SIGMA 2022

The Astronomical Society
of the

University of Colombo

Proudly Presents

On the 06th of August, 2022
At the Faculty of Science,

University of Colombo

ASTROSOC

Board of Officials of the Astronomical Society
of the University of Colombo 2021/22

H. N. M. T. C. Samarasekara J. M. S. Jayalath
President Editor

4th Year Undergraduate, 4th Year Undergraduate,
Department of Physics, Department of Zoology and Environment Sciences,
Faculty of Science. Faculty of Science.

S. V. Wittahachchi D. H. D. N. Hettige
Secretary Librarian

4th Year Undergraduate, 4th Year Undergraduate,
Department of Mathematics, Department of Statistics,
Faculty of Science. Faculty of Science.

L. N. Senarathne K. D. K. Rashmika
Vice-President IT Coordinator

4th Year Undergraduate, 4th Year Undergraduate,
Department of Mathematics, Department of Mathematics,
Faculty of Science. Faculty of Science.

T. L. M. D. Fonseka R. M. B. A. R. Bandara
Assistant Secretary Organizer

4th Year Undergraduate, 4th Year Undergraduate,
Department of Physics, Department of Physics,
Faculty of Science. Faculty of Science.

W. M. G. H. P. Wickramasinghe
Junior-Treasurer

4th Year Undergraduate,
Department of Physics,
Faculty of Science.

SIGMA 2022 3

Message from the Senior Treasurer and Advisor Astronomical Society ASTROSOC

Message by the Senior Treasurer and Advisor of the
ASTROSOCUOC: Prof. Chandana Jayaratne

Colombo science faculty is the oldest science faculty in the coun-
try with 101 years of proud history and the observatory that we
owned is older than the science faculty. The Astronomical socie-
ty of the University of Colombo is one of the oldest societies in
the Sri Lankan university system. It was established in 1950s,
It comprises of university students and has a renowned proud
history of astronomers such as Prof. Chandra Wickramsng-
he who had been a past president of this society in his student
hood. Prof. Asoka Mendis, Prof. V. K. Samaranayake, Prof.Val-
entine Josheph & several other eminent scientists also had
held positions in this society when they were undergraduates.
It has been one of the major institutions in cover-
ing activities related to astronomy in Sri Lanka through the history and current-
ly it consists of a membership over 200 undergraduates from the university.
Astronomy is by and large and observational science as compared to other experimental
sciences. In astronomy, the experiments occur automatically in stars, galaxies and interstel-
lar medium and we observe them from earth. Hence the repetition of experiments on other
sciences is replaced by statistical study of large samples and changes in experimental con-
ditions are taken in to account by observations of a large variety of closely similar objects.
To conduct observations locally , the Astronomical Society of University of Colombo owns
several large telescopes including the over 100 years old 32 cm Molesworth reflecting tel-
escope located inside the astronomical observatory and this telescope is considered as the
forerunner of modern astronomy in Sri Lanka. This was the biggest telescope in Sri Lanka for
nearly 100 years, i.e., up to 1996, till such time the new 45 cm telescope was commissioned
at the Arthur C Clarke Institute. By far, this telescope and more than half century old Astro-
nomical Society (Former Astronomical Society of the University of Ceylon) affiliated to it has
been the kindergarten to more than dozen world renowned astronomers who emerged from
Sri Lanka. This shows the bit of a proud and admirable history of the Astronomical Society.
It is great pleasure that I am sending this message of congratulations and best
wishes to the members of the Astronomical Society (2022) on issuing anoth-
er volume of Sigma magazine for creating positive impact in the field of astron-
omy and Astrophysics among those who are interested thorough out the island.
Among the large number of activities conducted by the Society, some of the national lev-
el activities conducted for the dissemination of knowledge such as Celestra Astronomy
Workshop for school children, Star-Quest All Island Astronomy Quiz Competition, Region-
al level astronomical night sky observation camps conducted for school children joint-
ly with the Committee for the Popularization of Science (CPS)of the Sri Lanka Association
for the Advancement of Science, and supporting the annual training of National Astron-
omy Olympiad teams to the International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics.

Prof. K.P.S. Chandana Jayaratne
Head of the Department of Physics
Senior Treasurer & Advisor of the Astronomical Society
2022/08/02

4 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Message from the President of the Astronomical Society

Message from the President of the Astronomical
Society : Thurunu Chalitha Samarasekara

The world has completed several rotations since the last edition
of the SIGMA magazine that was published in 2018, and here we
are with the all new 38th edition, in 2022. The SIGMA magazine
is one of the oldest astronomy-related magazines in Sri Lanka,
taking a start in 1957 along with the origin of the Mathemati-
cal and Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo. This
resounding society which has produced more than dozens of
world-renowned astronomers renamed the Astronomical So-
ciety of the University of Colombo (ASTROSOCUOC) in 2015.

We have inspired innovation through astronomy since our
beginnings, and we have contributed to the science and as-
tronomy education around Sri Lanka through a variety of ac-
tivities. Through night sky observation camps, workshops,
exhibitions, and awareness programs we have brought the
reaches of astronomy to the unreachable in the last few decades.

I consider it a privilege to embed this message in the 38th volume of the SIGMA maga-
zine, the official journal of the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo. SIG-
MA is a collective product of the members of the Astronomical Society which has brought
out the beauties and adventures of the universe. A handful of writers, editors, designers,
and developers have brought up SIGMA to this height and their commitment and dedica-
tion must be admired. The co-discoverer of the COLOMBOUNILANKA asteroid Dr. Nalin
Samarasinghe must be reminded thankfully in adding his thoughts to this volume of SIG-
MA. Also, I would like to thank our Vice Chancellor Senior Prof. H. D. Karunaratne and the
Dean of the Faculty of Science Senior Prof. Upul Sonnadara who had always been support-
ive of the activities conducted by the society. The current Head of the Department of Phys-
ics and the Senior Treasurer and Advisor of the Astronomical Society, Prof. K.P.S. Chan-
dana Jayaratne’s leadership and guidance have to be greatly appreciated at this moment.

As undergraduates, we firmly believe that the SIGMA magazine would make
an impact not only on undergraduates but also on the younger generation who
have a thirst for exploring new dimensions of astronomy and space sciences.

Thurunu Chalitha Samarasekara
President (2021/2022),
Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo.

SIGMA 2022 5

Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo ASTROSOC

Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo:
History and Significance

The root of the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo
runs deep down in the faculty history itself. Its seed was plant-
ed in 1957 making the Astronomical Society of the University of
Colombo one of the oldest societies in the university. Back then
the position of president and secretary was held by Prof. Chan-
dra Wickramasinghe and the late Prof. V. K. Samaranayake. Ever
since it was established, thousands of young minds who were
wandering in the cosmos while wondering about the mysteries
hidden from mankind were nurtured, facilitated, and molded.

Prof. Asoka Mendis, late Prof. Valentine Joseph, and late Prof. V.
K. Samaranayaka are a few such young minds who fulfilled their
quenched thirst for knowledge beyond the horizon. However, if
you are to ask one of our senior members who was nurtured earlier than 2015, they would re-
fer to the society as the “Mathematical and Astronomical Society”, which was indeed the orig-
inal name of the society. It was reformed to the current name “Astronomical Society” in 2015.
Today, the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo has reached great heights under
the guidance of Prof. Chandana Jayaratne, the adviser and the senior treasurer of the society.

We, the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo, are a student body that strives
to uplift the theoretical and practical knowledge related to Astronomy and Space Sci-
ence. All amateur astronomers in the member body are trained and allowed to share
their knowledge with peers and the general public. Few such encounters in the recent
past were the Shilpa Sena exhibition, solar observation camps, planetary transit obser-
vation camps, planetary conjunction observation camps, and water rocket competitions.

As the saying goes, “Sharing is caring”, being a responsible student community, we have
always lent a helping hand to our brothers and sisters outside our student body to en-
hance their knowledge by sharing both our theoretical and practical knowledge and ex-
periences by organizing night camps for school students on request. Our signature pro-
ject “Star Quest: Inter-school Astronomical Quiz Competition” is also an attempt to reach
and encourage budding astronomers islandwide. Last, but not least, we must men-
tion our sustainable knowledge-sharing mechanism implemented along with the es-
tablishment of the society in 1957, which is none other than the “Sigma Magazine”.

6 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC SIGMA Magazine

SIGMA Magazine: The Official Journal of the Astro-
nomical Society - University of Colombo

The SIGMA journal, which originally appeared in
1958, now focuses on making astronomy and space
sciences more widely known to university under-
graduates as well as school students who are ea-
ger to quench their desire for knowledge about
the cosmos. The SIGMA magazine has previous-
ly featured contributions from several UOC alum-
ni who are now prominent scientists worldwide.

The second volume of the magazine was published
in 1958-59, furthermore, the third volume of the
SIGMA magazine was published in 1956–60. Those
were the eras of Mr. Asoka Mendis, Mr. Chandra Wickramasinghe, and Mr. V. K. Sama-
ranayake who did an amazing job to the success of the Astronomical Society - Univer-
sity of Colombo. The fourth volume of SIGMA magazine was published in 1965–66.

After many more illustrious years of publishing our official journal, an issue
was not published for the last 3 years due to the Covid-19 pandemic situation.

It’s a great honor and privilege to break the silence and publish a cluster of outstand-
ing articles written by University of Colombo alumni and undergraduates on various
astronomical and space science themes, fabricated within the all-new “Sigma’22,” the
38th volume of the official journal of the Astronomical Society - University of Colombo.

SIGMA 2022 7

Editorial Note ASTROSOC

Editorial Note to the Reader

The realm of astronomy is an ever-growing field of science, tying together a vast number of
branches of study. Be it the discoveries made by observing high-energy events that had oc-
curred millennia back in the cosmos, to the steps we make in having spaceflight more accessi-
ble and efficient, to the enthusiasm-laden task of educating on astronomy. Considering these
aspects, the structure of this magazine and the topics discussed in it have been selected and
arranged in three segments.

We start by providing aid in identifying the working principles of telescopes. A signif-
icant area in observational astronomy, which plays a great role in the activities of the As-
tronomical Society. A rather anticipated event for all astronomers, the phenomenon
of eclipses is then brought to the reader. This is followed by an interesting develop-
ment in the field of astronomy and engineering, the commercialization of spaceflight.

With recent activities occurring in the sphere of space exploration, we now bring a his-
torical account of lunar terrain exploration, and what the future holds for this. The in-
triguing discovery of using lunar soil and other non-Earth soil to grow plants in space
is then presented. The recent conquests of exploring our immediate neighbor Mars’
terrain and its atmosphere is an ambitious read for all who are interested in astrono-
my. The first segment is then complemented by the historic discovery of asteroid CO-
LOMBOUNILANKA by Dr. Nalin Samarasinha, graced to the magazine in his own words.

Moving away from the solar system, we now turn our attention to the end of the life of stars, and
howpulsars,neutronstars,andblackholesareformed.Wethenprovidethegroundbreakingnews
of the first image of a black hole in 2019 and the successful imaging of Sagittarius A in 2022. This
is followed by an article that provides a premise for the detection of high-energy events in our
infinite cosmos, and the significance of cosmic rays. We conclude the first segment then through
a discussion about the vast emptiness presiding in the universe, dark matter, and dark energy.

Moving on, the vast creativeness of the members of the Astronomical Society is represented
through the second segment, “Astreativity: the Sky of Artistry”. This segment features poems,
an illustrated comic, a movie review as well as an original quote and sci-fi short story to shine
a light on the myriad of talents of our members.

“Conjuncture: Nourishing the Astrophiles” is a fitting title for the third segment, which focuses
on the variety of events conducted by the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo
(ASTROSOCUOC) over the course of approximately four years. Covering the topics lightly to
give a glimpse to the reader of the activities of the society, and an in-depth view into the excitement
of the annular solar eclipse (2019), a program that was held in tie with the centenary celebrations
oftheUniversityofColombo(2021),andthejoysofhealthycompetitionwithinthesociety(2022)
are given too.

With this, we hope that you, the reader of our magazine, gain important insight into the world
of astronomy, and hopefully, inspiration too to pursue your interests, curiosities, and maybe
even careers, through the magnificent field of astronomy.

8 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Contents

CONTENTS No:
1. Scientific Writing
1.1 úYaj .fõIKh i|yd jk ÿf¾laI -------------------------------------------------- 10
1.2 fpufzq;fSk; mtw;wpd; mwptpay; kw;Wk; tuyhw;W Kf;fpaj;Jtq;fSk; ----- 13
1.3 Commercialization of Spaceflight throughout Ages ------------------------------ 17
1.4 Lunar Exploration: Humanity’s Voyages Of The Moon Through Ages ----------- 20
1.5 From science fiction to fact: The use of non-earth soil in growing plants in
space environments --------------------------------------------------------------- 25
1.6 Interplanetary Exploration -------------------------------------------------------- 28
1.7 Asteroid (607372) Colombounilanka and Contributions to Astronomy
by University of Colombo ---------------------------------------------------------- 30
1.8 A Scientific Inquiry Into The Dying Stages Of Stars ------------------------------ 33
1.9 The First Image of Black hole 2019 and Sagittarius A 2022 --------------------- 39
1.10 Cosmic rays: Energetic And Destructive, Yet Informative ------------------------ 41
1.11 The Search for Dark Matter - Recent Developments ----------------------------- 45

2. Astreativity: The Sky of Artistry
2.1 Lone Botanist On Ares ------------------------------------------------------------ 50
2.2 úYajhg fmï l< uq,a u od u;lo@ ------------------------------------------------ 55
2.3 Venus’ Secret: A Comic Strip ------------------------------------------------------ 56
2.4 el;rj;jpuf;fhjy; ------------------------------------------------------------------ 57
2.5 A Crossword for You -------------------------------------------------------------- 58
2.6 The Twilight ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
2.7 Survivor: A Short Story ----------------------------------------------------------- 60
2.8 Quote ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64

3. Conjuncture: Nourishing the Astrophiles
3.1 Notable Observations Of The Astronomical Society University of Colombo ----- 66
3.2 Ys,am fiakd - Y%S ,xld ;dlaIK úma,jfha ;drld i,l=K ------------------------- 68
3.3 fld<U wyi uq¿ rgg u... ---------------------------------------------------------- 70
3.4 iQ¾hhd yUd W;=rg .sh kE .uk --------------------------------------------------- 73
3.5 StellaChat 1.0 with prof. Chandana Jayarathne ----------------------------------- 82
3.6 StellaChat 2.0 with prof. Chandana Jayarathne ----------------------------------- 82
3.7 Geminids Discussion --------------------------------------------------------------- 82
3.8 Great Conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter Live broadcast ------------------------- 83
3.8 Telescope workshop --------------------------------------------------------------- 83
3.9 FOSMOS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 84
3.10 Freshers orientation --------------------------------------------------------------- 86
3.11 Bplroogjegcint gmwonoarkrcshho-p---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
3.12 86

3.13 Astro talk 1.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
3.14 Beyond The Stars ----------------------------------------------------------------- 87
3.15 water rocket challenge ------------------------------------------------------------ 90
3.16 world asteroid day - Webinar - Dr. Henry Troop -------------------------------- 90

4. Contributors ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 92
5. Aknowledgements --------------------------------------------------------------------- 95

SIGMA 2022 9

ASTROSOC úYaj .fõIKh i|yd jk ÿf¾laI

Figure 1: Telescope. (n.d.). [Photograph]. Unsplash.Com.

