Science

Lesson

3 Climate of Nepal

Understanding the Types of Climates and Seasons in Nepal:

Climate of Nepal -- An Introduction

Climate is the general (average) weather conditions prevailing in a particular area. Climate of
an area is measured by assessing the patterns of change (variation) in temperature, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation and other variables. The climate of a region (location)
is mainly affected or influenced by its latitude, terrain (physical feature or topography), altitude,
presence of water-bodies (distance from the sea). Though Nepal is located in tropical region
above tropic of cancer in sub-tropical high-pressure belt (26°22’N to 30°27’N), its climate is more
affected by altitude (topography) and distance from sea (mechanism of monsoon owing to Bay
of Bengal towards the East). Nepal’s climate is not much affected by its positioning on latitudes
(positioned in sub-tropical high-pressure belt in Northern Hemisphere with just 4° of the
latitudinal distance or difference) except having tropical monsoon climate. The tropical monsoon
climate is mainly generated because of having Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal branch) towards
the East of South-Asia (of which Nepal is a part) and then advancing wet-monsoon winds get
intercepted by the mountain peaks of the Himalayan mountain range from east to west (till the
Annapurna range above Pokhara). Without the Himalayan range (mountainous topography),
even monsoon would not have happened in Nepal as advancing monsoon winds would have
gone further ahead towards Tibet crossing Nepal’s land.

Effect of Altitude on Climatic Conditions of Nepal

Nepal’s topography from Tarai (plain) in the south to Himalayan region in the north covers
the elevation (altitude) from roughly 60 meters to 8,848 meters above sea level. The variation
of altitude has resulted in various climatic zones with differentiated climatic conditions from
tropical Nepal (60 meter -- Tarai region) to extremely cold Nepal with permanent snow cover
(like Tundra and Ice Cap in North Pole) above 5,000 meters in the Himalaya in the north. Nepal’s
position in terms of latitudes deoes not have much influence over its climatic patterns. For
example, Nepalgunj in the west and Namche-Bazaar (Solukhumbu district) in the east are located
on almost same latitudes but on quite a huge difference in terms of altitudes (heights) which
bring marked difference in their climatic conditions. Nepalgunj is located on 28°03′N latitude
(having 150m altitude from the sea level) and Namche-Bazaar is located on 27°49′N latitude
(having 3440m altitude from the sea level). Average temperature in summer goes to 30° C in
Nepalgunj while Namche-Bazaar registers just 12° C as average temperature in summer. The
conclusion is quite clear that it is altitude not the latitude which is creating difference in climatic
conditions in Nepal. Between Nepalgunj and Namche-Bazaar, only 00°14′ (or, 14′) latitudinal
difference (which is negligible and ignorable) exists but there exists a huge difference in altitude
which mounts up to 3,290 m. Following is the brief outline of different climatic conditions which
exist in Nepal influenced by the factor of altitude.
Nepal below 1000 meters particularly in Tarai region experiences tropical climatic condition
characterized by hot, humid and rainy weather conditions. Topographical region from 1,000 to
2,000 meters in Nepal experiences subtropical climatic condition characterized by frost (crystals
of frozen water) up to 53 days in a year while temperature rises up to 32° C in summer and

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winter temperature comes down to near 10° C. A large majority of Nepal’s population lives in the
tropical and sub-tropical climate zones. Temperate climatic condition prevails in higher parts of
the Middle Hills and in much of the base-area of the Great Himalayan Region of Nepal ranging
from 2,000 to 3,300 meters. Warm summer with cold winter prevails in the region. This climatic
region of Nepal experiences 153 days of frost in a year. The alpine climatic condition (region)
in Nepal extends from 3,300 to 5,000 meters and in the Himalayan region. This area experiences
cold, snowy, windy climatic conditions with more than 229 days of frost in a year. Cool summer
(10 to 15° C) and cold winter (temperature below freezing point) in alpine region do not favor
many species of vegetation. Alpine tundra at high altitude (in and around 5000 meters) is a
type of natural region or biome that does not contain trees because of the presence of an adverse
climate which is too cold and windy similar to polar climates. The cold climate of the alpine
tundra is caused by the absence of greenhouse effect at high altitude. Therefore, the flora of the
alpine tundra includes just dwarf shrubs close to the ground. Alpine climatic condition ends at
the snowline beyond which increasing elevation of the Himalayan mountain is always covered
with snow and ice throughout the year (even during summer) exactly like ice-cap in north-pole.

Seasons of Nepal -- An Introduction

Being a land-locked tropical monsoon country and dominated by the Himalayan ranges, Nepal
experiences two main seasons – a rainy season (called summer monsoon in Nepal) and a dry
season (called winter monsoon in Nepal). We know that season (RITU) is a traditional division
of the year based on distinctive weather conditions. Summer season of Nepal brings monsoon
rainfall (precipitation) from the nearest sea called Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal). Monsoon-
precipitation (amount of rainfall) generally decreases from east to west with increasing distance
from the Bay of Bengal. Eastern Nepal receives about 2,500 mm (100 in) rainfall in a year; the
Kathmandu area about 1,400 mm (55 in) and western Nepal gets about 1,000 mm (40 in) of rainfall
annually. Monsoon rains in Nepal take place on windward slopes in the Himalayan Mountain
ranges of Nepal. For example, annual precipitation (rainfall) reaches 5,500 mm on windward
slopes (Pokhara) in the Annapurna Himalaya beyond a relatively low stretch of the Mahabharat
Range. In rain-shadows beyond the high mountains, annual precipitation is very low (160 mm
or 6 inch).

Unlike summer, winter in Nepal is relatively dry and cold. Winter is considered as season of
retreating monsoon.

Effect of Altitude (Elevation) and Latitude on Seasons of Nepal
Besides the above-stated two divisions of season based on ‘tropical-monsoon climate’, Nepal
experiences other major climates of the world right from tropical to temperate and further up to
tundra climate due to topography and elevation. Nepal’s altitude has dominated over its latitude
and hence given rise to six seasons to experience in one or the other parts of Nepal. These seasons
are spring from April to May (BASANT), summer from June to July (GRISHMA), Monsoon from
mid-June to mid-September (BARSHA), autumn mid-September to November (SHARAD), winter
from December to January (HIUND) and windy-winter from February to March (SISIR).
Despite having short seasonal experiences of different types in Nepal, three classic broader divisions
of seasons still hold good for convenience and practical utility in day-to-day human life. These
seasons are: Summer, Rainy and Winter Season. The following are the main features of each season:
1. Summer Season: The hot weather season begins in March and continues till mid-June. During this
season, temperatures in Tarai region go on to touch 40° C. Towards the north as altitude increases,
it is warm in midland hills and valleys while it is cool (10 -15° C) in the Himalayan region. Summer
days are sunny, windy and dusty and become hazy in some areas. Most parts of Nepal remain dry

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in this season except convectional precipitation (rainfall and sleet) in some parts of Nepal in April
and May.
2. Rainy Season: Rainy season in Nepal begins in June and continues till September. During this
season, advancing monsoon blowing from south-east direction of Nepal brings rain to the country.
Temperature slightly drops down in rainy season due to frequent rainfall. The regional distribution
of rainfall varies from one to the other area depending on the oceanic distance and local topographic
features of the place. Pokhara Valley in central Nepal receives about 550 cm rainfall while southern
slopes of Mahabharat and Chure Hills in East Nepal receive more than 200 cm rainfall. In general,
rain diminishes from Pokhara Valley towards the west and the north of Nepal. A large rain-shadow
area exists in the north beyond the Great Himalayan Ranges in the central and western parts of
Nepal. During rainy season, these rain shadow areas get sultry (oppressively hot and damp) and
humid.
3. Winter Season: Winter season begins in October and lasts till February. Temperature falls down
to 10° C in the Tarai and below freezing point in the Himalayan zone. The higher mountain areas are
extremely cold during this season. Winter in Nepal is generally a dry season because the monsoons
blow from land to the sea during this season. However, westerly wind causes light rain in western
Nepal. Winter season is characterized by frosty-cold morning and clear sky.
Based on monsoon-precipitation, there are two seasons in ‘tropical monsoon climate’ of Nepal:
Summer monsoon bringing heavier precipitation and winter monsoon (Aswin, Kartik and Mangsir,
Poush, Magh, Falgun) having no or little rainfall.

Advancing Monsoon brings rain in Nepal during Summer
A. Summer Monsoon: Summer monsoon is a wet (or rainy) season in Nepal (from June to September
or Asar to Bhadra). Scorching SUN in summer heats up the land in Nepal (inner Asia) to create
a low-pressure zone that draws in moist air from the Indian Ocean (the Bay of Bengal) creating
monsoon-rains in the region from Asar to Bhadra. Nepal receives 90% of all the annual rainfall in
summer monsoon. Maximum rainfall to the extent of 20 cm from advancing monsoon is received
by eastern Nepal followed by mid-Nepal (150 cm) and then at last is western Nepal which receives
just 100 cm of rainfall in a year. Himalayan Bhots receive little or no rainfall in summer monsoon
because these Bhots are located at the lee-ward side. Summer monsoon season favors paddy-
plantation. Entire Tarai-belt along with the hilly region in eastern and central Nepal grows rice as

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main food-crop whereas jute and sugar-cane as cash crops are grown particularly in eastern-Tarai
belt. During summer monsoon, average temperature in the Tarai region stands at 30°C while in mid-
Hills temperatures range from 20° to 25°C. Kathmandu valley reports 24°C in summer monsoon.
Temperatures in Himalayan region vary according to the height (altitude). For example, in upper
Himalayan region, temperatures may vary from 10° C to 5° C and drop down to even 0° C.
B. Winter Monsoon: Winter monsoon is normally a dry season in Nepal (from September to
February or Aswin to Falgun). As winter approaches, the land in Nepal (inner Asia) creates a high-
pressure zone that forces the monsoon wind to retreat from the main land towards the Indian Ocean
(Bay of Bengal) creating a little or no rains in Nepal. However, some rain-fall takes place in Nepal
mainly in western part due to winds blowing from the Mediterranean Sea (western Asia) towards
Nepal. Cyclones too bring rainfall during winter in Nepal. Winter rainfall is almost nil as one moves
towards eastern Nepal. During winter-monsoon, temperatures in Tarai range from 10° to 18°C,
in Kathmandu 10° C and goes on decreasing in mid-Hills and upper-Hills. In Himalayan region,
temperatures go below 0°C. Winter monsoon season favors wheat and maize cultivation as they
require less moisture. In upper hilly area as well as in lower Himalayan mountains, barley and
millet are grown.

Activities

1. If a person from Lahan travels to Namche-Bazaar, what differences in climate s/he will experience?
Discuss it in your class.

2. Have you ever experienced the temperatures of 0°C, 10°C, 25°C and 35°C? Briefly describe how
it feels to experience there temperatures. Guess what the temperature was in the class-room while
completing this chapter. Discuss and write your answer.

3. Discuss the nature and feature of different types of climates found in Nepal.
4. Find out the relationship between land-topography and climates in Nepal. Why do Tarai and

Hilly regions in Nepal receive more rainfall? Why don’t BHOTs in Nepal receive much rainfall
like Tarai and Hills? Himalayan region in Nepal receives snowfall instead of rains, why is it so?
Discuss all these aspects of questions in the class.
5. Read the following text carefully:

The Himalaya in the North – A Great Climatic Divide
The Himalayas in the north acts as a great climatic divide affecting large systems of air and water

circulation and determines meteorological conditions not only in Nepal but also in the Indian
sub-continent lying to the south. Due to its location and lofty peaks, the Great Himalayan Range
obstructs the passage of cold continental air from the north into Nepal in winter and also forces
the south-west monsoon (rain-bearing) winds to give up most of their moisture before crossing
the range northward towards Tibet. The result is heavy precipitation (both rain and snow) on the
Nepali (and Indian) side but arid conditions in Tibet.
Now, answer the following questions:
a) Monsoon winds would have been of little use (significance) for Nepal in absence of Himalaya.

Argue by giving appropriate illustrations.
b) Discuss on kinds of climate Nepal has with Himalaya and its impact on the country’s

economy and socio-cultural life.
c) Explain what type of climate Nepal would have experienced in absence of Himalaya along

with the impact on socio-cultural life of the Nepalese people.

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Exercise

1. Differentiate between summer monsoon and winter monsoon. Write at least four differences with
brief explanations.

2. Both Nepalgunj and Namche-Bazaar are located on the same latitude but two of them have
different climates. Explain the reasons behind it.

3. Give reasons why western Nepal is much drier than eastern Nepal.
4. Monsoon is both of friend and a foe to Nepal. Do you agree with this? Write with reasons.
5. Write an essay on the tropical advancing monsoon including the description taken from the figure

(picture) given below:

6. Explain by giving reasons why Tibet receives little or no rainfall while upper Himalayan region
receives a lot of snow-fall.

7. Nepal experiences different climatic conditions from Tarai to Hills and up to Himalayan region
mainly guided by altitude. Briefly describe those climatic conditions.

