GCSE DT OCR Textbook

AndyKnightChrisRoweSharonMcCarthyJenniferTilleyChrisWalkerOCRGCSE(9-1)

This resourceis endorsedbyOCRfor usewiththeGCSE(9-1) inDesignandTechnologyspecificationJ310.Inorder togainOCRendorsement, thisresourcehasundergoneanindependentqualitycheck.Anyreferencestoassessment and/or assessment preparationarethepublisher'sinterpretationofthespecificationrequirementsandare not endorsedbyOCR. OCRrecommendsthat arangeof teachingandlearningresourcesareusedinpreparinglearners for assessment. OCRhas not paidfor theproductionofthisresource, nordoesOCRreceiveanyroyaltiesfromits sale. For moreinformationabout theendorsementprocess, pleasevisittheOCRwebsite,www.ocr.org.uk.Althoughevery effort has beenmadetoensurethatwebsiteaddressesarecorrectattimeofgoingtopress,Hodder Educationcannot beheldresponsiblefor thecontentofanywebsitementionedinthisbook.Itissometimes possibletofindarelocatedwebpagebytypingintheaddressofthehomepageforawebsiteintheURL windowof your browser. HachetteUK's policyis tousepapersthat arenatural, renewableandrecyclableproductsandmadefromwoodgrowninsustainableforests. Theloggingandmanufacturingprocessesareexpectedtoconformtotheenvironmental regulations of thecountryof origin. Orders: pleasecontact Bookpoint Ltd, 130MiltonPark, Abingdon, OxonOX144SB. Telephone:(44)01235827720.Fax: (44) 01235400454. Email: [email protected]. to5p.m.,Monday toSaturday, witha24-hour messageansweringservice. Youcanalsoorderthroughourwebsite:www.hoddereducation.co.ukISBN: 9781510401136©Andy Knight, Chris Rowe, SharonMcCarthy, Jennifer Tilley, ChrisWalker2017First publishedin2017byHodder Education, AnHachetteUKCompanyCarmeliteHouse50 Victoria Embankment LondonEC4Y0DZwww.hoddereducation.co.ukImpressionnumber 10987654321Year 20212020201920182017All rights reserved. Apart fromanyusepermittedunderUKcopyrightlaw, nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedor transmittedinanyformor byanymeans, electronicormechanical, includingphotocopyingandrecording, or heldwithinanyinformationstorageandretrieval system, withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher or under licencefromtheCopyright LicensingAgencyLimited. Furtherdetailsofsuchlicences(forreprographic reproduction) maybeobtainedfromtheCopyrightLicensingAgencyLimited,SaffronHouse,6-10Kirby Street, LondonEC1N8TS. Cover photo©Brainlight/AlamyStockPhotoIllustrations by DCGraphicDesignLimitedTypeset inMyriadProLight 10/12pt PrintedinSloveniaAcataloguerecordfor this titleis availablefromtheBritishLibrary.

iiiCONTENTSIntroductiontoOCRGCSE(9-1)DesignandTechnologyivHowtousethisbookivWhat isiterativedesign?viiiCoreprinciplesofdesignandtechnologyChapter 1Identifyingrequirements2Chapter 2Learningfromexistingproductsandpractice14Chapter 3Implicationsof widerissues22Chapter 4Designthinkingandcommunication30Chapter 5Material considerations38Chapter 6Mechanical devicesandelectronicsystems60Chapter 7Newandemergingtechnologies74CorePracticeQuestions78In-depthprinciplesofdesignandtechnologyChapter 8Papersandboards82Chapter 9Timber 112Chapter 10Metals156Chapter 11Polymers192Chapter 12Fibresandfabrics232Chapter 13Designengineering284In-depthPracticeQuestions322PreparingforassessmentChapter 14Non-examassessment: IterativeDesignChallenge328Chapter 15Thewrittenpaper: PrinciplesofDesignandTechnology366Glossary371Index376