úYaj .fõIKh i|yd jk ÿf¾laI

rd;%S wyfia wdf,dal j¾I ÿf¾laI hkq ir, o¾mK, ksÍlaIKh lf<ah.
ì,shk .Kkla wE;ska ldp, úoHq;a pqïnl talrdYS 1668 § whsiela ksõgka úis-
lsÍfï WmlrK wdÈfhka ka m%:u m%dfhda.sl mrdj¾;k
we;s wdldY jia;= úYd,kh ;kd we;s WmlrKhls. m<uq ÿf¾laIh ks¾udKh lf<ah.
m%dfhda.sl j¾;k ÿf¾laIh wj;, ldphla yd úl¾K
lr ksÍlaIKh lsÍug we;s wdldrhg ;enQ ;, o¾mKhla
fyd|u WmlrKh ÿf¾laIhhs. ksmojd we;af;a 1608 Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka Tyq th
újdohlska f;drj u ;drld ksmoùh. fuu ÿf¾laIfha ir,
§ fko¾,ka;fha úiQ ie,eiau ksid u fuh wdOqksl
úoHdfõ jeo.;a u fidhd. ÿf¾laI ks¾udKlrejka w;r
m%isoaO úh.
ekSu ÿf¾laIh njg m;a ù
we;. úYajfha wE; fl<jf¾ ÿf¾laIhl fldgia
jqj o mj;sk wdldY jia;+kaf.

ka ksl=;a fjk úlsrK wdÈfh-

ka tu wdldY jia;= ksÍlaIKh
lsÍug ÿf¾laIh iu;a fõ.

Figure 2: .e,S,sfhdaf.a ÿf¾laIh Figure 3: ksõfgdakshdkq ÿf¾laIf- Figure 4: ÿf¾laIhl fldgia
ha wdlD;sh

weia lKaKdä ksmojkafkl=
jQ ydkaia ,sm¾fYa úisks. bka
wk;=rej .e,S,sfhda .e,s,s úis-

ka 1609 § ÿf¾laIfha Tyqf.a u
wdlD;shla ksmoùh. Tyq thg
W;a;, ldphla yd wj;,

ldphla fhdod .ksñka Wvql=re
m%;sìïnhla ,nd.;af;a h. Tyq
tu.ska pkaø l,d, n%yiam;s
Wm.%yhka yd iQ¾h ,m wdÈh

SIGMA 2022 10

úYaj .fõIKh i|yd jk ÿf¾laI ASTROSOC

Eyepiece - Wmfk;- ÿf¾laIf- iy Wmfk;a ldp ixfhdack- j¾;k-mrdj¾;k ÿf¾laI
ha wei ;nk ia:dkh j¾;k-mrdj¾;k ÿf¾laIh
Objective piece - wjfk; - hla u.ska ñksia weig ;ksj hkq ldp yd o¾mK hk
ÿf¾laIh wyig újr jk foj¾.h u ixfhdackh
ia:dkh u tl;= lr .ekSug fkdyels
Telescope tube - ÿf¾laIh ;=< Figure 8: j¾;k-mrdj¾;k
wdf,dalh .uka .kakd fld- ;rï jk jeä wdf,dalhla ÿf¾laIh
gi tla/ia lr, th kdNs.; lsÍ-
Finderscope - wjYH ia:d- fuka krUkakdg jia;=fõ lr .ksñka iE¥ ÿf¾laI
kh i|yd ÿf¾laIh t,a, j¾.hls. fujeks ÿf¾laIj,
lr.ekSug Ndú;d lrk l=vd meyeÈ,s iy úYd,kh lrk fodaI idfmalaIj b;d wju
ÿf¾laIh w;r iañ;a-leisf.a%ka,
Tripod - ;%smdolh $ wdOdrlh ,o w;:H m%;sìïnhla bÈßm;a uelaiafgdaõ -leisf.a%ka ÿf¾laI
lrhs. fuu .Khg wh;a ÿf¾laI fõ.

ÿf¾laIfha, wNHjldY

jia;+kaf.ka meñfKk Figure 6: j¾;k ÿf¾laI

wdf,dalh we;=¿ jk ldph mrdj¾;k ÿf¾laI
j¾;k ÿf¾laIj, § Ndú;d
wjfk; jk w;r úYd,kh l< wjfk; fjkqjg fuys § ml% dY fkdjk ÿf¾lIa Ndú;
úYd, jl% o¾mKhla Ndú;d mshú weiska y÷kd .;
jQ jia;=j ksÍlaIKh lsÍug lrhs. th ÿf¾laI kd,fha
fl<jf¾ u ;nd we;s w;r fkdyels ;rx. wdhduhka
Wmfk; Wmfhda.S lr .kS. wE; jia;=jlska tk wdf,dalh
ta u; jeà bka mrdj¾;kh ù y÷kd .ekSug ÿf¾laIhg
Figure 5: Wmfk; yd wjfk; kd,fha by< fl<jf¾ ;nd yelsh. tu ksid u thg u
we;s ;, o¾mKhla yryd úfYaI jQ ÿf¾laI j¾. o we;.
oDYH wdf,dal mrdih Wmfk; fj;g fhduq lrhs. • X lsrK ÿf¾laI
ksÍlaIKh lsÍug fhdod • mdrcïnq, lsrK ÿf¾laI
.kakd ÿf¾laI m%ldY ÿf¾laI • wfOdarla; ÿf¾laI
kï fõ. m%ldY ÿf¾laI m%Odk • .eud lsrK ÿf¾laI
j¾. 3 ls. tkï, • f¾äfhda ÿf¾laI
• j¾;k ÿf¾laI
• mrdj¾;k ÿf¾laI wmf.a mshú wefia ;rx.
• j¾;k-mrdj¾;k (Catadiop-
tric) ÿf¾laI wdhdu iajNdjh wkqj

wmf.a weig ksÍlaIKh l<

yelafla wdikak jYfhka n%y-

iam;s .%yhdf.a úYalïNh ;rï

jQ flda‚l úYd,;ajhls-

Figure 7: mrdj¾;k ÿf¾laI ka hq;a jia;+ka mu‚. kuq;a

j¾;k ÿf¾laI whsiela ksõgkaf.a ÿf¾laIhla u.ska b;du;a

j¾;l f,i y÷kajk fuu ksõfgdakshdkq ÿf¾laIh ishqï o;a; jqj o ksÍlaIKh

ÿf¾laI m%Odk jYfhka mrdj¾;k ÿf¾laIhlg l< yelsh. mshú weig jvd
fhdod .kafka i|, fi!r.%y
uKav,fha n%yiam;s, wÕyre WodyrKhls. leisf.a%ka, f.a%. b;d úYd, mrdihl wdf,dal
jeks jia;= yd oaùuh ;re
wOHhkhghs. ish¨ u j¾;k ßhka yd lDâ ÿf¾laI fuu m%udKhla ÿf¾laIhlg tl;=
ÿf¾laI tlu uQ,O¾u Ndú;d
lrhs. tkï wjfk;a ldphla .Kfha u jvd jeäÈhqKq lrk lr .; yelsh. ;j o ÿf¾laI

,o ÿf¾laI j¾. fõ. u.ska ksÍlaIKh lrk oE

PdhdrEm .; l< yels neúka

tu fudfydf;a u wjYH

ks.ukj,g t<eôh yelsh.

11 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC úYaj .fõIKh i|yd jk ÿf¾laI
REFERENCES:

1. How Do Telescopes Work? (n.d.). NASA Space Place. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from https://spaceplace.nasa.
gov/telescopes/en/
2. How do telescopes work? - Scienceworks. (n.d.). Museums Victoria. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from https://
museumsvictoria.com.au/scienceworks/visiting/melbourne-planetarium/fact-sheets/how-do-telescopes-work/
3. Kellermann, K. I. (n.d.). telescope | History, Types, & Facts | Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved
July 12, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/science/optical-telescope
4. Schlawin, E. (2015, July 18). Why do astronomers use telescopes? (Beginner) - Curious About Astrono-
my? Ask an Astronomer. Ask an Astronomer. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/
about-us/121-observational-astronomy/telescopes/general-questions/749-why-do-astronomers-use-tele-
scopes-beginner
5. Telescopes. (n.d.). Royal Museums Greenwich. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/
topics/telescopes

IMAGE COURTESIES:

1. Telescope. (n.d.). [Photograph]. Unsplash.Com. https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1600456548090-7d1b-
3f0bbea5?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=MnwxMjA3fDB8MHxzZWFyY2h8MXx8dGVsZXNjb3BlfGVufDB8fDB-
8fA%3D%3D&w=1000&q=80
2. Galileo’s first telescopes. (n.d.). [Photograph]. Britannica. https://cdn.britannica.com/52/752-050-CA91D-
3CB/Two-Galileo-telescopes-Institute-and-Museum-of.jpg?w=690&h=388&c=crop
3. Newtonians’ Telescope. (n.d.). [Photograph]. Wikimedia. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com-
mons/thumb/c/cc/NewtonsTelescopeReplica.jpg/800px-NewtonsTelescopeReplica.jpg
4. eyepiece and objective lenses. (n.d.). [Illustration]. Britannica. https://cdn.britannica.com/28/4628-004-
9CBBDBD2/Refracting-telescope.jpg?s=1500x700&q=85
5. Refracting telescope. (n.d.). [Illustration]. Spaceplace.Nasa.Gov. https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/telescopes/en/
refracting_telescope_wavy.en.jpg
6. Reflecting telescope. (n.d.). [Illustration]. Spaceplace.Nasa.Gov. https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/telescopes/en/
reflecting_telescope_wavy.en.jpg
7. Catadioptric telescope. (n.d.). [Illustration]. Optics-Trade-Static.Eu. https://www.optics-trade-static.eu/

Do you know?

Did you know that the footprints of the Apollo astro-
nauts will stay there for at least a 100 million years?

Unlike Earth, the moon does not have an atmosphere. So, there is no wind to
erode or water to wash away the footprints of these astronauts. Even rover
prints, spaceship prints and discarded material will stay on the surface of
the moon for a very long time. However, they won’t stay there forever. As
the moon is frequently bombarded with small meteors, erosions can happen
and wipe away these footprints.

REFERENCES:
Xavier Piedra And Dennis Green. (2019, July). 12 Facts about Space. Mashable.
Retrieved August 2, 2022, from https://mashable.com/article/sun-stars-space-facts

SIGMA 2022 12

fpufzq;fSk; mtw;wpd; mwptpay; kw;Wk; tuyhw;W Kf;fpaj;Jtq;fSk; ASTROSOC

fpufzq;fSk;

mtw;wpd; mwptpay; kw;Wk; tuyhw;W Kf;fpaj;Jtq;fSk;

R+upad; gpugQ;rj;jpy; ek; ghijfspy; tyk; tUk; epfoT; fshFk.; ,it tuyhwW;
mUfpy; ,Uf;Fk; khngUk; NghJ xNu Neu;f;Nfhl;by;
Rlu;> re;jpud; Gtpapd; miktjhy; Vw;gLk; uPjpahfTk; tpQ;Qhd
,utpid MSk; cgNfhs;. epfo;Tfs; vDk; GupjYf;F
thdpy; gpufhrpf;Fk; khngUk; top tFj;jd. R+upaDf;Fk; uPjpahfTk; gy;NtW tifapy;
Rlu;fshd ,it ek; G+kpf;Fk; ,ilNa re;jpud;
fz;fSf;F Kd;Ng xUfzk; xNu Neu;Nfhl;by; tUtjhy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd.
kiwtJ ,aw;ifapd; gfy; Ntisapy; R+upadpd;
gpuk;kpg;G+l;Lk; jUzq;fs; Njhw;wk; ek; ghu;itapy; kdpj tuyhw;wpy; kdpjdhy;
MFk;. ,Ue;J kiwfpwJ. ,jdhy;
R+upa fpufz epfo;T mtjhdpf;fg;gl;l Kjy;
gz;ila fhyk; njhl;Nl Vw;gLfpd;wJ. re;jpuDf;Fk;
tpQ;Qhdpfs; fpufzq;fis R+upaDf;Fk; FWf;fhf G+kp fpufz epiy fp.K 3340
Muha;e;J ,e;j epfo;Tfspd; efUk; NghJ Gtpapd; epoy;
jd;ikiaf; fz;lwpe;J kdpj re;jpud; kPJ tpOtjhy; ,NyNa Vw;gl;lJ. Mq;fpy
Fyj;jhy; czug;gl;l re;jpu fpufzk; Vw;gLfpwJ>
thdpay; vy;iyfis ,jdhy; R+upa xsp epytpd; thu;j;ijahd 'eclipse'vd;gJ>
tpupTgLj;j cjtpdu;. kPJ tpOtJ jLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,f; fpufzq;fs; mit iftplg;gly; vDk; mu;j;jk;
fpufzq;fs; gz;ila Njhd;Wk; tpjq;fspy; KO
Guhzq;fspy; kha epfo;Tf- fpufzk;> gFjp fpufzk,; nfhz;l 'ekleipsis' (vf;yp-
shf fUjg;gl;ld. ,Ug;gpDk;> tisa R+upa fpufzk; vd
thdpay; Ma;Tfspd; gytifg;gLk;. g;rp];) vd;w fpNuf;f
Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; fhuzkhf
fpufzq;fs; Gtp-R+upad;- R+upa kw;Wk; re;jpu fpufzk; thu;j;ijapy; ,Ue;J
re;jpud; vd;gd jk; Rw;Wg; Kf;fpakhd thdpay;
cUthdJ.

