
formed into a smooth mound but could be shaped however the
chef prefers), and garnish/season with the minced parsley
and mint.

11. Drizzle a little of the extra virgin olive oil over each portion, and
serve immediately.

NOTE: Kibbeh is traditionally served with Arab flatbread, which can be made
for this, or pita bread can be used as an adequate substitute.

22 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Etli Biber Dolmasi TURKEY
(STUFFED GREEN PEPPERS)
Ingredients Turkish cuisine is well known for its stuffed dishes, including this one.

10 Green Bell Peppers Yield: 10 portions; one stuffed pepper/portion (about 10–12 ounces each)
24 oz Ground Lamb
Cooking Method: Baking
2 cups Rice, long grain (uncooked)
3 oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil Procedure
10 oz Yellow Onion, diced small 1. Preheat oven to 350°F.
1 oz Garlic Cloves, minced
1 cup Packed Parsley, minced 2. Clean the peppers in fresh running water, taking care to clean the
area by the stem.
(about 1/2 bunch)
3 Tbsp Oregano, minced (about 3. Cut the tops off of the peppers, removing approximately 1/2 inch
from the top, and set aside.
1/4 bunch)
6 oz Tomato Paste 4. Remove the seeds and inner membrane of the pepper: use a paring
1 Tbsp Cumin, ground knife to cut away the flaps of membrane coming from each of the
1/4 tsp Cayenne Pepper pepper segments, and pull them out.
2 tsp Salt
1/2 tsp Freshly Ground Black Pepper 5. In a mixing bowl, combine the ground lamb, rice, olive oil, onion,
1 qt Water garlic, parsley, oregano, tomato paste, cumin, cayenne, salt, and
pepper, and mix thoroughly to combine. Stuff the mixture into the
cavity at the bottom of the green peppers, dividing it evenly among
all of the peppers.

6. Place the stuffed peppers into a baking dish (that the peppers fit into
snugly), and then add the water to the dish.

7. Cover the pan, place it in the preheated oven, and bake for
50 minutes.

8. Remove the pan from the oven and check to see if the rice is
cooked. If so, remove. If not, return to oven and cook for a few
more minutes.

Imam bayildy (stuffed eggplant)
on left; etli biber dolmasi
(stuffed pepper) on right

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 23

*Imam Bayildy TURKEY This is a very well-known vegetable dish from Turkey whose name
(EGGPLANT STUFFED WITH TOMATO) means “the imam fainted,” an apparent reference to an imam (Islamic
scholar) who was overcome by the quality of this creation.
Ingredients
For Prepping the Eggplant Yield: 12 portions at 4–5 ounces/portion (1/2 stuffed eggplant/portion)

2 lbs Japanese Eggplant (the Cooking Method (Filling): Sweating/Sautéing
elongated eggplants are
best for this; if unavailable, Cooking Method (Eggplant): Sautéing; Finished by Roasting
use smaller eggplants if
possible), split lengthwise in Procedure
half, with bottom side of For Prepping the Eggplant
each half peeled (leaving 1/2
inch of skin on each half, all 1. After the eggplants have been split in half lengthwise, and the
the way around the cut bottom portion of each half has been peeled (this will allow the
portion of the eggplant) bottom to caramelize while being roasted), scoop a well into each
half using a spoon or melon baller.
1 Tbsp Salt
2. Once the eggplants have all been cleaned, sprinkle the salt over all
For Making the Filling of the eggplant pieces and rub it into the flesh to distribute it evenly.

2 oz Olive Oil 3. Allow the eggplants to sit for 30 minutes before proceeding to next step.
8 oz Yellow Onion, diced small 4. Rinse the salted eggplants and pat them dry, or allow them to air
1 oz Garlic Cloves, minced
12 oz Tomato Concassée dry; set aside.
1 Tbsp Tomato Paste
2 Tbsp Parsley, minced For Making the Filling
1 oz Fresh Lemon Juice
1/2 tsp Lemon Zest, minced 1. In a sauté pan large enough to hold all the filling ingredients, add
1/2 tsp Salt the olive oil, onions, and garlic. Heat over a low flame to sweat the
1/8 tsp Black Pepper aromatics until they are tender and translucent (this should take
about 10 minutes).
Salt and Black Pepper, to taste
2. Once the onions and garlic are very tender, add the tomato
For Sautéing, Stuffing, and concassée and turn up the heat to a medium-high flame. Cook for
Roasting the Eggplant 2 minutes, to drive off some of the moisture in the tomatoes.

4 oz Olive Oil (may need more or 3. Add the tomato paste to the pan, remove from heat, and stir well to
4 oz less, depending on how combine.
much is absorbed by
eggplant; be sure the pan(s) 4. Add the parsley, lemon juice, lemon zest, and salt to the pan, and
are hot before adding the stir well to combine.
eggplant to avoid sogginess)
5. Taste the filling and adjust seasoning with salt and black pepper, if
Eggplant (see above) necessary.

Stuffing (see above) 6. Set the filling aside.

Extra Virgin Olive Oil

Salt and Pepper, to taste

For Sautéing, Stuffing, and Roasting the Eggplant

1. Preheat oven to 375°F.

2. In a large sauté pan(s), heat the olive oil over a medium-high flame.
Once hot, sauté the eggplant halves on both sides to caramelize to a
light golden-brown (you may need to add more olive oil to the pan
as you go, to ensure they color evenly).