ivIntroductiontoOCRGCSE(9-1) DesignandTechnology HowtousethisbookThis bookhasbeenwrittentohelpyoumastertheskills, knowledgeandunderstandingyouneedfor OCRGCSE(9-1) DesignandTechnology. Throughout thecourseyouwill developyourabilitytoexploredesignopportunitiesandstakeholder needs, wantsandvalues, andtodevelopandeffectivelycommunicaterealisticdesignproposalsthat meettheserequirements. Youwilldevelopyourdecisionmakingskillsandtheabilitytocritiqueandrefineyourideasthroughouttheprocess.Youwillalsogainabroadknowledgeof materials, components, technologiesandpracticalskillsandwilllearnhowtousethesesafelytodevelophighquality, imaginativeandfunctionalprototypes.Thecoursecontent isdividedinto'core' and'in-depth'principlesofdesignandtechnology:lThe'core' principlesofferabroadsetofprinciplesthatalllearnersmustknow.TheseprinciplesarecoveredinSection1ofthetextbook. lYouarealsorequiredtodemonstrateyour'in-depth'knowledge,understandinganddesigndevelopment skillsinrelationtooneormoreoftheareasoflearningyouhavechosentoworkwithandhaveaninterestin. These'in-depth'principlesarecoveredinSection2of thetextbook, andaredividedintoseparatechaptersforeachofthemaincategoriesfor in-depthlearning: - papersandboards(Chapter8)- natural andmanufacturedtimber(Chapter9)- ferrousandnon-ferrousmetals(Chapter10)- thermoandthermosettingpolymers(Chapter11)- woven, non-wovenandknittedtextiles(Chapter12)- designengineering(Chapter13). Thefirst fivein-depthareasrelatedirectlytomaterialcategories.Thosewhochoosetofollowthedesignengineeringareaarelikelytobemoreinterestedinelectronicandmechanicalsystemsandcontrol. Thecontent of theOCRspecificationisdividedintoeighttopicareas:1. Identifyingrequirements2. Learningfromexistingproductsandpractice3. Implicationsof wider issues4. Designthinkingandcommunication5. Material considerations6. Technical understanding7. Manufacturingprocessesandtechniques8. Viabilityof designsolutionsEachof thesetopicsisexploredthroughanenquiryapproach.Thequestionsthatformthisenquiryapproachareincludedatthestartofeachsectionwithinthetextbook.INTRODUCTIONTOOCRGCSE(9-1)DESIGNANDTECHNOLOGY

vHowtousethisbookSummaryofassessmentThe topic areas listedabovewill beassessedinthePrinciplesof DesignandTechnologywrittenpaper that youwill takeat theendof thecourse. (Youwill findmoreinformationtohelpyoupreparefor this writtenpaper inChapter 15of thistextbook.)Theywill alsobe assessedintheIterativeDesignChallengenon-examassessment(NEA)thatyouwillcarry out inthefinal year of thecourse. (Youwill findinformationtohelpyouwithhowtoapproachtheNEAinChapter 14of this textbook.) The table belowsummarises howyouwill beassessedfor OCRGCSE(9-1)DesignandTechnology. Component Assessment typeTimeMarksavailable%ofqualificationPrinciples of Design and Technology Writtenpaper 2hours100marks50%Iterative Design Challenge Non-examassessment Approx. 40hours100marks50%FeaturesofthisbookThroughout eachchapter youwill findarangeof featurestosupportyourlearning. KEYTERMSAlloftheimportanttermsyouneedtoknowandunderstandaredefined.PRACTICEQUESTIONSYouwill findtheseat theendof eachsection. Practicequestionsaredesignedtocheckyourknowledgeandunderstandingof thecontent ineachsection. Pleasebearinmindthatthesearetheworkoftheauthorsanddonot necessarily reflect thetypeof questionsyouwill faceintheexamination. KEYPOINTKey point boxes highlight andsummariseimportant points. ACTIVITYShort activities are includedthroughout eachchapter. Your teachermayaskyoutocomplete these tohelpyoudevelopyour knowledgeandunderstandingofatopic.STRETCHANDCHALLENGEThese activities will helpyoutodevelopyour knowledgeandunderstandingofatopicfurther. They may askyoutocompletefurther researchor toconsidersomeofthemorechallengingaspects of thecourse. LEARNINGOUTCOMESLearningoutcomes areincludedat thestart of eachtopicwithinachapterandtellyouwhat youshouldknowandunderstandbytheendofthetopic.