8. Define RITU. How many RITUs does Nepal experience? Explain any three of them.

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Lesson Nepal’s Physical Diversity and
Vegetation
4

Nepal is the land of geographical diversity. Profiles of its land topography differ from Tarai in
the South to the hills and valleys in the middle up to the lofty mountains in the north. Altitudinal
variation of this scale in Nepal has further given rise to different climatic conditions similar to
those which one finds from equator (0° latitude) to polar regions (90° N/S latitude) on the Earth.
Differences in climatic conditions have enriched bio-diversity (combination of a variety of species
from plants and animals) across Nepal. Let us focus on following five types of vegetation (plants
in general) which are found in Nepal:

1. Tropical Evergreen Forest: Tarai region and lower parts of the Hilly region (60 m – 1200
m) are under the influence of tropical climatic conditions. The regions due to having low
altitude experience extreme heat and temperatures in summer touch 45°C mark. Summer
monsoon brings ample rain (to the extent of 200 cm) in Tarai region but the amount of rainfall
gradually decreases from the east towards the west. Evergreen forest with big, tall, sturdy
and hard-wood trees covers the region. Examples of evergreen trees are Saal (Sakhua), Sisau
(Sheesam or Sisau), Khayar (Black catechu), Kusum (Ceylon oak or lac tree), Jamun (Malabar
plum), Aanp (Mango), Bans (Bamboo) and so on. These trees never shed their leaves.

2. Deciduous Forest: Deciduous forests cover the region having the altitude from 1200 m to
2100 m in Nepal. This region includes the upper part of Chure range, area in between the
Chure and Mahabharat range and further up to the middle of the Mahabharat range. Summer
temperatures in the regions range from 24° to 30°C due to increase in altitude (elevations).
Summer monsoon brings the rainfall ranging from 100 to 200 cm. Trees of the deciduous
forest in the regions shed their leaves in winter and get new leaves on the arrival of spring
(pre-summer season). In reality, these regions have mixed forest cover. Deciduous forest
(with trees having broad-leaves) covers the area of lower elevations while coniferous forest

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(with trees having needle-shaped leaves) is found in the higher elevations (around 2100 m
from sea-level). Trees like Saal, Sallo, Chanp, Okhar (walnut), Chilaune (Schima wallichil),
Lakuri, Uttis (Nepalese alder), etc are commonly found here.
3. Evergreen Coniferous Forest: Evergreen coniferous forest covers the region of the upper
part of the Mahabharat range and the lower Himalayan region. The elevations (altitudes) of
the region vary from 2100 m to 3300 m. The region is characterized by the temperate climatic
conditions which are best suited for the growth of evergreen coniferous trees. Temperatures
in the region do not go beyond 20°C during summer season but fall down to 0°C in winter.
At higher altitudes, cold climatic conditions prevail. Therefore, conifers like Sallo, Dhupi
(Black Juniper), Bhoj-patra (Himalayan birch), Gurans (Rhododendrons), Baans (bamboos),
Nigalo and few specific types of bushes and shrubs are found in the region.
4. High Mountain Grassland: Below the upper Himalayan region or permanent snow-line
(5000 m) and above the 3300 m lies the Lekali region. And, prevailing weather conditions in
the region are popularly known as Lekali climate. This region is covered with snow during
the winter because temperatures go below 0°C during winters. Snow melts only in summers
as temperatures begin to look up above 0°C. Precipitation takes place in the form of snowfall
which measures approximately 50 cm in a year. Therefore, the Lekali climate does not
support the growth of trees and the region is covered with grasses, shrubs, Khasara bushes,
Gurans and medicinal herbs. This region is a good pasture-land which makes it suitable for
animal husbandry (cattle-raising).
5. Tundra Vegetation: The upper (higher) Himalaya above the permanent snowline (5000 m)
is permanently covered with snow. This region of Himalaya experiences Tundra climate in
which temperatures remain below freezing point almost all of the year. Summer is very short
and mild season. The region on/above the altitudes of 5000 m is, therefore, characterized by
unusually cold and dry climate. The upper Himalayan region is just like a cold desert where
vegetation grows very slowly because of the hard winter (and winter-like conditions). The
type of vegetation that grows in the region is; grass, shrubs of willow, sedges, and lichens.

Activities

1. What types of vegetation is available in the locality you live in? Make a list of the trees and plants
and present it in the class.

2. What kinds of changes do you notice every month or in every changing season in vegetation
around the place you live in? Record those changes with explanation and share the same in the
class.

Exercise

1. Analyze critically the relationship between the diverse land-features (topography) and the nature
of vegetation found in different regions of Nepal.

2. Explain all the possible reasons behind a variety of vegetations found in different places (parts) of
Nepal.

3. Citing suitable examples of trees and plants with the nature of vegetation, describe the climates of
Nepal at different altitudes right from Tarai up to Himalayan region.

4. Write an essay on specific features of vegetation found in your village/district or the place of your
residence.

5. Draw a map of Nepal and mark different kinds of vegetations found in different regions of Nepal.

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Lesson Topographical Diversity and Life
Patterns in Nepal
5

Life Patterns (Life-styles) in Different Ecological Regions

Nepal is a land of diversity. Nepal’s diversity is reflected at physical as well as climatic level.
Nepal’s topography shows features of plain, hills, valley and mountains with their unique
respective ecology and biomes (flora and fauna). Geographical location of Nepal places it in sub-
tropical high-pressure belt (26°22’N to 30°27’N) but all the major climates are found here because
of the dominance of the altitude (or elevation) right from the Tarai-plain region to Hills and as
high as the mountainous regions in the Himalayas. Life pattern of Nepalese people living in
Tarai, Hills and mountains is unique to their respective regions. Economic activities and socio-
cultural life of the people living in these three topographical regions reflect the differences in their
life pattern (way of life or life-style) which enriches our diversity.
A. Mountainous Himalayan Region: “Mountainous Himalayan Region” from 3300m above
the sea level constitutes 15% of the total area of Nepal. This region is the home to 6.73% of the
total population of Nepal. Himalayan peaks have offered an opportunity for eco- tourism and
regular tourism (involving mountaineering, tracking, etc). Local residents are benefitted by
it as they act as guides, helpers and even have begun to give services through hotels, lodges,
home-stays and so on. Extremely cold climates and complex uneven (undulated and rugged)
topography have made the region most difficult one for undertaking regular agricultural activity
and developing regular trade routes except the two irregular trade routes (Barabise –Tatopani
-Khasa and Nuwakot - Rasuagadhi-Kerung) with China. Mountain dwellers grow millet, barley,
potato and special type of buckwheat here. Just 2% of the total mountainous land area is arable
(suitable for growing crops). Indigenous people in the Himalaya practice subsistence agriculture
and almost all the cultivated agricultural produce are consumed locally. Medicinal herbs are also
grown in the north on the slopes of the Himalayas, but continued environmental degradation
has limited its production. Many of the herbs and plants found in the Himalayas are used in
traditional healing systems like Ayurvedic and Homoeopathic. Some of these medicinal plants
are even used for allopathic medicine.

Agriculture in Nepal Yak

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The villages in the Himalayan districts attach great importance to livestock in general and
practice animal-husbandry due to difficulty experienced in practicing regular agriculture. The
villagers rear different classes of Yak and hybrids of Yak with local cattle, sheep and goats, horses
and mules and poultry. Milk is the main commercial product from Yak and from the hybrids of
Yak with cattle. Apart from milk, yaks like horses and mules are used as pack animals (carrying
burden or load). Yak’s firs are not less than sheep in its quality and utility to make cold-resistant
clothes. Himalayan people migrate temporarily along with their cattle in order to avoid the effect
of harsh cold season to lower hills or Tarai region. They come back to their native land after the
harsh cold season is over. This kind of temporary seasonal migration is called transhumance.
The Himalayas are home to diverse indigenous people, each with their unique ethno-cultural
traits. For example, Sherpas live in the Solu-khumbhu region of glacial valleys and are famous for
their mountaineering and trekking skills. Dolpos live towards the west of the Kali-Gandaki River
whereas Manang near Annapurna Mountains is inhabited by Manange (also known as Manang
Bas). Manange people having their own language and scripts are mostly engaged in trade and
business. Larke lives in the northern most part of Nepal’s Gorkha district while Siar resides in the
northern part of the Dhading district. Both the groups speak the Tibetan and Gurung languages
and show ethnic affinity with Gurungs. Lo-Pas of Mustang carry on trade between Nepal and
Tibet in the upper and lower Mustang areas. Indigenous groups living in the Himalayan region
follow Vajrayana Buddhism. The Sherpa community, though believing in Buddhism, worships
numerous deities and demons. The Sherpa people believe that these deities and demons live in
mountains, caves and forests. Sherpas have strong community feeling. Mountain-dwellers wear
Tibetan-style cloth to keep themselves warm.

B. Hilly Region: Hilly Region from 600m to 3300m above the sea level constitutes 68% of the total
land area in Nepal and is home to 43% of the total population of Nepal. This region is dotted with
hills, valleys and river-basins. Population density is more than the mountainous-region of the
Himalaya. People residing in Hilly region grow cereal crops like paddy, wheat, maize and millet
along with the cash crops like potato and oil-seeds.
Animal husbandry (cattle-raising) is the integral part of the mixed farming system in the hilly
region. Animals like sheep, goats, cows and buffaloes are the part of life of hills-farmers and traders.
They domesticate small ruminants like sheep and goats for getting milk, meat and wool. The hills-
dwellers survive on subsistence farming system which does not allow them to have surplus amount
to meet their other needs of life. Animal husbandry suits them as they earn extra income by raising
the livestock and selling livestock products (like milk, meat and wool). Small ruminants like sheep
and goats are reared either under a sedentary or a migratory system. Goats are the main source
of animal protein for certain ethnic groups which do not consume buffalo meat, chicken or pork.
Besides, most of the wool (sheep) and fiber (goat) produced in the hills are used locally in the hill
villages for the production of various woolen products made by different ethnic groups living in the
hills.
The region is inhabited by indigenous and ethnic groups like Magars, Gurungs, Sunuwars, Newars,
Tamangs, Thakalis and Chepangs. Majority of Brahmans and Chhetris reside in this region and have
noticeable influence in social and religious affairs of the society. Some occupational castes such as
Damai (tailor), Sarki (cobbler), Kami (blacksmith) and Sunar (goldsmith) too live here.
Thakalis originally from Thak Khola in Mustang district live in mid-hills and are successful
entrepreneurs. They are known for their hospitality and salesmanship. Thakalis follow a mixture of
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jhankrism and Bonpo. Lha Feva observed as the coming of God is the most
important festival for Thakalis and they also celebrate Kumar Jatra. Tamang, Gurungs, Kirats and
Magars of Hills are engaged in farming and in trade and business. Most of them are hired as Gorkha
soldiers in foreign countries.

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Kirat or Kirant are indigenous ethnic groups of mid-hills in the eastern Nepal. They practice
animism or shamanism as their religion (called Kiranti religion). The Kirats follow MUNDHUM as
their holy text popularly known as Kirat-Veda. Kirats celebrate Sakela-Ubhauli during plantation
season and Sakela-Udhauli during the time of harvest. Nepali is the main ‘lingua franca’ (language
of expression) here though every ethnic group has its own language and script. Daura-suruwal and
Dhaka cap (Topi) for men and Saari for women are commonly adopted as main dress. However,
ethnic groups have their own dressing-pattern.

Gurung’s Ethnic Dress Newar’s Ethnic Dress Thakali Dress

Composite culture of Hills allows both Hindus and Buddhists live together in complete harmony
by taking part in religious ceremonies of one another. Other religious groups like Muslims and
Christians too reside in hills without any discrimination. Both pagoda and stupa style of architecture
are found in the Hilly region particularly in religious places. Even residential houses get inspired by
this model of architecture.

C. Tarai Region: TheTarai Region lying from 60 meter to 600 meter above sea-level constitutes
17% of the total land area of Nepal. Tarai has the highest density of population in Nepal and
approximately 50.27% of the total population of Nepal lives here. The Tarai region is the most
productive region in Nepal and agriculture is the main activity here. Tarai region of Nepal is
fertile land from agricultural view-point and holds bright future in industrial activities too.
Paddy, wheat and maize are main cereal crops of this region. Prominent cash crops which are
grown in this region are sugarcane, potato, oilseeds, tea, cotton, tobacco and jute.Tarai region
grows fruits like mango, papaya, banana, jackfruit and litchi. In eastern Tarai belt from Jhapa
to Parsa, agro-based industries like jute factories, sugar-mills, rice mills and tobacco factories
exist. A number of trading and manufacturing centers in Tarai have come up over the years.
For example, Biratnagar, Duhabi, Lahan, Janakpur, Birgunj, Bhairahawa, Butwal, Dhangadhi
and Nepalgunj are famous industrial and trading centres in Nepal. An organized market called
HAAT is held every week in some rural parts of the Tarai, where traders and sellers sell their
produce in competitive manner.

Tarai-region is inhabited by Brahmins, Chhetris, Tharus, Yadavs, Danuwars (cart-drivers), Majhis,
Kumahls, Rajbansis, Satars, Dhimals, Muslims and other Madhesh Dalits. Caste hierarchy exists
in Tarai society. According to the population census 2011 AD, Tarai contains 51% of the Nepalese
population. The Maithili is the biggest language in Tarai in context of day-to-day speaking
followed by Bhojpuri and Awadhi. Hinduism is the main religion which influences the way
of life in Tarai region followed by Islam. Besides regular Hindu festivals like Holi, Deepawali,
Saraswati-puja, Bishwakarma-puja and so on, Chhath-puja seems to be one of the most popular
festivals in Tarai. Chhath-puja is the ancient Hindu festival observed by Nepalese of Tarai-region
dedicated to SUN-God and Chhathi Maiya (ancient Vedic Goddess USHA).