3. Once the eggplants have been sautéed, remove them from the pan
and place the stuffing inside the cavity of each half, distributing it
evenly among all of the eggplant halves.

(continues)

24 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Imam Bayildy 4. Return the eggplants to the sauté pan(s), and drizzle the extra
(continued) virgin olive oil evenly over the surface of the stuffed eggplants.

5. Cover the pan(s) with a tight-fitting lid, or cover tightly with foil,
and place in the preheated oven; bake for 30 minutes.

6. Check the eggplants to see if they are very tender throughout and
nicely colored on the bottom (remember the peeled part!). If so,
remove them—they are ready to serve. If not, return them to the
oven and continue to cook until done.

*Sis Kebabi TURKEY This Turkish specialty is believed to have been invented by the nomadic
(SKEWERED GRILLED LAMB) tribes that would cook their meat over a fire while traveling. There are
many varieties of sis kebabi throughout Turkey and the Middle East (and
Ingredients beyond); this preparation method has found fans all over the globe.
3 lbs Leg of Lamb, boneless and
cut into 1.5-inch cubes Yield: 3 pounds, or 8 portions (6 ounces/portion)
1 lb Yellow Onion, chopped
2 oz Garlic Cloves, chopped Preparation Method: Marinating
1 Tbsp Salt
1 Tbsp Freshly Ground Black Pepper Cooking Method: Grilling
5 oz Olive Oil
Procedure
Grilled sis kebabi (skewered and 1. Remove any significant connective tissue from the pieces of lamb;
grilled lamb) served over grilled cover the lamb and set it aside in the refrigerator.
vegetables and pilavli (rice pilaf) and
topped with cucumbers coated in 2. In a food processor, add the onions, garlic, salt, and pepper. With
yogurt sauce the processor running, slowly drizzle in the olive oil to make a
smooth purée of the vegetables.

3. Transfer the contents of the food processor to the container with
the lamb, and mix well to combine and coat all of the lamb pieces
with the marinade.

4. Allow the lamb to marinate in the mixture for at least 2 hours
before cooking the lamb (overnight is even better).

5. Once the lamb has had time to marinate, pierce the lamb pieces
using skewers; thread on as many pieces as will fit on the grill. (In
Turkey, metal skewers are used. Metal skewers are far better for
grilling than wooden ones, commonly found in the United States,
which often burn. If possible, use metal. If not possible, soak the
wooden ones to help prevent them from burning.)

6. Once all of the lamb has been skewered, grill the skewers over the
hottest part of the grill to desired doneness. It is easier to cook them
longer in the oven, if desired, than it is to cook them more on the
grill, which should be quite hot to sear the meat well.

NOTE: Sis kebabi is traditionally eaten with flatbread and other accompani-
ments combined with the bread and meat. Some of the common accompaniments
include salads of cucumber, onion, and mint; yogurt-based sauces; grilled
vegetables; and seasoned, shaved onions.

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 25

*Pilav TURKEY
(RICE PILAF WITH CURRANTS AND PINE NUTS)
Ingredients The Turkish method of cooking rice has long been followed in many

3 oz Vegetable Oil other parts of the world, and it is a common component of classic culi-

10 oz Onions, minced nary preparations in cooking schools across the United States. The rice

4 oz Pine Nuts pilaf found in professional cooking texts is based on this method, in

1 tsp Allspice, ground which rice grains are coated in fat and fried slightly before being com-

1 tsp Cinnamon, ground bined with hot stock and cooked covered. This recipe includes some of

1/2 tsp Freshly Ground Black Pepper the seasonings that are commonly used in Turkey to make a classic

4 cups Basmati Rice, rinsed until clear pilav.

3 oz Currants (raisins can be Yield: 2 quarts cooked rice, or 10 portions (5–6 ounces/portion)
substituted if currants are Cooking Method: Pilaf Method for Rice
unavailable)

6 cups Hot Chicken Stock Procedure
2 tsp Salt
3 oz Whole Salted Butter, cut into 1. Preheat oven to 325°F (this can also be prepared on the stovetop,
if desired, although the oven is usually more consistent).
4 or 5 pieces

Salt and Pepper, to taste 2. In a pot large enough to hold all ingredients, heat the vegeta-
ble oil over a medium-low flame until hot; add the minced
onion.

3. Sweat the onions over the low flame until they become translucent
and soft. Lower the heat and continue to cook for an additional
5 minutes (covered) to soften onions further.

4. Once the onions are very soft, remove the cover and add the pine
nuts, turning the heat up to a medium-high flame.

5. Fry the onions and pine nuts together in the oil until the pine
nuts begin to color slightly (stir to prevent the pine nuts from
burning).

6. Once the pine nuts have begun to color slightly, add the spices
and the basmati rice, and stir all of the ingredients well with a
wooden spoon. Continue to cook for a couple of minutes,
stirring all along.

7. Add the currants and hot stock to the pot. Cover the pot with a
very tight-fitting lid, or with foil and a tight-fitting lid if necessary
(it is important not to lose moisture at this point so the rice can
cook properly).