vi IntroductiontoOCRGCSE(9-1) DesignandTechnology Whatisiterativedesign?Insimpleterms, iterativedesignmeansthecreationandrefiningofadesignbyusingarepeatingprocessof prototyping, analysingandtesting. Eachtimetheprocessisrepeatedandrefined, thisisreferredtoasan'iteration'.Everycycleof prototyping, analysingandtestingofadesigninformsandrevealsfurtherrefinementsthat arenecessaryor possible, whichinturnleadstoanewiterationofthedesign.Thefirstprototypeisthefirst iterationof thedesign; thesecondprototypeistheseconditeration,andsoon. Repeatingthecycleproducesamorerefinedandimprovediterationofthedesigneachtime. Theiterativedesignprocessallowsthedesignertoexploredifferentdesignavenuesandtryout potential ideassothattheycandiscoverdesignproblemsearlyinthedesignprocessandmakechangesandrefinementsthatleadtoimprovediterationsoftheiroriginaldesign.Itismoreeffectivethanalinear designprocess(forexample, Situation→Brief→Analysis→Designideas→Final design→Planning→Making→Evaluation),inwhichadesigner might not examinehowwell aproductactuallymeetstheneedsofthestakeholderuntil it iscompleted, at whichstageitislikelytobetoolatetochangeanythingorimproveit.Theiterativedesignprocessencouragesyoutobemorecreativeandtotake'designrisks'.Thesemayor maynot besuccessful, buttheyarenecessaryinordertodiscoverwhetherideas will workor not. These'failures' will berewardedastheyarevaluablestepstofindingnewavenuesof explorationandwaysforwardintherefiningprocess.Itmeansyourabilitytoundertakeaprocessof designthinkingisassessed, ratherthanjustfocusingonensuringyouproducethemost perfectoutcome. IterativedesigningusingExplore,Create,EvaluateUnderpinningtheiterativedesignprocessinGCSEDesignandTechnologyarethethreemaininterconnectedstages: Explore, CreateandEvaluate. Youwill needtodemonstrateyourknowledge, understandingandskillsthrough:lexploringneeds, requirementsandopportunitieslcreatingsolutionsthatresolvethoseneedsandrequirementslevaluatinghowwell solutionsmeettheneeds. Repeatingthiscyclewill createmultipledesigniterationsthatshowhowadesignhasevolvedtomeet thestakeholder'sneeds. Management of thecycleiscentral tothewholeiterativedesignprocess,whichcanbesuccessful onlywhenthethreestagesaremanagedeffectively.Decisionssuchaswhichstakeholder'sneedsaremostimportant, whichdesignideasareworthexploringorpursuingfurther, what testsneedtobedone, whichmaterialscouldbeused,etc.,areintegraltotheiterativedesignprocess.

1CoreprinciplesofdesignandtechnologyThis sectionlooks at thecoreprinciples of designandtechnologythatyoumustknowandunderstandinordertomakeinformeddecisions as adesigner. All students will needknowledgeandunderstandingof theprinciplesconsideredinthissection.The sectionexplores thefollowingquestionsoutlinedintheOCRspecification: 1.1Howcanexploringthecontext adesignsolutionisintendedforinformdecisionsandoutcomes?1.2Why is usability animportant considerationwhendesigningprototypes?2.1What aretheopportunities andconstraintsthat influencedesignandmakingrequirements?2.2Howdodevelopments indesigntechnologyinfluencedesigndecisionsandpractice?3.1What aretheimpacts of newandemergingtechnologieswhendevelopingdesignsolutions?3.2Howdodesigners chooseappropriatesourcesof energytomakeproductsandpowersystems?3.3What wider implications canhaveaninfluenceontheprocessesofdesigningandmaking?4.1Howcandesignsolutions becommunicatedtodemonstratetheirsuitability?(Thecontentalsorelatestoin-depthareas, thereforetherewill besomedifferencesdependentonthedesignapproachyouaretaking.)4.2Howdodesigners sourceinformationandthinkingwhenproblemsolving?5.1What arethemaincategories of materialsavailabletodesignerswhendevelopingdesignsolutions?5.2Why is it important toconsider thecharacteristicsandpropertiesofmaterialsand/orsystemcomponentswhendesigning? 6.3Howdoweintroducecontrolledmovement toproductsandsystems?6.4Howdoelectronicsystems providefunctionalitytoproductsandprocesses?7.6Howdonewandemergingtechnologieshaveanimpactonproductiontechniquesandsystems?These questions areconsideredinthefollowingchapters: Chapter 1IdentifyingrequirementsChapter 2LearningfromexistingproductsandpracticeChapter 3Implicationsof widerissuesChapter 4DesignthinkingandcommunicationChapter 5Material considerationsChapter 6Mechanical devicesandelectronicsystemsChapter 7Newandemergingtechnologies