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a bus or an airplane. As a whole, Tarai community is village-centric and has strong community-
oriented living. Mostly, inter-caste marriage is opposed by the caste-community and most of
the villages are inhabited by one dominant community and other less dominant castes live in
periphery of the village. Even people from Himal and Pahad such as Pahadi Brahmin, Chhetri,
Rai, Magar have chosen to live in the Tarai region.

Tarai women performing CHHATH PUJA in their ethnic dress.
Activities
1. Economic activities and population density differ in each of the ecological regions be it Tarai,

Pahad (Hills) or Himal (Mountainous region). Discuss the topic in your class.
2. Which part of Nepal do you like to live in from the view-point of climatic conditions? Give reasons

for your answer.
3. Read the following findings and then answer the questions based on it:
Large quantities of milk are sold and made into a Swiss-style hard cheese and into butter in

processing factories built in the yak milk-producing areas in the Himalayas of Nepal. Although
the yak cheese commands a higher price than cheese made from cattle or buffalo milk, the costs
of production are comparatively higher and production is only seasonal.
a) Except the one mentioned above, think about some other economic activities which need to
be promoted in the Himnalayan region in an organized manner so that residents of this region
come out of poverty. Organize a class discussion on potential to diverse economic activities and
its impact on the life of the residents of the Himnalayan people.
b) In above example, what steps must be taken by the Government of Nepal and other Non-

Governmental Organizations in order to lower down the cost of production of Yak cheese?
4. Discuss the following paragraph in context of importance of animal husbandry and cattle rearing

in Nepal:
Those farmers living in high hills where regular crop farming is not possible and the farmers who

cannot invest large sums of money in cattle and buffalo prefer to keep sheep and goats for their
survival. Goat-meat is the most popular source of protein not just in hills but in entire Nepal.
Hills-farmers find it easy to graze sheep and goat because rocky terrain and alpine pastures suit
these animals and big lush green pasture land is not required for them. These animals convert
relatively low quality forage into high quality meet, wool and fiber. Moreover, feces of sheep and
goats increase the fertility of soils as natural manure as nitrogen is contained in their feces.
a) Do you think cattle and animals are much more important than regular farming (cultivation)

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in Nepal? Critically comment on it citing reference to each ecological region.
b) Survival on animals is much easier and more convenient for the rural people living in the

Himalayan and Hilly regions. Critically analyze with your conclusions.
5. Nepal is rich in its cultural diversity. Ethnic groups in Nepal offer a lot to us by their folk dance,

music and songs. They have contributed a lot in the fields of art, architecture and literature. Let us
take a brief description of Newar community and their contributions in art and culture.
Newars of Kathmandu valley are mostly engaged in trade and farming. Newars follow a social
system with several sub-divisions and they follow both Hinduism and Buddhism. Newars are
culturally rich and their contributions are visible, particularly in Kathmandu Valley in the form
of composite culture with unique blending of both the religions – Hinduism and Buddhism.
Kathmandu valley witnesses rainbow of cultural and religious festivals owing to Newari
influence like Gai Jatra, Indra Jatra and Bisket Jatra with other ceremonies like Kumari-puja and
worshipping Taleju Bhawani. In fact, entire hilly region shows composite culture of fine blending
of both Hinduism and Buddhism. Hindu festivals like Teej, Dashain and Tihar are celebrated
with much fanfare in Hills.
Do research on other communities on your own like Madhesi, Tharu, Thakali, Khas-Arya, Tamang
and others. Prepare a brief description on these communities and share in the class.

Exercise

1. Himalayan way of life drastically differs from that of Hills in Nepal. Examine it with appropriate
illustrations.

2. Goats are poor men’s cows. Analyze in context of cattle raising practiced in Nepal.
3. Compare and contrast the culture of the Thakalis with that of the Newars.
4. If the Himalaya is the head of Nepal, and the Hills the heart then the Tarai is the belly without

which Nepal will never become healthy and strong. Critically analyze.
5. Prepare an editorial highlighting the economic problems being faced by the people of your

community along with suggestions to address those problems.
6. Briefly summarize the presence of composite and multiple cultures in Nepal with suitable

examples.
7. Write a letter to your friend explaining about three important festivals and rituals that your

community organizes and their impacts on making community life happier and brighter.
8. Animal husbandry (cattle rearing) holds more importance in economic life of the people living in

the Himalayan region of Nepal. Evaluate.
9. Analyze critically the inter-linkages (interrelationship) between the topographical features in

each of the ecological regions of Nepal and economic activities practiced by people in the region
with their socio-cultural life.

Community Work

Make a list of crops which are grown in your area. Find out the time of sowing and reaping (harvesting
or maturing) of the crop. Also, mention the problems that farmers are facing in growing crops in your
area. Finally, after having collected all the information, write an editorial for a leading newspaper
mentioning about the crops grown and the problems being faced by the farmers in growing these
crops.

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Lesson Status of Water-resources in
Nepal and Use
6

Human life is just impossible without water. Wherever humans are, they need water to survive.
In every aspect of human life, water is needed such as agriculture, industry, households,
recreation and other environmental activities. From the viewpoints of water resources, Nepal
is a country of immense possibility with a prospect of great use of water in economic as well as
social environmental use. Economic development of any country is definitely dependent upon its
proper use of water resources. Water resources in the present context refer to fresh water. Human
beings require fresh water to survive as fresh water has low concentrations of dissolved salts and
other dissolved solids (….less than 1000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids, most often salts).
Thus, fresh water is not the sea water. Fresh water contains less than 0.5 parts per thousand of
dissolved salts while seawater has more than 50 parts per thousand. In other words, fresh water
can be defined as water with less than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts. Fresh water
is vital for human use such as drinking, sanitation, agriculture, transport, electricity generation
and recreation. Fresh water is available from two sources (types): Surface and underground
water. Surface water sources are rivers, streams, springs, lakes, glaciers, rains, floodplains, and
wetlands (bogs, marshes, and swamps). In nutshell, the ultimate source of fresh water is rain and
snow. The underground source of water is hidden beneath the earth surface. Underground water
is used by digging hole, well or through sucking pipe driven by power (pump-set).

Nepal has more than 6000 rivers and streams out of which more than one thousand rivers and
streams are more than 11 kilometers in length. It is estimated that approximately two lakh two
thousand million cubic meters of water is available in all the rivers of Nepal. Three major rivers
in Nepal are Kosi, Gandaki and Karnali. The combined storage capacity of these three major
rivers alone is 74% of the total storage capacity of fresh water in Nepal. According to an estimate,

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there is a possibility to generate 83,000 MW of hydro-electricity in Nepal from the rivers and
streams. And, there exists strong practical possibility to generate 42,000 MW of hydro-electricity
depending upon our economic and technological convenience.
Based on intensity of flow, storage capacity and use, rivers in Nepal can be placed in three
categories:
1. Rivers of First Level: These types of rivers originate directly from Himalayan range of mountains
and flow with a large volume of water. These rivers are perennial in nature and never get dried up.
Koshi, Karnali and Gandaki are the rivers of the first level. These rivers are considered very useful
for generation of hydroelectricity and irrigation purposes.
2. Rivers of the Second Level: Rivers which have originated in Mahabharat range of Nepal are
considered as the rivers of the second level.These rivers acquire more volume of water during
summer monsoon and then lose the volume after the rainy season is over. Mechi, Kankai, Triyuga,
Kamala, Bagmati, Banganga, Tinau, Rapti, Babai, Mohana, etc are the examples of the rivers of the
second level. These types of rivers too are suitable for purposes of drinking water, generation of
hydroelectricity at small scale level and irrigation.

3. Rivers of the Third Level: Rivers of the third level originate from Chure range (Shiwalik mountain
ranges) located south to the Mahabharat mountain range. These rivers flow with the great volume of
water during the time of monsoon-rains. But, they do not have enough amount of water during dry
winter. Therefore, the rivers of the third level are unpredictable and uncertain in nature. Examples
of such rivers are Sirsiya, Tilowe, Jamuni, Hardinath, Mohna, Dunduwa, Arjun Khola etc. Besides
the rivers, Nepal has many numbers of ponds and lakes too.
The rivers of the second and third levels are also used for the purposes of drinking water,
irrigation and for the generation of hydroelectricity at small scale level. People of Tarai derive
water from under the ground by using ‘hand-pump’ which pulls water through deep-pit or the
well. Water pulled from the ‘hand-pump’is frequently used for drinking purposes in Tarai region.
The groundwater resources in Nepal have not been fully assessed. Ongoing studies show that

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a good potential for groundwater extraction exists, particularly in the southern lowland plains
(Tarai) and inner valleys of the hilly and mountainous regions. A rough estimate assumes the
possibility of having a groundwater resource in Nepal equivalent to ten percent of total surface
water available here.

Uses of Water Resources in Nepal

The development of Nepal’s water resources has great potential to generate hydroelectric power,
furnish water for irrigation and supply water for domestic and industrial uses. Until now, Nepal
has utilized mainly the medium and small rivers for different uses such as drinking water,
irrigation and hydropower. The larger and perennial Himalayan Rivers have been left almost
untapped.
Following are the details for use of water resources available in Nepal:
1. Water Use in Hydropower Development: The estimated hydropower potential of Nepal based
on its numbers of rivers and streams stands at 83,000 MW but Nepal has not touched even 1000MW
of electricity production. Electricity generation in Nepal started from Pharping and Sundarijal
during the Rana rule. Nepal’s biggest hydroelectricity project is the Kali-Gandaki ‘A’ project
which produces 144 MW of electricity. Approximately, 30 big and small hydroelectricity projects
exist in Nepal. Hydropower is a key to Nepal’s progress. It has the potential to end poverty in
Nepal by supplying electricity to every household, industry, organization and enterprise thereby
increasing productivity, efficiency and working/living environment. Nepal can even sell its
surplus electricity to other countries and earn a lot of foreign currency.
List of some of the operational hydropower projects is given below:

Hydropower Projects Installed capacity in KWh

1. Kali Gandaki ‘A’ 144000

2. Middle Marsyangdi 70000

3. Marsyagdi 69000

4. Kulekhani No. 1 60000

5. Kulekhani No. 2 32000

6. Trishuli 24000

7. Gandaki 15000

8. Modi Khola 14800

9. Devi Ghat 14100

10. Sunkoshi 10050

11. Puwa Khola 6200

Total = 459150

Note: 100 KWh = 1 MW

2. Water Use in Irrigation and Development: Another important use of water resources is for
irrigation purposes.Nepal is an agricultural country and agriculture will not succeed without
irrigation as monsoon is not reliable in entire Nepal. During the Rana regime in Nepal, irrigation
through canals was devised in rivers like Triyuga and Manusmara. The first large public sector
irrigation canal system (the Chandra Canal System) with a net command area of 10,000 hectares
was constructed in 1922 AD and is still in operation. Before that, Raj-Kulas were in use in
Kathmandu valley. After the completion of first three-year plan (2066/067 BS), a total of only
12,52,476 hectares of land in Nepal was irrigated by all the available means. Thus, irrigated land

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was less than half of the total land suitable for agriculture. Sharda (Kailali, Kanchanpur: 6,800
hectare), Bagmati (Bara, Rautahat, Sarlahi: 50,200 hectare), Rapti (Banke: 3,000 hectare), Kankai
(Jhapa: 8,000 hectare), Sikta (Banke 36,000 hectare), Koshi (Saptari: 22,000 hectare), Gandak (Bara,
Parsa, Rautahat, Nawalparasi 51,000 hectare), Babai (Bardiya: 13,000 hectare) are important
irrigation projects of Nepal. In areas like Kapilvastu and others, underground water is also used
for irrigation purposes besides these regular irrigation projects. [Note: 1 hectare = 10,000 sq. m.]

Water-induced Disasters and Its Management in Nepal

Water-induced disaster is a crisis-situation having an adverse impact on human, economic and
environmental levels within/on a community caused by water-related factors directly or indirectly.
In this way, flood, landslides (land-slips), debris-flow, soil-erosion, change in river-flow, river-bank
erosion, glacial outburst-flood, avalanche, drought and so on are water-induced disasters having an
adverse impact on human community either caused directly or indirectly by water-related factors.
Flood, change in river flow, river-bank erosions and drought are prominent examples of directly
caused water-induced disasters while landslip, soil-erosion, famine and debris-flow fall under the
category of indirectly caused water-induced disasters because water-related factors alone are not
the dominant cause in their occurrence. Furthermore, water-borne diseases like jaundice, cholera,
typhoid and other diseases transmitted through contaminated water are real challenge to handle
as many numbers of people die every year due to consumption of contaminated (polluted) water.
Disasters like avalanche and glacial outburst flood are actually the result of overall global warming
and climate change but turn out to be water-induced disasters when they flow downstream thereby
adversely affecting the community living in lower slopes, foothills and even in plains exactly like
directly caused water-induced disasters.