8. Place the covered pot into the preheated oven, or continue to cook
on the stove over a low flame, for 20 minutes.

9. Once the rice has cooked, remove it from the oven and uncover to
check that rice is cooked through (if it is not, return it to the oven;
check to see if it has absorbed all of the water first).

10. Add whole butter pieces to the cooked rice, and stir to mix in and
melt.

11. Adjust seasoning of rice, if necessary, and serve.

26 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Chelou PERSIA/IRAN This common preparation for rice—a traditional method used in Iran
(CRUSTED RICE IN STYLE OF PERSIA) and other parts of the Middle East—results in crust-layered rice that
Ingredients provides both texture and flavor to the finished product. This method of
cooking rice is unique to this region (specifically Iran) and contrasts with
1 lb Basmati Rice (jasmine makes the Turkish technique of cooking rice, which is commonly taught in culi-
a good substitute if basmati nary schools as rice pilaf. The traditional varietals of rice used in Iran—
is not available) ambar-boo and darbari—are difficult to find in the United States but are
aromatic long-grain varietals like basmati and jasmine.
1.5 gal Water (for the cooking step,
not rinsing or soaking) Yield: 2.5 lbs cooked rice, or 10 portions (4 ounces/portion)

1/4 cup Salt Cooking Method (Rice): Boiling in Ample Water

1 ea Egg Yolk

1.5 oz Salted Butter

2 oz Water

Salt, to taste

Cooking Method (Final Chelou): Chelou Method (Baking or Cooking
on Stovetop to Form a Crust)

Procedure
1. Preheat oven to 350°F.

2. Rinse the rice in a pot of clean, cold water, rubbing the grains with
your fingers to help to release some of the surface starch.

3. Change the water a couple times while repeating step 2 to ensure
that the rice is well rinsed.

4. In the same pot—using fresh, cold water again—soak the rice for
an hour, and then drain well in a colander.

5. In a 2-gallon or larger pot, bring water and salt to a boil over high
heat. Add the rinsed and drained rice to the pot, and stir the water
with a spoon to ensure that the rice grains are not clumped together.

6. Once the pot of water returns to a boil, stir it occasionally to
prevent grains from sticking. Test the grains every minute or so
until the rice is cooked through (this should take about 3 to 5
minutes after water boils).

7. Strain the cooked rice into a china cap, and rinse briefly under
room-temperature water to cool rice and remove excess starch.

NOTE: At this point, you have made traditional plain rice in the Persian style,
which can then be used—following the next steps—to make chelou, or it can be
mixed with other cooked ingredients and baked to make a polou-style Persian dish.

8. In a small mixing bowl, combine 1 cup of the cooked rice and the
egg yolk. Mix thoroughly, and place at the bottom of a smooth-
bottomed pot, spreading it out over the bottom surface of the pot
(pots with pitting or scratches will make it more difficult to remove
the crust after baking).

9. Cover the rice mixed with egg yolk with the remaining rice. Cover
with a tight-fitting lid and/or aluminum foil, and place the pot in
the preheated oven. Bake, covered, for 10 to 12 minutes.

10. Combine the salted butter and water in a saucepan, and heat over a
medium flame until hot. Pour this mixture over the top of the
cooking rice after it has been in the oven for 10 to 12 minutes.

(continues)

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 27

*Chelou 11. After adding the butter and water mixture to the rice, re-cover the
(continued) pan and return it to the oven. Continue to bake for an additional
25 minutes, undisturbed, and then remove the rice from the oven.
Allow it to sit at room temperature for 15 minutes before
proceeding to the next step.

12. After the rice has rested, uncover the rice and turn out the portion
that is not sticking to the bottom into a holding pan. Check for
seasoning, and adjust as necessary.

13. Remove the browned crust on the bottom of the pan by working
the sides off of the pan; be gentle to yield the whole section in one
piece, and serve the rice with the browned crust on top. (This is
typically served family or buffet style.)

Cooking the chelou (Persian rice) in ample Topping the egg-mixed cooked rice with Finished baked chelou; note the crusted
water the plain cooked rice when making portion on the plate from the egg-mixed
chelou (Persian rice) rice at the bottom

SUMMARY dietary habits, the use of sweet-and-sour components
in all facets of the cooking, and the role of flatbreads
The Middle East is the site of the birthplace of civiliza- as not only nourishment but also a tool.
tion and some of the world’s major religions, and the
cuisines of this region are closely linked to this history. REVIEW QUESTIONS
In those areas where the population is mostly of the
Islamic faith, dietary practices are primarily consis- 1. What are the foods that are considered halal
tent with the religious edicts of Islam; the cuisine of (permitted) and haram (prohibited) according
Israel mirrors the Jewish edicts as well. The Persian to the dietary edicts of Islam?
and Ottoman empires were major culinary influences
on the cuisine of much of this area, and many tradi- 2. From what part of the world do Ashkenazi Jews
tional foods from these periods are still common today. and Sephardi Jews come, and how is that
The cuisine of the Middle East is based on a diet of important to the cuisine of Israel?
grains, mostly in the form of breads and rice, sup-
ported by meats (typically lamb or goat) and vegeta- 3. What were two empires that had a significant
bles. Flatbread, often eaten with highly spiced foods, influence on the cuisine of the Middle East?
plays a significant role in the daily diet and eating Name one dish that can be traced to each.
practices of much of the population. The spice trade
between Europe and Asia was once controlled by the COMMON TERMS, FOODS,
inhabitants of the Middle East, and the use of spices in AND INGREDIENTS
the local cuisine is still a major component of the cui-
sine. The cuisine of the Middle East differs from others The following will assist in the understanding and
in the use of spices, the role of religion in the daily recognition of the foods and techniques used in the
cuisines of the Middle East.