2Chapter 1Identifyingrequirements CHAPTER1IdentifyingrequirementsDifferent peoplehavedifferentneedsandwants-whatisdesirableforandhelpfultoonepersonmaycauseproblemsanddifficultiesforsomeoneelse.Allnewdesignsofproductsandsystemsshouldideallymakethingseasier, quickerorcheaperforauser,butasdesignerswealsoneedtoconsider theimpactontheenvironmentandotherusers.Forexample,theproduct might haveanimpactonnature, wasteenergyorcausewastefulby-products.Social, moral andcultural issuesarealsoimportantconsiderationswhendesigningproductsandsystems. Economicfactorsalsoneedtobeconsidered. Thesmartphone, for example, isarelativelyrecentinvention. Smartphoneshavemetpeople'sneedsbyenablingsocial interactionandaccesstoinformation-peoplecankeepintouch, usesocial media, shop, listentomusic, readthenewsorchecktheweatherforecast whileonthemove. Smartphonesarealsousefulinemergencies.Thereare,however, downsidestoanynewtechnology. Usingsmartphonesinappropriately,whendrivingforexample, increasestheriskofaccidents.Loudphoneconversationsinpublicplacescanbeirritating.Althoughweinteractthroughourdevices, thiscanmeanweinteractlessinperson, whichcanaffectoursocialconfidence.It'shardtoswitchoff fromthe'connected' world. Smartphonesarealsoseenas'fashionitems' -peoplewillbuyanewphoneeventhoughtheiroldoneisstill working, andthiscanwasteresourcesandhaveanegativeeffectontheenvironment.ExploringthecontextofadesignsolutionLEARNINGOUTCOMESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowaboutandunderstandhowexploringthecontext adesignsolutionisintendedforcaninformdecisionsandoutcome,including: ➜whereandhowtheproductorsystemisused➜primaryuser andwiderstakeholderrequirements➜social, cultural, moral andeconomicfactors,andhowtheyaffectdesigndecisions. Basichumanneedsincludefood, shelter, clothingandsafety,andsomedesignsareintendedtomeet these. However, mostpeoplealsowantproductsinallareasoftheirlives,forexample, for self-expressionandtomakedaytodaylifeeasierandmorecomfortable.Thesituationor contextfor whichadesignsolutionisintendedhasaneffectonmanydecisionsthat will bemade; itisimportanttoconsiderthesurroundings(place)inwhichtheproduct will beused, anditsusers. Purpose(whattheproductneedstodo)andpricecanalsobeimportant factors. Whenconsideringthecontextforwhichadesignsolutionisintended,ausefulstartingpointcouldbetocreateaconceptmapconsideringthegeneralinfluencessuchas'people,place,purposeandprice' or 'who, why, what, when, whereandhow?'KEYTERMSContext: The situationa designsolutionis intendedfor. Figure 1.1 The evolutionof themobilephone