Nepal’s Status in Water-induced Disaster and Level of Vulnerability

Nepal is really vulnerable to various types of natural disasters due to her rugged geo-physical
structure, elevated peaks and high angle of slopes, variable climatic conditions, active tectonic
processes, unplanned settlement, increasing population and weak economic condition of the people.
Apart from the above mentioned reasons, there are other causes which relate with incapacity of
organized human agencies and institutions to handle situations in face of present or impending
water-induced disasters to prevent or mitigate the disasters. Prominent among them are the lack of
coordination among agencies and institutions responsible for handling disaster-related response/
management, lack of clear-cut job description of those agencies, resource constraint, lack of required
skill, training and technology to handle the disaster.
There is no country in the world that is absolutely immune from disaster, though vulnerability
to disaster varies from one country to another country. And Nepal is one of the most vulnerable
countries in the world particularly to water-induced disasters. Every year, Nepal is struck by flood,
landslide, debris and Gegran flow, soil erosion and river-bank erosion and so on. But, institutional
mechanism, amongst other things, has not been able to handle these water-induced disasters to
effectively manage them before and after they strike by developing coping capabilities in the
Nepalese community. Water-induced disasters can interrupt essential services, such as health care,
electricity, water, sewage/garbage removal, transportation and communications. This is exactly
what we see every year in Nepal where landslide, flood and debris flow block the highways and
cut off the supply of essential services to community. Poorly planned relief works compound the
miseries of

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victims of disaster and severely affect their coping capabilities. This is most commonly observed in
flood and famine that Nepal faces in one or the other part. Famines, in particular, generally strike
poor countries like Nepal because ofinstitutional incapacity to handle food-insecurity in advance
and poorly planned relief works. Thus, the impact of a disaster on society and the environment
depend on the choices we make as members of the community, responsiveness of the Government,
economy of a country and level of public awareness. Management of water-induced disasters and
preservation of water-resources are the collective responsibility of Government, community and
Non-Governmental Organizations. Each decision like where and how we build our homes and how
we grow our food and each action that institutions like Government and other agencies undertake
in this regard either makes us more vulnerable to disasters or more resilient to them.
Disaster is defined as a crisis situation causing a damage that far exceeds our ability to recover. There
cannot be a perfect system that prevents damage after a disaster occurs. But, there can definitely be a
system which minimizes the extent and magnitude of damage that follows a disaster by taking pre-
disaster and post-disaster responses and measures. Even during the disaster, one can be prepared
with adequate tools and technologies at both individual as well as institutional levels to minimize
the inevitable damage. This kind of efforts aimed at minimizing the extent of damage created by a
disaster has given rise to the development of a systematic approach called management and control
of disaster. It also includes if possible checking a disaster in its quite early stage before it grows to
cause widespread damage. Thus, disaster management is a strategic planning and procedure which
is administered and executed to lessen the impact of damage on humans and environment (ecology)
caused by natural or man-made disasters.

Words and terms you would like to know

Landslide: A landslide (or a landslip) is fall of the chunk of land or rock generally from high slope or
altitude. It is a geological phenomenon where the stability of the slope changes from being a stable to
an unstable condition because of various causes like groundwater pressure destabilizing the slope or
phenomena like heavy rains, snow melt or glacier melting weakening the slope.
Debris flow: A debris flow is a geological phenomenon where moving mass of loose mud, sand, soil, rock
and water travels down a slope under the influence of gravity. A debris flow is the loose moving material.
At least 50% of the moving material must be sand-size particles or larger than this.
Avalanche: An avalanche (also called a snow-slide or snow-slip) is a rapid downward flow along a sloping
surface. As the northern part of Nepal has snow (ice) covered Himalayan mountain peaks, occurrence of
avalanche is quite common killing not only trekkers and mountaineers but ordinary inhabitants too. For
example, Khumbu and Kanchanjungha area along with mountain districts like, Gorkha, Sankhuasabha,
Solukhumbu, Dolaka, Sindhupalchok are extremely vulnerable to avalanche strike.
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF): A glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) happens when glacial lake
bursts to create flood. A body of water contained by a glacier melts or overflows the glacier creating a
flood-like situation causing loss of human life and destruction of physical property. A glacial lake outburst
in climatic conditions of the Himalaya region of Nepal in the north generally happens due to heavy
snowfall and a buildup of water pressure. The glacial lakes are quite common in the Himalayan region
of Nepal and they remain in unstable condition as they can burst any time to trigger natural catastrophe.
Drought: A drought is a period of low precipitation (rainfall) in a given region creating shortage in water
supply for agriculture and ecosystem. Drought can last for as short as 15 days and may prolong for years
causing damage and harm to the economy and food scarcity. Uneven and irregular monsoon rainfall in
Nepal cause drought.

Activities

1. Make a list of tributaries of three major river-systems such as Sapta-Koshi, Sapta-Gandaki and
Sapta-Karnali of Nepal.

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2. What types of water-induced disasters occur in your community? Record the views of any four
individuals from your community in writing and explore the remedies which will be helpful in
controlling and preventing such disasters induced by water.

3. According to an estimate, a total of 159 glacial lakes have been found in Koshi basin alone. The
areas such as Upper Barun, Lower Barun, Chamlangtsho, Tsho Rolpa, Sabou, Dudh Kunda,
Majang, Inja, Thulari have potentially dangerous glacier lakes. There are in total 1,466 glacial
lakes in Nepal and twenty one of them are dangerous enough to ring serious alarm bells. Many
of them are swollen with glacial melt-water due to climate change and any time the danger of
outbursts hangs in view of massive snowfall in the region.

What are the harmful impacts of bursting of glacial lakes? What will be the consequences on
Nepal? Discuss in the class and write down the conclusions.

Exercise

1. What are water-induced disasters? Explain how we can manage and control these water-induced
disasters.

2. What are the major categories of rivers in Nepal based on their origin and storage capacity?
Illustrate with examples what are their important characteristics.

3. Briefly describe the utility (usefulness) of rivers and streams of Nepal.
4. Despite having such a vast possibility of generating hydroelectricity in Nepal, actual supply of

electricity is less than the total demand of electricity in Nepal. What are the reasons behind this?
5. What are the steps required to be taken towards preserving the sources of water and at the same

time keeping them pure for daily consumption?
6. Water-induced disasters in Nepal in some cases like flood, landslide, debris-flow, and glacial-

lake-outburst flood can fairly be predicted by technological and scientific advances using early
warning technology system. It is because there is a definite noticeable pattern in their occurrences
and this is how we can reduce the impact and extent of damage caused by them by applying
different strategies and techniques of disaster management.
a) Explain what we have to do in order to develop preventive measures so that water-induced

disasters do not cause destruction of human life and property.
b) Make a list of those disasters caused by water and water-related factors which can be avoided

with caution and care in advance. Also mention the type of caution and care which need to
be taken.

Community Work

Write an essay on “The status of electricity and drinking-water’ in your community and present the
same in your class.

212 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Lesson

7 Map Work

Map is a diagrammatic representation of the Earth’s surface (land or sea or both). Many maps
are generally depicted on two dimensional spaces showing exact or approximate measurement
of space or things existing in three dimensional spaces in reality. Any good map is depicted with
scale, direction and index (symbols) highlighting objects, regions and themes in the map with
their relationship. Thus, map-making is specialized skill involving art and science to represent
Earth or part of the Earth with different themes on a flat surface. Study of skill of map-making is
known as cartography and a specialist in map-making is known as cartographer. Cartographer
must show several features on a map accurately by depicting them in exact geographic grid.
Without knowledge or understanding of geographic grid, map loses its practical utility and
relevance. The grid is constituted of meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude. Points on a
map are accurately located with reference to degrees, minutes, and seconds of both latitude and
longitude.
New technology has made it possible to extract (get) information of entire earth or any part of
earth. Maps can be drawn from the photos taken from the satellite. Photos taken from satellite
from the altitude (height) of 700km to 1700 km sre turned into maps with the help of computer.
But, these maps are not useful for specific projects like road-construction, building construction
and for developing towns and cities. For such projects, map with greater scale is required for
observing minute points of places, locations and details.

Learn How to Draw the Map of Nepal

Here is the way how you can draw the map of Nepal. In map of Nepal, borders are shown both inside
and outside. You have to be very careful about the size (length and breadth) of these borders both
inside and outside. It must look like Nepal no matter you can or cannot make an exact depiction.
Follow the steps below while attempting to draw the map of Nepal:
1. Adjust your page to measure length and breadth to draw/sketch of a map of Nepal.
2. Take rectangular space sufficient enough to draw the map of Nepal. Five square blocks for

length and three square blocks for breadth are required to show the area of Nepal in exact
proportion and symmetry.
3. First draw a rectangle of having 10 c m length and 6 cm breadth (10 cm x 6cm). It means that
in this proportion only you have to draw the rectangle of any length and breadth. There are
four blocks in the following sketch in which map of Nepal has to be drawn (depicted). Practice
the depiction of map of Nepal with appropriate scaling and show different towns and cities as
given in the ATLAS.

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Knowledge of scale is very important while drawing the map. Without appropriate scale,
details of the map cannot be understood in the right perspective and in right manner. Practice
the scaling on map of Nepal only. Or just draw separately on your own and show 10 km of the
real distance on the ground in 1 cm on the map. That will be 1cm = 10 km. You can devise your
own scale as given in the above map.

World Map-Work

Take the help of ATLAS to draw the map of the world and different continents along with
Greenland Island, Sahara Desert, Rocky Mountains, Andes Mountains, Canada, Siberia, Strait of
Gibraltar, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Brazil, United States of America, Nepal, Panama Canal
and various other places.

World map practice for students to draw
Map Legend and Symbols: In cartography, symbols are everything. The very nature of a map as
an abstract representation of the Earth requires symbols to perform the abstraction. To not have
symbols is to not have maps. The important requirement for map symbols is that they should be

214 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

readily recognizable and suited to the scale of the map.

Activities
1. If we convert 1cm is to 1 km into representative fractions then it comes as 1: 1,00,000. In this

fraction, 1 as nominator always shows distance on the paper in the map while denominator
shows the actual geographical distance on the earth which is represented by nominator (i.e. 1) in
the map. Therefore, 1 cm in the map on the paper is equal to 1 lakh cm on the ground.
Now show 1 cm = 5 km into representative scale as mentioned above.
Scales are of three types: Statement scale, Representative scale and Graphic scale. Study the
ATLAS and find out the details on these three scales.
2. Draw a map in your class after fixing a scale. What is the importance of such a scale and the map
drawn on the basis of this scale? Explain.
3. Measure the length and breadth of your class-room and find out the total area.
4. A Map Legend is a key to all the symbols used on a map to ensure correct reading of the map. Map
legend is like a dictionary to decode the meaning to understand the map. Look at the symbols
used in a map given below. Use them in your map-work:

Symbols Meaning Symbols Meaning

Mountain Air-route

Road Temple

Bridge Grass-land

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River Mountain-pass

Lake Railway-track

Town Mountain-range

5. A sketch-map like the one given below serves immediate purpose in order to show existing or
ongoing or future project, industry, residential colony and so on. The sketch-map enables a reader
to comprehend the details easily. It is also very easy to draw; anyone can do it as no precise rules
and accuracy are required. The only thing that is kept in mind while drawing a sketch-map is
that reader must comprehend it in a context that has produced the sketch-map. Things which are
required for drawing sketch-map are easily available everywhere and can be carried all the time
or be made available any time.

Babita has drawn a sketch below which does not have any scale to show. She has shown a hydro-
electricity project located near her village.

a) Explain the above sketch-map for readers.
b) Draw another sketch-map showing the way to school and the building where you study

from your house where you live. Mark all the important landmarks and places which come
in between the school and your house. Follow the steps given below but do not copy them:

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' Step 2: Get the angles, curves right

Step1: Get, Set and Go (Be prepared)

Step 3: Way to the school from House Step 4: School Building

6. Explain the following sketch-map in a paragraph with complete direction and other references
and locations given here.

7. Find out other types of methods to draw the maps like topographical map, road-map, climate
map, thematic map and so on. Practice them in your exercise book and show them to your Social
Sstudies teacher.

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Lesson Distance-Related Knowledge
in Map
8

It is almost impossible to show any object or place in exact size and form by means of a map.
Therefore, scale is needed to adjust the size and form of an object or a place to show it in a map.
Map can show even a very small object or place in much magnified manner by increasing the
measurement of scale. Similarly, map can show very big object or even entire earth or the world
on a piece of paper (or on ATLAS) by reducing the measurement of scale. It is the magic of scale
and its adjustment that nothing in this universe can remain (escape) without being represented
(being shown) on a map.

Map scale shows the relationship between distance on a map and on the earth’s surface. Scale is
a convenient way of reducing actual distance on the earth’s surface to fit it on the map. Scale is
generally found at the bottom of the map.
There are three types of scales:
1. Verbal scale (Word Statement): Verbal scale is a word statement in a direct form stating a

distance on a map that equals to a length of distance on the ground (Earth’s surface). For
example, 1 cm to 1 km. or, 1cm = 1 kilo-meter.
Complete word statement in a written description of map distance would come as “One
centimeter equals one kilometer” or “One centimeter equals ten kilometers”. Looking at the
length of scale map-distance represents on the real ground, one can understand the amount
of details map shows of the real ground. In an example given above, first map would show
much more detail than the second because one centimeter on a map covers only one kilometer
on the real ground -- the smaller area than the second map which covers ten kilometers on
the real ground for one centimeter on the map-distance.
Though verbal scale is easy to understand, we do not find it at the bottom of the map.
2. Ratio or representative fraction (RF) scale: RF scale indicates number of units of distance
on the Earth’s surface in relation to one unit on the map with the help of either ratio or
fraction. It shows how many units on the earth’s surface are equal to one unit on the map
as 1:100,000 or 1/100,000. Here, one centimeter on the map equals 100,000 centimeters (1
kilometer) on the earth. RF scale does not express unit of distance making it essential to
convert it into verbal or word scale for clarity. A fractional scale is the ratio of map distance
to the equivalent (corresponding) distance on the ground having the same units for both.
Based on large and small representative fraction, a map is referred to as a large scale or a
small scale map. A large scale map shows comparatively greater details.
Let’s take one more example where RF scale is shown as 1:62500 in a fraction. It is very

218 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

important to remember when we start changing a fractional scale to a verbal scale that both
the map and ground distance have same unit of measuring distance. The smaller number
of the fractional scale generally expressed as 1 (one) shows the map-distance while the
larger number in the scale stands for the ground-distance on the Earth-surface. In the given
example, fractional scale can be presented as a verbal scale in the following manner:
1 inch on the map = 62500 inches on the ground
Since, 1 ft = 12 inches, multiplying by (1 ft / 12 in) is the same as multiplying by 1. Therefore,
62500 inches x (1 ft / 12 in) = 5208.3 ft (Note: 1 inch= 2.54 cm means 1/12th of a foot)
Verbal scale for above fraction will be: 1 inch on the map = 5208.3 feet on the ground. Further
ahead, 5208.3 feet on the ground can be changed into mile as a mile has 5280 feet in it. So,
5208.3 ft x (1 mi/5280 ft) = 0.986 mi. Now, another verbal scale to incorporate distance in mile
will be: 1 inch on the map = 0.986 miles on the ground.