28 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

ᩬ Arabic-Speaking Countries Food Customs
halal – Foods that are permitted to be eaten according to
Ingredients and Foods the laws of Islam
alya – Rendered lamb fat taken from the tail
haram – Foods that are prohibited according to the laws of
baharat – Spice blend (many versions) Islam

baklava – Pastry made of layers of thin sheets of buttered ᩬ Israel
dough, coated with ground nuts and seasonings, and then
baked. It is then coated with a sweet syrup that usually Ingredients and Foods
contains honey, lemon, and rose or orange water. The borscht – Beet soup brought from Eastern Europe and Russia
origin of this well-known pastry is not clear; it has a long dfina – One-pot stew (to be eaten on the Sabbath) common
history in Iran, Turkey, Greece, and the Arab countries in to the Sephardi Jews
the Middle East. falafel – Seasoned fava bean or chickpea purée that is deep
fried; common in Arab-influenced Middle Eastern countries
battawa – Egyptian flatbread, typically highly seasoned gefilte fish – Poached fish forcemeat or dumpling common
with fenugreek to the cooking of Ashkenazi Jews
goulash – Spiced stew of Eastern European heritage
burghul – Bulgur wheat common among Israeli populations whose families once
lived in this region
dibs – Concentrated grape juice hummus – Chickpea purée seasoned with tahini, lemon
juice, and garlic
dibs rim’an – Pomegranate syrup (often called pomegran- knish – Thin pancake filled with savory foods (typically fish
ate molasses) or cheese), from Russian influence
latkes – Thin potato pancakes, popular during the holiday
falafel – Seasoned fava bean or chickpea puree that is deep of Chanukah
fried; common in Arab-influenced Middle Eastern countries matzoh – Unleavened bread eaten during Passover
zhug – Spiced relish used for seasoning; made with garlic,
fool akhdar – Fresh fava beans cumin, fenugreek, chiles, and coriander

fool misri – Small, dried brown fava beans Food Customs
kashruth – Jewish dietary laws or edicts that govern
fool mudammas – Mashed and spiced fava beans acceptable foods, unacceptable foods, or combinations of
foods to be followed by those of the Jewish faith
haba – Large, dried split fava beans kosher – Designation given to foods that have been deemed
“fit for use” according to the laws or edicts of kashruth
halvas – Sweet, dense cakes seasoned with various pareve – Foods that are considered neutral under the
ingredients and eaten as a snack or dessert. These are guidelines of kashruth and thus can be eaten with either
made from cooking thickened, sweetened mixtures and dairy products or meat. These foods are considered to be
then pouring them to let them set before cutting into inherently kosher and thus fit for consumption.
smaller pieces; called halawah or halawa in some parts of Pesach – Passover; during this holy period, followers are to
the Middle East. avoid all leavened products (thus, the importance of matzoh)

hashwa – Lamb and rice ᩬ Turkey

kharouf – Lamb baba ghanoush – Puréed eggplant seasoned with garlic,
olive oil, and lemon juice. This is a common appetizer
kibbeh – Pounded lamb and burghul, seasoned with spices, served with bread.
olive oil, and often onions; served raw or used to make a borek – Small, stuffed savory pastries in the shape of a
number of cooked dishes from the raw form, including cigar, made from phyllo-type doughs; typically filled with
fried balls stuffed with various ingredients cheese and often other ingredients
chorba – Soup
laban – Yogurt

muhammara – Seasoned walnut paste common in Lebanon

qawrama – Preserved lamb fat

ta’amia – Spiced fava bean or chickpea fritters (also called
falafel)

tabbouleh – Salad of chopped herbs and bulgur, seasoned
with lemon juice and olive oil

tahini – Sesame seed paste

taratoor – Sauce made from tahini seasoned with lemon
juice and garlic

za’atar – Spice blend commonly eaten with Arab bread and
olive oil; made from sumac, sesame seeds, oregano, and thyme

CHAPTER 1 CUISINES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 29

dolmas – Stuffed foods; a typical dolma is grape leaves barbari – Persian flatbread
stuffed with seasoned rice and lamb
chelou – Persian style of cooking rice, in which a portion
etli beber dolmasi – Stuffed green peppers of cooked rice is mixed with eggs or sometimes yogurt,
placed on the bottom of a pan and covered with more
imam bayaldi – Eggplant stuffed with tomato cooked rice, and then baked along with clarified butter to
yield a crusted bottom, which is served on top of or along
kebabs – Skewered and grilled meats; versions range from with the finished rice dish
simple marinated lamb pieces to kofte or other seasoned
ground meats darbari – Prized long-grain rice from Iran

kofte – Ground and seasoned meat shaped into a ball; these donbeh – Rendered fat of fat-tailed sheep used as cooking
may be added to stews or soups, or skewered and grilled to fat, traditionally in Persian cuisine
make a kebab
lavash – Thin, yeast-leavened bread cooked on the inside wall
manti – Oval-shaped pasta with an open pouch, filled with of a clay or earthenware oven and traditionally used to scoop
various stuffing (usually ground lamb) and poached in broth food when eating limu omani – dried limes (also called loumi)