3Exploringthecontextofadesignsolutioncolleges schools universites foyers offices openplan churchespublic spaces train stations busairports beachesgalleries art museums permanent pop-uptemporaryhotels restaurants shoppingcentres roads high streetsdepartment stores pop-up shops markets indoor outdoor indoor outdoor street stalls cafes parks Figure 1.2 Aconcept mapexploringconceptsof publicspaceACTIVITYThesensitivedesignofpublicspacescanenhanceusers'experiencesandinteractionswithinthem.Exploreaspacelocal toyouandconsiderhowtoenhanceusers'experienceswithinthatspace.WhereandhowtheproductorsystemisusedWhere, whenandhowaproduct/systemisusedcanaffectmany designdecisions. For example, anoutdoor product will needtobesuitablefor extremes of weather, whilea product for a public placewill needtobedurableandpossibly vandal-proof. TheprimaryuserandwiderstakeholdersMost products andsystems areusedor maintainedbyhumans. Theprimaryuser is the most obvious user toconsider, but anyproduct will haveotherstakeholders withaninterest init. For example, acompanywill haveaninterest inthechairs it provides inits officeinorder toensureitsworkers(the primaryusers) canworkefficientlyandcomfortably. TheCharteredInstitute of Ergonomics andHumanFactors(CIEHF) andtheHealthandSafety Executive(HSE) haveaninterest too, aswider stakeholders, toprovideguidance for thedesignof officefurnituretominimisebackpainandRSI. Astakeholder is any person, groupor organisationwithaninterestinaproduct or system. Figure1.3ExamplesofindoorandoutdoorpublicspacesACTIVITYChoose another context. This couldbeanOCRset context or your owncontext. Complete a mindmapof all thepossibleideas youcanthink of relatedtothis context, thenshareyour ideaswith others inyour group. Youwill havethought of different approaches anddiscussionmight sparkfurther ideas. Think as widely andcreativelyas possible. KEYTERMSStakeholder:Aperson,groupororganisationwithaninterestinaproduct/system,forexampleparents/schoolswhendesigningproductsforchildren.Primaryuser:Thepersonorgroupofpeoplewhowilluseaproductorsystem.Humanfactors:Thescientificdisciplineconcernedwiththeinteractionbetweenhumansandelementsofaproductand/orsystem;alsocalledergonomics.

4Chapter 1Identifyingrequirements Inindustry, designersconsiderall stakeholderswhowillhaveaninterestintheproducttheyaredesigning, not justthepersonorpeoplewhowillusetheproducts,orthepersonbuyingtheproduct. Whendesigning(forexample, whencompletingyourNEA),alwaystrytoconsider thewider stakeholdersthathaveaninterestinthedesignsyouaredeveloping,aswell as consideringhowtheprimaryuserwill interactwiththeproduct.Forexample:laskyour primaryuser whattheyfeel areimportantthingstoconsider.Youcanobservethedesigncontext andusesimilaroralternativeproducts;ltalktoother stakeholderswhohaveaninterestintheproduct/system(widerstakeholders); lget ongoingfeedbackfromtheprimaryuserandotherstakeholdersatthedevelopmental stage; lcompleteuser-testingwithdesignsandwithprototypes, allowingforfurtheriterationsalongthewaytoanoptimumsolution. Wheneveryouinteractwithstakeholdersyouwillneedtokeeparecordofyourquestionsandanyfeedbacktheyprovide.Youcoulddothisbytakingphotographsorvideos.Beforeapproachingstakeholdersyoumaycompleteataskanalysis-thinkingabout'who, why, what,where,whenandhow'willenableyoutodevelopalistofquestionsandtoplanwhatyouneedtofindoutfromanystakeholdersyouinteractwith.Perhapstheeasiestwaytoanalysethetaskistocreateaconceptmap(seeFigure1.2).Figure 1.4 The primary users Product toprovideaseat Portable Where? Who?What?More thanone functionWhen? Lightweight Foldaway Collapsible Detachable Handle to carry? Take pieces apart Outside - weather - rain- sun- wind- material needs topr otect Inside? against this - maybe ina tent or cabinBabies?ChildrenAdults for morethanoneperson?Elderly needs toallowpeopletosit comfortablyinnovative, fun! uniquedesign, boldshapes holds drink acts as a table as well fan when hot? shelter fromweather mini fridge could have wheels so you can push ppl around has heatinginseat in case coldportablespeakers?glows inthedarkfoldout table?storage all year different sorts of trips camping etc Figure 1.5 Exampleof taskanalysis Figure1.6Housingdesignhaschangedduetotheuseofnewbuildingmaterialsandtechnologiestolightandheatourhomesandconserveenergy

