Science

Highest Point ……………….
……………… Volga
Lowest Point
Total Area of Europe ………………….
…………………

5. Why does Europe experience a variety of weather patterns?
6. Differentiate between Taiga and Tundra.
7. Define “Mixed Forests” with examples. Which parts of Europe have Mixed Forests?
8. Illustrate the fact that Europe is the peninsula of peninsulas.
9. Describe the topographical features of “highlands” and “plains” in Europe.
10. Outline the main features of different climates of Europe with their respective vegetations.
11. Which climatic region of Europe would you choose to settle down? Justify your choice (pick) by

giving clear reasons and evidences based on socio-cultural and economic considerations.
12. Given below is the record of average monthly rainfall and temperature in London for 12 months.

Show the weather-data in bar and line diagram (weather-graph).

Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Ju July Au. Se. Oct. No Dec.
5 7 9 12 16 18 17 15 11 8 5
Tem. in °C 4

Rainfall 54 40 37 37 46 45 57 59 49 57 64 48
(cm.)

13. Give reasons for the following:
I. Eastern Europe is mostly covered with grassland instead of dense forest.
II. Southern Europe does not receive rainfall during summer.
III. Northern Europe is filled with coniferous forest.
IV. Finland is famous as the land of a thousand lakes.
14. Berlin (in Germany) and Irkutsk (in the Asian part of Russia) are located on around the same

latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 22  °C (40  °F) higher than average
temperatures in Irkutsk.
Comment on the phenomenon above to account for the reasons behind the difference in the
temperatures.
15. Insert the following items in an outline map of Europe:
A. Dublin, Malta, Dinaric Alps, Mount Etna, Rhine, Maastricht, Jutland Peninsula, Arctic Circle,

Norwegian Sea
B. Vistula, Atlantic Highlands, Barcelona, Great Britain, Aegean Sea, Greenland, Strait of

Gibraltar, Liechtenstein and Monaco

245<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

Lesson Europe– Economic and
Social Life
12

Socio-cultural profile of Europe

Europe is a world leader in health and education except some Eastern and Southern European
countries. Most European countries provide national health insurance in order to protect health
of their citizens. Life expectancy at birth has gone on to 80 years. Proportion of enrollment for
children at the level of primary school is almost 100 percent in most countries. Europe is basically
an urban society as more than 75% people live in urban areas.
Total population of Europe stands at 741.4 million (2016 AD). There are mainly eight peoples of
Europe (defined by their language) which account for about 65% of European population. They
are Russians, Germans, French, British, Italians, Spanish, Ukrainians, and Poles. German is the
most frequently spoken native language and English is the most frequently spoken non-native
language overall in the European Union. Many Europeans use English or French as a second
language. Christianity is the largest religion in Europe (76.2% as per 2011 survey) followed
by Islam and Judaism. There are two prominent sects in Christianity in Europe: Catholic and
Protestants. Generally, both the sects of Christianity live together in harmony.
Europe is the birthplace of Western culture. Europe saw the growth of the great civilizations
of the Greeks and Romans in the past. Europeans and their ideas have penetrated into every
part of the Earth. The modern democracy and modern industrial development both originated
in Europe and have spread to the rest of the world. The seat of western culture, Europe has
an array of artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Europe boasts of producing noted painters
such as Rembrandt and Van Gogh, music composers like Beethoven, Brahms and Mozart, and
classical poets and novelists like Homer, Dante, Goethe, Shakespeare, Petrarch and Tolstoy.
Great thinkers and philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle; artists like Leonardo da
Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo; explorers and scientists like Christopher Columbus, Galileo,
Newton and Einstein, were all born on European soil. Europeans due to their adventurous,
curious and ingenious nature were the first people to travel around the world and discover the
continents like North America, South America (Latin America), Asia and Africa. Since Europeans
were advance in science and technology as well as in trade, manufacturing and business, they
colonized different parts of the world for economically exploiting it.

Economic Profile of Europe

Two prominent events in Europe brought a major turn-around (a big improvement) not only in
European’s economy but also in socio-cultural profile. One is the Industrial Revolution and the
other is European integration to form the European Union. The Industrial Revolution which began
in England around the end of the 18th century spread throughout Western Europe. Industrial
Revolution changed the leading economic activity from agriculture to manufacturing one. Raw
materials not available in Europe were obtained from other continents and turned into finished
(manufactured) products. Gross Domestic Product of Europe calculated in 2017 AD calculated
at nominal rate stands at $ 17.1 trillion and $ 20.9 trillion at PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) in
2017 AD. . Europe has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. GNI (Gross National
Income) per capita in Europe has reached up to $ 35,632.
Creation of European Union in 1991 AD allowed people to move freely between member states
in search of economic opportunities. The European Union or EU is a supra-national union. The

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union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to a potent political force. The
EU promotes economic and political integration of Europe through a common currency (Euro),
a common market and freedom of movement between member states. The EU as a whole is a
wealthy and large economy in the world.

Major Economic Activities in Europe

Following are the major economic activities in Europe:
1. Agriculture (Both Land and Livestock Farming): Europe practices the mixed type of farming in
which a variety of crops and animal products are produced in the same region. Europe practices
intensive agriculture with the use of machinery in order to meet the demand for food, fiber, feedstock
and bio-energy. Use of scientific and cultural innovations is clearly visible in the highly intensive
horticulture practiced throughout Europe today. Horticulture is the science, skill, or occupation
of cultivating plants, especially fruits, vegetables and flowers in gardens or greenhouses. Farmers
represent only 5% of the European working population, yet manage nearly half of the land area in
the continent. No doubt, the degree of farming success in Europe is closely related to the nature of
climate, soil, topography and use of agriculture science and technology. Thanks to its varied climatic
and topographical conditions with application of scientific technology, Europe produces a broad
range of fruits, vegetables and cereals.

Mechanized Farming in Europe Wine Grapes on Vine

The European Union (EU) is one of the main global producers of tomatoes. The Netherlands and
Belgium produce all-season tomatoes in greenhouses while southern European countries produce
them in open-air. The Netherlands and Spain are the EU’s principal onion producing countries.
Poland and United Kingdom lead in carrot production in entire continent. Apples are produced in
almost all the countries of Europe but Poland, Italy and France are the largest producers. The vast
majority of citrus fruits are produced in Spain. Production of grapes in the vineyard is very popular
in Europe. Grapes are mainly grown for winemaking. And, the EU is the largest wine producer in
the world as it accounts for about two thirds of global wine production. Italy, Spain and France are
the principal grape producers in the EU. The EU is also the largest producer of olive oil in the world,
accounting for almost three quarters of global production. Olive trees are grown in Spain, Italy,
Greece, Portugal, France, Croatia, Cyprus, Slovenia and Malta. France, Germany, Poland, Spain and
Romania are the major producers of cereals. The EU is the world’s leading producer of sugar beet,
with around 50  % of the global production. Beet sugar only represents 20% of the world sugar
production and most of it comes from Europe. The most competitive producing areas of sugar beet
are in northern France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Poland.

Livestock farming (Animal husbandry) is practiced much in the cool and moist climate of Northern
and Western Europe because this type of climate favors luxuriant growth of grasses suitable for cattle
grazing and fodder feeding to animals. Dairying is important economic activity in the countries of
North-Western Europe. This has developed in response to the need for fresh milk, butter and cheese

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in the large urban centers. Netherlands, Denmark and Great Britain have developed dairying on
large scale. Sheep are reared in large numbers in the hilly area of Europe mainly for wool and mutton.
Goats are a very widespread animal and they are present in some number in every country. Most of
the goat farms in Europe are located in Mediterranean region of Europe. They supply mainly milk
and meat. Pig-meat is produced throughout the EU but Germany and Belgium are leading countries
in pig farming followed by Spain, Italy, France, central Poland and northern Croatia.

Animal Husbandry and Livestock Farming in Europe
2. Fishing and Forestry: Fishing is major occupation in Europe as much of the continent
touches the seacoasts. Thus, the European countries bordering the Mediterranean, North, Baltic,
Norwegian, and Barents seas have developed the fishing fleets for becoming efficient in catching
and processing their catch. Russia, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Spain are the leading fishing
countries of Europe. Iceland is the principal exporter of fish products.

Mechanized Fishing Boats, Trawlers and Fleet for catching Fishes
Forests are one of Europe’s most important renewable resources. Forests provide multiple
benefits to society and economy besides being indispensable for the conservation of ecosystems in
Europe. The taiga, or coniferous forests, of Northern Europe and on the flanks of the mountains,
particularly in the Alps are the best for commercial use and for making profits. More than 42
% of EU land area is covered with forest and other wooded land. A forest is a key resource
for improving quality of life and job creation, particularly in rural areas along with providing
ecosystem services to all citizens.
3. Mining, Manufacturing and Services: Europe is not a major producer of metals, compared
to the other continents. However, the continent is home to some of the world’s largest mining
companies. Base metals (common inexpensive metals) and gold are produced in Ireland, Spain,
Portugal, Romania, Turkey, Sweden and Finland. Coal is a major European product with Germany

248 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

and Poland being major producers. Chromium in Turkey, titanium in Norway, and silver in Poland
are major mineral ores. The European Union as a whole is either the largest or second-largest world
producer of feldspar, used in the production of ceramics and for archaeological dating processes;
kaolin, used in ceramics, medicine, toothpaste, and cosmetics; magnesite, used in steelmaking and
rubber production; perlite, used in plasters, insulation, and ceiling tiles; and salt.
Norway has significant oil deposits, and is the world’s second-largest exporter of natural gas. The
Netherlands and the United Kingdom are Europe’s other major producers of natural gas. The
United Kingdom’s offshore facilities in the North Sea are Europe’s second-largest producer of oil.
Mineral fuels for electricity and heat generation take primarily two forms: fossil fuels in the form
of oil, natural gas and coal, and uranimum ore for nuclear power. Oil and gas are distributed in
different belts, primarily in the North Sea, Caucasus and Northern Russia. Coal in different forms is
still an important fuel resource and resources are distributed over the region. Uranium resources are
primarily in Ukraine and Central Asia.

Eiffel Tower in Paris Automotive Industry, Germany

Europe continues to be a leader in world industry since the age of Industrial Revolution. Advanced
technology is the hallmark of European Industry. European industries in different sectors contribute
to high economic valued-added (manufacturing) activities and generate mass employment. For
example, European automotive (automobile) industry offers direct employment to more than two
million people and indirect employment to over 10 million people. The big names in European
automotive industry are Volkswagen, Mercedes-Benz, Aston Martin, BMW, Ferrari, Jaguar and
Lamborghin. France and the United Kingdom (UK) are the leading employment providers in the
aerospace industry. The defense industry in Europe includes space, aeronautics, electronics, military
vehicles, ships and armory. European industry is a global leader in the production of chemicals
(petrochemicals and polymers, etc). Europe produces 28 percent of the world’s total chemical
products, with Germany as its leader followed by France, Italy and UK. European food industry
has dominating presence in the world as it is the second largest exporter in the world. Western
Europe has shown marked improvement in industry compared to Eastern Europe because of easy
facility available for import and export through sea-routes. For instance, steel mills and oil refineries
have been located along the coasts of Western Europe to take advantage of bringing in bulky raw
materials by cheap and efficient ocean transportation.

Europe has successfully moved into a post-industrial economy where a large service sector dominated
by information and knowledge has emerged. The service sector is the biggest employer in the EU
and is also the main source of new jobs in European economies. About three quarters of employees
in the European Union are now working in services, half of them in the private sector. More numbers
of women are preferring jobs in service sectors and numbers of jobs are reducing in traditional

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economic sectors of Europe like agriculture and industry. The employment share of services in the
EU has continued to rise, while the share of employment in agriculture and manufacturing has
continued to decrease. The employment in service sector such as retail and wholesale trade, health
care, education, social work, transport and communication, financial services is continuously rising
and new jobs are being created in service sector. Now the business and professional sectors engaged
in research and development and information processing provide services to manufacturing
industries for manufacturing intermediate and finished goods as well as to agriculture and other
primary sectors. Besides, tourism is very important economic activity as well as major source of
revenue for Europe. The attractive scenery together with fascinating historical heritage provides
numerous tourist attractions throughout the continent. Switzerland stands out in this respect as it
has unsurpassed Alpine landscape combined with lakes, picturesque cities, historical buildings, and
charming farming scenes. Europe has varied environments from sub-tropical to polar, each with
its attraction for the tourist. Major cities such as London, Paris, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Vienna,
Madrid, Rome, Athens, Budapest, and Moscow attract billions of visitors each year.

Words and terms you would like to know

Western Europe’s Agriculture: Best yields, often the highest in the world, are found in Western Europe.
Moderate temperatures, adequate moisture, and a long growing season combined with high levels of
scientific agriculture make this happen. Similarly, Western Europe is also best known for livestock and
dairying, as growing conditions are favorable for pasture and fodder crops. Wheat as cereal crop is very
popular at present because a large urban market is available for selling wheat as cash crop replacing
livestock to a great extent.
Eastern Europe’s Agriculture: Unlike Western Europe, Eastern Europe has less reliable precipitation, but
the higher summer temperatures allow the successful growth of corn (maize) and spring wheat. Average
yields are lower than in Western Europe because of less scientific agriculture and less reliable natural
conditions.
Southern Europe’s Agriculture: Southern Europe specializes in fruits and vegetables usually grown under
irrigation due to the dry, sub-tropical, Mediterranean climate. Dry summers make irrigation necessary in
the lowlands for successful crop farming. Sheep and goats are common animals in the hilly topography.
Livestock Farming: Livestock farming is all about raising of animals for use or for pleasure. 
Animal Husbandry: Animal husbandry  is the management and care of farm animals for economic
purposes.
Viticulture: Viticulture  is the  study of  grapes in scientific manner in order to produce them in large
quantity.
Viniculture: Viniculture is all about art and science involved in making wine out of grapes. Viniculture
is a branch of horticulture.

Activities

1. Europe has played a leading role in every possible endeavour of human life. Justify this statement
with your argument.

2. Collect the information from different sources and fill up the blanks given below:

Euopean-Regions Countries Climate Agriculture Mineral-industries

Northern Europe
Western Europe
Mid-Europe
Southern Europe

250 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

3. Find out the details on economic activities and socio-cultural life of countries like the United
Kingdom, Italy, France, Germany and Norway. Discuss those details in the class.

4. By the end of 2017, global wine production is projected to register an 8.2% drop to 246.7 mhl
compared to 2016, with the largest declines seen in the EU which recorded a 14% drop, says the
International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV). [ mhl: millions of hectolitres]

Production of Grapes for Wine (2013 AD) Production of Olives for Olive Oil (2013 AD)
A. Convert the above data into a tabular form and show the same in multiple bar diagram.
B. Make a comparative analysis of above data in minimum 200 words with definite conclusion
and attached suggestions.