mezze – A number of flavorful foods served prior to a meal polou – Any of a number of Persian rice dishes that are
or sometimes as a meal. This style of eating is similar to the served with other ingredients
tapas style in Spain (see Chapter 10, “Iberian Cuisine”), in
which several foods are eaten in small quantities. sadri – Long-grain rice from Iran that is very similar to
basmati from India (may actually be basmati variety
pilav – Rice cooked first in fat, along with onions, and then brought to Iran from India long ago)
finished with liquid
sharbat – Sherbet; frozen fruit juices; these have been
sherbet – Same meaning as English name (which comes enjoyed in the Middle East for centuries, with the tradition
from the Turkish name); believed to have been incorpo- thought to have originated in the northern mountainous
rated into the cuisine from the influence of Persian cuisine region of present-day Iran
on the Ottoman Empire
torshi limu – Pickled limes
sis kebabi – Skewered and grilled meats, typically lamb or
mutton torshis – Pickled vegetables

ᩬ Persia/Iran ᩬOther Terms

Ingredients and Foods basmati – Aromatic long-grain rice from India, often used
ambar-boo – Amber-scented, long-grain rice that is very to replace aromatic rice of Iranian cuisine
highly prized and comes from the northern region of Iran
verjuice – Juice of unripened grapes

chapter 2

20˚ 24˚ 28˚

ALBANIA THE FORMER RHODOPE BULGARIA BLACK
YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC MOUNTAINS SEA

OF MACEDONIA

Axios River THRACE

Northern Greece

SEA OF
MARMARA

40˚ 40˚

GREECE

EPIRUS THESSALY

Western and Central Greece

PINDUS MOUNTAINS SPORADES TURKEY
ISLANDS
AEGEAN
SEA

IONIAN
ISLANDS

ATTICA
Athens

IONIAN THE CYCLADES
SEA PELOPONNESE

DODECANESE ISLANDS

36˚ SEA OF CRETE 36˚

capital city CRETE N
river WE
region boundary MEDITERRANEAN SEA
sub-region boundary S
international boundary 24˚ 0 50 100 km
mou3n0tains
28˚
20˚

Greek Cuisine

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to
● discuss the importance of the sea in Greek cuisine.
● discuss the importance of olives, bread, and cheese in the Greek diet.
● recognize the influences that make Greek cuisine a crossroads of sorts in
Europe.
● recognize some of the common recipes of Greek cuisine.
● prepare a variety of Greek foods.
● define the terms listed at the conclusion of this chapter.

INTRODUCTION

The foods of Greece are not as familiar to most Americans as some of the other

TEuropean cuisines, but they will surely become more popular as people come to
discover the fresh, bright flavors so common to this Mediterranean cuisine. Some
might call Greece the birthplace of cuisine, because the first book on cooking and
eating good food was written here (Gastronomia, written by Archestratus in the
fifth century BC). In fact, many of the items that are used frequently in other cui-
sines actually originated in Greece. The French mother sauce béchamel, versatile
mayonnaise, and the classic fishermen stew bouillabaisse all can be traced back to
Greece. Even the tall white hat that chefs wear has Greek heritage—cooks in
Greece wore white hats to distinguish themselves from monks who wore black
hats in monasteries. Greek cuisine is certainly not limited to moussaka, baklava,
and the generic Greek salads that are commonly served in the United States. Greek
cuisine is far more complex, including a seemingly endless variation of seafood
preparations, plenty of fresh vegetables, stuffed pies, and many types of bread.
Contemporary Greek cuisine has developed from proudly held traditions
and techniques, as well as numerous outside influences during periods of take-
over by foreign invaders. Greece has been occupied by several cultures over the
centuries, including Romans (modern-day Italy), Ottoman Turks (modern-day
Middle East), Venetians (modern-day Italy), and the English; all of these influ-
ences have resulted in the nuances of modern-day Greek cuisine. Although these
historic powers may have held sway over Greeks at one time in history, Greek cui-
sine exists as it does today because of steadfast adherence to the ancient tradi-
tions, including the culinary practices of the ancient Greeks.
The ancient Greek ingredients included grapes, figs, honey, garlic, onions,
wheat, barley, yellow lentils, kid (young goat), lamb, cheese, Mediterranean fish,
shellfish, octopus, and squid, and these ingredients are still the cornerstones of Greek
cuisine today. Of course, Greece, like any other country, has added many other

31

32 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

ingredients from other cultures over the years, and these impact on the cuisine of that area of Greece. Ingredi-
have been incorporated into the modern-day cuisine. ents from the Americas were introduced, such as
squashes, tomatoes, corn, and peppers, as well as the
HISTORIC CULINARY INFLUENCES pastas of Italian culture. Britain also had a period of
influence, stemming from the British protectorate
The following periods and countries have had a sig- period of the Ionian Islands. Some culinary influences
nificant impact on the development of Greek cuisine from Britain include roasted meats, mustard, and
as it is known today. brewing.