5ExploringthecontextofadesignsolutionSocial, cultural, moral andeconomicconsiderationsMaking, usinganddisposingof products at theendof their lifecancontributetopollutionanduse upresources. Someproducts genuinelyimprovethequalityoflifefortheusers, others might begoodinonesocietyor culture, but not sogoodinadifferentone. Someproducts arenot really neededat all. Newproducts canchangethewayweworkandlive. Traditional waysofdoingthingsaresometimes best, but inother situations improvedproductscanbuildandimproveonpastdesigns. Someproducts encouragesocial interaction, suchasthemobilephoneoramusicalinstrument. But theseproducts canalsomakeusmoreisolated. Every personhas a right tobasicfreedoms- enoughtoeat, safety, care(especiallytheyoungandelderly), a placetolive. Most successful productsneedtobeabletobeusedbyawidevariety of people, theelderly, left andright handersandthosewithdisability; wecall thisinclusive design. We alsoneedtoconsider economicissues, asmaking, usinganddisposingofproductswillhave animpact ontheeconomyandcreateor affect jobs. Forexample, manymodernproducts aremanufacturedbycomputer controlledsystems(CAM), resultinginthelossofjobs for skilledworkers infactories, but somenewjobsarecreated. Manyproductsthatwe buy are manufacturedbypeoplewhoarebadlypaidandwhoworkinpoorconditions, sometimes abroad. Culture relates totheideas andactivities of groupsof people. Itisaboutthewaythatpeoplebehave andrelatetooneanother; andhowtheylive, workandspendtheirleisuretime. Itis alsoabout beliefs andaspirations. Whenwedesignproductsorsystemswealwaysneedtolook beyondour ownexperiences. Weliveinaculturallyrichanddiversecountry, andas designers wehavearesponsibilitytorespect andunderstandthecultural beliefsanddifferences of others inorder toavoidgivingoffence. Cultures changewithtime, particularlywiththeinfluencesof newideas, newtechnologiesandthe availability - or scarcity- of resources. Inanincreasinglytechnological world, cultures canalsochangetothepoint of beinglost altogether. Forexample, traditionalskillsandtrades arelost becausetechnologychangesandoldskillsarenolongerneeded. We nowseesimilar products andbuildingdesigns all over theworld, as aresult of globalisation. Marketingstrategies bylargecompanies haveensuredthat thereareoutletsfor their products all over theworld. Thebigbrandnames infashion, fast foods, drinks, supermarkets, DIY stores, cars andmotorbikes canbeseeninmany parts of theworld, andthis product globalisationcreates cultural changeandtapsintonewmarkets. However, thereis alsoanincreasingdesiretopreserve cultural identity, traditions andlanguageandthis caninfluencedesigning. For example, traditional forms of dress mayre‑emergewhereonce suchforms might havebeenabandoned. KEYTERMSCulture:Theideasandactivitiesofgroupsofpeople;thewaythatpeoplebehaveandrelatetooneanother;thebeliefsandaspirationsofagroupofpeople.Globalisation:Businessesandorganisationsoperatinggloballyanddevelopinginternationalinfluence.Figure 1.7 Traditional forms of dress havechangedwith the influence of newmaterials, fashions, massproduction techniques andtheglobalisationof manufacturingindustries