5. Discuss the economic importance of the grassland of mid-Europe.
6. Draw the map of Europe and show the following features (points) in it:
Petroleum-production area, Wheat-production area, Fruits and Vegetables growing area, Taiga

forest area, Coal mines and Areas with comparatively high density of population
7. Insert the following items in an outline map of Europe:

A. Barents Sea, Caucasus Mountains, Apennines, Danube, Caspian Sea, Ural Mountains, Areas
of Winter Rains, Athens, Iceland

B. Baltic Sea, Gulf of Biscay, Bucharest, Automobile Industry, Steppes, Sheep Farming, Chemical
Industries, Volga, Mount Elbrus

C. Arctic Circle, English Channel, Mediterranean Sea, Helsinki, Switzerland, Alps, Frankfurt,
North Atlantic Ocean, Vistula

Exercise:

1. Why is Europe known as the birthplace of Western culture?
2. Europe is a developed continent. Highlight any four points that prove the statement.
3. Specify four major factors which have led to rapid growth of service sector in Europe.
4. How did the Industrial Revolution and the creation of European Union transform Europe?

Analyze with reference to socio-cultural and economic impact on Europe.
5. Farmers represent only less than 10% of the European working population yet agriculture is the

successful economic sector in Europe. Explain the reasons behind the success of agriculture in
Europe.
6. Livestock farming and fishing are leading economic activities in Europe. Assess with relevant
examples.
7. Europe is a leader in manufacturing industry. Justify this with relevant examples.
8. Tourism has still untapped potential in Europe. Critically analyze
9. Describe socio-cultural and economic profile of Europe in brief.
10. Describe the major economic activities of Europe.

251<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

Lesson Australia – Physical & Natural
Environment
13

Introduction

Australia is the smallest continent on Earth. Australia is both a continent as well as a country. In
other words, Australia is the only nation to govern an entire continent and its outlying islands.
The mainland Australia is the largest island and the smallest, flattest continent on Earth having
a land area of almost 7.7 million square kilometers (sq km). Australia being the largest island is
surrounded by the Seas and Oceans from all the directions. The Indian Ocean surrounds Australia
in the West, the Pacific Ocean in the East, the Arafura and the Timor Seas in the North and the
Southern Ocean in the South.
Australia lies between 10°41′ S (10 degrees 41 minutes South Latitudes) and 43°38′ S (43 degrees
38 minutes South Latitudes). And, the name ‘Australia’ too comes from the Latin word ‘australis’,
meaning southern. In this way, whole continent is located in the Southern Hemisphere between
the Pacific and Indian oceans. Not only that, its longitudinal expansion between 113°09′ E and
153°38′ E places Australia in the Eastern Hemisphere. Thus, Australia is located in both Southern
and Eastern Hemispheres.

Australia: Physical Features (Topography)

Australia is the lowest and the flattest of the continents. Australia is the driest inhabited
continent on Earth. Its interior has one of the lowest rainfalls in the world. About three-quarters
of the Australian land is arid or semi-arid. Following are the brief details of physical features
(topography) of Australia:
1. The Eastern Highlands (Uplands): The Eastern Highlands (or Eastern Cordilleras) extend
from Cape York Peninsula in the north to Bass Strait in the south, with a southerly extension
into Tasmania and finally fades away into western Victoria. The Eastern Highlands regions of
Australia are a series of high ridges, plateaus, and basins. These ranges include the New England
Plateau, the Australian Alps, the Snowy Mountains (a part of the Australian Alps), the Blue
Mountains and the Grampian Mountains. These landforms were made due to uplifting, folding
and volcanic processes in the Earth’s crust. Mount Kosciuszko (2228 meters) located in New
South Wales in the Australian Alps is Australia’s tallest (highest) mountain.

The Great Dividing Range Mount Kosciuszko

252 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Eastern Highlands are famous as ‘Great Dividing Range’ (or the Great Divide) because they
separate the relatively narrow eastern coastal plain from the rest of the continent. The Great
Dividing Range further divides the watershed (drainage basins) of eastern Australia into two
divisions .......one created by the rivers flowing towards the east coast (into the Pacific Ocean,
Tasman Sea and the Bass Strait) and another by the rivers flowing inland towards the west into
the interior plains away from the coast. Westward flowing rivers either drain into the Murray-
Darling river system or into the Gulf of Carpentaria up in the North. This is Australia’s most
important mountain range which roughly parallels the coasts of Queensland, New South Wales,
and Victoria. The range stretches for 3,700 km and comprises a series of plateaus and low
mountain ranges with 600 to 900 meters.
2. The Central (Interior) Lowlands: The Central Lowlands region stretches from Australia’s
largest river basin, the Murray-Darling, through the Great Artesian Basin, extending north to the
Gulf of Carpentaria. Thus, the Central (or Interior) lowlands are formed by mainly three basins
namely the Carpentaria Basin, the Eyre Basin, and the Murray-Darling Basin. The Carpentaria
basin is partly inundated by the sea but the Eyre and Murray basins are entirely terrestrial. The
Carpentaria plains form a narrow lowland corridor drained by the Leichhardt, Flinders, and
Gilbert rivers. Generally, the Central Lowlands are very dry because rainfall is blocked by the
Eastern Highlands (the Great Dividing Range). Dryness in this region has created a vast desert
lowland. For example, the Simpson Desert lies in the Central Lowlands. The Great Artesian Basin
is one of the largest artesian groundwater basins in the world. There are various lakes in this
region which contain water only when it rains. Lake Eyre which is located in the Simpson Desert
remains usually dry but it is the largest lake in Australia when it is full of water after rain-fall.
Many large river systems drain into it. Lake Eyre is also the lowest point (15.5 meters below sea
level) on the Australian mainland.

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The Murray–Darling Basin is one of the largest river systems in the world. It is divided into the
northern Basin (Darling River System) and the southern Basin (Murray River System). This basin
drains around one-seventh of the Australian land area.
3. The Western Plateau: The Western Plateau (also known as Australian Shield) incorporates two
thirds of the continent and is an enormous plateau. The region is regarded as relatively flat, as
the average elevation is less than 500 meters. This is all due to erosion taking place for millions
of years in this region. It is made up of the remains of the ancient rock shield of Gondwana. The
region remains usually dry; therefore, most of the territory (approximately 70% of the Western
Plateau) is flat or stony desert. A few examples of deserts from Western Plateau region are the
Great Victoria, the Gibson and the Great Sandy Deserts. Surface water is absent at all times except
after heavy rainfall. However, there are a handful of permanent waterholes. Numerous salt lakes
are present within the Western Plateau which signifies areas of internal drainage.

Australia: Climate (Average Weather Conditions) And Vegetation

254 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

The Climate of Australia

The  climate  of  Australia is different in various regions of Australia. Tropical climate prevails in
the north, an arid or semi-arid climate in much of the interior, and a temperate climate in the
south. Extremes in weather conditions except in occasional cases of tropical cyclones, tornadoes,
and severe drought are generally not seen in Australia because of the moderating influence of the
surrounding oceans and the absence of extensive high mountain ranges. Lying in the southern
hemisphere, Australia’s seasons are opposite of those in the northern hemisphere. Summer season
ranges between December to February, Autumn from March to May, Winter from June to August
and Spring from September to November. The temperate regions of southern Australia towards the
south-east coast have four seasons, with cool winters and warm summers. January and February are
the warmest months while June and July are the coldest. Seasonal variations, on the whole, are small.
Generally, coastal and highland areas, especially in the southeast, are cooler than interior locations.
The northern part of Australia above the tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S Latitude), particularly the
northwestern coast, is the hottest region of Australia.

Australia receives the lowest rainfall of the seven continents besides Antarctica. More than 80% of
the continent has an annual rainfall of less than 600 mm (24 inch). The southern part of Australia
gets rainfall in winter due to the westerly winds and rain-bearing cold fronts coming from the high
pressure system (belt). For example, Tasmania receives heavy rainfall from the prevailing westerly
winds in summer and from cyclonic storms in winter. The tropical areas of northern Australia
experience a wet summer because of the monsoon winds from October to April. Sometimes, tropical
cyclones can bring heavy rainfall to tropical coastal regions. Low rate of evaporation owing to having
very cool body of water surrounding the continent does not help in causing continuous period of
rain. The absence of high mountain range further contributes to being rainless region in the interior
of Australian landmass. The arid and semi-arid deserts and plains of Central and Western Australia
forming the interior of the Australian landmass is more or less rainless region. More than two-thirds
of the continent’s area falls under the arid or semi-arid region. The deserts lying in this region have
an annual rainfall of less than 250 mm (10 in). Snow falls are frequent in Australia mainly on the
highlands near the east coast.

Natural Vegetation in Australia

Vegetation includes plants (and forest) and the vegetation zones are closely connected to climatic
zones. Since Australia has a variety of climatic zones, different types of vegetation (plants and
forests) exist in Australia. Australia’s native forests which exist in a broad range of geographic
landscapes contain a variety of mostly endemic species (that is, species found nowhere else). These
native forests provide a range of wood and non-wood products which are used by Australians
in their everyday lives. Australia has a total of 125 million hectares of forest, which amounts to
16% of Australia’s land area. Queensland has the largest area of Australia’s forest (51.0 million
hectares constituting 41% of Australia’s forest), with New South Wales having 18% of the total
forest area followed by Western Australia and the Northern making up the rest.

Following three vegetation zones in accordance with their climatic regions are given below:

The tropical zone in the north Australia has a tropical rainforest as the dominant vegetation.
Tropical rainforest is a large, dense forest in a hot, humid region. The rainforest flora is intolerant
of fire therefore it catches fire in the periods of drought. The tropical rainforest of the wet tropics
has the richest variety of plants in Australia. There are more than 1160 species of higher plants
recorded from the north-eastern Queensland rainforests. The idiot fruit is one of the rarest and
most primitive of the flowering plants in the tropical rainforest.

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Tropical Rainforest in Australia Arid Vegetation in Australia

The temperate zone characterized by warm summer and cool winter receives precipitation only
in winter and supports either Eucalyptus or Acacia. Much of the vegetation in this region has been
cleared for agricultural purposes. Widespread presence of Eucalyptus in Australia has earned the
name for Australia as the “Land of Eucalypt Forests”. Eucalyptus, commonly known as gum
tree, is the symbol of Australian identity. Right from the children’s song to iconic paintings and
photographs, the eucalyptus has formed the part of Australian culture. The sight and smell of
eucalypts are an essential component of Australian life.

Acacia Eucalyptus Forests

​The Eucalypt forest type is dominant across most of Australia’s forest and covers 74% of
Australia’s forest area. Eucalyptus forests are absent only in rainforest and in the continent’s
driest region. Eucalyptus has adapted successfully to an environment in which drought, nutrient-
poor soils and fire are increasingly common. Tough leaves and woody fruit covers are typical
features of dry eucalypt woodland plants. Eucalypt woodland is an open forest (also known as
dry sclerophyll forest or more simply the ‘bush’).

Acacia forests (Acacia shrub-lands) and woodlands occur in arid and semi-arid areas where
tree growth is stunted. More than 500 species of Acacia are found only in Australia and nowhere
else. The scented flower of one acacia known as ‘the golden wattle’ is the national flower of
Australia. The largest acacia woodlands are concentrated in Western Australia. Arid area in
Australia spreads through Central Australia up to the West-Central Coast. A variety of semi-
arid shrub (savannas), semi-arid tussock grasslands and sclerophyllous hummock grasslands are

256 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

found in this region. Sclerophylls are woody plants of dry areas with thick leathery evergreen
foliages that retain water. Tussock grasslands that occur in semi-arid and some temperate parts
of Australia are available in a large variety. Tussock grasslands and Eucalyptus forests are largely
concentrated in Queensland.
Coconut palms and mangroves are common throughout Australia. Mangrove is a common name
given to trees and shrubs that grow in shallow and muddy salt water especially along shorelines.
Mangroves in Australia line the mud flats and inlets (narrow opening in coastline) of the low-
lying northern coastline. Along the eastern coast and into Tasmania are pine forests. Pine is just
next to the eucalyptus in terms of economic benefits.

The Great Barrier Reef: One of the Wonders of the Natural World

Off the Eastern Coast, Grear Barrier Reef Coral polyps living in colonies

Off the eastern coast of Australia (Queensland) is the world’s largest coral reef, the Great Barrier
Reef. The Great Barrier Reef stretches from the Torres Strait at its northernmost point to Fraser Island
in the south. The Great Barrier Reef is one of the wonders of the natural world and was declared as
World Heritage Site in 1981 AD. It is the world’s largest (biggest) coral reef system created by living
marine organisms called corals. Such is the abundance of corals in the sea bordering the eastern
coast near Queensland that the sea itself has been named as Coral Sea. Coral consists of individual
coral polyps – tiny marine organisms (creatures) which live in colonies (groups) and have external
skeletons (hard shells made up of calcium carbonate).

The coral reef is made up of the coral skeletons released by coral polyps living in colonies in the
Sea (named here as Coral Sea) after their death. The whole process of formation of coral reef begins
from budding (multiplying of invertebrates like corals and other organisms such as mollusks and
algae living in a colony). Continuous budding helps grow the colony both vertically towards the
sea surface and laterally as far as these marine animals can. Besides corals, several other organisms
in the reef such as the mollusks and calcareous algae also develop calcium skeletons. When these
organisms die, the calcium first dissolves and then re-solidifies to form a rock, on which new corals
come and settle to make colony. Thus between every birth and death scenario, the reef continues to
grow as shown in above picture. A reef, so formed by ‘left-over calcareous materials’ after the death
of the sea animals, is like a solid wall. On an average a reef grows by 1 mm per year.

When a narrow ridge of coral lying parallel and close to a coastline gets separated from it by a wide
deep lagoon (partly enclosed area of sea water), a barrier reef is formed. As the corals grow and

257<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

propagate seaward in the parallel direction of coastline, they create a gap between the shoreline
(coastline) and reef. This space, generally with less number of coral colonies, becomes the lagoon. At
this stage of its evolution, the reef is called a barrier reef. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia falls in
this category. The Great Barrier Reef supports a vast array of life forms, notably whales, dolphins,
green turtles, dugong and porpoises (sea mammals). Coral reefs encourage tourism, fisheries and
protect wetlands along the coast, ports and harbors. Coral reefs provide buffer to adjacent shorelines
from wave action and prevent erosion, property damage and loss of life.

Test your memory and learn the following facts:

Coastline of Australia 25765 km (16000 mile)
Highest Mountain Mount Kosciuszko (2228 m)
Lowest Point Lake Eyre (-15.5 m)
Largest River Murray River (2375 km)
Largest Lake Lake Eyre (9500 sq. Km)
Largest Urban Area Sydney, Australia
Largest Watershed Murray-Darling River Basin

Terms, Concepts and Words you would like to know

Oceania: Oceania is a region made up of thousands of islands throughout the Central and South
Pacific Ocean. Oceania is under the Pacific, a vast body of water that is larger than all the Earth’s
continental landmasses and islands combined. Oceania  is dominated by the nation of Australia.
The other two major landmasses of Oceania are the New Zealand, and the Papua New Guinea.
Oceania also includes three island regions: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia (including the U.S.
state of Hawaii).
Australia (the Continent plus the Country): Australia is both a continent and a country which is
located in Oceania between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean. Neighboring countries
include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands and
Vanuatu to the East, and New Zealand to the southeast.