Ancient Greece UNIQUE COMPONENTS

Greece has a very volatile history that has greatly influ- Greek cuisine is unique largely because of its geograph-
enced the culinary landscape of the country. Ancient ical location and because of the great history of this
Greeks populated the areas of Southern Italy, Turkey, proud country. Greece is located in the Mediterranean
and North Africa, bringing back ingredients from those (literally—there are approximately 2,000 Greek islands
cultures and taking olives, grapes, and pulses with in the sea), and this climate has greatly impacted the
them. As mentioned in the introduction, the ancient products grown and enjoyed here. Because Greece is a
Greeks had a sophisticated cuisine that included many peninsula that extends into the sea, it is located between
of the ingredients that remain part of the core of the the very Western-influenced area of Italy and the
cuisine today. The dependence on the sea for food, the shores of the Eastern-influenced Middle East, making
use of olives and their oils, the reliance on wheat as a Greece a natural go-between for these cultures. The
storable source of food, and an understanding of the Greek Empire is also credited with providing the philo-
local plants for yielding vegetables and edible greens sophical foundation that much of the Western world
were all part of the ancient Greek way of life. embraced, including some of the foundations used
today in professional kitchens, and the people of Greece
Alexander the Great and Roman Rule are fiercely proud of this rich history.

Under the rule of Alexander the Great, Greece’s bor- Island Cuisine
ders grew to include India, resulting in the inclusion
of such ingredients as rice and spices such as cinna- Greece’s nearly 2,000 islands include many that have
mon, nutmeg, and saffron. This period was followed by been inhabited for centuries by people who live a sea-
Roman rule, during which time the vast Roman Empire faring life, resulting in a cuisine of determination. The
added many new ingredients to the Greek diet, includ- Greek islands often provide a limited supply of both
ing foods from the Middle East, such as eggplant, cav- local produce and water, due to their location in the
iar, citrus, melon, and cane sugar. The Middle Eastern arid part of the Mediterranean. As a result, the Greek
influence also provided the understanding of the dis- islanders have utilized what does grow here to the
tillation process, which enabled the Greeks to make fullest extent, and they have turned to the sea or to the
what has since become a national drink: ouzo. nearby mainland to make up for what they lack.

Ottoman Empire The interaction between the islanders and the
surrounding countries has influenced not only the
During the period of rule by the Ottoman Turks, island cuisine but also the cuisine of Greece as a
Greeks incorporated beans, spinach, rice, yogurt, and whole, even though much of the population of Greece
coffee into their culinary repertoire. The Turkish does not live on the islands. The islanders often make
practice of skewering meat and grilling or roasting it trips to the mainland, and mainlanders visit the many
also was adopted at this time, resulting in the emer- islands as well, so that culinary customs are shared
gence of souvlakia. The Turks also introduced small by both.
portions and bite-size dishes, which developed into
the still-popular meze tradition found in Greece today. The emphasis on utilization of local and sea-
sonal products in the cuisine of the islands has resulted
Italian and English Influences in a great variety of foods being made from a relatively
small amount of common island products. Because
Crete was ruled by Italian people for hundreds of years the islands are mostly arid land, the plants that can
after the thirteenth century and thus had a large

CHAPTER 2 GREEK CUISINE 33

tolerate low water conditions are some of the more the profusion of pasta that is common in Greek cui-
common; these include grapes, garbanzo beans, fava sine, but many stews and fish dishes were also intro-
beans, rosemary, fennel, olives, figs, and a number of duced to the Greeks from Italy as well. Some of the
legumes and grains. These ingredients are common common pastas that are found in the cuisine include
components of the local cuisines and often are com- flomaria (either thin like a string or slightly flattened
bined with cheese and goat or lamb meat, tradition- like linguini), hilopittes (egg noodles, either long and
ally making up the predominant part of the islanders’ thin or square), and kritharakia (rice-shaped pasta
diet. The traditional parts of the cuisine of the islands commonly called orzo in the United States).
may not always be as apparent as they once were, but
the heart of this cuisine still exists for those who want This blending of Eastern and Western culinary
to find it, and its influence has left its permanent mark methods and customs is part of what makes Greek
on Greek cuisine. cuisine unique and often so attractive to a wide audi-
ence. The combination of its traditional foods and
East Meets West some of the newer original dishes makes Greek cui-
sine one of the most interesting to study and sample.
Greece is located in between the eastern reaches of
the Western world and the western reaches of the Olives, Cheese, and Bread
Eastern world, and many of the influences of both
converge here. Although the Balkan area borders the Few things remain constant throughout nearly all
western part of Greece, much of the Balkans are con- parts of Greece, but one is the regular inclusion of
siderably north of the country. The boot part of Italy olives or olive oil, cheeses, and breads in the daily
stretches toward Greece in the Mediterranean Sea. Greek diet. There are many varieties of each of these
Greece is also a neighbor of Turkey, and only the sea three commodities found throughout the regions of
separates Greece from the shores of the Middle East Greece, with local variations often being one of the
and Egypt. Because of this location, and the historical distinguishing components of an area. In the case of
periods of domination by both European powers and olives, a number of varieties are common—either
the Turkish Ottomans, Greece has unique combina- brined and eaten or pressed for their oils to be used in
tions of traditional indigenous foods and foods from cooking and seasoning. Some of the most common
Europe and the Middle East. olive types include amfissa, kalamata, elies neratzates,
halkidika, maonias, and thassos throumba.
During the rule of the Ottoman Empire in Greece
(from the fifteenth century until 1821, for most of Greek cheeses are typically made from goat’s
Greece), many foods were introduced to the Greek milk, sheep’s milk, or a combination of the two, with
kitchen and became part of Greek traditions. Many of cow’s milk being much less common. Greece has an
the Ottoman influences can be traced back to the Per- arid climate in which cows do not thrive, but goats
sian Empire (present-day Iran), because the Ottomans and sheep do. Many versions of these cheeses are
included the people of this region as well. The use of salted or brined and yield very flavorful varieties that
phyllo dough can be traced to this period of influence, provide a distinct flavor to many dishes, making them
as the Ottomans produced thin dough in the same immediately identifiable as Greek. Some of the most
manner as later Greek cooks would. Phyllo is used common types are anthotiro, feta, graviera, haloumi,
extensively in Greek cuisine to make recipes ranging kasseri, kefalotyri, ladotiri, manouri, and mitzithra.
from spanakopita (savory pies wrapped in phyllo) to
baklava (layered phyllo brushed with butter and then Bread is also a major part of the traditional
layered with nuts in honey syrup). The Greeks inher- Greek diet. Many types of bread have religious con-
ited a penchant for stuffing vegetables and other nections and are included in the feasts of celebrations
dishes, such as dolmas (stuffed grape leaves) and that occur throughout the year. Greek breads often
boreks (Turkish stuffed phyllo turnovers), during this vary in shape.
period as well.
SIGNIFICANT SUBREGIONS
Prior to the rule of the Ottomans in Greece, the
Venetians had conquered Greece in 1204 and influ- Greek has a diverse cuisine that varies depending on
enced the Greeks during this and later periods of what area of Greece one is looking at, and the follow-
Greek history. The most obvious influence from Italy is ing guide gives an overview of what some of those
variations are.