gz;ila fhy kdpju;fs;
R+upafpufzj;ij ,wg;gpw;Fk;
moptpw;Fk; xU fhuzkhf
fUjpdu;. vdpDk; fhyg;
Nghf;fpy;> mJ Id;];Bdpd;
rhu;gpay; Nfhl;ghl;bd;
Mjhukhf fUjg;gLk;
mstpw;F mtw;iw gw;wpa
Ma;Tfs; gupzhkk;
mile;Js;sd.
R+upa fpufzj;ij gw;wp rPd

13 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC fpufzq;fSk; mtw;wpd; mwptpay; kw;Wk; tuyhw;W Kf;fpaj;Jtq;fSk;

thdpayhsuhd Liu Hsiang, FiwtilfpwJ. vdNt ,r; Gtpapd; tspkz;lyk;
fpNuf;f jj;Jttpashsu; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; Ma;Tfs; %yk;
Plutarch, kw;Wk; cNuhk R+upaf; fjpu;fspd; njhlu;ghd Ma;TfSf;F top
tuyhw;W Mrpupau; Leo Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij tpQ;Qhd
Diaconus Nghd;wtu;fshy; uPjpahf gFg;gha;T tFfF; k; rpwej; rej; ug; g; khFk.;
fUj;Jf;fs; $wg;gl;bUe;j nra;aKbAk;.
NghjpYk;> fp.gp1605 ,d; rhjhuzkhf ,uT gfy;
gpd;dNu n[h`hd]; nfg;su;
mtu;fshy; tpQ;Qhd uPjpahf Njhd;Wk; NghJ Vw;gLk;
R+upa fpufzk; gw;wpa
Ma;Tfs; cWjpg;gLj;jg; khw;wk; Nghy; my;yhky;>
gl;ld
fpufzj;jpd; NghJ

R+upa fpufzkhdJ rlj;Jt mrhjhuzkhd Kiwapy;
`Pypak; (He) thAit fz;L
gpbg;gjw;F cjtpaJ. He xspf;fjpu;g;gpd; khw;wk;
thAthdJ thdpayhsuhd
[_ypa]; [d;nrd; mtu;fshy; Vw;gLk;. ,k; khw;wkhdJ
KOr; R+upa fpufzkd;W
(August 18, 1868) Gtpapd; nkhj;j gug;gpd;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ.
rhu;gstpy; kpfr; rpwpanjhU

gFjpapNyNa Vw;gLtjhy;

tspkz;lyj;jpd; mjp R+upadhy; Gtpapd; tsp

ntspg;Gw thAg;glykhd kz;lyj;jpy; Vw;gLk;

madkz;lyk;> gy nraw;if tpisTfs; njhlu;ghd

Nfhs;fspd; (satellites) R+upa fpufzj;jpd; NghJ Ma;TfSf;F ,J ngUk;

,Ug;gplkhfTk;> thndhyp kl;Lk; njd;glf; $ba cjtpahf mikfpd;wJ.

miyfs; kw;Wk; GPS Nghd;w R+upaidr; Rw;wpAs;s xsp

njhlu;ghly; rkpf;iQfs; tl;lkhdJ ( corona )> gpupj;jhdpa thdpayhsuhd

flj;jg;gLk; ClfkhfTk; R+upadpy; ,Ue;J rf;jpAk; Nru;.Mu;ju; vbq;ld; 1919>

Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. ntg;gKk; R+upaf; fhw;wpd; Nk 29 y; Njhd;wpa R+upa

R+upa fpufzj;jpd; NghJ %yk; vt;thW flj;jg; fpufzj;ijf; nfhz;L

ngUk;ghyhd GwCjhf; gLfpd;wd vd;gJ njhlu;ghd Id;];Bdpd; rhu;gpay;

(Ultra violet) fjpu;fs; jLf;fg; gy;NtW Nfs;tpfSf;F Nfhl;ghl;il gupNrhjpj;jhu;.

gLtjhy; madhf;fj;jpw;F jpwTNfhyhf mikfpd;wJ. Id;];bdpd; fUj;jpd;gb>

fhuzkhd fjpu;g;G G+uz R+upa fpufzkhdJ ntsp(space) ,d;DnkhU

gupkhzj;Jld; ,izf;fg;

gl;Ls;sJ ,g; gupkhzk;

ntsp-Neuk;(Spacetime) vd;W

miof;fg;gLk; mz;lj;jpd;

'fhyntsp tisit" (space

time curvature) cUthf;F

fpd;wJ. ntsp Neuj;jpw;Fs;

rlg; nghUl;fspd; epiw

kw;Wk; ,af;fq;fshy; ,jd;

topahf gazpf;Fk; ahNjDk;

xU nghUs; tise;J kw;Wk;

KWf;fg;gl;L jpirjpUg;gg;

glk; 01 - R+upa xspapy; rhjhuzkhfj; njupahj el;rj;jpuq;fs; fpufzj;jpd; NghJ> glyhk;.
R+upa dpd; mUfpy; Njhd;Wk;. kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tpk;gk; tof;fkhf ,Uf;Fk; ,lj;jpy-
pUe;J ,lk;ngau;e;J njd;gLfpd;wJ. xsp ngUe;jpzptpd; Kd;dpiyapy; tisfpwJ> midj;J epiwfSk;
glj;jpy; (el;rj;jpu xspapd; tisT kpifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gij epidtpy; nf- ntsp Neuj;jpy; tisit
Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd> Mdhy;
hs;f.) cz;ikapy;> el;rj;jpuq;fs; 1.75 Mu;f;nrfz;Lfs; (Rkhu; 0.0005 bfpup) tiu mtw;wpd; tpisT kpf
,lk;ngau;e;Js;sd. Ez;zpasthdJ> vdNt

SIGMA 2022 14

fpufzq;fSk; mtw;wpd; mwptpay; kw;Wk; tuyhw;W Kf;fpaj;Jtq;fSk; ASTROSOC

Id;];Bdpd; Nfhl;ghl;ilr; jpUg;gkilar; nra;Ak; Rkhu; xU kzpj;jpahy
Nrhjpg;gjw;F el;rj;jpuq;fs; j;Jf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l fhyg;
Nghd;w kpfg;ngupa vd;gij fhl;bdhu;. ,f; gFjpapy; If;fpa
nghUl;fis Muha Ntz;b mnkupf;fhtpd; epyg; gug;gpy;
,Ue;jJ. ekJ R+upa Nfhl;ghL <u;g;G tpyfy; ePbj;jik Ma;thsu;fSf;F
kz;lyj;jpy;. R+upad; kpfg; mUk; re;ju;g;gkhf mike;jJ.
ngupa nghUshf ,Ug;gjhy;> vdg;gLk;. INuhg;gpa 2019 kw;Wk; 2021y; Vw;gl;l
mjd; ntsp Neuj;jpd; R+upa fpufzq;fspd;
tisT gpugQ;rj;jpy; vk;khy; tpz;ntsp epWtdk; ,e;j Ma;Tfspy; ,Ue;J R+upa
mtjhdpf;fj;jf;f rpwe;j xsp tisaj;jpd; khjpupia
vLj;Jf;fhl;L MFk;. thdpay; epfo;it 'mwptpay; kjpg;gPL nra;a Kbe;jJ. ,f;
fzpg;gPLfs; R+upadpypUe;J
tuyhw;wpy; kpf Kf;fpakhd ntsptUk; gjhu;j;jq;fs;
tpz;ntspapd; thdpiyia
fpufzk;" vd;W Fwpg;gpl;L vt;thW jPu;khdpf;fpd;wd vd
mwpa cjtpaJ.
cs;sJ. mNj Mz;by;

etk;gu; 6> 1919 md;W>

yz;ldpy; ,q;fpyhe;jpd;

mjd;gb 1919 ,y; Vw;gl;l thdpashsu;fs; Nk 29>1919

fpufzj;jpd; NghJ R+upa fpufzj;jpd; NghJ

el;rj;jpuq;fs; Njhd;Wk; nra;ag;gl;l mstPLfs;

epiyfis Jy;ypakhf 'Id;];Bdpd; fzpg;gpid

mstpl;L> gpd;du; tpz;zpy; cWjpg;gLj;Jfpd;wd" vd;W

mtw;wpd; cz;ikahd $wpdhu;fs;. mnkupf;fhtpy; 2019y;

epiyfSld; xg;gpl;L jpirj; NkYk; mz;ikf;fhy Njhd;wpa fpufzj;jpd; NghJ>
Muha;r;rpfspy; fpufzj;jpd;
jpUg;gg;gl;l tpz;ntsp NghJ kl;LNk ngwf; $ba Kjd;Kjyhf R+upa
juTfis gad;gLj;jp
Neuj;jpd; tpisTfis 2017,y;> NASA 11 tpjkhd fpufzj;jpd; NghJ tsp
tpQ;Qhd Ma;Tfis Nkw;
mtjhdpf;f Kbe;jJ. nfhz;lJ. 2017y; mnkupf;fh kz;ly mLf;fhd ntg;g
tpy; Njhd;wpa fpufz epoy;
vbq;ld; R+upaDf;F mUfpy; kz;lyj;jpy; Vw;gLk; tpisT-

,Uf;Fk; el;rj;jpuq;fspd; fs; njhlu;gpy; juTfs;

Gifg;glq;fisf; nfhz;L ngwg;gl;ld. ,it njhlu;ghf

<u;g;G tpir xspiaj; ePz;l fhy Ma;TfSk;

Ma;thsu;fshy; Nkw;nfhs;s

gl;ld. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf 2021y;

ehrhtpdhy; ntspaplg;gl;l

Time lapse tPbNah 10 Mz;L

R+upadpd; tuyhw;iw ntWk;

rpy epkplq;fspy; fhl;baJ.

,jd;NghJ R+upa xsp

tl;lj;jpd; ntg;gepiy

fhyg;Nghf;fpy; khwhJ

,Ug;gJ mtjhdpf;fg;gl;lJ.

gz;ilafhy fpNuf;fu;fs;

re;jpu fpufzj;ij

gad;gLj;jpNa re;jpudpd;

tpl;lj;ijAk; G+kpf;Fk;

re;jpuDf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l

glk; 02 - ,e;j Muk;gfhy Gifg;glk; Nk 29> 1919 md;W KO R+upa fpufzj;ijf; J}uj;ijAk; fzpf;f
fhl;Lfpd;wJ. R+upaDf;F mUfpy; cs;s el;rj;jpuq;fisr; Rw;wpAs;s Fwpfs;
Kw;gl;ldu;.
Id;];Bdpd; nghJ rhu;gpay; Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb R+upad; el;rj;jpu xspia tisf;fpwJ
vd;gij ep&gpj;j ,e;j el;rj;jpuq;fspd; epiyfspd; Jy;ypakhd mstPL MFk;. 2019y; re;jpu fpufzj;jpd;
NghJ NASA

15 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC fpufzq;fSk; mtw;wpd; mwptpay; kw;Wk; tuyhw;W Kf;fpaj;Jtq;fSk;

glk; 03 - re;jpu fpufzj;jpd; NghJ gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Hubbled; Ma;Tg; gFjp
M. Kornmesser (ESA/Hubble), NASA. (2020). Hubble’s Region of Study During the Lunar Eclipse (Illustration) [Image]

Muha;r;rpahsu;fs;> NASAtpd; xU E}w;whz;Lf;Fk; Nkyhd

Hubble Space njhiyf; Ma;Tfs; tpQ;Qhdpfs; 'fpufzq;fs; ntWk;
urpf;ff;$ba fz;ftu;
fhl;bia gad; gLj;jp R+upadpd; mikg;G kw;Wk; fhl;rpfs; kl;Lky;y - mit
gpugQ;rj;jpd; kiwe;Js;s
G+kpapd; tspkz;lyj;ij ntbg;G epfo;Tfis mwpe;J
khngUk; mwptpay;
Muha;e;jdu;. Hubble> re;jpu nfhs;sTk; nghJ-rhu;gpay; Mjhuq;fshFk;"

fpufzj;jpd; NghJ Gtp Nfhl;ghl;bw;fhd Shalomie Thileepan
3rd Year Undergraduate,
tspkz;lyj;jd; Clhf Mjhuq;fis fz;lwpaTk;
Faculty of Science,
CLUtp> re;jpudpy; gl;Lj; >Gjpa %yfq;fis University of Colombo.

njwpg;gile;J gpujpgypf;Fk; fz;lwpaTk; NgUjtpahf

xspf; fw;iwfis jpfo;e;jd.

mtjhdpjj; J. ,ijfn; fhzL; vdpDk; fpufzq;fs; gw;wpa

vjpu;fhyj;jpy; njhiy Ma;Tfs; vy;iy mw;wd>

Nehf;fpfs; %yk; Gwf; mtw;Wf;F ePz;l fle;j

Nfhs;fs; mtw;wpd; jha; fhy tuyhWfs; ,Ug;gJ

el;rj;jpuj;jpd; Kfj;ij NghyNt> mtw;wpw;F ePz;l

flf;Fk; epiyikfis vjpu;fhyKk; fhzg;gLk;

Nehf;f Kbe;jJ. ,t; vd;gJ cWjp. fhyj;Jf;F

mtjhdpg;Gfis gad;gLj;jp fhyk; njhopEl;gq;fSk;

Gtpapy; capu; thof;iff;F mwptpaYk; tsu;r;rp

rhj;jpakhd %yf;$whd miltNjhL fpufzq;fspd;

XNrhd; tpQ;Qhdpfshy; gpd; kiwe;Js;s mwptpay;

fz;L gpbf;fg;gl;lJ. cz;ikfSk; ntsptUk;

REFERENCES: vd;gJ kWf;f KbahjNj.