Female Kangaroo with marsupium Emu—the Flightless Bird

258 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Kangaroo: Kangaroos are endemic to Australia. Kangaroos have large and strong back legs, large
feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular tail for balance, pointed ears and a small head. Kangaroo
are called marsupials because female kangaroos possess a pouch (marsupium) for joeys (youngs
kangaroos) to be carried until they become free and stand on their own. Kangaroos move by hopping
and are the only large animals to do so for locomotion. They can hop with a speed of 20 km/h to
70km/h depending upon the situation. Kangaroos are strict herbivores like cattle and are generally
nocturnal as they spend the days resting in shade and move out when temperature falls in cool
evenings, nights and early in the morning

Emu: The Emu is the second-largest bird in the world only after the Ostrich in terms of height. Emu
is the largest native bird and endemic to Australia. Emus have soft-feather with long necks and legs
and are flightless birds. Emu travels with a speed of 50 km/h and survives on a variety of plants and
insects. Females lay the eggs and males do the incubation during which males hardly eat or drink
that make them lose a lot of weight. The young Emus are nurtured by their fathers. Emus flap their
wings while running in order to balance themselves.

[Note: Both Kangaroo and Emu have achieved an iconic status in the culture of Australia as both the
animals appear on a coat of arms.]

Great Barrier –the Grief Maker: The Great Barrier Reef has, over the years, brought many ships
to halt and even to wreck. Even Captain James Cook’s ship Endeavour was halted and was therefore
brought to grief by the obstruction posed by the coral reef. Captain James Cook  (1728-1779),  British
explorer and navigator, is best known as the discoverer of the Hawaiian Islands. One of the most
famous wrecks is that of the HMS Pandora, which sank and broke down in 1791. There are several
such shipwreck sites which have to be found out as only around 30 shipwreck sites have come to
be known in the marine park of the Great Barrier Reef.

Australia – the land of Deserts: The largest part of Australia belongs to arid or semi-arid land. A
total of 18% of Australia’s mainland is desert lands, while other additional areas do have a desert
climate (Low rainfall + High temperature). The northern part of Australia falls under overall
influence of tropical climate and, therefore, rainforests, grasslands and deserts are found in this
part of the continent. Temperate climate prevails only in the south-east and south-west corners of
Australia where moderately fertile soils are found.

Australia – Rich in Biodiversity: Australia supports almost 10% of the biological diversity on Earth.
The species found in Australia are unique, some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 24% of fish and
insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to Australia. It has diverse
marine life, mangrove species, and arid and semi-arid biomes.

Gould’s Goana Kingfisher Kangaroo

259<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

Activities

1. Find out different types of fauna (animals) found in Australia and discuss their main features in
your class.

2. Draw the map (hand-sketch) of Australia and show the boundary in all directions.
3. In the following table, Australian territories have been shown. Fill up the blanks as given below:

Australian Territories Climatic Conditions Vegetation Physical Features

Northern Territory

Queensland

New South Wales

Tasmania

Western Australia

South Australia

4. Insert the following facts in an outline Map of Australia:

A. Murray-Darling river-basin, Gulf of Carpentaria, Baas Strait, Australian Alps, Lake Eyre,
Mount Kosciuszko, Sydney, Temperate Climate Region, The Great Barrier Reef, Brisbane,
Tasmania island

B. Canberra, Region of Sclerophyllous Vegetation, Tropical Rainforests, Region receiving rains
by westerly, Great Victoria Desert, Darling River, Great Australian Blight, Perth, Great
Dividing Range, New Zealand, Queensland

5. Given a chance, which part of Australia would you like to settle down and why? Discuss the
reasons indicating the features and opportunities offered by physical condition, climate, and bio-
diversity for you in your case.

Exercise

1. Australia is an island. Justify.
2. Outline two main features of the Eastern Highlands.
3. Identify the hottest, the driest and the wettest place in Australia.
4. Which part of Australia receives rainfall in winter? What causes this rainfall?
5. Give reasons for the following:

a) Australia is the land of Eucalypt forest.
b) The Great Barrier Reef is the coral reef.
c) Kangaroos are called marsupials.
d) Climate and weather in Asia and Australia are quite opposite.
e) Christmas in Australia is celebrated in summer while it is celebrated in winter in Europe.
f) Eastern coastal area of Australia has high population density.
6. Why do we call the Eastern Highlands as the ‘Great Dividing Range’?
7. Compare and contrast the Central Lowlands with the Western Plateaus in Australia.
8. Australia has varied climates. Explain.
9. Differentiate between the Eucalyptus Forests and the Acacia Forests.
10. Outline the main features of vegetation found in tropical and arid regions of Australia.
11. Describe the complete natural environment of Australia.

260 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Lesson Australia– Economic and
Social Life
14

Australia’s Socio-cultural Profile

Australia is one of the most ethnically diverse societies in the world. Before the arrival of British
colonizers in 1778 AD, Australia was inhabited by the indigenous peoples sometimes referred to
as the ‘First Australians’. These indigenous people were Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.
While ‘Aboriginal people’ used to live in the whole of Australia, the Torres Strait Islanders lived
on the islands between Australia and Papua New Guinea. Today, indigenous people make up 2.4
per cent of the total Australian population (about 24.77 million people). Australia is truly a land
of migrants, first started with convicted criminals sent by Britain because British prisons were
overcrowded. After that, these convicted criminals were used for creating colony in Australia by
the British. The large numbers of migrants in Australia have come from the United Kingdom and
the neighboring New Zealand. Other countries like Italy, Greece, China, Vietnam, Lebanon and
India have also contributed significantly to Australia’s population profile and diversity as late
migrants and migration to Australia has not stopped yet. People of European descent constitute
about 91 percent of Australia’s population. Australian society and culture as it stands today is the
result of collective efforts and assimilation of these diverse groups into a single community. It has
taken more than 50,000 years for Australian culture to evolve in present shape. Almost one in four
Australian residents were born outside of Australia and many more are first or second generation
Australians. Australia is one of the world’s most urbanized societies. More than three quarters
(75%) of Australians live in cities and urban areas along the coast and enjoy high standard of
life. Per Capita Income of Australia has already crossed 54,286 USD (in June 2017 AD) and life
expectancy at birth is not less than 82 years.
Australians love democratic values of liberty and equality. Australia is basically an egalitarian
society and there are no formal class distinctions. No hard segregation exists with regard to
different income groups or backgrounds and one is free to live wherever one likes. Australia
is a collectivity of diverse peoples living in a relatively young society. “Aussie” is an informal
expression used for all the Australians but earlier it was restricted only for Australian-born
people of British or Irish ancestry. Australians use English as dominant language. The Australian
population is mainly Christian as 61.1% of the Australian population believes in Christianity.
The remaining population is a diverse group of atheists, Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus and Jews.

Australia’s Economy

Australia is the developed economy dominated by its service sector (comprising 70% of its
National Income) followed by agriculture, mining and manufacturing industry. Following is the
brief description of major economic activities of Australia:
1. Service Sector and Tourism: Service sector in Australia is the largest in terms of economic
output and providing employment. Service sector represents about 70 percent of Australia’s gross
domestic product (GDP) and employs four out of five Australians. Australia is a world-class
provider of a range of services, such as telecommunications, education, banking and insurance,
tourism and travel. Services play a major role in modern Australian economy as services like
telecommunications, banking and freight logistics help other economic sectors such as agriculture
and manufacturing to grow.

261<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

Tourism is an important service industry and it is one of the most dynamic sectors in the
Australian economy. Tourism in Australia provides no less than 600,000 jobs. Popular Australian
destinations include the coastal cities of Sydney and Melbourne including Queensland, the
Great Barrier Reef and the Tasmanian wilderness. Deserts and unique wildlife are also the major
attractions for both domestic and international tourists. Seaside beach resorts in Brisbane, Cairns,
and Sydney regions, mountain retreats, plentiful national parks like Kakadu National Park in
the Northern Territory, rivers, fishing locations also attract a number of tourists especially from
within the country.
2. Mining and Manufacturing Industry: The mining industry in Australia is an important factor
for the economic growth of Australia. The minerals industry is the country’s largest export earner
and today Australia is self-sufficient in petroleum, iron ore, coal and natural gas. Australia leads
in the world in lead, mineral sands, uranium, silver and zinc. It is the world’s top country in
extracting black and brown coal, cobalt, copper, diamond, gold, iron, manganese ore and nickel.
Western Australia has the largest share of mineral production more particularly the metallic
minerals. Australia has ample reserve of bauxite and uranium. Queensland, New South Wales, and
Tasmania are the main tin-producing states. Bass Strait, Barrow Island, and southern Queensland
possess vast petroleum deposits. Despite having wealth of mineral resources, mineral processing
is limited in Australia.

Manufacturing Industry in Australia
Manufacturing industry in Australia has thrived on extraction of a variety of mineral ores.
Manufacturing in Australia is export-oriented. Australia is the leading producer of gem – quality
diamonds and gold. Australia leads in manufacturing of aluminum. Australia has developed
in manufacturing of metals and metal products, food products, transportation equipment,
machinery, chemicals and chemical products, textiles and clothing, wood and paper products,
and printing, publishing, and recording media. Manufacturing industries in Australia are
concentrated in New South Wales (particularly in Sydney and Newcastle), Victoria (primarily
in the Melbourne metropolitan area), and in the state capitals. New South Wales is famous for
the production of iron and steel, jet aircraft, construction equipment, synthetic fibers, electronic
equipment, power cables, and petroleum and petrochemical products. Manufacturing activity
in Melbourne includes the manufacture and assembly of machinery and motor vehicles and the
production of food and clothing. Geelong, located near Melbourne, produces wool, motor vehicles,
smelted aluminum, phosphate fertilizers, and petrochemicals. Queensland and Tasmania have
significant numbers of factories. Australia is known for manufacturing cars under the banner

262 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

of GM-Holden, Ford, and Toyota and so on. The chemical industry in Australia manufactures
petrochemicals. Thus, Australia is a leading manufacturing land.
3. Forestry and Fishing: Forests  cover  16  percent of Australian landmass and the main forest
regions are concentrated in the moist coastal and highland belts. Eucalyptus wood in Australia is
widely used in the production of paper and furniture. Queensland maple, walnut, and rosewood
are mainly used as cabinet and furniture woods.

Pine-harvest: Forestry in Australia Fishing in the Great Barrier Reef

More than half of the income in fishing industry comes from crustaceans and mollusks. The
export trade is dominated by rock lobsters (known as crayfish in Australia). Western Australia
leads in production and export of rock lobsters. Other significant shellfish products are prawns,
spring and green rock lobsters, oysters, and abalone.

4. Agriculture (The Land and Livestock Farming): Only 6 percent of the total area of Australia is
under crop or fodder production but agriculture holds great economic importance. Wheat crops
occupy about 50 percent of cultivated land-area and barley, grain sorghum, oats, rice, and maize
cover about 27 percent. The southeastern and southwestern regions of the country grow the bulk
of wheat. Sugarcane is grown in tropical Australia. Australia produces a large variety of fruit,
nuts and vegetables.

Mechanized Farming Horticulture Products grown in Australia

263<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

The major crops include oranges, apples, bananas, chestnuts, potatoes, carrots and tomatoes. In
the tropical regions such as Queensland and the Northern Territory, tropical fruits like bananas,
mangoes and pineapples are grown. The Murray Valley of Victoria grows special varieties
of grapes. The Barossa Valley in South Australia and the Hunter Valley in New South Wales
have commercially maintained vineyards. And, Australia is known for producing wines from
the grapes. Major wine-producing areas are South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, and
southwestern Western Australia.

Livestock Industry

The livestock industry definitely contributes to Australia’s economic development. Queensland is
the leading cattle rearing state. Australia produces both beef and dairy cattle. Dairying is now mainly
concentrated in Victoria and Tasmania. The beef industry is the largest agricultural enterprise in
Australia. The Australian beef industry is dependent on export markets and Australia has already
become the second largest beef exporter in the world after Brazil. Dairy products too are valuable
export products for Australia.

Sheep farming and sheep industry have been very famous
The sheep industry in Australia contributes almost half of the gross value of agricultural production
from all livestock industries. Australia is home to almost 70 million sheep. The sheep industry
raises sheep mainly for their meet (lamb and mutton), milk (sheep’s milk) and wool. They also give
sheepskin and parchment (used for books and documents). Lambs are produced in a wide range of
climates in Australia from the arid and semi-arid parts of the inland region, to the high rainfall areas
of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. The southwest corner of Western
Australia is also an important lamb-producing region.
There are three major categories of sheep bred in Australia: those which produce wool, those grown
for meat and double-purpose sheep grown for both wool and meat. Merinos are the most prominent
breed of the Australian sheep industry --renowned for producing high quality wool. Merino breed
of sheep are also used for meat-consumption and Merino-meat has export markets in the Middle
East. Cross-breeding between Merinos and other sheep produces lean lambs which are preferred
by domestic consumers for meat and have high demands in the US market. Lamb production in
Australia is practiced in the areas of good pastoral conditions and high rainfall notably in New
South Wales and Victoria, southeastern South Australia and southwest Western Australia.
However, mutton and wool production are spread throughout the sheep-producing areas.

264 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Australian “Male Dingo”
Terms, Concepts and Words you like to know
Racial profile of Australia: The  Aboriginal  people are indigenous to Australia. However, most
anthropologists believe that they migrated from Southeast Asia at least 50,000 years ago. About 91 percent
of Australia’s population comes from European descent and most of them claim British and Irish heritage.
People of Asian descent or birth constitute about 7 percent of the population and an estimated 1.9 percent
of the population has Middle Eastern origin.

Indigenous people of Australia: Torres Strait Islander people are indigenous to the islands of the Torres
Strait, which lies between the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland and the island of New Guinea. They are
considered as the original Australians. Torres Strait Islander people were essentially hunter-gatherers and
never domesticated animals, other than the dingo. They employed a “fire-stick farming” in which fire was
used to clear areas so that fresh grazing grasses could grow. Now, more than 70 percent of the Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander people live in urban areas. Traditional ways of life are still maintained and
preserved through cultural centers and festivals. Indigenous culture is now widely expressed in art,
literature, and popular culture.

Australian meat and livestock industry: The Australian meat and livestock industry has a long-term
commitment to food safety with international quality to meet demands at both national and international
levels. Australia is internationally recognized as free of all major livestock diseases. And, this adds to
credibility of Australian livestock industry amongst national and international consumers with regard to
its livestock products.