34 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Northern Greece regions also yield significant catches of octopus and
bonito tuna, which are used for various dishes.
This region includes the city of Macedonia to the west
and the province of Thrace to the east, and it has a The Islands
milder climate than much of the rest of Greece. North-
ern Greek cuisine is characterized by heartier fare Greece contains nearly 2,000 islands, of which about
than much of the rest of the country, and it is known 200 are inhabited. The islands are mostly rugged lands
for its many preserved items as well as the spices com- that do not support a large variety of agriculture but
monly used in many of the dishes. Many of the Greeks do provide access to a rich sea. Separating the islands
in this region come from families that were expelled regionally would result in the Ionian Islands to the
from present-day Turkey; thus, Turkish cuisine has west in the Ionian Sea, the large island of Crete to the
had a significant influence here, including the use of south, the Dodecanese Islands off the coast of Turkey
spices such as cinnamon, allspice, and cloves. in the east, and the Aegean and Sporades Islands to the
north in the Aegean Sea. All of these regions are
Western and Central Greece known for particular specialties, including the pasta
dishes of Corfu in the Ionian, the chickpea fritters
This region includes the mountains of the Epirus sec- found in the Dodecanese, the sea urchin of the north-
tion in the west as well as the fertile plains of Thessaly. ern Aegean, and the squid cooked with olive and fen-
Attica lies to the south and contains the famous Greek nel from Crete. A few things are constants among all
capital of Athens. These areas cover a dramatic range of the islands: there is an abundance of fisheries; the
of Greek cuisine and culture—from the ranches of dry, rough terrain of most areas is ideal for the growth
the plains and the honey and wild-game–producing of olives and many grapes; and many areas are depen-
mountains to the city life of Athens, where much of dent on the mainland for much of their basic food (as
the cuisine of Greece comes together. the mainland eagerly awaits the catch from the sea).
This setup has historically driven the people of this
The Peloponnese region to the sea not only for seafood but also as a
means of accessing necessities on the mainland.
The Peloponnese is virtually an island but for the thin
stretch of land connecting it to Attica and mainland RECIPES
Greece. This region consists of vast coastal and inland
plains and mountain ranges that provide Greece with The following recipes provide an introduction to Greek
much of its vegetables and fruits, such as kalamata cuisine and the methods used in making Greek meals.
olives, figs, grapes, citrus, eggplant, wheat, garlic, and
artichokes, as well as cheese and pork. The coastal

*Yogurt Yogurt is a common ingredient in Greek cuisine and is still made in many
(SOURED MILK) homes throughout Greece, although most now purchase it from the
Ingredients store. Yogurt can be made continuously, using some of each batch to
start the next batch, assuming that everything is handled properly. It is
2 qts Whole Milk (sheep’s milk, or very important to follow all the rules of sanitation when making yogurt—
4 oz cow’s milk if sheep’s milk is contamination can give undesirable bacteria the opportunity to grow.
not available)

Plain Yogurt with active
culture (or substitute 2 oz
buttermilk)

NOTE: This recipe depends on the proper sanitation of all equipment and on
clean handling practices. Extra care must be used to guard against contamina-
tion at any point during this process!

Yield: 2 quarts
Special Method: Sanitary Fermentation

(continues)

CHAPTER 2 GREEK CUISINE 35

*Yogurt Procedure
(continued)
1. Heat milk in small pot to 180°F and hold at temperature for
4 minutes.