1. Dagaev, M. M. (1978). Solar and lunar eclipses. Moscow.
2. Aplin, K. L., Scott, C. J., & Gray, S. L. (2016). Atmospheric changes from solar eclipses.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences, 374(2077), 20150217.
3. Barnett , A. (2022, March 1). Science | Eclipses – NASA Solar System Exploration. NASA
Solar System Exploration; solarsystem.nasa.gov. https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/eclipses/science/
4. Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (Invalid Date). eclipse summary. Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica. https://www.britannica.com/summary/eclipse

SIGMA 2022 16

Commercialization of Spaceflight throughout Ages ASTROSOC

Figure 1: Lockheed Martin Corporation. (n.d.). Lockheed Figure 2: NASA. (1959). NASA Insignia [Insignia]. Figure 3: McDonnell Douglas Corporation. Figure 4: General Dynamics Corporation.
Martin Logo [Logo]. https://www.pngpix.com/download/ https://history.nasa.gov/meatball.htm (n.d.). McDonnell Douglas Logo [Logo]. (1952). General Dynamics Logo [Logo].
https://freebiesupply.com/logos/mcdon- https://seekvectorlogo.com/general-dynam-
lockheed-martin-logo-png-transparent
nell-douglas-logo/ ics-vector-logo/

COMMERCIALIZATION
OF SPACEFLIGHT
THROUGHOUT AGES

T he early days of spaceflight, spear-
headed by the two economic giants
in the world at the time, the United
States and the Soviet Union, opened
a new dimension of human exploration and
commerce in space. This was “the” oppor-
tunity of a lifetime for entrepreneurs of the
past and the ones to come. To put it in the
words of Joan Lisa Bromberg in her book
NASA and the Space Industry,

“There was a sense that a new era was dawn-
ing in space, one in which commercialization
would play an important part.”

Space: A Multi-billion Dollar Industry

One might wonder, ‘What is there in space? It
is just an empty vacuum, right?’ Well, those
in the space industry would beg to differ.
Space-related businesses have the potential
to generate roughly $260 billion annually. It
is projected that this would multiply eight-
fold to $2.7 trillion.

Human intervention in space was mainly
governed by governments and their respec-
tive agencies like NASA, ESA, Roscosmos,
JAXA, etc. during the latter part of space his-
tory. Naturally, they are the major stakehold-
ers in space. Private corporations like Mar-
tin Marietta, General Dynamics, McDonnell

17 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Commercialization of Spaceflight throughout Ages

Figure 5: Space Exploration Technologies Corp. Figure 6: Orbital Sciences Corporation. (n.d.). Figure 7: The Boeing Company. (1997). Boeing
(2002). SpaceX Logo [Logo]. https://log- 1.Orbital Sciences Inc. Logo [Logo]. https://free- Logo [Logo]. https://ksikeyboards.com/boe-
os-world.net/spacex-logo/ biesupply.com/logos/orbital-sciences-logo/ ing-logo-transparent-copy/

Douglas, and LTV Aerospace Corporation
were only given the responsibility of design-
ing and building technology such as the At-
las, Delta, and Titan rockets. Then, the major
agencies would purchase them for national
projects and commercial purposes, such as
the launching of communication satellites.

NASA, as one of the major space agencies,
has played a critical role in the advancement
of the space industry.This includes the Space
Shuttle Program and the Space Station Pro-
gram. These two programs would also be re-
sponsible for the rise of commercial space-
flight later.

The two Space Shuttle accidents, the need for
cost-effective launches to the International
Space Station (ISS) for both crew and cargo
missions, and the inability to fulfill every se-
curity, civil, and commercial launch require-
ment by the NASA Space Shuttle Program led
to the National Space Policy and NSDD 254,
“The United States Space Launch Strategy.”
This would result in the formation of the U.S.
commercial launch services industry.

The Rise of Commercial Launches

The 1st commercial launch service provider
was Arianespace (in 1980), based in Europe,
which handled most of the European launch
services, including a few Soyuz missions. The
C3PO and the COTS program (refer to key
events) paved the way for private corpora-
tions like SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corp.
to develop space transportation systems ca-
pable of resupplying the ISS.

SIGMA 2022 18

Commercialization of Spaceflight throughout Ages ASTROSOC

Technological innovations such as the reusa- Today marks the beginning of a new era in
ble rocket developed by SpaceX have played space, with suborbital space tourism, space-
a key role in its success as a commercial based research, automated space factories,
space launch service provider. Its rocket ar- and unprecedented access to greater inno-
senal is complemented by the Falcon 9, Fal- vations and discoveries.
con Heavy, and Super Heavy rockets, which
are part of the Starship spacecraft.

In addition, the Commercial Crew Develop- S. L. Weerathunga
ment (CCDev) program selected potential 2nd Year Undergraduate,
commercial partners for developing vehicles
and technologies for crew transportation. Faculty of Science.
This included The Boeing Co., United Launch
Alliance (ULA), SpaceX, Blue Origin, Ball Aer-
ospace, Paragon Space Development Corp.,
Sierra Nevada Corp., and XCOR Aerospace.

REFERENCES:

1. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2014). Commercial Orbital Transporta-
tion Services: A New Era in Spaceflight [E-book].
2. Bromberg, J. L. (1999). NASA and the Space Industry (New Series in NASA History). Johns
Hopkins University Press.
3. Federal Aviation Administration. (n.d.). Origins of the Commercial Space Industry. https://
w w w. f a a . g ov / s it e s / f a a . g ov / f i l e s / a b out / h i s t or y / m i l e s t on e s / C om m e rc i a l _ Sp a c e _ In du s t r y. p d f
4. Bankinter Innovation Foundation. (2019, June). Commercialization of Space. https://www.
fundacionbankinter.org/en/ftf-informes/espacio/#report-section-00

Do you know?

There is a fifth state of matter and it was created at the
International Space Station (ISS)?

In addition to solid, liquid, gas, and plasma there is a fifth state of matter
which we call Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC). This was created by re-
searchers in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in NASA’s Cold Atom Lab;
a small refrigerator-sized quantum lab at the International Space Station
under the microgravity of space. From this state, scientists can study the
quantum properties of atoms.

REFERENCES:
Waldek, S. (2022, May 30). Ultracold gas bubbles on the space station could reveal
strange new quantum physics. Space.Com. https://bit.ly/3GPQNV8

19 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Lunar Exploration: Humanity’s Voyages Of The Moon Through Ages

LUNAR EXPLORATION
HUMANITY’S VOYAGES OF
THE MOON THROUGH AGES
T he Moon, our near- past the Moon in 1959 (Lu- to photograph the Moon dur-
est celestial neigh- nar flyby: January 3, 1959). ing a close flyby, yet failed
bor in space, has Although it was intended to to attempt its ultimate goal
invariably been a impact the Moon, the mal- (Closest approach to Moon:
focus of allure ever since hu- functioning of the guidance March 4, 1959). Initially re-
mans started to be engrossed system thwarted it, but Luna ferred to as the “Second Cos-
in outer space. From fly-bys 1 accomplished it mission mic Rocket”, Luna 2 became
to crewed missions, a volley as the first human-made the first-ever successful ob-
of spacecraft has contribut- object to surpass escape ject to make contact with
ed to igniting lunar explora- velocity to break free from another celestial body, the
tion over its cratered surface the grip of Earth’s gravity. Moon, in 1959 (Lunar im-
and through dusty valleys. pact: September 14, 1959).
The first incursions into lu- Figure 1: Russia’s Luna 1, Image Credit: Ensued from previous ac-
nar exploration were made NASA/JPL. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://so- complishments, the Luna 3
by robotic machines and lat- larsystem.nasa.gov/system/content_pages/ spacecraft became the first
er advanced into the voyag- to capture the visuals of the
es facilitated by astronauts, main_images/354_luna-1_main.jpg far side of the Moon - com-
eventually peeling off the lay- prising 29 photographs
ers of knowledge about the In the same year, Pioneer 4 - with wide-angle and tele-
evolution of the solar system was launched by the US as photo lenses. Even amidst
and the existence of humans. part of a series during the In- overheating and communi-
ternational Geophysical Year cation drawbacks, the Luna
1950s: Robots To The Moon 3 mission elicited scientists
to revise their theories of lu-
Luna 1, dubbed the “Cosmic nar evolution with the aid of
Rocket” by the Soviet press, its first grainy views of the
was the first spacecraft to fly far side of the Moon, which is

SIGMA 2022 20

Lunar Exploration: Humanity’s Voyages Of The Moon Through Ages ASTROSOC

never observable from Earth To decipher what lies be- Following its immediate pre-
in 1959 (First photograph of neath the Moon’s surface, decessor’s success, Ranger
the Moon: October 7, 1959). its environment, and its pro- 8 photographed more than
cesses, America designed 7000 high-resolution im-
Figure 2: Russia’s Luna 3 spacecraft cap- its first lunar probe series, ages of the Moon and im-
tured the first views ever of the far side of the Ranger series of “hard pacted the Moon about 15
the Moon. Credit: Union of Soviet Socialist landers’’. They paved the miles from its target in the
Republics. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://so- way for gathering the re- Sea of Tranquility, the area
larsystem.nasa.gov/system/content_pages/ quired information and com- where Apollo 11 dropped
pleting the puzzle to acquire anchor (Lunar impact: Feb-
main_images/366_First_Luna1_main.jpg the key to a safe landing on ruary 20, 1965). The final
the Moon. The Ranger series Ranger from the series, the
1960s: Towards Moon- was developed to capture the Ranger 9 captured stunning
walking Astronauts lunar surface at increasing shots as the spacecraft de-
levels of detail before crash- scended for impact (Lunar
The 1960s dawned, sharpen- ing into it. After 13 consecu- impact: March 24, 1965).
ing the rivalry between the tive failed attempts, Ranger
Soviets and Americans with 7, the seventh in the Ranger The Ranger series concluded
the historical feat accom- series, succeeded as the first with three victorious flights
plished by cosmonaut Yuri unequivocally in the history which honed the burgeon-
Gagarin as he orbited the of lunar exploration efforts ing field of lunar exploration.
Earth in his Vostok space- in the US (Lunar impact: July
craft in 1961. Just after this 31, 1964). The images sent by Conceived in the 1960s just
milestone by the Soviets, US Ranger 7 - comprising a total like the Ranger series, the
president, John F. Kennedy of 4316 - succored the future Surveyor project was yet an-
declared, “We choose to go Apollo astronauts to identify other effort by the US to sat-
to the Moon in this decade safe landing sites on Moon. isfy the aspirations of lunar
and do other things, not be-
cause they are easy, but be- Figure 3: One of 4,316 images Ranger 7 sent back before impact. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
cause they are hard.”; This (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/system/internal_resources/details/origi-
declaration intensified the
wish to take the lead from nal/3632_Cratered_surface_of_the_Moon_from_above..jpeg
the Soviets. Following Pres-
ident Kennedy’s directives,
nearly all of NASA’s focus
fixated on the goal of the lu-
nar landing. Hence, the Apol-
lo program took a skyward
leap, fortifying the safe land-
ing and departing of human
crews from the lunar surface.

21 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Lunar Exploration: Humanity’s Voyages Of The Moon Through Ages

Figure 4: NASA’s Ranger 9 spacecraft. ing the 1966-1968 period. The stage was set by years of
Credit: NASA. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https:// The Surveyor missions ac- robotic missions to proceed
solarsystem.nasa.gov/system/content_pag- complished their key target, to the next level of explora-
the soft landing on the lunar tion - manned missions - hu-
es/main_images/1382_ranger6-9.jpg surface, and obtained lunar mans landing on the surface
and cislunar photographs of the Moon. In 1968, for
exploration. Surveyor 1 (op- laying the foundation for the the first time, humans suc-
erated from June 2, 1966 to manned Apollo program. cessfully orbited the Moon,
January 7, 1967), the first in and it also became the first
the series, was a remarkable The Zond program was an- crewed flight of the Saturn
milestone as it accomplished other prominent lunar ex- V rocket, the first human ex-
the first true soft landing on ploration program led by cursion beyond low Earth
the Moon and the first US the Soviet nation apart orbit, and the first in-per-
photograph from the lunar from the Luna program. son observations of Earth
surface itself; the image of The program commenced from a distance. In 1969,
Surveyor 1’s shadow against in 1964 and ended in 1979, Apollo 10 was launched as
the lunar surface. Surveyor 2 providing a cornucopia of a mere dress rehearsal for
and Surveyor 4 were not as information on microme- the next Apollo mission, ex-
successful but Surveyor 3, teor flux, solar and cosmic cept the actual lunar landing
Surveyor 5, Surveyor 6, and rays, magnetic fields, radio was performed. In the same
Surveyor 7 secured the suc- emissions, and solar winds. year, less than a decade ear-
cess of the predecessors dur- lier since President Kenne-
Apollo: Taking “Strides” dy had declared the safe re-
On The Moon turn of humans to the Moon,
Apollo 11 accomplished the
“That’s one small step for historical triumph of the
a man. One giant leap for first human landing on the
mankind.” - Neil Armstrong Moon. Neil Armstrong, an
Apollo 11 crew member,
stepped onto the lunar sur-
face at 02:56 UT on July 21,
1969, after radioing, “Hou-
ston, Tranquility Base here,
The Eagle has landed.” They
walked on the lunar surface
for over two hours, collect-
ing samples of rocks and soil.

Figure 5: NASA’s Surveyor spacecraft. Credit: NASA. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://solarsys- With science at the fore-
tem.nasa.gov/system/content_pages/main_images/1398_surveyor.jpg front of its goals, Apollo 12
touched down on the Moon
at Oceanus Procellarum,
completing another fruitful
Apollo mission strengthen-
ing lunar research. Apollo

SIGMA 2022 22

Lunar Exploration: Humanity’s Voyages Of The Moon Through Ages ASTROSOC

13 was unsuccessful due to Figure 7: UV/visible composite images of Tycho crater on the Moon obtained by Clem-
the explosion of an oxygen entine. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://moon.nasa.gov/system/resources/detail_files/266_de-
tank, but the crew returned
to Earth safely. Apollo 14, tail_clm_usgs_14.jpg
Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and
Apollo 17 were triumphant ic observations of the Moon Artemis Mission: A Sus-
missions that bestowed dis- and the near-Earth object tainable Course To The
tinctive elements complet- and potentially hazardous Moon
ing the goals of establishing asteroid of the Apollo group,
the technology to meet other 1620 Geographos, and also Artemis is an ongoing space
national interests in space, map the shape and color of mission executed by NASA,
achieving pre-eminence in the Moon in 1994. In 1998 focusing on lunar explora-
space for the United States, and 1999, the Lunar Pros- tion to land the first female
carrying out a program of pector spacecraft mapped astronaut and the first astro-
scientific exploration of the the surface of the Moon naut of color on the Moon’s
Moon, and developing the and the magnetic fields of South Pole. NASA’s ‘Moon to
human capacity to work the Moon’s body as well. Mars’ plan is being built by
in the lunar environment.