Australia’s agriculture: Farming has always been the prime factor of Australia’s development. Not only
that it has fed the growing population but it has provided the base for Australia’s economic development
too. Australia’s agriculture continues to be a major contributor to the continent’s economy. The continuous
increase in agricultural produce in Australia is attributed to a combination of factors related with
application of science and technology and management of farm activities. Innovative farming techniques,
scientific developments in areas such as plant and animal breeding, and improvements in management of
crops, livestock, land, water and pests have transformed agricultural activities in Australia into a status of
industry. Use of machines and information technology has enabled Australian farmers to work smarter.

Middle-Class Economy and Social Profile: Most Australians enjoy or aspire to middle-class suburban
lifestyles in their homes and generally follow western styles of dress. However, ethnic diversity is quite
visible in way of life in Australia. Australians love leisure activities and outdoor recreation. Australia has
well developed sports culture and the continent dominates in several sports like football, rugby, cricket,
tennis, baseball, basketball, volleyball, netball (a game similar to basketball, played by women), track and
field, cycling, boating, swimming, horseback riding, and horse racing. Fishing and gardening are other
social-recreational activities with economic focus on it.

265<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

Activities

1. Insert the following into the outline map of Australia.
A. Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, Great Barrier Reef,
Coral Island, Geelong, Sydney, Baas Strait, Barrow Island, and Brisbane
B. Gold mines, Iron-ore mines, Wheat production areas, Fruit and vegetable growing areas,
Sheep rearing farms, Major mines and minerals (identify them separately)

2. Draw the map of Australia on your own and show the major economic activities in it.
3. Fill up the blanks below.

Australian Region Manufacturing Industries

New South-Wales ....................................

............................. Motor Vehicles, Food and clothing

Geelong .....................................

4. Match the following: below.

A. Murray, Barossa and Hunter Valleys a. Wheat Belt

B. Northern Territory b. Vineyards

C. Southeastern and Southwestern Region c. Mangoes, Pineapples and Bananas

5. Less than 10% of the total area of Australia is under cultivation, yet Australia exports its
agricultural produce besides fulfilling the domestic need. Account for the causes behind the
success of agriculture in Australia. Discuss how this can be modeled in Nepal.

6. Make six groups in your class and discuss the major economic activities of Australia.

Exercise

1. Australia is one of the most ethnically diverse societies in the world. Justify.
2. Australia is a land of migrants. Comment in not more than three sentences.
3. Name any four regions in Australia which are known for mining along with the name of minerals

extracted from there.
4. Briefly outline Australia’s socio-cultural profile.
5. Both service and manufacturing sectors are well diversified and hence provide a large number of

employments to Australians. Explain.
6. The livestock industry in Australia is export oriented. Explain with suitable examples.
7. The sheep industry in Australia is very important part of agriculture and supports Australia’s

economy. Analyze.
8. Agriculture has always been the prime factor of Australia’s development and continues to be a

major contributor to the continent’s economy. Evaluate.
9. Comment on Australia’s social profile.
10. Describe the major economic activities of Australia.
11. Provide a detailed account on the distribution of population across Australia. Give reasons for

such population distribution in Australia.

266 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Lesson Asia, Europe, Australia and

1 5 Nepal

Nepal is landlocked by two countries China from the north and India from rest of the three
sides. Neighboring country Bhutan too is landlocked by the same two countries China and
India. Amongst the Asian countries, Nepal ranks in the list of “least developed country”. But,
Nepal is extraordinarily gifted with natural resources, notably fresh water resources particularly
perennial rivers, Himalayan mountain ranges and forest cover. Nepal is always projected as
having great potential to emerge as a developed country with one of the best per capita incomes
and overall human development standard. It is because Nepal is linked by two fastest growing
economies of he world - China and India, besides having its own strong base of natural resources.
Another aspect that one has to consider here is Nepal is not doubly landlocked where a country
is completely surrounded by one or more landlocked countries requiring to cross at least two
national borders to reach a coastline. Smart diplomacy to handle the neighbors, domestic
political stability and political will to develop skilled human resource (instead of huge labor
export) will foster economic development on strong democratic foundation. Liechtenstein, a
small country in central Europe, is a good example in this regard. Liechtenstein is one of the
smallest independent nations in the world having a total area of only 160 sq km and is landlocked
between Austria on the north and east and Switzerland on the west and south. Until the mid-
20th century, Liechtenstein was a nation of farmers, but now it is a prosperous, industrialized
country with a strong financial service sector. Nepal too came out of the autocratic clutches of
Rana dictators in the mid-20th century (1951) but failed to sustain the inclusive democracy with
focused development agendas. Switzerland is another example for Nepal to learn from because
Nepal is always projected as future Switzerland of the East. Switzerland is a small, landlocked
country in Europe set amid mountainous terrain. Nepal is also crisscrossed by mountain ranges
of greater and lesser Himalayas. The Swiss people are an ethnic mix consisting mainly of native
German, French, and Italian speakers because Switzerland borders on the west with France, on
the north with Germany, on the east with Austria, and on the south with Italy. Nepal is also the
country of indigenous and ethnic groups but could not come out of poverty and still struggle in
areas of ethnic and women empowerment. Nepal must learn from Switzerland which is smaller
than Nepal with an area of just 41,285 sq km with regard to ethnic empowerment and utilization
of natural resources. Today, Switzerland is a highly developed industrialized economy and has
one of the highest standards of living in the world. Nepal is still struggling in primary economic
activity such as agriculture and industrialization has not yet happened. Even neighboring south
Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Bhutan have better human development record than Nepal
because of their focused development approach.
Nepal can further learn from all the South-East Asian nations as to how they overcame their
limitation of being small countries (some of them like Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea and
Singapore are much smaller than Nepal and devoid of natural resources) and have emerged
as high-income Asian countries. Investment in education and health with high quality public
services will help Nepal develop high quality human resource to improve the service sector where
the country is weak. Australia makes 70% of its total national income from service sector alone.
Nepal is a land of bio-diversity and preservation of both our flora and fauna is the priority. In this
connection, systematic approach to manage ‘national parks’ is of great help the way Australia
does. For example, in the management of plentiful national parks like Kakadu National Park in
the Northern Territory, Australia is an eye-opener for Nepal.

267<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

Let us analyze the positioning of Nepal in relation to each of the three continents from another
angle:

Asia and Nepal

Nepal is locatd in the south of Asia. Tarai region of Nepal is the small part of vast plain-land
drained by rivers such as Ganga and Brahmaputra. Seasonal winds which influence Nepal do
have climatic impact on other parts of Asia too like South Asia, South-East Asia and East Asia.
Nepal is blessed with all types of vegetations as it is found in Asia. This is so because Nepal is
more dominated by altitude for its climatic variations. Nepal has developed good diplomatic,
trade and cultural relationships with countries like India, China, Malaysia, South Korea, Japan,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, etc. Many Nepalese people
are working in countries like India, Malaysia, South Korea, Japan, and Gulf countries in West
Asia. Nepal has been very active along with other Asian countries in bringing development in
health and educational sectors, infrastructure development, welfare of women and children,
conservation of natural resources, cultural exchange and people’s participation in local level
development.

Europe and Nepal

Though Europe is different continent and far away from here, Nepal has been able to establish
good relationship with many different countries in Europe on different levls. Both Europe and
Nepal are located in the Northern Hemisphere as a result of which climatic patterns do not
show drastic variations at both the places. Himalaya of Nepal and Alps of Europe are guided
by altitude and therefore experience similar kinds of weather conditions. Climatic conditions
in Himalayan region of Nepal show similar patterns as in Northern Europe near or beyond the
Arctic Circle. European countries are much more advanced than Nepal. Nepal has maintained
diplomatic relationship with the countries like the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Denmark,
and Norway and so on. These countries have been continuously helping Nepal in formulating
plans for development and executing them for decades. These countries have extended their help
and support in areas of electricity generation, health, education, archeological excavation and
research and preservation of natural resources in Nepal. European Union has always been very
supportive and has played an active role in concluding the peace process in Nepal. Fair numbers
of Nepalese people are currently engaged in various economic activities in different European
countries and a number of Nepalese students are pursuing their higher education in European
countries like the United Kindgom, Germany, France, Denmark, Turkey, Switzerland, etc. These
Nepalese people send remittances to Nepal from Europe and help in economic development of
the country and assist in infrastructure development of Nepal. Nepal exports various items like
readymade garments, cushion, carpet, and handicrafts, statues made out of clay and metal and
so on to Europe. This is how Nepal has been expanding the relationship with Europe in different
dimensions.

Australia and Nepal

The continent of Australia is a big country too. From the geographic point of view, there is nothing
much in common between Australia and Nepal. But, Nepal has good educational, economic and
trade relationship with Australia. Many Nepalese students go to Australia every year for getting
higher education. And many numbers of Nepalese are engaged in work there in Australia.
Australia has helped Nepal especially in areas of conservation of forests, Good-Governance, and
rehabilitation of Bhutanese refugees. Trading relationship of Nepal with Australia is gradually
gaining strength. Similarly, Australian tourists have begun to prefer Nepal as one of their
favourite tourist destinations.

268 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Activities

1. Divide the class into three different groups and assign three different topics to each one of them.
One group will discuss ‘Europe and Nepal’, second group will discuss ‘Asia and Nepal’ and for
the third group topic of discussion will be ‘Australia and Nepal’. Ask each group to prepare report
on the assigned topic and present the same in the class. Further information and materials on the
assigned topic can be obtained from self-research and help extended by teacher and guardians.

2. Make a list of the countries in Asia and Europe where Nepalese students go to acquire higher
education. Discuss why Nepalese students visit the foreign countries for obtaining education
instead of studying back in Nepal.

3. Do research for relevant data and information before you attempt to fill up the balanks below:

Continent Countries Population Literacy % Per Capita Population in
Asia Incpme Agri. %

Europe India
Australia China
Japan
S. Korea
Nepal

Britain
France
Jermany
Norway

Australia
New Zealand

4. Nepal has always been touted as a country of enormous potential for development. Prepare a
report on how best Nepal can actualize this potential with the help of other Asian and European
countries

Exercise

1. Make a list of advantages and disadvantages of foreign employment (migration of Nepalese
people to foreign countries for employment) for Nepal.

2. Explain what kinds of benefits Nepal can take from Asia and European countries.
3. List the name of land-locked countries from Asia and Europe. Analyze the economic status of

these land-locked countries and compare it with Nepal.
4. Nepal is a land-locked country and this limits its development. Critically examine with reference

to other land-locked countries.
5. What are the lessons Nepal can learn from Australia to improve its human and economic

development?

269<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

Unit

7

Our Past

Learning Objectives:

At the completion of this Unit, students will be able to:
 Look for historical sources and endeavour to conserve them after having proper analysis
 Conduct research on Shakya dynasty of Kapilvastu and understand the lineage of Gautam

Buddha
 Shed light on the unification of Nepal in brief from 1801 BS and analyze its consequences

on Nepal
 Recount the contributions made by Nepalese brave soldiers in Anglo-Nepal war
 Analyze the causes of rise and fall of Rana-rule in Nepal and its impact on socio-economic

life of Nepal
 Understand the nature and significance of industruial revolution which originated in

Europe
 Trace the roots of one’s family and learn to prepare the family-tree of one’s own family

Lesson Historical Sources: Search, Study
and Their Conservation
1

Study of history is mandatory for every community and country. It provides an understanding
into one’s own root and the present status. No human society can afford to lose sight of its past as
it will create confusion to chart a clear path of progress to march ahead with purpose to achieve
goals. History helps to understand our art, culture and heritages. History helps to shape up the
political, economic and social structure of the society. No society can ever avoid its history as
history keeps taking shape in the form of a series of events. Every present becomes the past and
history is the study of the past. What is history, then? History is the chronological and systematic
study of the past in areas of political, economic and socio-cultural dimensions of human life to
understand the present in order to have the vision for the future. Different sources of history
come together to tell the story of the past. Any leftover of the past can be considered a source. It
can be a written text or a building or ordinary things just used for daily living in day-to-day life.
But these sources must be treated as strong evidences by historians to make sense of the past in
order to become historical sources.
Each source must support the other source without any contradiction to have a trustworthy story

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from the past. This is the reason sources of history play very important roles in weaving the
historical truth in and around any past event. If the sources are not authenticated and are doubtful
then history emerges as a tool to spread lies and propaganda to mislead (misguide) the present
and future generations. Academecians, archeologists, anthropologists and historians have to be
very cautious regarding the validity and authenticity of sources (evidences) of history in order to
tell the story of the past all in light of truth without having touch of falsehood or falsity.

Excavated Site of Lumbini Ashok Stupa in Lumbini Archeological Excavation

Types of Sources of History Based on Recording or Evidences of the Events

There are two types of sources of history based on the recording or evidences of the events:
Primary Sources and Secondary Sources. Primary sources are the raw-materials of historical
research. These sources have been created during the time-period which is being studied and
therefore primary sources cannot be produced later by eyewitnesses or participants. Primary
souces provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence wih regard to an event or any happening
in the past. The past events or incidents have been told or created by original eyewitnesses or
recorders who experienced the events or conditions.

Written Texts by Eye-witness Notes in Diary Acncient script-Cuneiform

Primary Sources of History
Primary sources of history are available in form of correspondence, diaries, newspapers,
government documents, arts and artefacts, photographs, video-recordings and audio-
recordings. Therefore, one may find primary sources in their original format usually in an
archive or reproduced in a variety of ways such as books, microfilm, digital version, etc. The
introduction of archeology has brought excavations as valid source of history which supports
the text now. The colle ction of physical objects excavated from beneath the Earth or found
elsewhere on Earth help us understand the accuracy or inaccuracy of the texts we possess as
the historical evidence. As we learnt before, the 20th and 21st century added further sources of

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history in the form of radio broadcasts, television broadcasts, newspaper articles, pictures, movie or
film reels, personal journals and diaries.

Oral sources of History Physical objects Commenteries & Analysis

Secondary Sources of History

Secondary sources are interpretations, analysis and discussion of events written after an examination
of primary sources. Other secondary sources such as books and journals may also be consulted while
producing such interpretations. When somebody writes a research paper it bcomes a secondary
source. Therefore, a secondary source is a second hand description (commentary or analysis) of
another person’s story (account) or material. Historians first consult primary sources before going to
the secondary sources. Secondary sources are useful in case primary sources of history are damaged
or missing or simply not found. Therefore, secondary source is a document or recording that
discusses the information originally presented in primary source. In this sense, secondary source is
different from the primary source because the primary source is the original source of information
being discussed. Primary source here can be a person as an eyewitness having first hand or direct
knowledge of a situation, or any written or visual document available either in text form or film
created by such a person.