UNITS VERBAL SCALE FRACTIONAL SIMPLE VERBAL
SCALE SCALE
inches 1 inch on the map = 62500 1:24000
feet inches on the ground. 1 in = 2000 ft
cm 1:62500
m 1 foot on the map = 62500 feet 1 in ~ 1 mi
on the ground 1:100000
1 cm = 1 km
1 cm on the map = 62500 cm on 1:125000
the ground 1 in ~ 2 mi

1 m on the map = 62500 m on
the ground

3. Graphic Scale (Bar Scale): A bar scale marks distances on the ground along the line and
uses the same like a ruler to measure the map distance in order to have correct geographical
distance on the real ground.

A graphic or bar scale is just a marked-line drawn on a map indicating known geographical
distance on the ground (Earth’s surface). The total length of the bar scale given above is five miles,
not four miles because the left end of the bar is not zero and hence will be counted as one even
though right end of the bar marks four. A length of a marked line on a bar-scale is measured by
a thread or by an edge of a paper or by any other way a reader of a map finds it convenient to do
in order to estimate a real distance that a map represents on a real ground.

In examples given above, graphic scales have been converted into RF scales. RF scale 1: 100 cm
stands for left hand side graphic scale and RF scale 1: 1000000 cm refers to right hand side graphic
scale which shows 1 cm distance on the map for 10 km distance on the Earth.

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Maps drawn in Different Scales: Use of scale in the map depends upon the purpose for which
the MAP has been drawn. For example, using the scale which measures 50 km on real ground
for 1 cm on the map will show a lot of places of large geographical area. But, using a scale which
measures only 0.5 km on the real ground for 1 cm on the map will have very small geographical
area to show and this will definitely not include a number of places of the real ground on
the map. Similarly, map can show altitude and inclination of topography too as it happens in
topographical map.

Above map is topographical map wich shows altitude of a piece of land with its altitude as well
as slope (inclination on a gentle slope and a steep slope). In the folowing map of Nepal, scale
shows 80 km on the real ground for 1 cm on the map. It means that 1 cm =80 km and this can be
converted into RF (Representative Fraction) as 1:8,000,000. Look at the map below and find out
several such maps of different local areas, towns, cities, continents and the world to interpret
the scale to understand its use and significance.

Scale-Map of Nepal South part of United States

Measuring Distance on Map through Scale

A bar scale (Graphic Scale) is not uncertain in terms of unit of distance to be used. It provides an
estimate of distance through quick visual glance on the map. Or, one can use a scale or thread
to measure the length of bar in order to know the actual distance on ground (either in kilometre

220 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

or in mile). A bar scale remains valid even on electronic devices like computer monitor (screen),
smart phone, i-pad and web-sites where maps can be enlarged or reduced according to need
and convenience. But, this is not so in case of “Representative Fraction” or “Verbal Scale”. Let us
understand it better by following example:

The ratio scale (Representative Fraction or RF) shown here is written as 1:24,000 which may
mean one inch on the map represents 24,000 inches on the ground or one centimetre on the map
represents 24,000 centimetres on the ground (or any other unit a reader wants to choose). Unit
of measuring distance is not clear. But, bar scale which follows the ratio shows the distance in
miles, feet and kilometre. Therefore, other two scales like verbal and RF scale have no relevance
and meaning where maps are being changed in shape and size at the will (wish) of the readers
(viewers). A bar scale is the only authentic scale to be used for electronic (paperless media) media.
It does not mean that both the RF as well as verbal scales have no use. These two scales are still
used on paper-map with clear mention of unit of distance indicated at the bottom or at the top of
the map. If RF scale is given as 1: 5500000, then its value comes to be one centimetre on map equal
to 55 kilometres on the real ground (geographical distance). In a different manner, if the distance
between ‘National Museum’ and ‘Satdobato’ in the map of Kathmandu is 1.6 cm on the RF scales
of 1:550,000 then the actual distance between these points will be 1.6×550000 = 880,000. Thus, the
distance between ‘National Museum’ and Satdobato on the real geographical ground is 880,000
cm or 8800 meter or simply 8.8 kilometres.

Activities

1. Answer the following questions based on the map (figure) here:
If I am near Ashoka Stupa then find out to which direction I have to look for in order to search

Thapathali.
2. Identify which route one should take in order to reach Dilli Bazaar from Tripureshwor in

Kathmandu.
3. Two scales have been given below. Explain both the scales with needed details.

4. Discuss the benefits of Graphic scale in the class.
5. Construct example on your own of RF scale and show the same on “Graphic Scale”.

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Lesson Asia – Geographical and Natural
Environment
9

Asia: The Land of Extremes and Physical Features

An Introduction: Asia is the largest of the Earth’s seven continents. Asia covers about 30 percent
(an estimated 44,391,000 sq km or 17,139,000 sq mi) of the world’s total land area and almost 80
percent of the eastern giant Eurasian landmass. Its greatest width from east to west is 8,500 km
(5,300 mi). It is the most populous continent having roughly 60 percent of the total population.
Asia extends from 10°S latitude to 77°43′ N latitude. Asia is located primarily in the eastern and
northern hemispheres.
Asia borders the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the east, the Indian Ocean to
the south, the inland seas of the Atlantic Ocean – the Mediterranean and the Black – to the
southwest, and Europe (Ural Mountains) to the west. Asia separates itself from North America
to the northeast by the Bering Strait and from Australia to the southeast by the seas and straits
connecting the Indian and Pacific oceans. Asia and Africa are united by the Isthmus of Suez and
Suez Canal forms the border between them.

Asia: The Land of Extremes Or The Continent of Contrasts

Asia is the world’s largest and most diverse continent. Asia has both the highest and the lowest
points on the surface of the Earth. The Dead Sea (408 m/1,340 ft below sea level) is the lowest point
and the Mount Everest (8,848 m/29,035 ft above sea level) is the highest point on the Earth. Asia has
the longest coastline of any continent – some 39,000 miles (62,800 km) in length. This coastline has
varied topography with high and low mountains, alluvial plains and sunken land. Asia experiences
the world’s widest climatic extremes, and, hence, produces the most varied forms of vegetation and
animal life on Earth. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth take place in deserts of
West Asia. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere. The most cyclonic region
on the Earth lies towards the east of Asia in the region of the Philippines and Japan. The peoples of
Asia show the broadest variety of human adaptation found on any of the continents. In addition,
Asia has the highest mountains in the Himalayas and most of the longest rivers, highest plateaus,
and largest deserts and plains of all the continents. Asia is home to some of the poorest as well as
some of the richest countries in the world. It has major share of the world’s oldest cultures.

Asia: Physical Features (Topography)

Asia has following six broad physical (topographical) divisions:
1. Plains (Lowlands): Asia has extensive plains as one of the most dominant physical features.
Asian part of Russia located east of the Urals is popularly known as the West Siberian plain. It
is one of the world’s largest areas of continuous flatland. More than 50 percent of its area has
an altitude of 100 meters (330 feet) above sea level. Various rivers of Asia flowing towards the
south and east have created plains (lowlands) in the alluvial valleys and deltas. For example, the
Indo-Gangetic plain – the largest of the alluvial valleys is drained by the rivers Indus, Ganges
and Brahmaputra. Indo-Gangetic plain is one of the world’s most intensively cultivated regions.
The North China plain is composed of loess sediments brought by Hwang Ho (Yellow River).
The alluvial valleys and deltas of the Yangtze (China), Irrawaddy (Myanmar), and Mekong
(Cambodia) rivers along with the fertile patch of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq are other
examples of Asian plains (lowlands).

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2. The Central Mountains: The topography of Asia comprises a series of high mountain belts,
which are the dominant landforms. Most of the mountain-ranges in Asia extend in a general
west-east direction and converge in a knot of high mountains in the Pamirs. For example, the
mountain ranges like Himalayas, Kunlun Mountains, Tian Shan, Hindu Kush, Karakoram are
the world’s highest mountain ranges. Therefore, Pamirs are called the roof of the world. Pamirs
are located mainly in Tajikistan but extend into both Afghanistan and northwestern China (Tibet)
too. The Ural Mountain on the western edge of Asia lies in a north-south direction and is away
from the Pamir knot.
Two mountain ranges namely the Himalayas and the Karakoram contain all the world’s highest
peaks including Mount Everest which lies in eastern Nepal. Hindu Kush mountain ranges extend
into Afghanistan and go further to northern Iran where they are known as the Elburz Mountains.
Interestingly, a branch of the Elburz becomes the Caucasus Mountains between Europe and
Asia from Russia to Kazakhstan. The Ural Mountains are some of the world’s oldest (300 million
years) mountains and millions of years of erosion have lowered the mountains (as their average
elevation is between 914 and 1,220 meters).
3. The Plateaus (Highlands): Asia is home to many plateaus particularly in Central Asia (Tibetan
Plateau), Southwest Asia (Anatolian, Arabian and Iranian Plateaus) and South Asia (Deccan
Plateau). Tibetan Plateau bounded by the Kunlun Mountains and the Himalayas, for example,
covers an area about half the size of the contiguous (unbroken) United States and is flat enough
that one can drive over most of this plateau even without having roads. Average elevation of
Tibetan plateau is more than 5,000 meters (16,400 feet) above sea level. The Tibetan Plateau,
therefore, contains a great number of glaciers which feed Asia’s largest rivers.
The Deccan Plateau makes up most of the southern part of Indian peninsula. The plateau’s
average elevation is about 600 meters (2,000 feet). The Yunnan Plateau extends over much of the
Indochinese Peninsula and the southwestern part of China. The Iranian plateau is not uniformly
flat and covers most of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Much of the northern part of Russian
Asia is occupied by the Central Siberian Plateau.
4. The Water-Bodies (Fresh Water and Salt-Water): Rivers are dominant sources for fresh-water
while lakes contain both fresh as well as salt water. But, seas contain only salt-water. River basins
and valleys in Asia support the highest population densities because of having fertile soils for
agriculture and other daily essential uses besides serving as a means of transport. These rivers
form fertile plains by depositing alluvium, loess and other soils on their banks enabling great
civilizations to come up and flourish. These rivers are Yangtze, Hwang Ho and Zhu Jiang in China,
Mekong, Salween (Nu Jiang in Tibet) and Irrawaddy in Southeast Asia, Ganges, Brahmaputra
and Indus in South Asia. The Tigris and the Euphrates are large rivers of Southwest Asia, which
rise in Turkey and flow southward through Syria into Iraq. River basins and valleys formed by
these rivers have been supporting settled life and human civilizations for long period of time.
Jordan River flows through Lebanon and Syria finally to merge with the Dead Sea (seven times
more salty than the ocean). Both the rivers Syr Darya and Amu Darya of Central Asia both drain
into the Aral Sea (a saltwater lake). The three longest rivers of Russian Asia that rise in southern
Siberia are the Ob’, the Yenissei, and the Lena. These rivers flow northward into the Arctic Ocean.
The Caspian Sea is the largest saltwater lake in the world while Lake Baikal  in  southeastern
Siberia is the deepest lake in the world and the largest freshwater lake in Asia. The Bay of Bengal
is the largest bay in the world which borders Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. Many
large rivers, including the Ganges and Brahmaputra, empty into the Bay of Bengal. The Persian
Gulf borders Iran, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iraq.

223<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

It is extremely salty owing to high rates of evaporation.
5. The Island Chains: Asia contains a group of islands called archipelago and most of them
are mountainous. For example, the Indonesian, Philippine and Japanese archipelagoes have
mountains ranging from 2,500 to 4,000 meter heights. Mostly volcanic mountains have spread
over these islands in the East Asia. Japan is an island country having four main islands namely
Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu. Honshu is the largest of the four. Besides, there are
numerous smaller islands in the country. Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia
and Brunei are all island countries having islands like Sarawak, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo.
Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Indian Ocean are the part of India.
6. Deserts: Most of the deserts are located in the interior of Asia towards the north of the Himalayas
and in the Arabian Peninsula – the large part of Southwest Asia. The Syrian Desert composed of
rock and gravel spreads through southern Syria and western Iraq. In southern Saudi Arabia lies
the Rub‘al Khali (Empty Quarter) desert – the largest continuous body of sand in the world. The
famous Gobi desert (located in Mongolia and China) and the Takla Makan desert (southwest of
the Gobi in China) are in the rain shadow of the Himalayas. The Central Asia too has large deserts
like the Garagum (Turkmenistan) and Qyzylkum (Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan).