Figure 6: The Apollo 11 lunar landing mis-
sion crew, pictured from left to right, Neil
A. Armstrong, commander; Michael Col-
lins, command module pilot; and Edwin
E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot. Image
Credit: NASA. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://
www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/images/

464398main_S69-31739_full.jpg

1990s: Return Of The Ro-
bots - Clementine And Lu-
nar Prospector

Clementine was a joint pro- Figure 8: Artemis Mission: Humanity’s return to the Moon. (n.d.). [Illustration]. https://www.
ject initiated by the Strategic nasa.gov/specials/artemis/img/home-art.jpg
Defense Initiative Organi-
zation and NASA. The main
goals of the project were to
test sensors and components
of spacecraft under extended
exposure to the space envi-
ronment and make scientif-

23 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Lunar Exploration: Humanity’s Voyages Of The Moon Through Ages

incorporating the technol- 4. Space Launch System of life and how the universe
ogy and research provided (SLS): a powerful rocket that operates. With Artemis and
by the Artemis missions to will transport the elements many more prospective in-
launch crewed missions to listed above into space. vestigations lying ahead, the
Mars. This ‘Moon to Mars’ understanding of life and
plan encompasses build- Artemis’ launch, which planetary evolution would
ing a new space station in was initially stated to be in be further revealed, unveil-
lunar orbit and ultimate- 2024, has been delayed and, ing the projection of the fu-
ly a habitable Moon base. NASA Inspector General ture of humanity as well.
Paul Martin has stated that
The Artemis Mission crewed lunar landing would F. B. I. Nimeshi
includes the follow- be pushed back to 2026. 3rd Year Undergraduate,
ing four main phases. Department of Zoology
Lunar exploration through and Environment Sciences,
1. The Orion Spacecraft: the ages has provided new
equipped with life support insights into the evolution Faculty of Science.
systems and shuttle inter-
faces to serve as the com-
mand module to transport
astronauts through the ages.

2. Lunar Gateway: a small

space station orbiting the
Moon to be used as a flex-
ible platform for missions
to the Moon and beyond.

3. The Moon Landing Mod-
ule: take cargo and hu-
mans from the Lunar Gate-
way to the Moon’s surface.

Figure 9: NASA. (2019). Orion Spacecraft [Illustration]. https://www.rmg.co.uk/sites/de-
fault/files/styles/max_width_1440/public/servicemodule.jpeg?itok=oVE8DKby

REFERENCES:

1. Spudis, P. D. (2008, August 6). Lunar Exploration: Past and Future. NASA. https://www.
nasa.gov/50th/50th_magazine/lunarExploration.html
2. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2020). NASA’s Lunar Exploration Pro-
gram Overview.
3. Williams, D. R. (2022, January). Clementine Project Information. NASA. https://nssdc.gsfc.
nasa.gov/planetary/clementine.html
4. Drake, N., & Howard, J. (2020, July 17). A brief history of moon exploration. National Ge-
ographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/moon-exploration?cmpid=int_
org=ngp::int_mc=website::int_src=ngp::int_cmp=amp::int_add=amp_readtherest

SIGMA 2022 24

The use of non-earth soil in growing plants in space environments ASTROSOC

FTRHOMESCUIESNECEOFIFCTNIONOTNO-FEACATR: TH SOIL
IN GROWING PLANTS IN
SPACE ENVIRONMENTS

C lose your eyes for The year 2022 has become soil provides the latter three
a moment! Im- an exceptional year, es- necessities in addition to it
agine yourself on pecially for the plant sci- being the structure that an-
the Moon, dressed entists at the University chors the plant. The absence
in a spacesuit, riding a rover of Florida. They have suc- of at least one of these ne-
through a lunar garden. It is cessfully planted Arabidop- cessities could disturb the
green to your left and your sis thaliana seeds for the plant up to the point of its
right. Yes, it is quite an unu- first time in lunar regolith death. Thus, to grow any
sual picture compared to the marking a milestone for the plant from Earth, any non-
dull, ashy images you would space exploration missions. Earth soil must also fulfill
get when you type the word these basic requirements.
‘Moon’ on google. Five dec- Earth is the only planet so Here lies the challenge!
ades ago, it all started with far known to have these
one small step for a man. So, magnificent living beings, Back at the University of
can we not say, five decades “the plants”. There are five Florida, the research team
later, a few seeds might bring main essentials to nurture designed their experiment
the footprints of human- a plant: namely, sunlight, with a treatment group and
kind back to a green moon? proper temperature, mois- a control group. For the
ture, nutrients, and air. The treatment group, they used

25 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC The use of non-earth soil in growing plants in space environments

soil samples collected from Back to the research! For up around the world also study it
Apollo 11, 12, and 17 mis- to six days, the plants in the as a model organism in plant
sions. For the control group, lunar sample were exact- biology. Arabidopsis is easy
a well-studied lunar soil ly like the ones in the con- to grow, has a comparatively
simulant known as JSC-1 trol group. However, after small genome, and thus it’s
developed by NASA Johnson six days some differences extensively used in many ge-
Space Center was used. JSC-1 started to appear. The seed- netic experiments. Scientists
is derived from volcanic ash, lings in the lunar sample know in detail about many of
which can be considered a displayed stress responses. its genes and their behavior
poor choice to grow plants The seedlings were fragile under many circumstances,
on Earth. Both the groups and displayed slow growth. even in space. For any read-
were treated with the same The leaves were stunted er who does not come from
nutrient solution. The team with a reddish pigmenta- a molecular biology back-
planted one Arabidopsis tion. On Day 20, the team ground, as per the central
thaliana seed in one gram harvested the plants when dogma of molecular biolo-
of lunar soil. Remember? they were about to flower. gy, the DNA or the genes are
These researchers are trying The harvested plants were first transcribed to RNA. RNA
to plant the seeds in lunar grounded and subjected to then is translated to func-
soil regolith which has been RNA studies. Here comes tional proteins. This is how
lifeless for billions of years! the reason why the team genes are expressed within
Lunar soil inherently is dry, used Arabidopsis thaliana biological systems. Through
sharp, abrasive, and loaded plants for the experiment. RNA analyses, the research
with minerals and ions Earth team could find out which
plants have never encoun- What is Arabidopsis thalia- metabolic pathways were
tered before. In addition, lu- na? Arabidopsis is a member affected, and which genes
nar soil is hydrophobic. So, of the mustard family. While were turned on and off as a
watering and adding nutri- being a good model for veg- stress response when plants
ent solutions were also dif- etable crops, plant scientists were grown in lunar soil.
ficult in the experiment. The
experimental setup was not
maintained in a sterile en-
vironment but placed in an
open lab that simulated the
lunar environment. The team
maintained a few replicates
of the experimental setup
to take necessary statistics.

The team of scientists was Figure 1: Arabidopsis thaliana grown in a tray which resembles an ice cube tray (left) plants
amazed to observe the grown in lunar simulant (right) plants grown in lunar soil. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://media.
sprouting of all the seeds
in the lunar sample! But to wired.com/photos/627bf956be47c2179c88b98a/master/pass/Science_Image-3.image.jpg
state a fact, a seed generally
uses its own stored food re-
serves to begin its growth.

SIGMA 2022 26

The use of non-earth soil in growing plants in space environments ASTROSOC

This opens doors to finding
ways to genetically improve
plants and make them bet-
ter suited to grow on Moon.

A quick question! Can we Figure 2: Arabidopsis thaliana plant. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://plantlet.org/wp-content/
call this experiment a suc- uploads/2019/05/159783_web.jpg
cess? Despite the way plants
behaved in the later phase, of Florida, we became one curity on our very own plan-
the experiment can still be step closer to our dream. et. If we can grow plants on
called a success. A prime The lunar soil samples from Moon, what can stop us from
goal of space exploration Apollo missions are now in growing plants on Earth?
missions is to colonize the limited amounts. Thus, the
Moon or Mars to make it our future Artemis missions are History provides enough
second home. In these mis- expected to bring more lu- evidence to prove that hu-
sions, the resources on those nar samples in the hope of mans have always been
planets are expected to be conducting more research in good explorers. But each
utilized as much as possible this regard in a foreseeable time they established civili-
minimizing the amount we future. On the flip side, some zations; they brought their
need to carry from Earth. In scientists argue, that rath- cultivation with them. So, if
fact, under the existing space er than working with moon we are to leave our planet,
law, transportation of some dust, we can go for soil-less we take our plants with us!
resources from Earth is pro- novel cultivation practic-
hibited as it creates a risk es such as hydroponics and W. A. P. U. Ruwanmalie
of contamination on other aeroponics. Nonetheless, the 3rd Year Undergraduate,
planets. Remember Matt experiment done at the Uni-
Damon from the movie Mar- versity of Florida can also be Department of Plant
tian? He planted potatoes on useful to improve the food se- Sciences,
Mars with his own feces as
fertilizer and created a Mar- Faculty of Science.
tian potato farm inside his
hub. Obviously, things are
not that simple. However,
with the success of this ex-
periment at the University

REFERENCES:

1. Scientists Grow Plants in Lunar Soil. (n.d.). NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/biologi-
cal-physical/scientists-grow-plants-in-soil-from-the-moon
2. Lunar Farming: Achieving Maximum Yield for the Exploration of Space. (1991). Ameri-
can Society for Horticultural Science. https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/horts-
ci/26/7/article-p827.xml
3. Permeability of JSC-1A: A lunar soil simulant. (2011). Icarus. https://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103510004835?via%3Dihub

27 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Interplanetary Exploration

INTERPLANETARY TERRAIN EXPLORATION

PERSEVERANCE AND ZHURONG, AND

INTERPLANETARY ATMOSPHERIC EXPLORATION : INGENUITY

Mars being the fourth crafts that arrived on Mars the inaugural moment for
planet from the Sun is on February 18, 2021, after such a powered, controlled
one of our solar sys- a 203-day expedition cover- atmospheric explorer to fly
tem’s most explored bodies. ing 293 million miles which in the thin atmosphere of
It is the second celestial body is equivalent to 472 million Mars. After this first flight
on which rovers have been kilometers. The Persever- beyond Earth, Ingenuity suc-
dispatched to examine alien ance rover is searching for cessfully completed several
surfaces. As per NASA, they indications of ancient Mar- more test flights by increas-
are currently exploring the tian life in the Jezero Cra- ing distance and altitude. Ac-
landscape of Mars with two ter, which was once a huge cording to NASA, following
rovers namely Perseverance lake and a river delta bil- its completion of technolog-
and Curiosity, one helicop- lions of years ago. By a com- ical demonstration, the hel-
ter used for interplanetary bined NASA-European Space icopter will transition to a
atmospheric exploration Agency campaign, this six- new operations demonstra-
called Ingenuity and one wheeled robotic rover gath- tion phase to delve into how
lander named InSight. ers and catches samples in aerial explorers and future
order to return to Earth as rovers can collaborate.
The Perseverance rover, an early as 2031. Additionally,
interplanetary terrain ex- the helicopter Ingenuity was Furthermore, Zhurong was
plorer is NASA’s most ad- hitched on the belly of Perse- China’s first rover to success-
vanced and largest rover verance and taken to Mars. It fully land on Mars in May
which has been sent to an- was a major landmark when 2021 and thus the People’s
other surface. This rover was Ingenuity took its first flight Republic of China was the
taken in one of the space- on April 19, 2021 as it was second nation to efficacious-

Figure 1: Perseverance rover captures low-pitched whirring of Ingenuity’s helicopter blades while flying through Martian at-
mosphere (P.C https://bit.ly/3aeSfUG )

SIGMA 2022 28

Interplanetary Exploration ASTROSOC

ly touch down a Mars rover known that China is contem- plorers have found out many
(Fig. 2). In May 2021, the plating a Mars sample return facts suggesting that Mars
rover landed in Utopia Plan- mission which might launch was once much warmer and
itia basin in Mars’ Northern in 2028. However, no infor- wetter with a very thick at-
Hemisphere. Ever since, mation on candidate land- mosphere billions of years
China’s explorer has been ing sites have been released. ago, than it is now. As a re-
utilizing its six scientific in- With Zhurong’s completion sult, through such discussed
struments to explore local of ninety sols as its primary interplanetary terrain and
meteorological conditions, mission, the rover is contin- atmospheric explorations, it
its geology and chemical uing its journey along to the is affirmed that the Red Plan-
composition of rocks. Conse- South of the landing location et is a dynamic body which
quently, Zhurong, the terrain on the Red Planet, collecting consists of polar ice caps,
explorer revealed with a re- data as it explores. dead volcanoes, canyons
cent research based on data and it is also evident that it
from its first sixty sols (ap- Conducting explorations us- was more active in the past.
proximately 62 Earth days) ing rovers and helicopters as
on how primordial water and Zhurong, Perseverance and K. P. Somarathna
weather altered the surface Ingenuity aid in discovering 1st Year Undergraduate,
of the greatest impact basin a plethora of evidence. For
on Mars. Moreover, it is to be instance, these robotic ex- Faculty of Law.