Based on understanding of the sources of history, the following are the examples in the categories
like written sources, oral sources and then under the category of art and artifacts.
A. Written Sources: Geneology, Biography, Books, Coins, Medals, Decorations, Letters,

Documents, Vouchers, Tickets, Bills, Manuscripts, Travalogues, THYASAPHU (Account of
events during Malla-period), written texts on tree-leaves or metal sheets (BHOJ-PATRA, TAD-
PATRA, TAMRA-PATRA and SWARN-PATRA), etc.
B. Oral Sources: Songs of bravery, Folk-songs, Story-telling, Lecture, Interviews, Interaction and
Debates, Myths, Proverbs, etc.
C. Arts and Artifacts: Paintings, Sculptures, Architectures, Roads and Bridges, Buildings and
Houses, Temples, Monasteries and Caves, Weapons, Ornaments and Dresses, Handicrafts and
Machine-created Objects, Relics, etc.

Historians with a view to make sense of the past do not rely on just one source of history. It is
because no single object, document, or material is considered as being complete in itself to reveal
everything about the past from all the dimensions.

Sources of Nepal’s History

Nepal is situated in the lap of Himalayan mountain range. Indigenous people of Nepal have
been living in the Himalayan region for at least eleven thousand years as revealed by Neolithic

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tools found in the Kathmandu Valley. The Neolithic period had begun from about 10,200 BC
and ended between 4,500 and 2,000 BC. History of Nepal traces its ancient root to the Gopal
dynasty (Gopals: the cattle herders) in Kathmandy Valley. According to Wright (an English
historian), eight rulers of Gopal dynasty ruled over Nepal for 520 years. Kirkpatrich (another
British historian) has mentioned that the Mahispal dynasty from India took over Gopal dynasty
and ruled for 111 years. Then after, Kirants and Lichhavis followed. According to the Kirant
geneology (as collected by Wright), Kirant kings had ruled over Nepal for 1,118 years. The first
king of Kirant dynasty, Yalambar, has been mentioned in the Hindu epic Mahabharat for being
slain in the battle of the Mahabharat as he intended to fight for Kauravas against Pandavas.
Kirants were pushed out by Lichhavis. Jayadev was the first king of the Lichhavi dynasty but
recorderd history of Nepal begins with Manadeva (790 BS which is 57 years ahead of English
calendar).
The following are the brief descriptions of sources of Nepal’s history.
1. Foreign Travelogue: Foregin travelers from China, India and from Europe had visited

different parts of Nepal and met Budhhist monks, residents, priests, traders, common people
and other co-travellers during their travel in order to understand this beautiful land in all its
colors. Kautilya’s Arthshastra, stone-inscription by Samundra Gupta in Allahabad referring
to Nepal, analysis and description made by Father Grover, William Kirkpatrich, and Hamilton
etc, are important illustrations in this connection. Similarly, specific descriptions regarding
Nepal’s political, economic and social conditions have found their place in Chinese TANG-
Treatise. Nepal’s association with Buddhism is worth considering in Chinese account.
2. Inscrptions: Inscrptions on various metals (like copper leaf, silver and gold leaves), stones
and terracotta have come into light. These inscriptions are important sources of Nepal’s
history. Paper manuscripts and inscriptions on tree-leaves (BHOJ-PATRA) have always
been here to throw light on the past - Lichhavi and Malla periods.
3. Coins: Nepal has seen different types of coins during different reigns (rules) in the past. Each
coin speaks a lot about the political, social and economic conditions of that age. These coins
made up of clay, skin, copper, silver and gold have images and dates printed on them and
that helps in deciphering the type of society in which these coins used to circulate.
4. Religious-Texts: Religious text-books have served as the basis to understand Nepal’s history
dating back to 5000 years during the time of King Janak and his dauther Sita and during
the time of Gautam Buddha sometime 2, 500 years before. There are Hindu and Buddhist
religious texts which throw light upon the history of Nepal. Nepal’s socio-cultural conditions
along with its political profile and justice system have been explained in these texts.
5. THYASAPHU: Thyasaphu is a Newari word which stands for a personal diary which bears
the record of all the important events and situations lived through a day. Such written
records as Thyasaphu available in Nepal disclose information about the social, economic
and political conditions of medieval period of Nepal particularly during the Mall period.
6. Geneology: Geneology is the family history arranged chronologically that traces the lineage
of family members. Geneology is referred in history to know about Kings’s family and
his important events in life. Geneology removes doubts on subjects like original heirs or
legitimate or illegitimate sons and daughters and so on.
7. Government Publications, Documents and Speeches: Government publications, documents
and speeches have always been taken as the important sources of history. For example,
Muluki Ain in Nepal 1910 BS, Royal Declarations made in 2007 BS, 2017 BS, 2036 BS, 2046

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BS and in 2063 BS, various other speeches, documentaries and other books analyzing the
political events and government performances have been the sources of history in Nepal. In
a similar fashion, treaties, conventions, government orders and decisions, official letters, etc
serve as the sources of history to reveal the truth of events and situations during a specific
period of time in history.
8. Art and Architecture: This is the visible source of history. Sculpted works, paintings, designs
of buildings, temples, STUPAs, VIHARAs (monasteries), etc. speak volums about the nature
and type of political and social life during a particular time-period in histry. Designs and
images disclose the truth regaring religions, beliefs and social conditions of a society and the
type of political system which operated in the past.
9. Legends, Proverbs, Myths and Folk-Songs: One can come to know many things from the
past with regard to trials and tribulations faced by Nepalses people in the battle-fields and
in the foreign lands through legends, proverbs and folk-songs being shared in villages of
Nepal. In fact, every village has something to tell about the past trough legends, stories and
songs. Farmers of Nepal, lahures and soldiers have their stories to tell for generations and
they do it through songs, dramas, stories and SHLOKAS. Brave Gorkhali exploits and their
bravery are on full display through folk songs when their fights and battles in Anglo-Nepal
Wars, Falkland war and First and Second World Wars are shared in folk songs and various
legends at local levels.

Steps or Measures to be taken to preserve the Sources of History

The research and then in-depth study require focused enrgy and parallel creativity. History teaches
us to avoid mistakes done by past generations and motivates us to do better than them by taking
inspirations from their successes and learning from their failutres. History gives us confidence as
it constitutes our identity and generates self-pride and self-respect in us. Sources of history are the
pride of the nation and hence they must be preserved. Following are the essential steps (measures)
to preserve the various sources of history:
a) To preserve them in form of inscriptions
b) To conserve them in library and museums both in book form as well as in digital form
c) To increase the layers of security in order to prevent theft or distortion or damage of any kind

of the sources of history
d) To declare all the sources of Nepal’s history as national property and thus nationalize them
e) To convert all the sources into digital form as far as possible

Words and terms you would like to know

Leftover (n.): something that remains or was not used
Contradiction (n.): something that has aspects which are illogical or inconsistent with each other
Trustworthy (adj.): reliable
Archive (n.): a collection of documents such as leters, official papers, photographs, or recorded materials,
kept for their historical interest
Microfilm (n.): tiny photographs
Travelogue (n.): a film, video or piece of writing, or a lecture accompanied by pictures, video or film,
about travel
Inscription (n.): a sequence of words or letters written, printed, or engraved on a surface

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Activities

1. Prepare a questionnaire about how to study and do research on history to be asked to a historian
you are expected to meet.

2. There may be more than one source of history in your community and neighborhood. Collect
them and make a list. Share them in your class.

3. Request your guardian or any elder to share a story of bravery demonstrated by a soldier or a
group of soldiers from your community or neighborhood. Collect the historical facts and dates
which feature in that story and share the same in your class.

Exercise

1. Define history. Examine its relevance in human society.

2. How do sources of history facilitate understanding of the past? Identify some specific examples
to illustrate your answer.

3. What are the salient features of “primary sources of history”?

4. Explain the relevance of “secondary sources of history”.

5. Examine the recent trends in recording of the events/incidents by video and/or audio devices.
How far such digital trends of recording the events have impacted the traditional sources of
history?

6. Distinguish between ‘foreign travelogue’ and ‘inscriptions’ as sources of history. What
justifications would you like to give for preference to foreign travelogue and inscriptions over
religious texts and geneology as sources of history?

7. Briefly examine the contributions of foreign historians and geneology prepared by them in
shaping up the history of Nepal.

8. Critically evaluate how arts, artifacts and architectures help in making sense of the past in context
of Nepal.

9. Explain the resons for archeological excavations. Do you think spending money for digging the
Earth in order to revive the ghost of the past is beneficial for us or for human race?

10. State the difference between ‘oral sources’ and ‘written sources’ of history. How does history
benefit from them?

11. Write short notes on the following:

A. THYASAPHU B. Cuneiform

C. Arts and artifacts as visible source of history

Community Work

Collect coins made up of different metals from different ages of Nepal along with the paper money
from modern Nepal. Note down the details which appear on these coins and on the paper money.
Analyze the information or details and derive conclusions regarding political, economic and social
dimensionms of the society in which the coins existed. Share your findings in the class.

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Lesson Shakyas from the Birthplace of
Buddha-Kapilvastu
2

Origin of Shakya Dynasty

Shakyas consider Okkak their common ancestor. King Okkak was the ruler of Kingdom of Saket in
North India in the 8th century BC. King Okkak had five royal queens. Queen Bhatra was the eldest
of these queens. King Okkak was blessed with five sons (prices) and five daughters (princesses)
through the eldest queen Bhatra. After a time, King Okkak fell in love with another woman and got
married with her. A son named JANTU was born to the youngest sixth queen. The King decided to
transfer his entire royal authority (political power of monarchy) to prince JANTU because of nasty
muddling and conspiracy hatched by the youngest queen. He ordered the exile for all his sons
except JANTU.
Having no other alternatives, all the princes left the kingdom for exile along with five princesses.
Therefore, no royal sibling, either son or daughter except JANTU, was left in Okkak’s palace. All
of them reached the hermitage of sage Kapil Muni. Sage Kapil advised them to make a residential
place in nearby areas and asked them to settle down as long as they wished. Thus, a beautiful place
of living named after sage Kapil came out with the efforts of five princes and five pricecesses. The
place got renowened as Kapil-vastu. The habitat Kapilvastu was constructing by using Saal (Shaak)
trees available in the forest where sage Kapil Muni used to live then.
After few years, King Okkak enquired about his five sons and five daughters. Having got the
information that all of them lived in the forest of Shal trees known as Kapilvastu, King Okkak sent
two of his ministers to find out their well-being. But, both the ministers didn’t return and chose to
live with the royal princes and princesses in Kapilvastu. Being a deserted place, the princes and
princesses didn’t find parallel matches for their marriage. And they didn’t want to dilute their
royalty by marrying the commoners (from different caste and outside the royalty). Therefore, they
decided to marry each other to propagate the royal offsprings and to lay down the foundation
of new kingdom Kapilvastu made up of and surrounded by Shaak trees. All of them chose the
eldest princess Priya as the Mother-Queen (Raaj-Maata). When King Okkak came to know all
about the newly established kingdom called Kapilvastu, he exclaimed in spell of astonishment, “O
my princes! You, all are certainly the royal blood....Shakya....Shakya...the royal blood.” This is the
journey of a new dynasty called Shakya which began from the name of a tree called Shaak then to
Shakya. This is how King Okkak was the common ancestor of Shakya dynasty. The eldest son of the
King Okkak Prince Okkamukh (Ulkamukh) became the founder king of Kapilvastu. The kingdom
of Kapilvastu was being governed in accordance with democratic values in the aid and advice by
scholar-counsellors in the court of the King. Thus, the rule of Shakya dynasty in Kapilvastu precedes
the birth of Gautam the Buddha and followed even after his ultimate liberation (NIRVAAN).

[Note: According to PALI literature, the word Shakya has come from the root word Sakka or
Sakya or Sakiya which means ability, capability, eligibility and strength. Thus, Shakya literally
means capable, strong and brave dynasty.]

King of Kapilvastu

There was a king of Kapilvastu called Jayasen. His heir to the throne was Sinh-Hanu. Shakya king
Sinh-Hanu had a queen named as Kanchana. King Sinh-Hanu and queen Kanchana had five sons
(princes) and one daughter (princess). Shuddodhan being the eldest son (prince) was made the king
of Kapilvastu – the kingdom falls in the Tarai region (plain land). King Shuddodhan had ruled over

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the kingdom of Kapilvastu about 2600 years ago. He was very popular amongst his subjects. His
eldest queen Mahamaya Devi gave birth to Lord Buddha (Siddhartha Gautam).

Depiction of Budhha’s Birth in Sculpture
King Shuddodhan’s youngest wife (queen) Prajapati Gautami gave birth to one son Nanda
Kumar and one daughter Nanda Kumari. Shakya clan had a great respect for their purity of race
and extreme pride for their clan. Shakyas believed that their lineage had an origin in IKSHVAKU
clan who were descendents of SUN-marked warrior caste (SURYA-VANSHI KSHATRIYA) and
they further believed that they were from Gautam sub-caste considered to be highly superior and
noble KSHATRIYA in those days. Shakyas of Kapilvastu used to have marriage relationship with
neighbouring KOLIYA (DEVDAHA) clan. For example, King Shuddodhan’s aunt (his Father’s sister)
was married to Koliya king ANJAN. And King ANJAN’s both daughters Mahamaya Devi and
Prajapati Gautami were married to Shakya King Suddodhan. Similarly, Koliya king Anjan’s grand-
daughter Yashodhara (the daughter of Koliya Prince Saprabuddha) was married to Shakya prince
Siddarth Gautam (son of King Suddodhan). Legend says that signs of arrival of Boddhisattvas existed
right from the beginning of the birth of Prince Siddartha. Royal astrologers had made predictions
for Siddarth Gautam after His birth that He would attain Buddhatwa and after Him a new path of
self-realization would begin in this world.
The folowing is the Geneology of ShakyaKings of Kapilvastu:

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[Note: In above geneology, Nand Kumar and Nand Kumari were born to the youngest queen of
Suddodhana named as Prajapati Gautami.]

Activities

1. Maurya King Ashoka of INDIA himself visited Lumbini – the birthplace of Gautam the Buddha
after 294 years of MAHAPARINIRVAN of Gautam the Buddha. He erected (got built) a pillar
there to commemorate the birth of Buddha. The pillar is famous as Ashoka pillar today and it is
undoubetedly the historical heritage of Nepal as well as the whole world. There used to be a horse
at the top of the pillar but it has been damaged and the horse is missing from the Ashoka pillar.
The height of the Ashoka pillar is 6.7 meters. There is an inscription in BRAHMI script on this
pillar which reads as “Hidbuddhe Jate Shakyamuniti” which means that “this is the place where
Buddha was born”.

Is there such a place of historical or cultural heritage in your locality/community/neighborhood?
Make note and write a description on it with a photograph. Share the same in your class.

2. Visit several monasteries and GUMBAS and study a series of books, magazines and commentaries
on Gautam the Buddha. Collect articles and compositions on Buddha from various news-papers
and journals. Then, fill up the blanks below:

S.N. Location/Place Connection with the Life of Gautam Buddha

1. Lumbini, Nepal

2. Dev-Daha, Nepal

3. Bodhi-Tree, Gaya, India

4. Sarnath, India

5. Kushinagar, India
3. Buddha’s entire teaching has been beautifully summarized into four noble truths and eightfold

paths to live life without any sorrow. Do self-research to find out these noble truths and eightfold
paths. Elaborate them with discussion. Examine their impact on students and on the society as a
whole.
4. Consult your guardian or senior member of your family and get all the known names of your
ancestors. Prepare a geneology for your family and distant family members. Share the same in
your class.