Asia: Climatic Regions and Average Weather Conditions

Owing to vast area that Asia occupies both from east to west and from north to south, it has
almost all kinds of climatic regions right from tropical, temperate and cold climates with different
varieties in between.

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The northernmost areas of Asia towards the North Pole near the Arctic Ocean have a sub-polar
climate with very long, cold winters and very short, cool summers. South of the sub-arctic regions
in Siberian Russia lies a vast stretch of land having a humid continental climate with short
summers. Winters are too cold, but summer days are warm and sometimes even hot. Northern
China and central Japan too experience a humid continental climate, but with long summers.
A  humid  sub-tropical  climate characterized by precipitation throughout the year occurs in
southeastern China and southern Japan. Northern India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar along
with regions located south of the Himalayas also experience a sub-tropical climate. Moisture-
laden winds advancing from nearby Indian Ocean called monsoons carry heavy precipitation to
the above regions lying south of the Himalaya in summer and the winters are usually dry. This
wet-and-dry, tropical climate influences much of Indochina (Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia) too.
Equatorial climatewithhot,humidandrainyweatherconditionsinfluencesIndia’ssouthwestern coast,
and islands of Southeast Asia. A heavy rain throughout the year strikes these areas as they are situated
near the equator. However, a large area of Central and Southwest Asia remains arid or semi-arid
because mountains and highlands lying in Central Asia block moisture-bearing winds from the sea.
A portion of Asia bordering on the Mediterranean Sea in Lebanon and Egypt has a sub-tropical
climate with dry summers.

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Asia: Natural Vegetation

An immense range of vegetation exists in Asia because of having a rainbow of climates in different
parts of Asia. A wide diversity of latitude, elevation, and climate has created favorable natural
conditions for the growth of a variety of vegetation.

The northernmost areas of Asia, which experience a sub-polar climate, have tundra vegetation.
Tundra is the cold-tolerant low-lying vegetation in a permanently frozen area. Tundra vegetation
consists of lichens, mosses, sedges, some grasses, and dwarf trees of willow and birch. To the
south of the Tundra lies a belt of mainly coniferous forest popularly known as the Taiga. The
coniferous forest is composed of trees like spruce, larch and fir. Moving farther south from the
taiga region, one comes across mixed forests of broadleaf (deciduous trees like oaks, beeches,
elms, and maples) and needle leaf-trees (coniferous trees like pine, larch and fir). Deciduous trees
shed their leaves annually at the approach of a season of cold or drought but coniferous trees are
green throughout the year. The steppe grassland lies towards south of the Siberian forest. The
natural steppe vegetation is composed of turf grasses such as bunchgrass and bluegrass.

Semi-desert and desert vegetation like xerophytes (cacti), short grasses, dates and palm trees
predominates towards the south of the steppe particularly in West Asia and Central Asia. Cactus
is a spiny leafless plant with fleshy stems and branches. Desert vegetation requires minimal
precipitation. The borders of the Syrian Desert are noteworthy for their floral variety because more
than 2,000 species of plants which exceed the total number of plant species in entire Sahara exist
along the borders. This fertile patch along the borders is the part of famous “Fertile Crescent”--an
arc from the Tigris-Euphrates valley to the Mediterranean Sea.

Tropical  rain forest predominates along the equatorial region of Asia. Indonesia and parts of
Southeast Asia fall in the equatorial belt. Many of the tree species of the rain forest such as sal,
mahogany, ebony and sandalwood, are highly valuable from economic viewpoint. The warm
and moist climate in mainland and island of Southeast Asia keeps the trees evergreen throughout
the year in tropical rain forest. Other kinds of rainforests include the monsoon forests found
mainly in the peninsular India (such as the Western Ghats) and the Southeast Asia in tropical
zone above the equator. Monsoon forests are dominated by deciduous trees such as teak and
bamboo. The trees in a monsoon forest usually shed their leaves during the dry season and come
into leaf at the start of the rainy season.

Words and terms you would like to know

Lake: Lake is a large, inland body of fresh or salty standing water. Lakes are distinguished from bodies
of water such as bays and gulfs.

Bay: Bay is a small body of water or inlet that is a part of a larger body of water. Bays may occur on oceans,
lakes, and gulfs, but usually they are not associated with rivers.

Gulf: Gulf is an inlet (narrow opening in coastline) of Ocean. Thus, gulf is a large inlet of an ocean similar
to a bay but often longer and more enclosed by land.

Sea: Sea is the general designation for all the salt water in all the specific oceans around the planet Earth.

Plateau: The plateaus are extensive area of flat upland normally surrounded by high ridges or mountains.
Although plateaus have elevation but they are flat. The high flat surface that defines a plateau can continue
for hundreds or even thousands of kilometers.

Island: Island is an area of land (smaller than a continent) that is completely surrounded by water.

Climatic variations along the latitudes: A sub-polar climate has very long cold winters and very short
cool summers while a continental climate faces short warm summer in Asia and cold winters. A humid
sub-tropical climate like equatorial climate experiences precipitation throughout the year but intensity
and volume of the precipitation (rainfall) is lower than the equatorial climate. Mediterranean climate
experiences rains mostly in winter.

226 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Activities:

1. Every student in the class must prepare a brief profile of at least two countries of Asia, especially
regarding physical feature, climate and natural vegetation. Share the same speaking aloud in the
class under the guidance of your teacher and then exchange the notes. You must not take more
than 2 minutes to present the profile of the country you have prepared.

2. Study different physical features and natural environment of Asia from ATLAS and insert the
following items in an outline map of Asia:
a) Deccan Plateau, Hwang Ho River, Tundra, Honshu Island, Lake Baikal, Arabian Peninsula,
Male, Java, Monsoon climate area, Yangtse river
b) Pamir Knot, Thar Desert, Mekong River, Amu Darya, Indo-China Peninsula, Beijing, Altai
Range, Andaman and Nicobar Island, Area of Little Rainfall
c) Ulan Bator, Area with Mixed Forest, Tigris River, Persian Gulf, Gobi Desert, Kunlun
Mountain Range, West Siberian Plain, Yunnan Plateau, Lake Baikal, Steppes

3. Draw the map of Asia on your own and show the following details: Areas (regions) which are hot
thoughout the year and receive rainfall all the year round; Regions which do not receive rainfall
and regions which receive a lot of snowfall. Now, draw the following lines in the hand-drawn
map of Asia: Equator, Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle. Also show the following water bodies
in the Map:

Yellow Sea, Arabian Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, East China Sea, Indian Ocean, Aral Sea, Bay of Bengal,
Arctic Ocean

4. Make different groups of students in the class with six students in each group. Assign one type
of physical feature to each group. In this way, all the six types of physical features of Asia would
be prepared by all the six groups, each preparing on one type of physical feature. Let each group
share the information regarding the physical feature of Asia in the class.

Exercise

1. Illustrate that Asia is the land of extremes and the continent of contrasts.
2. Asian Plains have favored agriculture while its deserts have brought riches. Critically comment.
3. The Central Mountains of Asia are both boon and curse for the peoples and regions. Discuss.
4. Describe the physical resources of water bodies available in India.
5. Presence of islands and plateaus has not deterred many Asian countries from achieving high level

of economic development. Analyze critically the linkages between topography and economic
activities in context of Asian countries.
6. Distinguish between Desert vegetation and Tropical Rain Forest Vegetation in Asia.
7. Asia has almost all kinds of climates and climatic regions. Explain with examples.
8. Asia's topography is diverse and varied. Analyse it with appropriate illustrations.
9. What part of Asia would you like to live in? Give reasons for your choice.

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Lesson Asia– Economic Activities and
Social Life
10

Asia’s Economy comprises more than 4.5 billion people (60% of the total global population)
living in 49 different states. Asia is the largest continental economy in terms of volume of Gross
Domestic Product measured at “Purchasing Power Parity” (popularly known as GDP-PPP). At
present, Asia is the fastest growing economic region in the world. However, Asia has not been
able to experience its actual potential in different sectors of economy. Asia is the cradle of human
civilizations because world’s major religions originated from this land. West Asia (Present Israel,
Jordan and Saudi Arabia) holds the distinction and honor to be the land from where the so-called
western religions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Bahai originated and then spread to the rest
of the world. Eastern religions originated and developed mostly in South and South-east Asia.
Indian sub-continent in South Asia has been the land of origin and evolution for major eastern
religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. East Asia led by China and Japan has
developed Confucianism, Shintoism and Taoism that originated in China and Zen Buddhism that
took shape in Japan.
Economic activities and social life of entire Asia can be studied in following broad divisions:

1. The Northern Region of Asia: The North Asia or Northern Asia consists of Siberia and Russian
Far East in Asia – towards the east of the Ural Mountains. This part of Asia lies above 51° N latitude
and hence experiences sub-polar or polar climatic conditions with cool summer and cold winter with
low precipitation. The region is one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth (an average
population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometers). This region normally practices
agriculture (wheat, barley, rye and potatoes) and pastoral farming (grazing of sheep and cattle and
reindeer in Tundra region), though there are great reserves of metal-ores in Siberia. Siberia has the
world’s largest forests. Therefore, timber is an important source of revenue. Christianity, Buddhism
and Islam are main religions. Shamanism is also used amongst indigenous groups, particularly in
healing and counseling local people.

Life in Siberia towards the northern pole
2. The South-East Region of Asia: The Southeast Asia is located east of the Indian sub-continent
and consists of countries like Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia,
Philippines, Singapore, Brunei and East-Timor. Tropical climate characterized by hot, humid
and plentiful rainfall in entire year prevails in the region. The rain forest in the region is the
second largest forest on earth (with the Amazon being the largest). Southeast Asia (ASEAN-
Association of South East Asian Countries) has experienced significant economic growth over
the past 20 years. Singapore’s Changi Airport is one of Asia’s largest cargo airports whereas

228 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

Malaysia’s infrastructure is one of the most developed in Asia. Thailand has emerged as one of
the top exporters to the United States in computer accessories, followed by telecommunications
equipment and fish. Vietnam is witnessing fast economic growth in Southeast Asia. A distinctive
feature of Southeast Asia is its cultural diversity. Not a single country out of all 11 countries
in Southeast Asia is homogeneous. For example, in the world’s most populous Muslim nation,
Indonesia, Hindus live in dominant majority on islands such as Bali. Islam is the most widely
practiced religion in Southeast Asia followed by Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism and
Hinduism. There is no single dominant language in Southeast  Asia. Mainlanders speak Thai,
Malay, Khmer, Burmese, Lao, and Vietnamese while imported languages like Mandarins,
English, Tamil, and Hindi are also spoken.

Angkor Wat Temple, Combodia Malaysia’s Composite culture

3. The Eastern Region of Asia: The East Asia or eastern Asia covers about 28% of the Asian
continent and is about 15% bigger than the area of Europe. Countries namely China, Japan, North
Korea, South Korea, Mongolia and Taiwan constitute the East Asia region.This region is one of the
world’s most populated places. Confucian ethical philosophy and Buddhism have shaped up the
East Asian culture as well as its political and legal structures. Taoism too is followed in this region.
Confucianism is humanistic philosophy which believes in molding human beings by cultivating
virtue and life-values. The businesses as well as family cultures of East Asia remain heavily
influenced by Confucianism that upholds righteousness and propriety in human dealing.The
economy of East Asia is one of the most successful regional economies of the world. China, Japan,
Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea are some of the world’s most prosperous economies. The
Chinese script is considered as the oldest writing system in the world which still exists in practice.

Japanese Culture Great Wall of China (Beijing)

4. The Southern Region of Asia: The South Asia or southern Asia consists of Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. These countries have
been regionally organized as SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation). This
region faces tropical monsoon climate which keeps the region humid during summer and dry

229<< Nova Social Studies Grade-9

during winter. South Asia has the largest population of Hindus followed by Muslims, Buddhists
and Christians. Followers of Jainism and Sikhism along with other religions too live here. The
largest spoken language in this region is Hindi followed by Bengali, Punjabi, Urdu and Nepali
and others. India is the largest and fastest growing economy in the region followed by Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. India makes up almost 82% of the South Asian economy. South Asia
is a populous region as out of ten populous countries in the world, South Asia has three: India
(1,224,614,000), Pakistan (173,593,000), and Bangladesh (148,692,000). Control of population and
its management is an urgent priority to eradicate poverty from this region. This region is known
as centre of eastern religions and ancient civilizations.

Taj Mahal (Agra in INDIA) Folk Dance & Culture (Nepal)

5. The Central Region of Asia: The Central Asia (also referred to as Middle Asia) includes five
countries namely Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

Kazakhstan Turkemenistan Tajikistan

Islam is the dominant religion in the region followed by Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
After these five republics broke away from the Soviet Union (now Russia), they are trying to be
competitive within the global market. Silk Road that promoted trade in ancient time connected
Central Asia with China, India and Europe. This potential of trade development exists even now for
this region. Central Asia under the leadership of Kazakhstan is looking for economic recovery by
establishing good economic relationship with Russia, China and European Union. Kazakhstan has
the largest and strongest performing economy in Central Asia.