Figure 2: Zhurong rover captured this panoramic view of Mars (P.C: https://bit.ly/3x44pJ4 )

REFERENCES:
1. NASA. (n.d.). Mars. NASA Solar System Exploration. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://
solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mars/overview/
2. Wall, M. (2021, December 31). 2021 was an epic year for Mars exploration. Space.Com.
Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://www.space.com/mars-exploration-2021-perseverance-in-
genuity-hope-tianwen-1
3. Jones, A. (2022, March 10). China’s Zhurong rover reveals how weather and ancient water
altered rocks on Mars. Space.Com. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://www.space.com/chi-
na-zhurong-rover-weathering-mars-rocks
4.M. (n.d.). Mars Helicopter. NASA Mars. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://mars.nasa.gov/
technology/helicopter/#Quick-Facts

29 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Asteroid (607372) Colombounilanka

Asteroid (607372) Colombounilanka and
Contributions to Astronomy by the
University of Colombo1*

by Nalin H. Samarasinha, PhD (Senior Scientist, Planetary Science Institute, USA)

Figure 1: Orbit diagram of Asteroid Colombounilanka. (n.d.). [Illustration]. https://cmb.ac.lk/wp-content/uploads/asteroid-colombounilan-
ka-7.jpg

Asteroid (607372) Colombounilanka was assigned the provisional designation 2000
discovered on November 30, 2000, by the WU178. After an additional 21 years of ob-
author2# of this article and Dr. Tod R. Lau-
er at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in servations by various observers, the aster-
southern Arizona. It was a serendipitous oid’s orbit was determined sufficiently ac-
discovery as the asteroid was in the same curately to assign a catalog number, 607372.
image frame as the primary observation-
al target. After the researchers submitted This catalog entry resulted in the discover-
precise sky coordinates (astrometric coor- ers receiving the official discovery credits
dinates) from that night and the next, the and the rights for a formal naming. On March
Minor Planet Center of the International 21, the IAU officially named it as asteroid
Astronomical Union (IAU) confirmed the (607372) Colombounilanka in honor of the
asteroid was indeed a new discovery and University of Colombo (hereafter UoC). The

naming procedure adhered to the strict IAU

rules and guidelines for naming an asteroid.

1* This is a summarized version of the inaugural talk of the CUFSAA Distinguished Speaker
Series; the entire video of the talk is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZsEO-
2QZST7g
2# This is the first time that a Sri-Lankan origin scientist received official discovery credits for
a new asteroid.

SIGMA 2022 30

Asteroid (607372) Colombounilanka ASTROSOC

As a numbered asteroid, the orbit of Colom- ka, and (c) astronomy public education and
bounilanka is accurately determined. How- outreach in Sri Lanka by the alumni and
ever, its physical properties are not well un- the academic staff both current and former.
derstood. Colombounilanka’s H-magnitude,
a measure of its absolute brightness, is es- Astronomy Research: It is an established
timated as 17.6 (this value is a measure of practice to quantify the research contribu-
brightness corresponding to the asteroid tions by the number of peer-reviewed pub-
having equal heliocentric and geocentric lications despite that should not be the sole
distances of 1 au and a zero solar phase an- criterion. We considered NASA Astrophysics
gle, where an astronomical unit, au, repre- Data System abstract service (ADS) available
sents the average Sun-Earth distance of 150 at the URL https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ for
million km). This estimate translates to an this and we identify the following scientists
effective diameter of 1-2 km for the aster- in the order of the number of peer-reviewed
oid depending on how efficiently it reflects publications. The areas of primary expertise
incident sunlight (represented by a param- of individuals are listed within parenthesis.
eter known as “albedo”). For example, for an
albedo of 0.1 (i.e., if it reflects 10% of inci- Dr. Chandra Wickramasinghe (cometary
dent sunlight), the effective diameter would panspermia, interstellar dust), Dr. Dayal
be 1.3 km. Simultaneous visible and infrared Wickramasinghe (white dwarfs, pulsars), Dr.
observations could reveal its actual albedo. D. Asoka Mendis (dusty space plasma phys-
Determination of the asteroid’s spectral type ics and its astrophysical applications, com-
can also reveal an approximate albedo; how- ets, missions to comet Halley), late Dr. Ga-
ever, such observations are not available for nesar (Ganesh) Chanmugam (white dwarfs,
Colombounilanka. On the other hand, the av- neutron stars), Dr. Nalin Samarasinha (com-
erage distance to the asteroid from the sun ets and other small bodies), Dr. Kavan Rat-
is 2.6 au or 390 million km. The asteroid Co- natunga (galactic and extragalactic astron-
lombounilanka never comes closer than 1.4 omy, gravitational lenses, Hubble Space
au (equivalent to 210 million km) from Earth Telescope imaging), Dr. A. Udara Abeyseka-
and therefore it never poses any danger of ra (high-energy astrophysics, gamma-ray
colliding with Earth. While Earth takes one bursts), Dr. Tilan Ukwatta (high energy as-
year to orbit the sun, Colombounilanka takes trophysics, gamma-ray bursts), Dr. Tilina
4.2 years to make a full trip around the sun. Dayanga (gravitational waves, LIGO experi-
The asteroid Colombounilanka was named ment), Dr. Tilak Hewagama (infrared astron-
just as the UoC concluded celebrating its omy, solar physics, planetary atmospheres,
centennial. The naming was also in recogni- COBE & DIXI missions, instrumentation), Dr.
tion of the contributions made by the teach- Rohana (LSR) Wijewardhana (quantum field
ers of the university to higher education. theory, particle physics, and applications to
It is worthy to examine the contributions astrophysics), Dr. Suranga Ruhunusiri (plas-
made by the alumni and the academic staff ma effects at Mars, MAVEN mission, comets),
of the university to the field of astronomy. Dr. Benetge Bhakthi Perera (pulsars, radio
For this, we will consider contributions to astronomy, Arecibo), Dr. Senerath (Shan-
astronomy through (a) original astronom- ta) de Alwis (cosmology, string theory), Dr.
ical research, (b) astronomy education/in- Nipuni Palliyaguru (gravitational waves,
structions at the university level in Sri Lan- LIGO experiment, radio astronomy, Areci-

31 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Asteroid (607372) Colombounilanka

bo), Dr. J. Prasanna Deshapriya (comets, as- ordinator for Astronomy and Astrophysics
teroids, Rosetta and OSIRIS-REx missions), Olympiad and Junior Astronomy Olympiad,
late Dr. Jeeva (Sachithanandam) Anandan multiple popular astronomy books, popular-
(theoretical physics, general relativity), ization of astronomy), Mr. Saraj Gunasekera
Dr. Murugesupillai Maheswaran (stellar (popularization of astronomy, astronomy
magnetic fields), and Dr. Kirthi Tennakone workshops), Dr. Janaka Adassuriya (popular-
(theoretical physics, varied astronomical ization of astronomy, astronomy workshops),
topics). There are additional scientists but and Dr. Sarath Gunapala (popularization of
the list is truncated here because there is astronomy especially about NASA missions).
a natural break in the number of publica-
tions. Note that these contributions cover Any omissions, if any, in the above lists are
observational, theoretical, and experimen- not intentional and the lists are provid-
tal aspects of astronomy and subject matter ed only to emphasize the extensive col-
ranges from solar physics, planetary astron- lective contributions to astronomy by the
omy, stellar astronomy, galactic astronomy, UoC alumni and the academic staff. Consid-
and extragalactic astronomy to cosmology. ering the above contributions, especially
the breadth and depth of them, UoC is cer-
Astronomy Education at University Level: tainly worthy of having an asteroid named
Prof. Douglas Amarasekera (taught an as- after it as it completed 100 years of ser-
tronomy course in the late 1950s), Dr. Asoka vice to the higher education in Sri Lanka.
Mendis (taught an astronomy course in the
late 1960s), Dr. Nalin (LNK) de Silva (taught Dr. Nalin H. Samarasinghe
an astronomy course started in the late Senior Scientist,
1970s), Dr. Chandana Jayaratne (taught an as-
tronomy course started in 2005, astronomy Planetary Science Institute,
lectures at the Open University, the establish- United States of America.
ment of Astronomy and Space Science Unit at Respected Alumnus of the
UoC), Mr. Saraj Gunasekera (supervision of University of Colombo.
undergraduate and MPhil research projects),
Dr. Janaka Adassuriya (supervision of under-
graduate research projects), Dr. Upali Karau-
nasiri (astronomy lectures at University of
Peradeniya), Dr. Kavan Ratnatunga (astrono-
my lectures at University of Moratuwa), late
Dr. Hilarian Codippili (astronomy lectures
at UoC), late Dr. V.K. Samaranayake (leader-
ship role in restoring the Molesworth tele-
scope and bringing it to working condition).

Astronomy Public Outreach/ Communica- Figure 2: Dr. Nalin Samarasinha. [Photograph]. https://www.cufsaa.
tion: late Dr. V. K. Samaranayake (publication com/dss-talk01/
of the popular astronomy book “Mulika Thar-
aka Vidyava” in the 1960s, popularization
of astronomy), Dr. Chandana Jayaratne (Co-

SIGMA 2022 32

A Scientific Inquiry Into The Dying Stages Of Stars ASTROSOC

A SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY INTO THE

DYING STAGES OF STARS

“The larger a star, the shorter its life, but more fascinating
its death. As it collapses within its body, the infalling materi-
al can no longer be compressed; the star blows to pieces; its

shattered mass releases outward at the speed of light.”

- Kelly Easton, The Life History of a Star-

F rom the perspective of human be- can burn endlessly. They have life cycles, and
ings, death is considered the worst a star will die billions of years after it los-
thing that can happen to any species es fuel to burn further. The way a star dies
depends on how much matter it contains.
since it marks the end of a valuable life. On
the other hand, death is unavoidable, and it The collapse and fragmentation of molecu-
may be just as precious as life since it can be lar clouds into dense clusters is the starting
a fresh beginning, and what remains of life point for the creation of stars. The temper-
after death can be priceless and beautiful. ature of the substance rises as the surface
The death of a star is as beautiful as its birth area over which it is distributed shrinks due
and as meaningful as its existence. A star is to gravitational contraction. Then this object
born and then dies billions of years later. Be- is known as a protostar during this period,
cause it runs out of hydrogen fuel, no star

Figure 1: The birth, lives, and deaths of different sizes of stars. (n.d.). [Infographic]. https://d2pn8kiwq2w21t.cloudfront.net/original_images/
infographicsuploadsinfographicsfull10737.jpg

33 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC A Scientific Inquiry Into The Dying Stages Of Stars

which lasts until hydrogen-burning begins.

The Stars Which Are Smaller Than The
Sun

Brown dwarfs are substellar objects that are Figure 2: Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram. (n.d.). [Diagram]. https://
neither planets nor stars. Brown dwarfs begin www.space.fm/astronomy/images/diagrams/hr.jpg
their lives as stellar seeds rather than plan-
etary seeds in the disks around protostars, When mid-sized stars like our Sun run out of
whicharefrequently referred to as failed stars hydrogen, their cores compress and heat up.
since their mass is low, and they never burn These stars will then become red giant stars
fusion at their core. The small, slow-burning when the outer layers of gases get expand-
red dwarf stars have a long-life expectan- ed. When the center of a red giant star cools,
cy. Their lives extend between one and ten the leftover gas drifts into space, forming a
trillion years. In any case, they, like all other planetary nebula and a white dwarf star. A
stars, will eventually run out of fuel. At that white dwarf star can be found at the center
time, the red dwarfs become white dwarfs, of every planetary nebula formed in this way.
which are dead stars that no longer under-
go core fusion. White dwarfs will ultimately Red giant stars that have departed the main
lose all their heat and become black dwarfs. sequence and have core temperatures of
108 K or above will undergo the triple-al-
The Stars Which Are Like The Sun pha process. Once 162C has been generated,
it is feasible to continue producing heavier
In the cores of main-sequence stars like nuclei by combining two 162C nuclei to form
our Sun, hydrogen atoms are fused to
form helium atoms. About 90 percent of
the stars in the cosmos like the Sun, are
main-sequence stars. These stars can have
masses ranging from a tenth of the mass
of the Sun to 200 times that of the Sun.

Reversible
reaction

Figure 3: The triple-alpha process. (n.d.). [Illustration]. https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/images/stellarevo-
lution/triplealphaflash.jpg

SIGMA 2022 34

A Scientific Inquiry Into The Dying Stages Of Stars ASTROSOC

168O, 2100Ne, and 2124Mg at temperatures about
6×108 K, and at temperatures around 109 K,

two 186O nuclei may form 2184Si, 3151P, S31 , and 1362S.

16

White Dwarfs

A degenerate dwarf star, commonly known Figure 4: The CNO cycle (for carbon-nitrogen–oxygen). (n.d.). [Il-
as a white dwarf, is a stellar core remnant lustration]. https://supernova.eso.org/static/archives/exhibitionim-
made primarily of electron-degenerate
matter. A white dwarf is very dense, with a ages/screen/0418_cno-1080.jpg
mass like that of the Sun and a volume com-
parable to that of Earth. White dwarf stars When the cores of massive stars run out of
are made up of one of the densest forms of hydrogen, they fuse helium into carbon. This
matter known in the universe, only being creates heavier elements such as oxygen,
surpassed by neutron stars, black holes, neon, silicon, magnesium, sulfur, and iron.
and quark stars. White dwarf stars typically After the core is turned to iron, it is no longer
have a mass of 0.1 to 1.4 times that of our feasible to burn it. When the star descends
Sun, and they survive for 100,000 to 10 bil- owing to gravity, the iron core warms up
lion years. “Sirius B”, at 8.6 light-years, is and continues to heat up as it cools. A star’s
the closest known white dwarf to the earth. core shrinks from an iron core to a neutron
core with a radius of roughly 6 miles in less
It is projected that there will be a limit- than a second. When the star’s outer lay-
ing mass over which no stable white dwarf ers slide inward on the neutron core, it gets
star can exist, which is known as the “Chan- crushed even more. The very massive stars
drasekhar limit”, which is on the order of evolve into blue supergiant stars before
1.4 solar masses. Above this mass, the elec- dying spectacularly, which cause the larg-
tron degeneracy pressure is insufficient to est explosions the universe has ever seen
keep the star from collapsing further into when they collide, known as “supernovas”.
a neutron star or black hole due to gravi-
ty. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, a Nobel A supernova is so brilliant that it may be
Laureate, first introduced the idea in 1931. seen from a hundred billion light-years away.
A supernova’s first explosion contains
The stars which are more massive than enough energy to tear atoms apart at their
the sun core, sending protons and neutrons shoot-
ing into space. These particles collide with
In stars that are more than 1.3 times as mas- enough energy in the minutes after the ex-
sive as the sun, the Carbon-Nitrogen-Ox-
ygen (CNO) cycle is the primary mode of
nuclear fusion. This is because the large
stars have the temperature needed for a
self-sustaining CNO cycle. The CNO cycle
also needs a significantly higher temper-
ature to overcome the substantial Cou-
lomb barrier since the phases involve pro-
tons fusing with carbon and heavier nuclei.