Exercise

1. Explain how Shakya dynasty originated in Nepal.
2. Describe why Shakya dynasty is considered so important in the history of Nepal.
3. Elaborate how Kapilvastu was named.

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Lesson Prithvi Narayan Shah and

3 Unification Campaign of Nepal

Prithvi Narayan Shah Gorkha Durbar

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Brief profile of Prithvi Narayan Shah (See below)

Birth: Poush 27, 1779 (27th December 1723)

Education: General in nature from Chandra Prabhawati

Marriage: First marriage at the age of 14 with princess of Makwanpur, Indra Kumari (daughter
of King Hem Karna), in 1795 BS. This marriage failed in the very beginning due to the disputes
between both the parties. After that, Prithvi Narayan Shah went for second marriage with
Narendra Laxmi, the daughter of Brahmin Ahiman Singh, from Banaras (India).
Friend in Childhood: With Biransingh Malla (son of King Ranjit Singh of Bhaktapur)
Coronation: 25th Chaitra, 1799 (March 22, 1743) as the King of Gorkha Kingdom
Death: Magh 1, 1831 (11 January, 1775)

Unification Campaign under the leadership of King Prithvi Narayan Shah

King Prithvi Narayan Shah was definitely the first king who succeeded in expanding the territory
of Kingdom of Gorkha and therefore, launched the ‘unification campaign of Nepal’ (as it got
famous later by this phrase). Gorkha’s rulers had been trying their best even before Prithvi
Naraya Shah to expand the territory. King Narabhupal Shah, father of Prithvi Narayan Shah, had
tried unsuccessfully to take away Nuwakot from the then Kirtipur (now Kathmandu). But, it was
King Prithvi Narayan Shah who had both the ability and the determination to fulfill the ambition.
His success rested on his political skills and a diplomatic mix of ‘carrot and stick policy’ (based on
conciliation and intimidation). Prthivi Narayan Shah had paid full attention to sound logistical
preparations (such as military training, modern weapons, ammunitions like gunpowder and so
on) to realize his ambition to become the King of expanded territory of unified Nepal. Following
are the brief details of his successes (and events of learning for further preparations) in achieving
the goal of unification of Nepal:

1. Nuwakot (1800 BS, Unsuccessful Invasion): Immediately after the accession to the throne
of Gorkha, Prithvi Narayan Shah launched his first attack on Nuwakot (in 1800 BS) as the first
step towards unification of Nepal. The King sent a troop of Gorkhali soldiers led by Kazi Biraj
Thapa Magar to conquer the territory of Nuwakot. Annexation of Nuwakot was strategically
very important for realizing the goal of unification of Nepal. Firstly, Nuwakot was the connecting
route to Tibet and Kathmandu Valley (comprised of Kirtipur, Bhaktapur and Patan all under
Malla rulers). Nuwakot was the trade-route between Nepal and Tibet and therefore, it was the
potential source of wealth. Secondly, Nuwakot was situated at height and therefore, winning
Nuwakot would add to the strength of fighting power against other enemies in Kathmandu
valley. Nuwakot was the western gateway to finally annex the Kathmandu valley. Thirdly, even
his father Narabhupal Shah had tried to annex the territory of Nuwakot but couldn’t succeed
then. Therefore, it was a matter of prestige for Prithvi Narayan Shah to annex Nuwakot which
was under the control of King of Kirtipur, Jaya Prakash Malla.

Kazi Biraj Thapa encamped with his troop near Khinchet to make military strategy before the
attack. He was trying to assess the power of the enemy and waiting for overflowing Trishuli to
calm down a little. He was also studying geographical terrain of surrounding areas of Nuwakot.
He was taking his own time and waiting for the right opportunity before launching a final attack
on Nuwakot. In the meantime, Bhardar Maheshwor Panta poisoned the ear of Prithvi Narayan
Shah against Kazi Biraj Thapa regarding his honesty towards the mission and trust towards the
King. Disturbed by the delay in invasion, desperate King Prithvi Narayan Shah sent another
troop under the military leadership of Maheshwor Panta to attack on Nuwakot. The Gorkhali
army was badly defeated in the battle and was forced to retreat.

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2. Nuwakot (Asoj 15, 1801 BS Successful Invasion):
After the first attack on Nuwakot during the reign of King Prithvi Narayan Shah failed, King paid
his attention to logistical preparations (such as military training, modern weapons, ammunitions
like gunpowder and so on) and recruiting more soldiers. He appointed Kalu Pandey to the post
of Kazi. He was looking for good trainers and he knew that Muslims in India could do this job
very well because they had invaded India by attacking over many Hindu kings. And they had
established their rule (reign) over neighboring India at that time. Keeping all these things in his
mind, King Prithvi Narayan Shah made a visit to Banaras (India). He brought Sheikh Jabbar,
Muhammad Taki and Bekh Singh back to Nepal in order to train Gorkhali army in the skill of
fighting battle. He introduced compulsory military service for all young people (from 16 to 30
years). King Prithvi Narayan Shah recruited his own brother Dalmardan Shah as a fighting soldier
just at the age of 12 (years). He further consolidated his own army of Gorkha by going for frersh
recruitment and introduced MARWAT for safety and security of soldiers and their family. He
purchased the latest available weapons then and established manufacturing units for production of
arms and ammunitions in his kingdom. He appealed to the people of Gorkha for making donations
in the cause of strengthening army of Gorkha in order to succeed in the unification campaign. At
that time, there were 12,000 houses (family-units) in Gorkha and all of them contributed towards
strengthening of Army in accordance with their capacity by giving money or goods or by offering
themselves as soldiers. He didn’t want to take any chance this time and he was leading the attack
himself. He had laid out his perfect strategy this time.
King Prithvi Narayan Shah chose the time of Indra Jatra to attack on the main fort of Nuwakot
because Malla King Jaya Prakash used to keep busy in those days in his religious work. Just in
one night, he got all his soldiers cross the Trishuli River and made them land over the territory of
Kantipur (Nuwakot was the part of Kantipur). After crossing the Trishuli River, Gorkhali troops
were divided into three divisions under the command of Kalu Pandey (from the route of Gerakhu),
Mahoddam Kirti (from the route of Dharm Pani) and Prithvi Naraya himself (from the route of
Asokvari). Shankhamani Rana was defending Nuwakot as his father Jayant Rana (Chief in-charge of
defending Nuwakot) was in Kirtipur to be with Malla King Jaya Prakash in the celebration of Indra
Jatra. Jayant Rana was the chief of the Gorkha troops during the time king Nar Bhupal Shah had
attacked Nuwakot. But, he had switched his loyalty to King Jaya Prakash Malla and was appointed
as the chief of Nuwakot by the Malla King. Shankhamani Rana got killed in the hands of Dalmardan
Shah, young soldier and young brother of King Prithvi Narayan Shah. Gorkha army won the battle
of Nuwakot. Jayan Rana after hearing the sad news of his son’s death in the battle-field went to
Belkot in extreme grief. Gorkhali troop reached there and arrested Jayant Rana after annexing the
territory.

3. Daha-Chowk, Naldum, Mahadev-Pokhari (1811 BS, Victory): Gorkha army under the
command of Tularam Pandey marched half a Kos (1.8 km) ahead of Kathmandu towards North-
West direction in order to annex Daha-Chowk. On the other side, Kalu Pandey led the Gorkha
army and brought Naldum and Mahadev-Pokhari under control.
4. Kirtipur (Bhadra 9, 1814 BS, First Unsuccessful Invasion): Motivated by few successes in
his unification campaign, King Prithvi Narayan Shah decided to invade on Kirtipur. Kazi Kalu
Pandey cautioned him for such a zealous haste in military adventure and warned him against
the military might of the enemy. As it was always the case, King Prithvi Narayan Shah believed
in his valour and individual might more than the technically perfect combination of united
army of Malla kings in Kathmandu Valley. At the same time, King Prithvi Narayan Shah used
to have magical belief in military strength and individual battle-skill of Gorkhali troop. He
ignored the practically wise advice of his trusted man Kalu Pandey. He believed more in his
lofty over-confidence to trample the enemeies in the battelefield. Finally, he along with Kalu

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Pandey, brought the troop of Gorkhali soldiers and made them confront against the combined
army of 4,000 soldiers arranged by the Malla kings from Kathmandu Valley. Nothing unexpected
happened. King Prithvi Narayan Shah lost the life of 400 soldiers along with Kalu Pandey in the
first battle of Kirtipur. His Gorkhali soldiers started running for their lives here and there. Even
King Prithvi Narayan Shah had escaped his death in the battle-field quite narrowly. It was the
humiliating defeat for King Prithvi Narayan in the hands of united Malla kings of Kathmandu
Valley.

5. Makwanpur (Bhadra 9, 1819 BS, Victory): King Prithvi Narayan Shah had old enemity with
Kingdom of Makwanpur because of his failed marriage with the daughter of King Hem Karna
Sen. Dig Bandhan Sen (prince of Makwanpur) had spoiled his plan of getting huge wealth from
Hem Karna Sen for expanding the territory of Gorkha in unification campaign of Nepal. After the
death of King Hem Karna Sen, Digbandhan Sen had ascended to the throne of Makwanpur. King
Prithvi Narayan Shah wanted to teach him a lesson for playing a spoil-sport in the past and desperately
looked ahead to dethrone him by conquering Makwanpur. Not only this, Makwanpur was such a fertile
land as well as trading route connecting Tarai to Kathmandu Valley. As a military strategist and battle-
enthusiast, King Prithvi Narayan Shah was thinking in advance before making another decisive attack
on Kirtipur. For that purpose in mind, it was absolutely essential to conquer Makwanpur to impose
economic blockade on Kathmandu valley. At the same time, he was gaining food-sufficiency for his
expanded territory by controlling Makwanpur – famous for granary. So, by throwing one stone King
Prthivi Narayan Shah was killing many birds.

Gorkha troop under the command of Bansha Raj Pandey and Kehar Singh Basnet attacked on
Makwanpur. Makwanpur army was badly defeated in the battle which lasted for 10 hours. King
Digbandhan Sen along with his minister Kanak Singh Baniya fled for Hariharpur to take shelter.
Gorkhali troop attacked on Hariharpur too on Asoj 22 and took control of it. Finally, victory of
Makwanpur and Hariharpur benefitted the Gorkhalis by having 700 extra guns with plenty of
moveable and immoveable properties.

6. Battle with Bengali Troop (Poush 27, 1819 BS, Victory): Fleeing king of Makwanpur Digbandhan
Sen met Nawab-Wajir Kasim Ali Khan who was Governor of Bengal at that time in Betiya (India).
Nawab Kasim Ali Khan had gone to Betiya to meet his chiefs of army Gregory and Gurgin Khan.
Deposed King of Makwanpur had requested Kasim Ali to end (throw away) Gorkha annexation from
Makwanpur by any means. Nawab Kasim Ali Khan found it a great opportunity as Makwanpur was
easily coming under his control thanks to its deposed King Digbandhan Sen. He authorized Gurgin
Khan to lead Bengali troop of around 2000 soldiers in order to attack on Makwanpur.

Having heard the news of attack from commander Gurgin Khan and his Bengali troop, King Prithvi
Narayan Shah ordered his chief of the army Kazi Bansh Raj Pandey and Bakshi Kehar Singh Basnet to
lead a strong Gorkhali troop for a battle. He further arranged for another troop under the leadership
of Sardar Ram Krishna Kunwar to reach Makwanpur without delay. Such a coordinated army troops
from the Gorkha side attacked on Gurgin Khan’s Bengali troop at ‘Harnamadi’ in Makwanpur. In
the battle of Harnamadi in Mawanpur, around 1700 Mughal soldiers from Bengal got killed and
remaining Mughal soldiers retreated from the battle leaving two cannons and hundrends of guns
lying abandoned in the battle-field. King Prithvi Narayan Shah himself came to Makwanpur in
order to celebrate this victory over Mughal troop from Bengal. Highly motivated by this victory,
Gorkhali troop continued with annexation of smaller territories in the neighborhood of Kathmandu
valley such as Saanga, Naala, Pharping, Bishankhu and Banepa and so on. Now, it was easy for King
Prithvi Narayan Shah to impose economic blockade over Kathmandu Valley as per his wish.

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Battle against Mir Kasim’s Mughal Force First Battle of Kirtipur led by Sur Pratap Shah
7. Kirtipur (Bhadra 30, 1821 BS, Second Unsuccessful Invasion): Kaji Sur Pratap Shah was
personally interested to lead the Gorkha soldiers in order to invade Kirtipur. Kaji Daljit Shah and
Kaji Shriharsha Panta were other commanders who were leading the Gorkha troop in an attack
on Kirtipur. The fort of Kirtipur was firmly closed from all the directions. Gorkhali soldiers along
with their three commanders were scaling the wall with the help of ladders to reach at the oher
side of the wall inside Kirtipur. From the other side, arrows were being hurled from the bows
by the Malla soldiers at Gorkhali soldiers. During the struggle while scaling the wall, one of the
arrows had hit the left eye of Sur Pratap Shah. He lost his left eye and got severely injured. His
brother Dalmardan Shah too was pierced by incoming attack of arrows and was seriously injured.
Looking at the two wounded commanders, Gorkhali soldiers lost their control and direction.
They started running for their lives and finally took shelter in the fort of Daha Chowk. This is how
even second invasion on Kirtipur failed to annex it.