6. The Western Region of Asia: The Western Asia or West Asia (or Southwestern Asia or the
Middle-East) consists of 19 countries namely Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates,
Oman, Yemen and Palestinian territories. This region of Asia has been the birthplace of three
religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Overwhelming majority of the total population of this

230 Nova Social Studies Grade-9 >>

region believes in Islam as about 93% of them are Muslim. Israel is the only Jewish country in this
region with two more Christian countries namely Armenia and Georgia. Western Asia has strong
presence of different cultural groups like Arabs, Persians, Azerbaijanis, Turkish and Hebrews.
They speak their own language. The region has primarily arid and semi-arid climate which create
a condition of drought but forest and fertile valleys too exist in the region.

Arabian Young man Arabian Merchants Arabian Woman

Water-stress (Water-scarcity) is an emerging problem in many parts of West Asia with rapidly
growing populations. The economy of West Asia is showing marked upward growth as petroleum
(oil) has turned around the regional economy. More than half of the world’s oil reserves and
around 40 percent of the world’s natural gas reserves are located in this region. Most of the
countries of West Asia fall within one of the middle-income categories except Israel and Persian
Gulf countries of Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, which are considered as high-
income countries.

Asia’s Economy and Its Major Economic Activities

According to revised measurement of poverty fixed by the World Bank as daily consumption of
less than $ 1.51 per person, nearly one-third of the population suffers with extreme poverty in
Asia which accounts for more than two-thirds of the world’s poor. And, nearly half of them are
in Southern Asia alone. Thus, poverty in Asia is a huge problem as well as a challenge. In the
major countries in Asia, 80 to 90 per cent of poor people live in rural areas. While Eastern Asia
and South-Eastern Asia have made impressive progress in reducing rural poverty over the past
three decades, progress has not been that satisfactory in Southern Asia.

The following are the major economic activities of Asia:

1. Agriculture: Though agricultural activities are under much strain, majority of the people in
Asia are engaged in agriculture. Currently, less  than  one-third  of Asia’s land is available for
agricultural use. Too many people on too little land practice subsistence farming depending
heavily on growing cereals and other food staples. Cereal is the nutritious grain such as wheat,
rice and corn. The crop cultivation on small farms practiced with simple hand-held tools
or plows pulled by draft animals is quite common in South, Southeast, and East Asia. Many
farmers do not own even a small piece of land and therefore they work as tenants on others’ land.
Rice, grown under wet conditions usually created by monsoon, is the staple food crop of South,
Southeast, and East Asia.

Paddy (rice) is such a dominant crop in Asia that Asian countries produce about 90 percent of
the world’s rice. Interestingly, China and India alone contribute nearly 60 percent of the total
rice production in the world. However, the goal of rice self-sufficiency (food-security) has been
difficult to attain for most countries in South, Southeast, and East Asia. Wheat is another dominant
cereal crop just next to rice in Asia. Wheat is grown in Central Asia (mainly Kazakhstan), North
China, India, Pakistan, Iran and so on.

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Agriculture in South, Southeast, and East Asia…Traditional Paddy

Asia has always been famous for growing spices like pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg which
have great demands in the market of the West. Sugar-cane, coconut and tobacco are other tropical
cash-crops which dominate the region. Jute, a fiber crop, is grown for export in Bangladesh. Date
palms are cultivated, particularly in the Arabian Peninsula. Asia produces a variety of tropical
and sub-tropical fruits like bananas, mangoes, pine-apples, papayas, apples and oranges mainly
for domestic consumption.

2. Animal Husbandry (Cattle or Livestock Rearing): A large number of domesticated animals are
raised by farmers in animal husbandry for their livelihood. Animal husbandry plays a crucial role
in the rural economy of Asia. Farmers get milk, meat, eggs, wool and hides from animals besides
using some of them like bullocks, horses, donkeys and yaks (also known as draft animals) as
the major source of power or carrying load. Raising animals (animal husbandry) is a component
of agriculture as it serves not only as a source of income but also as a major contributor to food
security. A range of livestock are common to all Asian countries - cattle, pigs, buffaloes, goats, and
poultry.Cattle are farm animals of ox family like cows and oxen kept mainly for the production of
milk in Asia (particularly India) and for using them as draft animals.

Cows are part of human life in India Goats-herding

Nomadic herders in the semi desert areas of southwestern and central Asia raise goats, sheep, and
camels for their survival. Semi-nomadic pastoral life is practiced on the steppe-land of Central
Asia and in parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Angora goats are herded in
Anatolian Turkey to provide the silky mohair (wool). Yaks, sheep, and goats are kept on the
Tibetan Plateau or in the Himalayas while reindeer herds are kept in the Siberian tundra.

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3. Fishery and Forestry: In Asia, fish provides 30 per cent of the animal protein in a typical diet.
Fish-consumption in the whole of Asia accounts for around two-thirds of the total fish consumption
in the world. Fishery is an important economic activity here. Millions of people in Asia, particularly
among the poor, make their livelihood or supplement their incomes by fishing or related industries.
Lately, China has emerged as the world’s biggest fishing nation. China has witnessed a dramatic
rise in per capita fish consumption and is now the global leader in fish exports. China has rich
fishing grounds in the South China Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the Bohai Sea with
some 3,000 marine species, including more than 150 commercial species. Japan is one of the world’s
leading fishing countries. The fishing industry has gained prominence in other Asian countries too
such as Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea and the Philippines. Developing and poor countries of
Asia undertake fishing mainly for domestic consumption. Fish from big delta regions such as the
Ganges in Bangladesh provide local populations with a valuable source of protein. However, exports
of dried, frozen, and canned fish are being undertaken by East Asian countries. Thailand has become
one of the world’s most important fish exporters, largely because of its shrimp and prawn farming.

Fishing Lumbering

The role of forests in Asia and the Pacific region is being increasingly recognized in the face of
emerging important new issues including mitigation of climate change, demand for bio-energy,
water issues, natural disasters, the contributions of forests in poverty reduction, and the potential
role of coastal forests in mitigating the impacts of tsunami events. Several Asian countries are
implementing regional and national codes of forest harvesting practices with involvement of the
local community. Timber production in forestry has lumbering as an important economic activity.
Logs are exported from China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar. Japan has carefully
developed timberlands which are extremely productive. Hardwoods and plywood produced by
Tropical Asia are used for construction and furniture industries. Thailand and Myanmar produce
special varieties of timber such as teak. Malaysia and Indonesia are among the world’s leading
producers of commercial hardwoods. Other countries of Asia including China and India use forest
products mainly for survival and collect forest-wood to be used as fuel. The vast forests in Siberia
supply saw-timber for Russia’s enormous lumber industry besides pulpwood and other forest
products.

4. Mining and Manufacturing Industries: Mining is an important economic activity in most Asian
countries. It is a major export industry in several Asian countries. For example, Southwest Asia
contains the world’s largest reserves of oil outside Russia, and most of the production is exported.
Recently, East Asian countries like Indonesia, China and Malaysia too have joined countries in
Southwest Asia in exporting oil (petroleum products). There are noted metal-ore mining like
manganese in India, tin in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia (combined together, these three
countries lead the tin production in the world) and chromium ore in the Philippines. Coals are
extensively mined in countries such as China, India, Iran and Turkey. The largest reserves of

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lead and zinc in Asia are located in the Siberia followed by Kazakhstan, China and North Korea.
Asia has enormous reserves of bauxite in Kazakhstan and India along with other countries like
Indonesia, Turkey, and Malaysia. Mica is abundant in eastern Siberia as well as in India. Japan
has large reserves of sulfur whereas Kazakhstan has large deposits of phosphates. Diamonds are
produced in east-central Siberia and in India. India and Sri Lanka are significant producers of
rubies, sapphires, and many semi-precious stones, such as moonstones and agates. Myanmar and
Cambodia also have important supplies of rubies, sapphires, and other gems. Thus, mining not
only employs a large number of people but it also sustains the economy of this continent.

Mining in Sea Hydrocarbon(petroleum) extraction
Asia is largely a growing up continent in area of manufacturing industries with some exceptions
from East and West Asia. Asian industries are getting hi-tech to transform scale and degree
of manufacturing for ever. East and Southeast Asia particularly Japan, China, Taiwan, South
Korea and Singapore has been leading in the manufacturing sector. The industry varies from
cheap low value goods like toys to high-tech value added goods such as computers, CD players,
mobile phones, cars and even airplanes. In countries like Japan, Singapore, Taiwan and South
Korea, the major manufacturing industries are geared primarily for export and less for domestic
consumption. Japan being one of the top economies in the world leads in manufacturing
automobiles, consumer electronics, computers, semi-conductors, copper, iron and steel especially
for export.

Nuclear Reactor in Japan China-Industry in operation

Israel from West Asia is known for manufacturing high-technology products such as electronic
equipment and also transport equipment, textiles, chemical products and machinery. Other
West Asian countries like Saudi Arabia, UAE (United Arab Emirates), Iran, Iraq and Qatar rely
heavily on industries involved in refining and processing of crude oil and natural gas. Iran has a
rich culture that promotes handicraft industries like producing artisan goods, including carpets,
ceramics, copperware and brassware, glass, leather goods, textiles, and woodwork. This tradition
of handicraft is dominantly present in all the Asian countries operated at cottage or small scale

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level. Traditional cottage industries and handicrafts constitute major manufacturing activities in
Asia because these industries provide additional employment to raise the level of living for both
rural and urban populations.

India is a leading manufacturing country in South Asia but has a long way to go to realize the full
potential. However, the automobile industry in India is one of the fastest growing industries in
the world. India’s passenger car and commercial vehicle manufacturing industry stands ahead
of Brazil to become the sixth largest in the world. In addition, India is a significant producer of
electrical machinery, fertilizer, textiles, pharmaceuticals, refined petroleum products and copper.
China has emerged as a world leader in manufacturing as China has leading manufacturing
industries in iron and steel, shipbuilding, airplanes, petrochemicals, petroleum refining and so
on. The Chinese textile industry is the largest in the world. This is how the dominance of industry
in Asia differs from country to country.

Activities

1. Discuss the natural environment, economic activities and socio-cultural life of Asia. Also, do
research from other sources like Atlas, internet, etc on the above topics. Now, fill up the following
tabel:

Region Countries Climate Vegetation E c o n o m i c Population-
Activities Density

Northern Asia
Middle-East Asia
South Asia
South-East Asia
Central Asia

2. Make a list of all the land-locked countries in Asia.
3. Differentiate between West Asia and South Asia with reference to the economic activities and

pattern of human life.
4. Eastern part of Asia receives a lot of rainfall but west Asia has turned out to be desert. Explain the

reasons behind this.
5. Give reasons based on geographical facts and principles for the following:
I. Japan leads in fishing business/trade.
II. Singapore and Indonesia experience hot weather conditions with constant precipitation.

Exercise

1. Define nomadic herders. Which parts of Asia do they belong to?
2. Answer the following questions about Angora Goats:

a. Which part of Asia rears Angora Goats?
b. Enumerate the benefits derived from Angora Goats.
3. Prove that China has emerged as the world’s biggest fishing nation.

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4. Identify the countries which go for extensive coal-mining to feed the countries and hence have
become one of the biggest environment polluters in the world.

5. Answer the following:
a) Name two countries from Asia that produce diamond.
b) Identify four leading manufacturing countries from Asia.
c) Name four petroleum exporting countries from Asia.

6. a) Mark the Philippines, Japan, Sri Lanka and Brunei in the following Map with their capitals.
b) Show the following places on the outline map of Asia:
Kabul, Gobi desert, Tha Desert, Tibet Desert, Sagarmatha
c) Identify the following rivers, lakes and oceans in a given map of Asia:
Rivers: Yangtze, Hwang-Ho, Ganga, Inawaddy, Mekong, Lena and Euphrates
Lakes and Oceans: Caspian Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Baikal Lake.

7. Critically examine the economic development and socio-cultural life of East and South Asia.
8. Are the Asian industries getting hi-tech and agriculture modernized? Evaluate.
9. Analyze critically the interrelationship between forestry and sustainable development in Asia.
10. Asia’s agriculture will not survive in absence of livestock farming. Examine with suitable

examples.
11. Paddy is such a dominant crop in Asia that the whole Asia has emerged with RICE-CULTURE.

Argue.
12. Insert the following items in the outline map of Asia:

I. Mecca, Jerusalem, Suez Canal, Tropical Rain Forest, Area of High Population Density, Area
of Subsistence Agriculture, Nomadic-herding, Gulf of Oman, Ganges, Petroleum Extraction
Area

II. Tashkent, Red Sea, Asia Minor, Hong Kong, Area of Rainfall below 25 cm, Wheat Area, Area
with High Gender-Discrimination, Damascus, Tigris River

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Lesson

1 1 Europe – Natural Environment

An Introduction: Europe is the second smallest continent in the world after Australia. It spans
from 35° to 81° N latitude and from 60° E to about 10° W longitude. Europe covers an area of
more than 10 million square kilometers (roughly 4 million square miles). It occupies about 7
percent of the world’s land area and 2 percent of the Earth’s surface. Europe is the third most
populous continent after Asia and Africa. It shares about 11 percent of the world’s population.
Russia is the largest country in both area and population as it takes up 40% of the continent’s area
whereas Vatican City is the smallest. Europe extends from the island nation of Iceland in the west
to the Ural Mountains of Russia in the east. Europe’s northernmost point touches on Svalbard
archipelago and it reaches up to islands of Greece and Malta in the south.
The Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the
south flank the borders of Europe. The Ural and Caucasus Mountains separate Europe from Asia
in the east and the southeast. Europe is the western peninsula of the giant “supercontinent” of
Eurasia as it sticks out from the western end of this landmass. Europe looks like a giant peninsula
and there are several other smaller peninsulas in it. Therefore, Europe got its nickname – the
peninsula of peninsulas.