35 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC A Scientific Inquiry Into The Dying Stages Of Stars

Black holes can’t be seen through human eyes
since no light can escape, thus they’re called
invisible, but space telescopes can help de-
tect them. Special instruments can observe
how stars very close to black holes behave
differently from other stars. The smallest
black holes, according to scientists, are as
small as one atom. There might be several
stellar-mass black holes in the Milky Way
galaxy, each with a mass of up to 20 times
that of the Sun. The mass of the supermassive
black holes adds up to more than a mil-
lion Suns. The black hole at the center of
the Milky Way galaxy is “Sagittarius A*”.

Figure 5: An illustration of a supernova explosion. (n.d.). [Il-
lustration]. https://www.nasa.gov/images/content/175872main_

sn2006gy_main_330.jpg

plosion that they fuse back together. The
nucleosynthesis that happens during a su-
pernova explosion yields elements with
atomic numbers greater than iron. Elements
such as zinc, silver, tin, gold, mercury, lead,
and uranium were produced when the ear-
liest stars perished in this way. All that re-
mains after a core-collapse supernova is
a dense core and hot gas known as a neb-
ula. When stars are particularly massive,
the core falls into a black hole. Otherwise,
it will collapse into a dense neutron star.

Blackholes Figure 6: Sagittarius A* black hole. (n.d.). [Photograph]. https://
www.chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2013/sgra_gas/sgra_gas.jpg
Einstein’s theory of general relativity, which
proved that when a massive star dies, it Neutron Stars
leaves behind a small, dense remnant core,
is most renowned for predicting black holes. Neutron stars arise when a massive star runs
The equations demonstrated that if the out of fuel and collapses. The most central
core’s mass is more than three times that of part of the star collapses, compressing every
the Sun, gravity will override all other forces, proton and electron into a neutron. Gravity
resulting in a black hole. produces a city-sized sphere of superdense,
neutron-rich material called neutronium.
A black hole is a region of space in which grav- Due to the reason that the atoms are so close
ity is so strong that even light cannot escape. together, electrons are propelled forceful-
Because matter has been jammed into such ly towards their parent nuclei, where they
a small space, gravity is extremely powerful. combine with protons to form neutrons.

SIGMA 2022 36

A Scientific Inquiry Into The Dying Stages Of Stars ASTROSOC

The star has a thin iron shell about 1 mile covered as pulsars or magnetars, whirl-
which is mostly neutrons, which come in ing furiously with strong magnetic fields
a variety of shapes depending on how far in the universe’s outer atmosphere.
down in the neutron star they are. After its
creation, a neutron star produces neither Pulsars
light nor heat of its own. Its latent heat will
gradually reduce from 600,000 degrees Kel- Pulsars are the most common type of neu-
vin over millions of years, finally terminat- tron stars with typical radii of about 10 km
ing its existence as a chilly, lifeless relic of and 1.4 solar masses, which are rotating
a once-brilliant star. Because neutron stars neutron stars observed to have pulses of
are so dense, their gravitational and mag- radiation at highly regular intervals, usual-
netic fields are extremely strong. A neutron ly between milliseconds and seconds. The
star’s gravity is around a thousand billion magnetic fields of pulsars are incredibly in-
times greater than the Earth’s. As a result, tense, funneling particles and radio waves
the surface of a neutron star is very smooth; out along their two magnetic poles. These
gravity prevents anything tall from exist- accelerated particles emit extremely in-
ing. The neutron stars compress 1.3 to 2.5 tense light beams. Particles, radio waves,
solar masses into a sphere around 20 kilo- and light beams are swept around as the
meters wide, which is about the size of a star rotates because the magnetic field
city. A tablespoon of neutron star material is not always aligned with the spin axis.
would weigh more than 1 billion tons. Which
is more than the weight of Mount Everest. Even though the light from the beam is con-
stant, pulsars appear to flicker because they
Neutron stars generate X-rays at the rotate as well. It’s the same reason why a
cores of supernova remnants, but they lighthouse on the water looks to blink when
are hard to detect because they don’t pro- viewed by a sailor. The beam of light and ra-
duce much radiation. They are most dis- dio waves from the pulsar may sweep over

Figure 7: Neutron Star. (n.d.). [Illustration]. https://www.nasa.gov/images/content/188390main_96706main_CLOSEUPpre_burst_.jpg

37 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC A Scientific Inquiry Into The Dying Stages Of Stars

the Earth, then swing out of view, and later
swing back around as the pulsar spins. The
light enters and exits an astronomer’s field of
vision, giving the impression that the pulsar is
flashing on and off. PSR B1919+21 is a pulsar
with a period of 1.3373 seconds and a pulse
width of 0.04 seconds. It was discovered by
Jocelyn Bell Burnell on 28th November- 1967
and is the first radio pulsar ever detected.

Pulsars spin because the stars from which Figure 8: A pulsar. (n.d.). [Diagram]. https://public.nrao.edu/wp-con-
they arose revolve as well, and the pulsar’s tent/uploads/2017/03/NRAOPulsar.jpg
spinning speed will naturally rise as the
stellar mass collapses. A millisecond pulsar, W. M. G. H. P. Wickramasinghe
which is a kind of radio or X-ray pulsar with 4th Year Undergraduate,
a rotating period measured in milliseconds Department of Physics,
or less, often less than 30 ms, requires an Faculty of Science.
additional source of energy to achieve a fast
rotation rate. The narrow jets of broad-spec-
trum radiation emitted by Pulsars give the
data that might reveal the behavior and
make-up of ultra-dense objects like neutron
stars, the universe’s densest matter. Because
of the accuracy of their pulses, some pul-
sars are particularly helpful. “Geminga” is
the pulsar that is located around 800 light-
years distant in the constellation Gemini
and is one of the closest pulsars to Earth.

REFERENCES:
1. Let’s Talk Science. 2022. The Life and Death of Stars. [online] Available at: <https://let-
stalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/life-and-death-stars> [Accessed 19
June 2022].
2. NASA. 2022. What Is a Black Hole?. [online] Available at: <https://www.nasa.gov/audience/
forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-a-black-hole-k4.html> [Accessed 19 June 2022].
3. Imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2022. Imagine the Universe!. [online] Available at: <https://imagine.
gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/neutron_stars1.html#:~:text=Neutron%20stars%20are%20
formed%20when,and%20electron%20into%20a%20neutron> [Accessed 19 June 2022].
4. Nasa.gov. 2022. NASA - Neutron Stars. [online] Available at: <https://www.nasa.gov/mis-
sion_pages/GLAST/science/neutron_stars.html> [Accessed 19 June 2022].

SIGMA 2022 38

The First Image of Black hole 2019 and Sagittarius A 2022 ASTROSOC

R esearchers re- gather more information gas was blown away through
vealed the first-ev- about unknown celestial winds from Sagittarius-A.
er image of a black bodies. In recent years, mul-
tiple telescopes, including The complicated image
hole three years Chandra, observed this giant recreating procedure
ago, captured using the
Event Horizon Telescope and black object simultaneous-

it depicted a supermassive ly with the Event Horizon Despite acquiring the data

black hole 50 million light- Telescope. And this collabo- in 2017, it took a long time

years away from Earth in the rative effort gave profound to disclose the Sagittarius-A

galaxy M87. They have now insights into matters outside image due to the number of

BLATCheKFiHrstOImLaEge2of019
SAGITTARanIUd S A 2022
published what they believe
is the second black hole pho-
tograph, which depicts a dark
object in the Milky Way that
is closer to Earth. Scientists
have named it Sagittarius-A.

This Sagittarius-A sits 26,000 Figure 1: The First Image of Black hole 2019 [Illustration]. https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.
light-years away from Earth net/F2qM9GBVYhTWeZ9W3C7Eij-1024-80.jpg.webp
and has a mass of about 4
million times that of the sun. of the Event Horizon Tele- snapshots that had to be col-
The pattern of the stars or- scope’s field of view. This in- lected and processed from
biting around it leads scien- formation helped scientists various EHT radio dishes.
tists to believe it is a black comprehend the complex These EHT radio dishes
hole. According to them, the accretion process in which work in pairs, and the image
stars give them tight pre- material falls towards and resolution depends on the
dictions regarding this com- into a black hole. Not only pair separations and orien-
pletely unseen matter. How- that but also the X-rays from tations relative to the object.
ever, because there was no Chandra revealed that the hot Therefore, two EHT dishes
visual proof, the scientists
had yet to establish the fact.

Astronomers use the NASA
telescope trio, accompanied
by others on the ground, to

39 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC The First Image of Black hole 2019 and Sagittarius A 2022

with all pair separations and How the EHT team over- Figure 2: Chandra image of Sagittarius A
orientations were neces- came the challenges https://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2022/
sary to provide the optimal
image. But the EHT radio Despite the challenges men- sgra/sgra_xray_thm100.jpg
dishes alone could not ful- tioned above, the EHT team
fil the above requirements. has spent the last few years Figure 3: Chandra, swift and Hubble image
developing algorithms for of Sagittarius A [Illustration].
Even though Earth’s rotation recovering a mode; from in-
helped fill in some gaps, it complete data for Sagittari- https://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2022/
was insufficient, as per Katie us-A. First, they used these sgra/sgra_chandra_swift_hubble_near_ir.
Bauman. Assume that we are algorithms to create ten
attempting to identify a tune thousand pictures with EHT jpg
played by a piano with faulty observations but alternative
keys. It opens up an endless predictions for the missing Muditha Rathnayake
number of possibilities for data. They were then able to 2nd Year Undergraduate,
playing different melodies. narrow down those predic-
But our brain, on the other tions and retrieve the most Faculty of Science.
hand, fills in the gaps to rec- appropriate model for Sag-
ognize the music played by ittarius-A after much work.
the remaining functional key. In addition, scientists have
When replicating a black hole discovered that the gravi-
image, the same can be said. tational forces of Sagittari-
us-A affect the surrounding
Apart from the above, there environment. All these are
was another complication in exciting results of the EHT
replicating the Sagittarius-A team’s outstanding work.
image. A fast-moving gas or-
bited the black behemoth, “It took us years to get to this
generating motion blur in result,” Bauman once stated,
the image and compromis- “but we never backed away
ing the EHT image quality.
from the challenge.”

REFERENCES:
1. Astronomers reveal 1st image of massive black hole at the center of ... Retrieved 2022, from
https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/12/astronomers-reveal-1st-image-of-massive-black-hole-at-
the-center-of-milky-way.html
2. How Scientists Captured the First Image of a Black Hole. Retrieved 2022, from https://
www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/news/2019/4/19/how-scientists-captured-the-first-image-of-a-black-
hole/
3. Supermassive black hole: 1st image of Sagittarius A* at the center of ... Retrieved 2022,
from https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/12/world/milky-way-center-black-hole-image-scn/index.
html

SIGMA 2022 40

Cosmic rays: Energetic And Destructive, Yet Informative ASTROSOC

COSMIC RAYS

Energetic and Destructive, Yet Informative

H igh up in our at- their emission. Their rela- electrons, and neutrinos,
mosphere and out tivistic speeds (speeds close some of which decay fur-
in space, you’d to that of light) account for ther. These particles which
encounter super the large energy they carry. are the secondary cosmic
energetic particles whizzing rays can be detected by
about and clashing with at- These particles are divided various kinds of detectors.
mospheric molecules, caus- into 2 types based on their
ing a shower of even more origin relative to Earth’s at- There are other classifi-
particles. These particles mosphere as ‘primary’ and cations for cosmic rays as
originating far out in space ‘secondary’. Primary cosmic well, such as the ‘galactic
are known as cosmic rays. rays originate from outside cosmic rays’ (GCR) and ex-
However cosmic rays techni- Earth’s atmosphere. A Ma- tragalactic cosmic rays, both
cally aren’t “rays”, they’re not jority of them are protons of which originate outside
electromagnetic waves like and a few are Helium nuclei, the Solar System, and ‘solar
light or gamma rays. Instead, while a tiny fraction are nu- energetic particles’ which
cosmic rays are high-energy clei of heavier elements and are high-energy particles
protons and atomic nuclei antimatter particles such as that emanate from the Sun.
that move through space positrons and antiprotons.
at nearly the speed of light. The Highest Of Highs... In
These primary cosmic rays Energy
The Nitty-gritty Properties collide with atoms and mol-
ecules in the Earth’s at- Cosmic ray particles of en-
Magnetically charged, these mosphere and that interac- ergies greater than 1018 eV
particles move under the tion produces a shower of and even exceeding 1020 eV
influence of various mag- lighter particles which in- are measured on Earth and
netic fields from the time of clude X-rays, pions, muons, these energies are well be-
yond the energy range of
Figure 1: Primary cosmic particle collides with a molecule of atmosphere, creating an air solar particles and particles
shower. (n.d.). [Illustration]. https://bit.ly/3MnwrDR produced by artificial accel-
erators. Hence it is suspect-
ed that the production of
these particles must be re-
lated to very energetic and
unknown phenomena in the
universe. Some of the known
high-energy events in the
cosmos involve black holes,
neutron stars, superno-
vae, and gamma-ray bursts.