8. Kirtipur (Chaitra 3, 1822 BS, Third Successful Invasion – Victory): The third invasion of the
Gorkha kingdom on Kirtipur was led by Kazi Bansh Raj Pandey. King Prithvi Narayan Shah had
already dispatched the Gorkhali troop to be led by Kazi Bansh Raj Pandey from the side of Daha
Chowk. Kazi Bansha Raj had surrounded all the border villages located in and around Kirtipur
by stationing his Gorkhali troop. All the villagers like before were alert and expecting Gorkhali
attack any time soon. They had closed all the entry points leading the ways towards Kirtipur. But,
Kazi Bansha Raj was not in a hurry and in fact he was looking for imposing economic blockade.
Therefore, he prevented the bundles of harvested paddy from being carried (supplied) inside the
village. He wanted to avoid direct military confrontation just to save unnecessary loss of human lives
and property. He continued to send the messages to King of Kirtipur, Jaya Prakash Malla asking him
to surrender in interest of his people’s life and property or else face war. On the other hand, trapped
villagers were not getting any military support and werapons so that they could defend themselves.
Finally, village-head Bhinkhwal Pradhan surrendered before the Gorkhali Army and requested
Kazi Bansha Raj to enter Kirtipur at mid-night otherwise villagers would get unnecessarily alarmed
in the broad day light. According to the plan, Gorkhali Army reached Kot-House (weaponry-House)
of Kirtipur and hoisted the flag of Kingdom of Gorkha before dawn on Chaitra 3, 1822 BS (March 12,
1766). Getting up in the morning, people of Kirtipur found themselves under the rule of
Kingdom of Gorkha. It was the blodd-less invasion in which King Prithvi Narayan Shah annexed
Kirtipur in his third attempt.
9. Kantipur (Asoj 13, 1825 BS, The Successful Invasion – Victory): King Jaya Prakash Malla
was sensing his defeat and was taking up desperate measures to save Kantipur from the invasion
of the Gorkhali army. He requested East India Company (ruling over India at that time) to send

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British troop to stop the march of Gorkhali army towards Kantipur. Captain Kinloch was chosen
by the British East India Company to lead the British troop of around 2400 soldiers for helping
Jaya Prakash Malla. Gorkhali army confronted the British troop in Pauva-Gadhi (part of Sindhuli-
Gadhi) on Asoj 24, 1824 BS (October 6, 1767). Around 1000 British soldiers lost their lives in the
battle while Gorkhali army lost around 300 soldiers. Captain Kinloch ran for his life along with
remaining troop and Chief of the Gorkhali army Birbhadra Upadhyay chased him till the Captain
reached Tarai. Gorkhali soldiers collected around 300 guns left by the British soldiers in this
battle. Therefore, Gorkha army not only posted a victory but strengthened their arsenal too. King
Jaya Prakash Malla was totally dejected by the Gorkhali victory over the British troop. He was
now expecting his own turn of defeat.
Once again totally motivated by the victory over the Britsh troop led by Captain Kinloch, Gorkhali
army marched towards Kantipur. It was the day of Indra-Jatra on Asoj 13, 1825 (September
25, 1768) when Gorkhali army of King Prithvi Narayan Shah attacked on Kantipur from three
different sides and controlled the Kantipur within no time. King Jaya Prakash Malla ran for his
life and reached Patan for shelter. And there in Kantipur on the same day, King Prithvi Narayan
Shah occupied the throne of Kantipur.
10. Lalitpur (Asoj 24, 1825 BS, The Successful Bloodless Invasion – Victory): Just 10 days after
King Prthvi Narayan Shah conquered Kantipur (Kathmandu), he sent his Guru Shri Harsha
Mishra as his personal messanger to the court of Lalitpur and conveyed the specific message
for Pramans (Heads) and Ministers to surrender before Gorkhali army. Pramans and ministers
readily agreed to surrender and accepted the King Prithvi Narayan Shah as their own King.
Having sensed the delicate situation there, King of Lalitpur Tej Narsingh Malla and Jaya Prakash
Malla fled to Bhaktapur. This is how Lalitpur became the part of expanded Gorkha kingdom on
Asoj 24, 1825 without spilling a drop of blood.

11. Bhaktapur (Mangasir 1, 1826 BS, The Successful Invasion – Victory): King Prithvi Narayan
Shah wanted King of Bhaktapur Ranjit Malla to surrender and hand him over other two deposed
kings namely Jaya Prakash Malla and Tej Narsingh Malla. He sent a request-letter to this effect to
King Ranjit Malla. But, King Ranjit Malla refused to oblige the request sent by King Prithvi Narayan
Shah. Therefore, battle was the only option left to settle the issue between the two Kings. Gorkhali
troop (army) attacked on Bhaktapur on Kartik 28, 1826 and the battle between the Gorkhali army
and Bhaktapur army lasted for three days. King Ranjit Malla decided to surrender and he gestured
his intention to do so by waving his white tuban (symbol of peace and surrender) out of his palace
window. Thus, Kingdom of Gorkha established formal control over Bhaktapur on Mangsir 1, 1826
BS.
King Prithvi Narayan Shah had treated all the three arrested Malla Kings quite well. He had fulfilled
their last wishes without any hesitation. Jaya Prakash Malla was sent Arya Ghat, Pashupati as
he expressed his wish to live the remaining life as a Shiva’s devotee. Ranjit Malla, his childhood
friends’s father was sent to Kashi. But, Tej Nar Singh could not decide anything for himself, so he
was kept in house-arrest for his entire life. Thus, Prithvi Narayan Shah announced Kathmandu as
the new capital for Gorkha kingdom ruling over Nepal.

12. Eastern Sen Kingdoms such as Chaudandi, Majh-Kirant, Bijaypur (Victory in 1830 and 1831
BS): Gorkhali-Nepali troop under the command of Bansh Raj Pandey and Kehar Singh Basnet
suffered defeat in the hands of combined forces (Kaski, Tanahun and Lamjungb of western
part of Gorkha (or Nepal). Kehar Singh Basnet got killed and Bansh Raj Pandey was arrested.
King Prithvi Narayan Shah wanted to divert the attention towards the east (instead of west)
now. Therefore, Gorkhali-Nepali forces first captured Majh-kirat followed by Chaudandi. King
of Chaudandi Karna Sen ran to take shelter in Bijaypur. Later, Gorkhali-Nepali troop reached

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Bijaypur in 1831 BS and annexed Bijaypur. Minister Buddhi Karna Rai had installed the fleeing
king Karna Sen on the throne of Bijaypur as the throne was empty at that time. After Gorkhali
troop captured Bijaypur, both of them fled to Sikkim to save their lives. Thus, Nepal’s eastern-
most boundary in the life-time of King Prithvi Narayan Shah had reached up to Tista River.
Prithvi Narayan Shah died in Devi-Ghat of Nuwakot on Magh 1, 1831 (January 11, 1775).

Nuwakot Durbar Kathmandu Durbar Square

Words and terms you would like to know

Kantipur: Kantipur was a medieval kingdom in the Malla confederacy of Nepal. The capital city is now
known as Kathmandu.
Kirtipur: This is an ancient city in Nepal. It is located in the Kathmandu Valley. It was part of the territory
of Lalitpur at the time of invasion of the Kathmandu Valley by the Gorkhali king Prithvi Narayan Shah in
the 18th century.
Marwat: Marwat was a system of compensating the family of killed or injured soldiers in the battle.
According to this system, one person from soldier’s family (most probably his son or younger brother)
would get a job after a soldier got killed or severely injured or duly compensated for the life time under
the care of Kingdom of Gorkha.
Conciliation (n.): bringing disputing sides together for solving disputes
Intimidation (n.): frightening somebody into doing or not doing something
Zealous (adj.): extremely enthusiastic

Activities

1. What lessons did King Prithvi Naraya Shah learn by his first attack on Nuwakot? How did he
succeed to conquer Nuwakot in his second attempt?

2. It is not his over-confidence (over zealous approach) but smart diplomacy which resulted in
success of unification campaign of Nepal. Justify the statement with appropriate illustrations.

3. Point out what steps you have been taking to strengthen your relationship with neighbours.
4. Collect pictures of Gorkha and Nuwakot Durbar and related articles and other information to

get complete picture of the rule of King Prithvi Narayan Shah and his efforts towards unification
of Nepal. You can take the help of archives, news-paper, magazines, educational materials and
internet. Find out the difference between Nuwakot and Gorkha Durbar in terms of their historicity
and importance in the unification campaign.
5. Why was it so important for King Prithvi Narayan Shah to conquer Nuwakot and Makwanpur in
his unification campaign of Nepal? Give reasons with appropriate illustrations.
6. If one moves ahead with patience and with full preparations with complete dedication towards

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the purpose in hand, it is not impossible to achieve the goal. Justify this statement by picking up
the example of conquest of Gorkhali troop over Kiritipur in unification campaign of Nepal.
7. Nepal is a country of diversity and at the same time we are all woven together in the bond of
unity. What are the important steps we need to take in order to walk briskly on the path of
development? Make a plan to speed up the pace of development in our country.
8. Make a time line showing all the important unsuccessful as well as successful invasions and
conquests under the reign/rule of King Prithvi Narayan Shah in unification campaign of Nepal.
First collect all the related dates with their events/incidents and make a table before making a
time line.

Exercise

1. Even though King Prithvi Narayan Shah began his unification campaign with failure, he
persevered and ended up enlarging the boundary of Gorkha Kingdom and remained source of
inspiration for all the people of Nepal. Critically evaluate his contributions in terms of his failures
and successes.

2. Make a list of four dominant qualities of King Prithvi Narayan’s personality by citing relevant
examples to support your points.

3. Prithvi Narayan Shah was the warrior par excellance. Justify with appropriate illustrations.
4. What were the major obstacles faced by King Prithvi Narayan Shah on the path of unification

campaign of Nepal? How did he overcome those obstacles?
5. Explain a series of events that culminated in successful and unsucceful invasions to register

complete victory over Kathmandu valley.
6. Explain the reasons why King Prithvi Narayan Shah concentrated more towards east in his future

conquests after establishing control over the Kathmamndu Valley instead of going towards the
west in Nepal.
7. Present your views why King Prithvi Narayan Shah chose to have Kathmandu as capital of
unified Nepal.

Community Work

What positive changes have taken place in the last 10 years in the municipality or town you live in?
Send or ask your questions seeking answers on development from local social worker, head of the
Gaunpalika or municipality or secretary. Collect the data in a table and show them in bar-diagram
along with extensive analysis.
A. What is the length of expansion in road netwok?
B. How many famililies are using clean drinking water for consumption?
C. How many areas in a village have been declared as “open-defecation free” zones?
D. How many health centers are currently operating in the village/town?
E. How much money from the allocated budget has been spent on development works?

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Lesson

4 Effects of Nepal’s Unification

Nepal before unification was divided into many small kingdoms  which  were fighting against
each other. There were several Sen kingdoms in the east known as the Koshi Region. There were
smaller kingdoms even in the small Kathmandu valley. The Kathmandu Valley was then known
as the Nepal Valley. And, it was divided into three kingdoms namely Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon),
Kathmandu (Kantipur) and Patan (Lalitpur). Similarly, the Gandaki Region known as the
Chaubise states was divided into 24 principalities while there were 22 states in the Karnali Region
known as the Baise states. Due to frequent battles among them for annexation, the number of
the states changed very often. Thanks to unification campaign initiated by King Prithvi Narayan
Shah, more than 50 independent states (kingdoms) got into one unified whole known as today’s
Nepal. Therefore, existence of modern nation-state of Nepal is definitely the end result of
successful unification campaign started by King Prithvi Narayan Shah and continued till the life
time of his eldest daughter-in-law Rajendra Laxmi and Bahadur Shah, his youngest son. After
the early death of King Pratap Singh on Marg 6, 1834 (November 17, 1777), Queen Rajendra
Laxmi began to act as regent for her son Rana Bahadur Shah and the youngest son Bahadur
Shah was appointed as Mukhtiyar on Shrawan 11, 1843 (July 23, 1786). During the regency of
Queen Rajendra Laxmi, smaller principalities towards the west of Kathmandu Valley such as
Parvat, Lamjung and Kaski had merged with Nepal. Even after her death, unification campaign
continued under the leadership of Bahadur Shah. During the rule of Bahadur Shah as regent after
the death of Queen Rajendra Laxami, Nepal’s boundary reached up to Kumaun and Garhwal in
the west. In Jestha 1843 BS, Bahadur Shah annexed Gulmi, Arghakhanchi, Dhurkot, and other
places and unified them with Nepal. In the same year in the month of Asoj, he conquered Parvat.
After that, other territories like Pyuthan, Dang, Rolpa and Jajarkot were also added to Nepal. The
expansion was possible because Prithvi Narayan Shah had already laid the ground-work in his
life-time. After the death of Bahadur Shah, unification campaign just ended.

Success of the unification campaign under the leadership of King Prithvi Narayan Shah had
transformed the Gorkhali army into the Nepalese army. And, King Prithvi Narayan Shah was
the founder of the Nepalese Army. Nepal’s army conquered Almoda -- the capital of Kumaun
on Chaitra 11, 1847 and Sri Nagar -- the capital city of Gadhawal on Asar 12, 1848. Thus, Nepal’s
border touched the river Tista in the east and went up to Kumaun-Garhwal in the west in the life
time of Bahadur Shah.

The origin of modern Nepal goes back to King Prithvi Narayan’s Kingdom of Gorkha. Nepal is
not the first country which got expanded from a small kingdom of Gorkha into comparatively
larger kingdom known as Nepal today. Similar experiences are shared by Germany, Italy and
Britain too in Europe. Prussia gave rise to Germany, Sardinia to Italy and Wessex (Anglo-Saxon
kingdom) got transformed into present day United Kingdom (Great Britain). It was the result of
unification campaign which inspired King Prithvi Narayan to respect diversity of religions, races
and castes in the united Nepal. He fully understood the importance of maintaining diversity to
keep the newly born country Nepal fully integrated in those days. Thus, national integration
of Nepal based on respecting diversity is the great gift of the unification campaign. It has

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always been convenient for common citizens to live in a comparatively larger nation instead of
fragmented states which exceeded more than 50 in number before. It is because more facilities are
available in a bigger state in terms of security of life, food-sufficiency and living the day to day
life with essential goods. United and unified Nepal could not become pawn in the diplomatic and
political game of foreign countries as it was the case before Nepal had been unified. King Prithvi
Narayan Shah was able to concentrate on providing Good-Governance by rooting out corruption
in strong centralized administration. This was the achievement in his life-time as many of the
smaller kingdoms were shaking hands with Mughal Kings and Britishers to destroy each other.
These smaller kingdoms were more inclined towards suppression and pleasure rather than
consolidation and clean administration. For the first time, a bigger identity of Nepal and being
Nepali emerged which was not confined with regionalism and was not based on hatred against
other communities. Effects of trading and business got multiplied several times because Nepal
as a nation-state could negotiate on better terms with other countries than the smaller kingdoms
in Kathmandu valley could do earlier. For example, Nepal-Tibet trade, Commerce and Business
Treaty, 1832 BS was a milestone which brought property to the entire country. Unification of Nepal
had cut down the administrative costs because there was only one centralized administration for
the entire country located in Kathmandu. Earlier, there were a number of kingdoms spending
on administration separately and were in clash with each other before the unification of Nepal.
Politcal consciousness of the citizens took a giant leap and out of a sudden they found themselves
in strategically central position where Nepal was surrounded by vast territory of Tibet and China
in the north and India from the other sides. Earlier their political consciousness was just limited
to the kingdom of few villages and people would die thinking about neighbouring kingdoms of
having two or three villages. Nepal attracted the attention of the most developed continent called
Europe in those days. This is how Nepal’s political relationship with Great Britain began and that
led to the participation in First and the Second World Wars. Nepal received global recognition
as independent and sovereign country and left its impression on all the fighting countries. Nepal
also left the great impression as a country with gallent soldiers on warring rival countries such
as Germany. Nepal had fought both the world wars from the side of Britain. Germany was the
arch rival of Britain in 18th and 19th centuries. Bigger and larger opportunities with greater
awareness came knocking to the people of Nepal. They began to get global exposure instead
of getting confined into a particular kingdom of few villages. People’s participation at grass-
root levels in political and development works increased manifolds. Even Shah Kings could
not discard the opinions of people in favor of despotic iron-fist rule. Nepal got established as
sovereign nation-state on the political map of the world and Nepal’s sovereignty has continued to
remain uncompromised and unblemished till now. Prithvi Narayan Shah had composed DIVYA-
UPADESH (Divine Counsel) as being the guide-lines for political-administration of Nepal and
it is quite interesting to acknowledge that most of his counsels (guide-lines) still hold good in
modern Nepal. Prithvi Narayan Shah is still relevant in the era of democracy, constitutionalism
and republicanism which Nepal has opted for in the 21st century.