6Chapter 1Identifyingrequirements Similarly, afterhavingtriedall sortsofhigh-techmaterials,somearchitectsarenowexploringtheuseofancientmaterialsandtechniquessuchasstraw,clayandrammedearth, whichhaveprovedtheirresistance.Aswecanseeinthecountlessstructuresstill standingthesedays, traditionalmaterialsdonotproducewaste, theyareeasilyrecyclableandtheyareobtainedfromrenewablesources. Theseareall qualitiesthatareimportantforasustainableeconomicfuture. Althoughmoreandmorenewtechnologiesarebeingdiscoveredthroughthesharingof ideasandinternationalcollaborations,manydesignersandmanufacturersarelookingtopasttraditionsandmethodstodevelopideas.KEYTERMSSustainableeconomicgrowth:Developmentthataimstosatisfytheeconomicneedsofhumanswhilesustainingnaturalresources(suchasmaterials) andtheenvironmentforfuturegenerations.Figure 1.8 HowtheKoreanhanbokdresswas transformedby Karl Lagerfeldin2015Figure 1.9 AmodernmudhousebyAustrianarchitect MartinRauch, comparedwithatraditionalmudhutinaMaasaivillagein Kenya It is alsoimportant toresearchandunderstandculturalissueswhendesigning.Forexample,colours havedifferent meaningsindifferentcultures. InWesterncultures,whitesymbolisespurity, peaceandcleanliness; bridestraditionallywearwhitedressesattheirweddings.ButinChina, KoreaandsomeotherAsiancountries, whiterepresentsdeath,mourningandbadluck, andistraditionallywornatfunerals. IslamicartisdifferentfromWesternart;withinsomeIslamictraditions, usingimagesof peopleisnotpermittedinreligiousartandgeometricpatternsareusedtocreateanimpressionofcontinuousrepetitionthatisbelievedbysometorepresent theinfinitenatureof God.

7UsabilitywhendesigningprototypesUsabilitywhendesigningprototypesLEARNINGOUTCOMESBy theendof this sectionyoushouldknowandunderstandwhyusabilityis animportant considerationwhendesigningprototypes➜theimpact of asolutiononauser'slifestyle➜theeaseof useandinclusivityof designsolutions➜ergonomic considerations andanthropometricdatatosupport easeof use➜theimportanceof aesthetics Designingany product involves considerationof manyfactors. Production, marketing, materials andcost areall important, but inrecent years designers haverealisedthat the humanusers must beacentral part of theprocess. If amanufacturer makes aproduct that is uncomfortableor unsafe, orthatpeoplefinddifficulttouse, the product will fail. Full considerationof usabilityisthereforeveryimportant, anddesigners needtoconsider thecharacteristicsandneedsof aproduct'susers. Observationis a key designmethodthat canbeusedtoidentifytheproblemsthatcanarisewhenpeopleinteract withproducts, servicesandenvironments. Alwaysdesignwiththeuser inmind. Theimpactofasolutiononauser'slifestyleAny newproduct has thepotential tochangethewayweliveandwork, productscanchange the way wecommunicatewithothers, useour leisuretimeandmakedaytodaytasks easier. Withtheuser inmind, it is important tounderstandhowthedesignofaproductandits ease of usecanimpact our lives: abadlydesignedproductcouldleadtodiscomfortandeveninjury. Easeof useandinclusivitySometimes a product is easyandstraightforwardtouse- t hinkof atoothbrush, for example. Thereareclear interfaces betweenyour handandthehandleandbetweenthebristles andyour teeth. Other products aremore complex touse, suchas asmartphoneor a car; for example, drivingacar involvesunderstandingthecontrols. The ease of useof a toothbrushdesignis mainly concernedwithphysical sizes andshapes of peopleandhowwell theygripor move muscles. Drivingacar or usingasmartphoneis morecomplicatedandinvolvesthe brainanda level of understanding. Thisrelationshipbetweenpeopleandtheobjectsthey use is referredtoas ergonomics. (Ergonomics is exploredinmoredetail later inthis section.) By consideringall thesefactors, a designer canimprovetheusabilityof anydesign/system. Figure1.10HumanusersshouldbeatthecentreofanydesignactivityFigure1.11Atoothbrushissimpletouse,whilecardashboardcontrolsareoftencomplexKEYTERMSUsability:Howeasyaproductistouse,howclearandobviousthefunctionsare.Ergonomics:Thestudyofhowweuseandinteractwithaproductorsystem.