Europe: The Peninsula of Peninsulas

A peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water on three sides. Europe is a peninsula of
the Eurasian super-continent and is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean
to the west, and the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas to the south. Therefore, Europe is
the peninsula. Europe is both a continent and a region. Inside Europe are other peninsulas. These
peninsulas are the Balkan Peninsula, the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, the Jutland
Peninsula and the Scandinavian Peninsula to name a few and famous ones. This is why Europe is
nicknamed as the peninsula of peninsulas.

Europe: Physical Features (Topography)

Europe has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other continent or subcontinent because
of its maritime borders. Europe is centrally located among the world’s landmasses and its

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topography (land-relief) has great variation. The southern regions are more mountainous but the
elevation of terrain descends towards the west in Scandinavia making it hilly uplands and then
becomes much broader and flat while moving towards the eastern side of Europe making it vast
Central European plain.
Following are the main physical divisions of Europe based on topography:
A. The Southern Mountains: The  Alpine  Mountain system in the Southern Europe includes
mountain ranges (mountains) in the Italian and Balkan peninsulas, northern Spain, and southern
France. These mountain ranges are young fold mountains which dominate the region of
Southern Europe. The region includes the mountains of the Alps, Pyrenees, Apennines, Balkans,
Carpathians, and Caucasus. The Alps extending from France to Slovenia are the most prominent
mountain belts of Europe. The Alps present a great variety of elevations and shapes. The highest
peak of the Alps, Mont Blanc (4810 m), is located on the Franco-Italian border. The Pyrenees
mountain range separates the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe and forms a natural
border between France and Spain. This mountain range extends from the Bay of Biscay to the
Mediterranean Sea. The Carpathian Mountains stretch from the Czech Republic to Romania by
forming an arc in Central and East Europe. The Caucasus Mountains which contain Europe’s
highest mountain, Mount Elbrus (5,642 meters), run across the Black and the Caspian seas. The
Balkan mountain range in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula forms the watershed between
the Black Sea and Aegean Sea. In addition to these mountain ranges, Italy has a number of active,
dormant, and extinct volcanoes. Mount Etna is the highest mountain in Italy located south of
Alps. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in entire Europe just after Mount Vesuvius.

Mont Blanc: from Alps Mountain Range Mount Elbrus: Highest Peak in Europe

B. The North-Western Highlands (Uplands): The North-Western Uplands, also known as the
Northern Highlands or the Atlantic Highlands, cover the western edge of Europe which includes
the physical landscape of  Scandinavia  (Norway, Sweden, and Denmark), Finland, Iceland,
Scotland, and Ireland. The western uplands are made up of hard ancient rocks shaped up by
glaciation. Glaciation is the process of land being transformed by glaciers or ice sheets. As glaciers
receded from the area, they left a number of distinct physical features such as the highlands
(uplands) in the North.

C. The Central Plain: The Central Plain extends from the southern United Kingdom to Russia
in the east. The Plain includes parts of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark,
Poland, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), and Belarus. The Central Plain occupies
the vast stretch of land having elevation of not more than 152 meters above the sea level. The

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fertile land areas grow a wide variety of seasonal crops and are home to many navigable rivers
such as Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Oder, Volga and Vistula. The north side of the Central Plain expands
into Russia.

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Europe at a Quick Glance

Total Area 10,180,000 square kilometers (3,930,000 square miles)
Highest Point Mt. Elbrus, Russia (5642 meters)
Lowest Point Volga Delta, Caspian Sea (-28.0 meters)
Longest River The Volga - Russia (3,690 kilometers)
Largest Lake Ladoga - Russia (18130 square kilometers)
Largest Urban Area Moscow, Russia
Largest Watershed Volga River (1,410,951 square km)
Population Density 32 people per square kilometer
Amount of Renewable Electricity 27% (Iceland: 99.9%)
Produced
Islands and archipelagoes Novaya Zemlya, Iceland, the British Isles, Corsica,
Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, Malta, and Cyprus.
Western Europe Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Monaco,
France, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland.
Norden Countries Scandinavia (Norway + Sweden), Finland, Denmark and
Iceland
Southern (Mediterranean Europe) Spain, Portugal, Italy, San Marino, Vatican City, Greece
and European Turkey
Balkan Countries (Eastern Europe) of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia,
Montenegro, Kosovo, Slovenia, and Macedonia

Europe: Climate (Average Weather Conditions) And Vegetation:
The Climate of Europe

Most part of Europe lies in the northern temperate climate zone. Europe experiences a variety
of weather patterns due to the interplay of so many different wind patterns and air-current (air
masses). Despite being located in the northern latitudes towards the North Pole, the warm seas
that border the continent give most of central and western Europe a moderate climate. A moderate
climate has cool winters and mild summers. The prevailing westerly winds under the moderating
influence of the Gulf Stream (warm current of North Atlantic Ocean) bring precipitation most
of the year particularly in far west part of the continent. The Ireland, the UK, the Iceland and
coastal Norway in the North-West of Europe experience the moderate climate because of the
Oceanic influence. That is why this region of Europe is classified as a temperate Oceanic Climate
(or, Maritime Climate). In fact, entire Western Europe above the Southern Mountains till central
Poland has an Oceanic Climate.
Eastern Europe has a continental climate much away from the Ocean. Four seasons occur in
Eastern Europe. Winters are much colder and longer with greater snow cover and summers are
simply hot in Continental climate of the Eastern Europe. It rains in summer but the amount of
rain is less than that of the west (Europe). The Danube region through the Balkans, Ukraine,
Belarus and Southern Russia along with most of the northern part of both Finland and Sweden
experience the continental type of climate.

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In between the Western and the Eastern Europe lie the parts of the Central European plains
having a hybrid of both oceanic and continental climate often referred to as the transitional type
of climate. The region embraces eastern France, southwestern Germany, and much of central and
southeastern Europe.
Towards the south of Europe near the mountain ranges and above the Mediterranean Sea, the
Mediterranean Climate prevails. The sub-tropical Mediterranean climate is more dominant
along the coastlands of southern Europe. The summer months are usually hot and dry while the
winter is mild and wet in the Mediterranean climate. Spain, Italy and Greece are under the strong
influence of the Mediterranean Climate. Thus, the climate of Europe is not uniform throughout
the continent and varies from one region to another region.

The Natural Vegetation in Europe

The varied climates across Europe have given rise to a variety of natural vegetation in different
parts of the continent. However, a pressure of a dense population has depleted some of the original
natural patterns in vegetation. Much like its physical regions, Europe’s vegetation follows a general
north-south orientation. The tundra found in Iceland and the northern parts of Scandinavia and
Russia in the Arctic coastal regions is a treeless region where small mosses, lichens, ferns shrubs,
and wild flowers grow. The Taiga which stretches across northern Europe just south of the tundra
is full of coniferous forests. Trees like pine, spruce and fir are the prominent species of coniferous
forests. The middle portion of the continent from the Atlantic to the Urals is a belt of mixed forest.
The mixed forests consist of both deciduous and coniferous trees. For example, oak, maple, and elm
as deciduous trees get mixed with coniferous trees like pine and fir.

Wild Flowers in Tundra Coniferous Trees in Taiga

The world’s largest temperate grassland known as “the Great Steppe” is found in Eastern Europe
(and Central Asia). The temperate climate lies between the tropics and Polar Regions. The Eurasian
steppe covers vast temperate area of Hungary, Ukraine and then Russia in Europe (and further
extends up to central Asian countries apart from Asian Russia). A steppe is a dry, grassy plain that
receives 25 to 50 centimeters (10-20 inches) of rain each year. This amount of rain is not enough for
tall grasses or trees to grow. Therefore, only short grasses up to half a meter (20 inches) grow in
steppes but some of them can grow even taller.

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Mediterranean Vegetation

Small and drought-resistant plants are found in the Southern Europe bordering the
Mediterranean

Small and drought-resistant plants are found in the Southern Europe bordering the
Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean vegetation undergoes specific adaptations to survive in
the dry summer months. For example, Mediterranean drought-resistant plants generally have
small, dark leaves covered with a waxy outer layer to preserve moisture in the dry summer
season. Broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, bushes, and small trees usually less than 2.5 m (about
8 feet) tall are the main features of Mediterranean vegetation. Fruits such as olive, citrus fruit,
figs, apricots, and grapes are special attraction of this region.

Thus, Europe is the land of different kinds of vegetation which add diversity not only to its
natural profile but also to human activities.

Words and terms you would like to know

Climate as an agent of change: Climate is an important factor in shaping up regional and local topography
as well as human activity (occupation). The local and regional effect of climate is clearly visible in the
making of soils by means of weathering, erosion, and transport of rocks. The regional climatic variations
contribute much to the European landscape, and the length and warmth of the growing season. For
example, the winter freeze in Northern and Eastern Europe impedes transport and harasses farmers
whereas the snow cover of the more continental regions favors the people as water gets stored in the
fields and provides snow for winter sports and recreation.
Interrelationship between climate, vegetation and soil: Broad associations of climate, vegetation, and
soil can be better observed in Eastern than in Western Europe. Natural grasses from tall to short length
including shrubs spread around the Eastern Europe because precipitation becomes less and less reliable in
the area. In the Mediterranean lowlands the natural vegetation consists of drought-resistant species such
as olive, cypress, and scrub trees and maquis shrubs that have leafy adaptations to prevent water loss.
Mixed forests with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate in temperate Europe while in the north
taiga is widespread. And then tundra appears as the Arctic is approached within Russia and extreme
northern Scandinavia.
Prairies vs. Steppe: Much of the Great European Plain is covered with prairies, areas of relatively tall
grasses, while Ukraine is covered by steppe, a flat and comparatively dry region with short grasses.
Coastal areas along the Mediterranean Sea are famous for their fruit, especially olives, citrus fruit, figs,
apricots, and grapes.
Gulf-stream – the central heating of Europe: Winters are much colder eastward but Northwestern
Europe, including Iceland, enjoys some relief from the cold because of influence of warm Gulf Stream
from the North Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf Stream is called “Europe’s central heating” because it makes

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Europe’s climate warmer and wetter.The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe’s coast but
also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean.
Mediterranean – the storehouse of heat: The Mediterranean’s waters are not as deep as the large oceans,
allowing it to become a storehouse of heat thereby decreasing (lessening) winters along its coastlines. The
almost continuous belt of mountains trending west-east across Europe also obstructs the interchange of
tropical and polar air masses. The lack of blocking mountains allows air and moisture to flow into the
plains of Central and Eastern Europe, though the amounts of precipitation decrease toward the east.

Activities

1. Temperatures average between 2  °C at night (January) and 23  °C during the day (July)
in London from 5 °C at night (January) to 33 °C during the day (July) in Athens and from -10 °C
at night (February) to 24 °C during the day (July) in Moscow.

City in Europe Min. Temp. (January) Night Max. Tem. (July) Day
London 2 °C 23 °C
Athens 5 °C 33 °C
Moscow -10 °C 24 °C

A. Locate the above cities in Europe with their respective countries and climatic regions they
belong to.

B. Show the above data in line diagram.
C. London lies at 51.5°N latitude and Athens is located at 37.9° N. There are differences of

around 13° latitudes between them but the difference in minimum temperature between
the two cities is just 3°C and the maximum 10°C. On the other hand, Moscow is located at
55.7° N and that creates the difference of around 4° latitudes with London but the difference
in minimum temperature here between the two cities namely London and Moscow is 12°C
more than what we find between London and Athens while the difference in maximum
temperature is just 1°C, much lower than the earlier case.
There is no predictable relationship between the Latitude and the Climate in above example
as latitude has been dominated by other factors. Identify the factors influencing the climate
in these cities.
2. Look at the pictures given below carefully and answer the following questions:

Picture -- A Picture—B

A. Identify the forest and trees shown in Picture – A. Locate the region where the forest
shown in Picture –A lies. You can take help from Picture –B.

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B. In Picture – B five types of vegetations have been shown. Which vegetation area is largest
and which one is smallest? Write down two chief characteristics each of the two – the
largest and the smallest one.

C. Identify the countries from Picture – B which have two or more than two types of
vegetations. Do you think it is good for them? Argue with convincing evidence.

3. In the given blank Map below, fill the following items as per the instructions:

Map-A Map-B

i. Map–A has highlighted some of the topography of Europe from A to F. Identify these
physical features (topography) by accurately assigning names to them.

ii. Map–B shows Europe. Highlight major physical features in it by naming the countries that
they cover.

iii. Bluish color in Map–B shows water-body. Identify these water-bodies surrounding the
continent.

4. Identify the regions (areas) in Europe in which rains (precipitation) take place throughout the
year, rains take place only in winter, region covered with snows for most part of the year and the
region which faces drought. Also, explain the reasons behind such happenings (events).

5. Draw a map of Europe and show the following on that hand-sketched map: Mountainous region,
Highland areas, Plains, Countries located near Africa, River flowing northward via (through)
Germany, Island with high density of population, Mountain peak located between France and
Spain

Exercise

1. Identify the northernmost and southernmost points in Europe.
2. Name the two mountain ranges which separate Europe from Asia.
3. What is Scandinavia? Write down its two features.
4. Fill up the blanks for Europe:

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