Words and terms you would like to know

Principality (n.): a territory ruled by price or princess
Annexation (n.): taking over territory and incorporate it into another political entity (a country or state)
Republicanism (n.): the belief that the supreme power of a country should be vested in an electorate (in
the hands of people)
Constitutionalism (n.): the principles or practice of government regulated by a constitution; belief in
constitutional government

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Activities

1. Write the correct year below in the table and construct a time-line:

Kingdoms/Principalities Year of Unification
Kaski
Parvat
Jumla/Doti
Garhwaal
Almoda
Gulmi, Dhurkot

2. Fix a meeting with a local person who is well-informed in the history of unification campaign of
Nepal. Ask him pointed questions and note down his response. Analyse the responses/answers
given by him/her and share the same in the class.

3. Critically analyze the change (shift) in economic and foreign relationship of Nepal with other
countries in the world after the unification campaign was over.

4. Get the teachings of Prithvi Narayan Shah mentioned in Divya-Upadesh. Analyze them with
their implications and find out how many of his teachings are still relevant in 21st century Nepal.
Make a list of those relevant teachings and give reasons and context in which they apply now in
Nepal.

Exercise

1. Explain the roles played by King Prithvi Narayan Shah towards unification of Nepal.
2. Describe the social and cultural impact on the Nepalese society after the unification was concluded.
3. Assess the impact of unification on Nepal at international level and in the economic field till the

Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16 AD).
4. Shah Kings lacked wisdom, vision and valour to preserve and conserve the legacy of unified

greater Nepal left by two greats King Prithvi Narayan Shah and his son Mukhtiyar Bahadur Shah.
Critically analyze the statement with your own conclusions at the end.
5. What suggestions would you like to give to modern-day politicians for the type of politics and
nature of political governance they should do so that Nepal keeps on marching ahead with the
feelings of national integration and remains united in diversity?

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Lesson Anglo-Nepal War & Sacrifices of
Our Gallant and Brave Soldiers
5

The East India Company from Britain laid down a strong foundation for imperial rule of British
Empire on the southern neighbor of Nepal since the early 17th century. The East India Company
turned India into a colony for economic exploitation and later on British Empire took over the
political control of entire India. The British Empire set its eyes on Nepal and Tibet for trade-
expansion through the territory of India. Nepal didn’t want to fall into the trap of the then East
India Company and therefore resisted the move of the Company. No doubt, this angered the
Company which was representing one of the mightiest empires in the world in those days. Nepal
was served the ultimatum to face the war which was eventually known as the Anglo-Nepal War
(1814-16 AD) or simply the Gurkha War.

King Girvan Yuddha PM Bhimsen Thapa King George III Viceroy Moria

The War was fought between the Kingdom of Nepal and the East-India Company (representative
of the British Empire). At the time of war, Kingdom of Nepal was represented by Bhimsen Thapa
as the Mukhtiyar (Prime Minister) under the King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah. At that time,
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 2nd Earl of Moria, was the viceroy (Governor General) in India from
the British side representing King of Great Britain and Ireland (George III or George William
Fredrick).

To begin with, Anglo-Nepal War was the result of border disputes and ambitious expansionist
plans from both the sides. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816 AD.
The British were the invading forces, while the Nepalese were defending their own territory.

Causes of the Anglo-Nepal War:

Following are the main causes of Anglo-Nepal War:

A. Economic Causes: The British ruling in India wanted to have trading relationship with Tibet
by using Nepal as a trade-route. But, the Kingdom of Nepal refused to oblige the Britishers.
Viceroy (Governor General) Francis Rawdon-Hastings wanted to annex the wool-growing areas
of hilly Nepal particularly Kumaon and Garhwaal so that British merchants could have direct
access to it. David Ochterlony, then an agent at Ludhiana, on 24 August 1814 considered Dehra
Dun as “a great commercial warehouse Trans-Himalayan trade.” Viceroy Lord Hasting wanted
to exploit commercial opportunities offered by the Himalayan region in order to strengthen the

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financial position of the East India Company and to supply funds to Britain. Therefore, forests of
Nepal with tremendous bio-diversity, herbs, minerals and trading-route facility to Tibet attracted
the East India Company to enter Nepal.
B. Political Causes: The greed of making more wealth by trade drove the British to occupy
Nepal. It was economically required to have political safety for their wealth earned by trade and
economic exploitation. This is why the British got interested in occupying Nepal to establish
territorial control. Besides, Francis Hastings (2nd Earl of Moria and the Viceroy appointed in
India) was afraid of any future larger coalition amidst Hindu Kings in this region because that
could be a potentially dangerous threat for the existing British Rule. And, exactly at the same time
Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa had appealed to the Kings of Punjab, Gwalior and Maratha and
others too from different parts of Asia to get united in order to drive away the British from entire
Asia. This appeal for Asian unity proposed by Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa to drive away the
British from Asia didn’t go down well in the eyes of Viceroy Francis Hastings. It is because he
was already wary of possible Hindu revival and their unity among the Marathas, the Sikhs, and
the Gurkhas against the British. The British was desperate to defeat any shuch unity and that
prompted them to attack on Nepal.
C. Emerging Regional Power of Nepal: Nepal’s expansionism during and after the unification
campaign under the King Prithvi Narayan Shah posed both challenge as well as threats for British
expansionism in India. Fragmented Nepal was not a great cause for concern for the British but
yes, unified Nepal was the subject for worry. And the defeated Kings (particularly Baise and
Chaubise Sates) were sheltering in India and helping out the British by passing on war-secrets to
them in the hope of getting back their lost kingdoms (territories). Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa
had employed war-trainers from the rival European power France to train Nepalese Army in
modern warfare. This had alarmed the British because the presence of French war experts in
Nepal was definitely meant for antagonizing the British India. Nepal was flexing war-muscles by
using jargons and phrases against the British by projecting Nepal as impregnable (unconquerable)
and even much stronger than existing Indian Kigdoms. In the words of Bhimsen Thapa “....... our
hills and fastness are made by the hands of God and are impregnable.”
British soldiers like  Rollo Gillespie  saw the Nepalese as a challenge to British supremacy. If
Nepalese jargons and phrases against the British Empire went without giving answer then it
would have lowered down the prestige of the British Empire. The British was provoked and
challenged enough. And therefore, the East India Company decided to fight the war to prove the
power and supremacy of the British Empire.
C. Natural and Climatic Cause: India being a tropical country was very oppressive for the British
who were looking for temperate and Europe-like climatic conditions to have their settlement.
Nepal’s hilly regions were attractions for them from this angle and they wanted to conquer the
areas. They wanted to use these regions in summer for administrative purposes and spending
their holidays.
D. Immediate Cause: There existed border disputes between the Kingdom of Nepal and the East
India Company. The British wanted Nepal to withdraw from two disputed areas on the eastern
Tarai region at Butwal and Syuraj. The issue was in fact highly complex in nature. The ruler of
the hill state of Palpa had controlled the territory in the form of grant of revenue rights given by
the Kingdom of Oudh. Palpa was annexed to Nepal and the East India Company conquered the
Kingdom of Oudh. Now, the East India Company wanted to take back Butwal and Syuraj over
which Palpa had exercised revenue control granted by Kingdom of Oudh. The British passed
an ultimatum to Kingdom of Nepal to withdraw from these two districts but Prime Minister

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Bhimsen Thapa rejected a fresh ultimatum.
In fact, there were similar problems all along the Tarai region. These kinds of disputes between
both the sides would often arise because there was no fixed boundary separating the Nepalese
and the British. Lands given as grants to collect revenue either to local zaminders or regional
states had emerged as main sources of disputes. They would often switch their loyalty just to
save their wealth (right to obtain rvenue). There was indeed the fluid and overlapping systems
of control in the Tarai region. The British wanted a clear and fixed frontier (border) in Tarai for
consolidation of administration and therefore started with demands of Butwal and Syuraj. Nepal
was equally firm not to part with (give up) these two territories. Violent confrontation (war)
between the two powers was the only option left to settle the border disputes for good. Britain
formally declared war with Nepal on Kartik 15, 1871 (November 1, 1841).

Consequences of Anglo-Nepal War

The Anglo-Nepal war was fought between the Kingdom of Nepal and the British East India
Company. The war broke out mainly because of border disputes and ambitious expansionism of
both the parties. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816 AD. The treaty
contained 9 (nine) important points as main provisions which applied strictly on Nepal in order
to earn perpetual peace and friendship with Great Britain. Sugauli is a place currently located in
Motihari district of Bihar (India). The Treaty of Sugauli was signed on December 2, 1815 and ratified
on March 3, 1816 (Falgun 20, 1872 BS) by (between) both the parties namely the British East India
Company and the Kinbg of Nepal. The treaty of Sugauli established the boundary line of Nepal.

Raj Guru Gajraj Mishra with Chandra Sekher Upadhayaya and Lt. Col. Paris Bradshaw
signing the Treaty
Following were the major consequences of Anglo-Nepal war and subsequent signing of the

Treaty of Sugauli on Nepal:
1. Loss of Nepalese Territories and Full Stop on Nepal’s Territorial Expansion: Nepal lost

about one-third of Nepalese territory won in wars in the last 25 years or so. Regions (or areas)
like Sikkim in the east, Kumaon and Garhwal in the west and much of the Tarai in the south
were ceded to the British East India Company. However, much of the Tarai region was gifted

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to Nepal as reward in 1860 AD for helping the British in suppressing India’s First War of
Independence, 1857 AD. Fixation of Nepal’s boundary in the south and in the east as well as in
west defined the territorial limit of Nepal for future and it continues till today.

2. British Interference in Nepal’s Politics and Permanent Stay of British Representative in
Kathmandu: One of the provisions of the Treaty of Sugauli totally prevented the Kingdom of
Nepal from employing any British subject (citizen) or the subject of any European or American
state without the consent (permission) of the British Government.

The compulsory presence of the British representative in Kathmandu was the entry of first
westerner as political heavy-weight (master manipulator) in palace-politics of Nepal. The
Sugauli Treaty was superseded in December 1923 by a “treaty of perpetual peace and friendship,”
which upgraded the British resident to an envoy (official representative or diplomatic minister).
One can find out the extent of British manipulation in Nepal’s politics from the time of King
Rajendra Bikram to Rana’s rule. British approval in terms of acceptance or rejection of different
lobbies in the King’s court in Nepal was routine affairs. Nepal’s internal and external affairs got
heavily interfered (influenced) by the British Empire.

3. Gorkha Recruitment: The British East India Company had already recognized the fighting
skills of Nepalese soldiers. David Ochterlony took the lead in October 1815 and formed the
first regiment of Nepalese soldiers known as King George’s Gurkha Rifles. From then onwards,
Nepalese youth are being recruited as soldiers across the world particularly in United Kingdom,
India, United States of America, France and so on.

4. Disaapointment in the Palace (Durbar) and Dejection amongst the Nepalese People: Heavy
loss of human lives and property along with loss of one-third territory of Nepal brought the
confidence level of the people down. National pride was badly hurt. Palace conspiracy got
heightened up between various groups like Pandey, Thapa and Basnayat groups. There was
a situation of political conspiracy against each other in the palace leading to the downfall in
overall governance.

Battle of Khalanga-Nalapani: Captain Balbhadra Kunwar

Since the Battle of Nalapani was the first battle of Anglo-Nepal War, it was too fierce and intense
for both the sides as to who would conquer the fort. Bada Kaji Amar Singh Thapa had deputed 20-
year old Captain Balbhadra Kunwar to defend Khalanga (now in Uttarakhand, near Dehradun,
India) against the British attack in Anglo-Nepal War. Balabhadra Kunwar with a group of 600
people which included children, women, old and youth took charge of Nalapani fort situated at
the height of around 600-feet in dense forest. Nalapani fort was the strategic position from where
Khalanga was to be defended. It is also known as Khalanga fort.
The British troop of 3,500 soldiers under the command of Major General Sir Rollo Gillespie was
advancing towards the fort with all kinds of modern weapons, cannons and gun-powder. On the
other hand, Captain Balabhadra Kunwar and his people inside the fort were having traditional
weapons like country-made cannons, Kukhuri, bow-arrow, and stones to defend themselves.
In terms of numbers of trained soldiers and logistic supports, the British army was far better
equipped than the Nepalese group of fighters/soldiers. But, Nepalese fighters of all ages under
the command of Captain Balbhadra Kunwar were fighting with patriotic zeal and fervor and this
had troubled the British army a lot. The British advance made in Kartik 1871 BS (Octobr, 1814)
ended up with disaster for the East India Company as Major General Gillespie and Lieutenant
Alice lost their lives in the hands of the Nepalese fighters led by Balbhadra Kunwar. It was an
unexpected setback for the British troop; they retreated to take shelter in Dehradun.

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Khalanga Fort Captain Balbhadra Kunwar

The British troop understood it very well that military confrontation would increase their number
of casualties and prolong the battle. Therefore, they planned to stop the supply of water to the
fort where Captain Balbhadra Kunwar with his people was defending the attack. The British
troop once again advanced towards the Nalapani fort in mid-November – 1814. The second
attack too was defended effectively by Balbhadra Kunwar and his people from inside the fort. It
was altogether the gallant military show by Nepalese people and more particularly women who
were hurling stones on the British soldiers. The British troop opted to go for deceitful method
to win the battle by blocking the supply of water to the fort. Now, the life line was cut for the
Nepalese fighting patriots and they were miserably thirsty looking for water. At the end, Captain
Balbhadra Kunwar and his remaining 60 people including men, women and children opened the
entry-door of the fort in the early morning on November 30, 1814 and came out with naked sword
in his hands. In the meantime, the British troop continued hurling cannon balls on the Nepalese
soldiers but Balbhadra Kunwar and others didn’t even care about the continuous attack on them
from the British side and went ahead to quench their thirst from the nearby stream. After that
Balbhadra Kunwar and his group decided to march towards ‘Jeet-Gadh’. Before finally leaving
the fort, Balbhadra Kunwar thundered at the top of his voice, “Till we were here, noboby could
occupy the fort. Now that, we have decided to leave on our own, you can go and get it.”

Captain Balbhadra Kunwar War-Memorial to honor the Nepalese soldiers (fighters)

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