2. Let milk cool to 85°F before adding plain yogurt, and stir thor-
oughly to mix.

3. Transfer milk/yogurt mixture to sanitized glass jar or ceramic pot
(be sure to thoroughly clean and sanitize fermentation vessel), and
cover with clean cloth secured with a rubber band or another tie to
keep cloth from contacting the mixture inside.

4. Place the fermentation vessel with the yogurt starter in area
approximately 70°F, and allow fermentation without disturbing
for 1 day.

5. Check for fermentation progress of mixture by checking consis-
tency of mixture. It should thicken to yogurt consistency; if not
thickened, give mixture another day and check again. If still not
thickened, discard. (Making yogurt is a controlled fermentation
done by inoculating the milk mixture with lactobacillus
bacteria—from yogurt—which sour and preserve the milk by
producing lactic acid. Lack of thickening is an indication that
acidity is not being achieved, and the cautious response is to
discard the milk with unknown bacterial growth.)

6. Save some of the thickened yogurt to use as a starter for the next
batch of yogurt.

*Tzatziki
(YOGURT, CUCUMBER, AND MINT CONDIMENT)
Ingredients This is a very common condiment that is served with lamb and other

12 oz Fresh Yogurt, strained (hang grilled foods.
in cheesecloth or strain in Yield: 1 pint
coffee filter to remove Method: Mixing
excess moisture)

8 oz Cucumber, peeled, seeded, Procedure
.5 oz grated, and squeezed of
excess moisture 1. After draining yogurt in cheesecloth, wring slightly to remove
additional liquid and transfer to mixing bowl.
Garlic Cloves, minced

1 Tbsp Minced Fresh Mint 2. Add squeezed cucumber, garlic, and mint, and mix while slowly
1 fl oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil whisking in olive oil.

Salt and Pepper, to taste 3. Season with salt and pepper.

36 SECTION 1 CUISINES OF EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

*Hummus bi Tahini The Arab influence on Greek cuisine is found in the popularity of this
(CHICKPEA AND SESAME SPREAD/DIP)
Ingredients

For Soaking Chickpeas (soaked dish, which is common throughout the Middle East.

overnight) Yield: 2.5 cups

9 oz (1.5 cups) Dried Chickpeas Cooking Method (Chickpeas): Simmering
(garbanzo beans) Method (Finishing): Puréeing

3 cups Water

For Cooking Chickpeas Procedure
1. One day in advance, soak chickpeas in water to rehydrate.
1 Tbsp Olive Oil
4 Garlic Cloves, minced 2. Drain excess water from soaked chickpeas prior to next step.
2 oz White Onion, minced
3. In small pot, sweat garlic and onions in 1 Tbsp olive oil until
Soaked Chickpeas (see translucent.
above), water drained and
discarded 4. Add drained chickpeas, water, bay leaves, and salt to pot; bring to
4 cups Water a simmer.
2 Bay Leaves
2 tsp Salt 5. Simmer chickpeas until chickpeas become completely soft, adding
water if necessary to keep chickpeas submerged.
For Puréeing the Hummus
6. Once chickpeas are tender, strain off excess moisture and transfer
Chickpea Mixture (see above), to food processor.
excess water drained off
5 oz Tahini 7. Add tahini and lemon juice to food processor and, with processor
3 fl oz Lemon Juice running slowly, add in olive oil to form a smooth paste.
5 fl oz Extra Virgin Olive Oil
8. Season mixture with salt and pepper.

Salt and Pepper, to taste

Hummus bi tahini with slices of accompanying flatbread on left

CHAPTER 2 GREEK CUISINE 37

*Avgolemono This classic Greek sauce is commonly served with fish or used to thicken
(LEMON SAUCE) soups, which is why it is sometimes referred to as a soup. Care must be
taken to make this properly, for the eggs can get too hot and curdle.
Ingredients
3 Egg Whites Yield: 2 cups
3 Egg Yolks Method (Egg Whites): Whipping to Create Foam
2 Lemons, juiced Method for Finishing: Whisking

1.5 cup Stock, warm (130–140ЊF) Procedure
1. Beat the egg whites to stiff peaks with a wire whip.
2. Beat the egg yolks and add them to the beaten whites.
3. Combine the lemon juice and stock, and add to the egg mixture
while stirring constantly.

First step in making avgolemono (lemon sauce): whipping Beating the stock and lemon juice into the egg mixture to
the egg yolks and egg whites separately before combining finish the avgolemono

*Horta Wild greens are very common in Greece, where they would be collected
(WILD GREENS) (more commonly cultivated now, as elsewhere) to make salads or dishes
such as this one.
Ingredients
Yield: 8 portions (approximately 2 ounces each)
6 bunches Arugula (can substitute
dandelion or radish Cooking Method: Boiling
greens)
Procedure
2 bunches Sorrel 1. Heat a pot of salted water over a high flame until it reaches the
3 Tbsp Extra Virgin Olive Oil boiling point.
2 Tbsp Fresh Lemon Juice 2. Quickly blanch the greens in the salted water until just wilted, and
remove from water with a strainer.
Salt and Black Pepper, 3. After greens have cooled to room temperature, season with olive
to taste oil, lemon juice, salt, and pepper; serve.