41 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Cosmic rays: Energetic And Destructive, Yet Informative

Figure 2: Solar and Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) Composition. (n.d.-b). [Graph]
https://go.nasa.gov/3Mlc0Y6
https://bit.ly/3MnwrDR

For a quantitative com- Far-flung Messengers The composition of cosmic
parison, first, note that 1 rays is important because
electron volt (1 eV) is the Our vast and wonderful uni- these rays are a direct sam-
amount of energy gained by verse still harbors secrets ple of matter from outside
an electron when it is ac- and mysteries about its ori- the solar system and contain
celerated across a potential gins and evolution. Problems elements that are much too
difference of 1 Volt, which in with the distribution of ele- rare to be seen in spectro-
Joules is about 1.6022×10-19 ments, dark matter, and oth- scopic lines from other stars.
J. The energies of the most er phenomena continue to They also provide important
energetic ultra-high-ener- evade even the most ardent information on the chemical
gy cosmic rays such as the efforts to solve them. Aid- evolution of the universe.
‘OMG particle’ have been ob- ed by powerful telescopes
served to be around 3×1020 both on-Earth and in-flight, Moreover, there is specu-
eV or 3×108 Tera electron astronomers have thus far lation that cosmic rays are
volts (TeV) and are often grasped many threads of in- produced when hypothetical
equated by physicists, to the sight and knowledge, but we dark matter particles decay.
kinetic energy of a 90-kilom- could only go so far with these The Alpha Magnetic Spec-
eter-per-hour baseball. That data; alternative sources trometer (AMS-02) aboard
is tens of millions of times were required. That’s where the International Space Sta-
the energies of particles ac- cosmic rays come into play. tion detected more high-en-
celerated by the Large Had- By studying the frequencies ergy cosmic rays than what
ron Collider (LHC) which at that different cosmic ray is expected from conven-
has the maximum possible particles occur, scientists tional models and that ex-
collision energy of 14 TeV. can determine the relative cess could be attributed to
However, most cosmic rays abundance of Hydrogen, He- the decay of dark matter.
do not reach such extremes. lium, and other elements.

SIGMA 2022 42

Cosmic rays: Energetic And Destructive, Yet Informative ASTROSOC

Figure 3: Shock front acceleration (theoretical model for supernovae and active galactic nuclei): Incident proton gets accelerated between two
shock fronts up to energies of the high-energy component of cosmic rays. (2019). [Illustration].https://bit.ly/3x6vKsN

Where Do They Hail From? TheProof IsInTheParticles ing a supersaturated vapor.
A charged secondary cosmic
A long, long time ago, in a Cosmic rays can be detected ray particle interacts with
supernova far, far away… is directly, aided by particle de- the vapor, forming a trail of
expected to be the origins of tectors on the ISS, satellites, ionized gas particles. They
most of these particles. How- and high-altitude balloons. then form tracks of con-
ever, it is not directly ob- Moreover, ground-based in- densations characteristic
served and is only a result of direct methods are also em- of the cosmic ray particle.
theoretical models. Because ployed, mainly the detection
cosmic rays carry a charge, of secondary particles that You’re Not Safe, Perhaps
they are deflected by vari- form extensive air showers Your Computer Too!
ous magnetic fields through- (EAS). Using the data from
out space and so they don’t detected secondary parti- Cosmic rays including oth-
point directly back to their cles and the knowledge of er types of radiation are
sources. There are also oth- the behavior of particles, the one of the main health risks
er possible origins, such as nature of the original prima- of spaceflight. Even at the
active galactic nuclei, qua- ry cosmic rays is inferred. heights that commercial air-
sars, and gamma-ray bursts. The following are some of lines fly, it is expected that
those detection methods. passengers and crew are
In a supernova, which is a exposed to 10 times the cos-
star that died under certain EAS arrays made of parti- mic radiation dose obtained
conditions which caused it cle detectors measure the at sea level. Moreover, it is
to explode violently, shock- charged particles which known that electronics not
waves radiate outwardly. A pass through them. Water is only in space but on earth too
proton haphazardly zoom- used as a detection medium are affected by cosmic rays
ing about in magnetic fields through which the particles as they carry sufficient ener-
surrounding the supernova pass and produce Cherenkov gy to alter the states of com-
gets accelerated between the radiation which makes them ponents of integrated cir-
shock fronts, finally reach- detectable. Cloud chambers cuits and thus corrupt data.
ing energies large enough to also may be used for this
escape the magnetic fields purpose. These consist of a
and shoot off into space. sealed environment contain-

43 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC Cosmic rays: Energetic And Destructive, Yet Informative

Figure 4: Cosmic rays aren’t fun, just ask the Fantastic Four! (n.d.). [Illustration].
https://bit.ly/3NidNOJ

Cosmic rays still aren’t com- more, it will prove essential S. P. R. Fernando
pletely understood, particu- for assessing radiation risks, 2nd Year Undergraduate,
larly regarding their origins. nuclear medical procedures,
They’re nevertheless useful and computer hardware Faculty of Science.
in the pursuit of answers to protection. The prospects of
other significant phenomena such new physics entice us to
in the universe as they carry tune not only our detectors,
information on their origins. but also our imaginations,
A full understanding of these to find the origins of these
exotic particles would ad- spacefaring messengers and
vance knowledge of particles understand their message.
while paving the way for new
methods of experimentation
and explanation. Further-

REFERENCES:

1. Cosmic Rays. (2011, March). https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/toolbox/cosmic_rays2_
orig.html
2. The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer looks for dark matter, antimatter and missing matter from
a module on the International Space Station. (2022). https://home.cern/science/experiments/
ams
3. Human Physiology in Extreme Environments. (2015). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/
biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/cosmic-radiation

SIGMA 2022 44

The Search for Dark Matter - Recent Developments ASTROSOC

DTAHREKSEMARACHTFTOERR

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

S tephen Hawking once said, “The ergy of nuclei, as WIMPs scatter off them.
missing link in cosmology is the
nature of dark matter and dark en- Indirect detection of dark matter is the tech-
ergy.” Despite the discovery of the nique of observing the radiation produced in
fact that dark matter occupies a significant dark matter annihilations. The flux of such
fraction of the universe having occurred 90 radiation is proportional to the annihilation
years ago, scientists are still struggling to rate, which in turn depends on the square of
detect and comprehend the nature of that the dark matter density. Therefore, the most
which occupies 95% of the known universe. obvious places to look at, when searching
for significant fluxes, are the regions where
Direct detection experiments are one of the large dark matter densities accumulate.
most promising techniques to detect particle One such region is the center of the galaxy.
dark matter. The logic behind direct detec-
tion is that if the galaxy is filled with weak- Given that direct and indirect methods of
ly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), detection have given varying degrees of suc-
then many of them should pass through cess over the years, let us turn our atten-
the Earth, making it possible to look for the tion toward some theoretical approaches
interaction of such particles with matter. to understanding the nature of dark matter.
One such method is to record the recoil en-

45 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC The Search for Dark Matter - Recent Developments

Figure 1 Logarithmic plot of mass (normalized to proton mass) versus radius (normalized to Compton wavelength of proton). Image obtained
from (Ianni, et al., 2022)

IS THERE A FUNDAMENTAL DARK MAT- which implies that any structure of mass
TER PARTICLE? m must have a radius equal to or larg-
er than the Schwarzschild radius, RSch(m).
Earlier this year (2022), scientists from
the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in (1)
Italy proposed a very novel approach to
understanding dark matter. They hypoth- where GN is the gravitational constant and c
esize that there is a fundamental dark mat- is the velocity of light.
ter particle (Ianni, et al., 2022) and that it
has a mass of the order of 10 μeV. For this On the other side, we have the “Quantum Me-
hypothesis, they have used a mass-radius chanics boundary” given by equation 2, which
plot of the universe as shown in Figure 1. is defined as requiring the localizability of el-
ementary particles, corresponding to a length
Our current knowledge of physics im- scale equal to the Compton wavelength.
poses two boundaries for the mass-radi-
us plot. On one side, we have the “Black (2)
Hole boundary” given by equation 1,
where h is Planck’s constant.

SIGMA 2022 46

The Search for Dark Matter - Recent Developments ASTROSOC

One can observe several regions in the ics to prove the physical reality of imagi-
mass-radius plot from Figure 1. One of which nary numbers, which in turn suggests that
is the straight-line connecting protons, and Einstein’s theory of Special Relativity has
atomic nuclei, all the way to neutron stars. several flaws. His proposed corrections to
This line can be termed the nuclear density these flaws reveal a multiverse concept in
line. Another such region is the straight line which dark energy and dark matter are hid-
connecting the electron, and atoms, through den in parallel universes (Antonov, 2017).
everyday objects, all the way to the stars.
This line can be termed the atomic density Antonov first dismisses the notion that
line. It must be noted that the points at which there is no physical interpretation of im-
these two lines meet the quantum-mechan- aginary numbers. His approach is to study
ics boundary provide the fundamental par- the behavior of Inductor-Capacitor-Resis-
ticles in either domain: the proton for the tor (LCR) circuits. The resistance of induc-
nuclear density domain and the electron for tors and capacitors is considered imaginary.
the atomic density domain. However, there However, there is a physical change in the
are very large structures in the universe that voltage of these circuits when the frequen-
do not belong to either domain. The team of cy of the alternating current is changed.
Ianni et al proposes that a straight line can be This is not possible if there is no physi-
drawn joining these large structures and that cal significance to imaginary numbers.
the point it meets the quantum-mechanics
boundary shows the expected mass and ra- The next step is to correct Lorentz-Ein-
dius of the hypothetical dark matter particle. stein formula for relativistic mass. Antonov
considers the notion that the velocities be-
CAN A MULTIVERSE THEORY EXPLAIN low the velocity of light are real and that
DARK MATTER? the velocities above the velocity of light are
imaginary. Thus, his corrected formula for
In 2017, Alexander Alexandrovich An- relativistic mass is as shown in equation 3.
tonov from the Research Centre of Infor-
mation Technologies “TELAN Electron- (3)
ics”, Kyiv, Ukraine, suggested a much more
controversial approach to understanding where v is the speed measured from our uni-
dark matter. He proposed a multidiscipli- verse.
nary method that involves using electron-

q (i)q Corresponding Universe
0 1 Tardyon universe
1 i Tachyon universe
2 -1 Tardyon anti-universe
3 -i Tachyon anti-universe
4 1 Tardyon universe

Table 1 Corresponding universe for each q value

47 SIGMA 2022

ASTROSOC The Search for Dark Matter - Recent Developments

His next proposition is that there are up to SO, WHAT DO WE KNOW NOW?
twenty-two universes in a multiverse based
on the value of q in equation 3, as shown in Over most of the last century, scientists have
table 1. attempted to detect and understand dark
matter. However, they haven’t had much
From this theory of a hidden multiverse, success. Even though modern-day scientists
Antonov suggests that hidden dark matter keep on publishing new theories with the
and dark energy are hidden in parallel uni- hope of being the ones to finally explain the
verses. He further says that dark matter that mystery of dark matter; until we have conclu-
has been discovered early on is from paral- sive proof, these findings remain as hypothe-
lel universes adjacent to ours, and that dark ses: some of which seem more plausible than
matter that has only been discovered much others, whereas some are downright absurd.
later is from more remote universes which Thus, the hunt for dark matter is still on.
are shielded by the nearby dark matter uni-
verses. Finally, he states that the atomic and Uditha Weerasinghe
molecular composition of dark matter and Demonstrator,
dark energy is unknown to us because their
content is in other parallel universes, inac- Department of Physics,
cessible to be studied by the tools on Earth. Faculty of Science

REFERENCES:

1. Antonov, A. A., 2017. Nature of Dark Matter and Dark Energy. Journal of Modern Physics,
8(4), pp. 567-582.
2. Ianni, A., Mannarelli, M. & Rossi, N., 2022. A new approach to dark matter from the mass–
radius diagram of the Universe. Results in Physics, 38(105544), pp. 2211-3797.

Do you know?

The universe tastes like raspberry and smells like rum?

Through experiments done on the Sagittarius B2 gas cloud in the Milky
Way’s center and Orion Nebula, the IRAM 30-meter telescope was able to
find Ethyl formate, one of the most complex organic compounds found so far
in space. This compound is the major chemical compound which gives rasp-
berry flavor and aroma of rum. It is thought that Ethyl formate has helped in
the formation of amino acids, the building blocks of life during the formation
of our universe.

REFERENCES:
Tercero, B., Kleiner, I., Cernicharo, J., Nguyen, H. V. L., López, A., & Caro, G. M.
M. (2013). DISCOVERY OF METHYL ACETATE AND GAUCHE ETHYL FOR-
MATE IN ORION. The Astrophysical Journal, 770(1), L13. https://bit.ly/3Q2RJcH

SIGMA 2022 48



ASTROSOC Lone Botanist On Ares

LONE BOTANIST ON ARES
“How would it feel to be the first person alone on an
entire planet thousands of miles apart from home?”

W hat is a movie duction in the United King-
review? Let’s dom and the United States.
start with that.
It is a complex With Matt Damon as the
main character, filming be-
overview typically made
gan in November 2014 and
by professional critics of

a movie that has just been lasted approximately 70
released. Usually, to help days. The film premiered at
decide what film to watch,
the “Toronto International

but it’s more than that, it’s Film Festival” on September

a deep discussion and ar- 11th, 2015, premiered in

gument about the compo- London on September 30th,

nents of the movie from top 2015, and was released in the

to bottom by a professional. USA on October 2nd, 2015.

I am no professional; how- The film depicts the trag-

ever, the following are my Figure 1: 20th Century Fox. (n.d.). Theatrical
release poster of “The Martian” [Poster]. https://
thoughts and my arguments ic fate of an astronaut who

about a particular movie. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martian_(film)#/ was left behind on Mars
media/File:The_Martian_film_poster.jpg by his crew presuming
“Lone botanist on Ares”. Why? Why did I he is dead because of an accident that oc-
choose this title? There are two reasons for
that. The first and the most predominant rea- curred during the evacuation from an un-
expected fierce storm and his lone strug-
son is that this movie, which I am about to re- gle of surviving on desolate Mars with only
view here, is about an astronaut who was left a handful of supplies and his ingenuity.
behind on Ares. Ares means Mars in Greek.

The second one is that I wanted a catchy ti- The film has a 141-minute runtime, and
tle. With the first reason revealed, everyone the budget was 108 million USD. The movie

might know the movie. It’s “The Martian”. grossed over 630 million USD worldwide, be-

“The Martian” is a 2015 science fiction ad- coming Scott’s highest-grossing movie, and
venture film directed by Ridley Scott and the 10th highest-grossing movie of 2015.
adapted into a screenplay by Drew God- Especially due to Damon’s outstanding, ex-
dard based on a novel that was released in cellent performance as well as its direction,
2011 by Andy Weir. Associated production musical score, screenplay, and scientific ac-
companies are Scott free production, Kim- curacy, it received so many positive reviews
berg Genre and TSG Entertainment and the and accolades, including the Golden Globe
film was distributed by the famous 20th Award for best motion picture and a cou-
Century Fox company. The film is a pro- ple of more nominations. Matt Damon won
the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor. He

SIGMA 2022 50