8Chapter 1Identifyingrequirements InclusivedesignInclusivedesignaimstoremovethebarriersthatcreateundueeffortandseparation.Itenableseveryonetoparticipateequally, confidentlyandindependentlyineverydayactivities.This doesnot meanyouhavetodesignforall 7billionpeopleonEarth,butyoushouldaimtoexcludeasfewaspossible. Designhastraditionallycateredonlyfortheperceivedmajorityofso-callednormalusers.But what is'normal'?Mostof uswill sufferatleasttemporarydisabilityatsomepointinour lives; andwewill all growold. Wearealsovariouslytall, short,fat,maleorfemale.Allof thesefactorswill haveanimpactonhowweuseproducts.Inordertoensureeveryoneparticipatesfullyandenjoysequality, weneedtomoveawayfromthinkingabout'regular'and'specialised' designandcreateinclusivedesignsthatarenotdifficultforanyonetouse.ErgonomicconsiderationsandanthropometricdataErgonomicsErgonomicsisabout understandingtheinteractionsbetweenpeopleandthethingstheydo, theobjectstheyuse, andtheenvironmentstheywork, travelandplayin.Sometimesdescribedasthe'fit' betweenhumansandtheproductstheyuse,itisnotjustaboutsize,itis about howeasyit istounderstandhowtouseaproduct, throughawarenessoftheothersenses that usersdrawonwheninteractingwithit. If agoodfit isachievedthenpeoplearemorecomfortable, theycandothingsmorequicklyandeasily, andtheymakefewermistakes. Sowhenwetalkabout'fit',wedon'tjustmeanthephysical fit of aperson, weareconcernedwithhoweasyitistounderstandhowtouseaproduct, throughawarenessof theothersensesthatusersdrawonwheninteractingwithit.KEYTERMSInclusivedesign: Designingfor thewidest possible audience. Anthropometrics: The study of thesizes of the humanbody. Dimensions (mm) AgeRange5- 9AgeRange13-18AgeRange19-65Combined(Percentiles) Combined(Percentiles) Men(Percentiles)Women(Percentiles)5%50%95%5%50%95%5%50%95%5%50%95%1 Height 1058126414831470168518571630174518601510162017302 Eye level 895105511801456157017401520164017601410151516203 Shoulder height 843101411981184135215251340144515501240133014204 Elbowheight 61072080594510051170102011001180950102010905 Hip height 49661975473485599085093510207508208906 Knuckle height (f ist gripheight) 3754805656907208157007658306707207707 Fingertip height 2983904704206206956006757305606206808 Vertical reach (standingposition) 1241152118201758203322201950210022501810194020709 Forward grip reach(standing) 442531640594689809720790860660725790Figure 1.12 Anthropometric datafor standingKEYPOINTSlThe 50thpercentileis themost commonsize, theaverage. lThe 5thpercentileindicates that fiveper cent of people (or onepersonin20) is smaller thanthissize. lThe 95thpercentileindicates that fiveper cent of people (or onepersonin20) is larger thanthissize. lVery fewpeopleareextremelylargeor verysmall. lBe careful not tomix upergonomics andanthropometrics: aneasy waytoremember is'anthro' is maninGreekandmetrics shouldhelpyouremember measurements. AnthropometricsAnthropometricsarepeoplemeasurements.Anthropometricdatacomesintheformofchartsandtables. Itmayprovidespecificsizes,suchasfingerlengthsandhandspans, butitalsooffersaveragegroupsizesforpeopleofdifferentagerangesandgenders.Othersizestoconsiderareheight, reach, gripandsightlines.Theuseofpercentilesisanimportantaspectofanthropometrics. Thesizesofthehumanbodygiveninanthropometricdataareusuallypresentedintables,andnormallyincludethe5thpercentile(thesmallest5percent),the50thpercentile(theaverage)andthe95thpercentile(thelargest5percent). Lookattheanthropometricdatabelowandnoticethedifferentpercentilemeasurements.

9UsabilitywhendesigningprototypesApplyinganthropometricdataThe percentileyoufollowfromanthropometricdatatableswill dependonwhatisbeingdesignedandwhowill beusingit. Is theproduct for all potential users, orjusttheonesofabove or belowaveragedimensions? If youpicktheright percentile, 95percentofpeoplewill be able touseyour design. For example, adoorwayneedstobehighenoughtoallowthe 95thpercentiletopass through. STRETCHANDCHALLENGEConsider whichpercentileyouwouldneedtousefor thefollowingandexplainwhy:lThe size of a handlefor anupright vacuumcleaner. lVentilationslots inthecasingof anelectricmotor onalawnmower. lThe diameter of ascrew-topwater bottle. lThe zipona jacket. Examplesof usabilityinactionHand-heldtoolsHandtools includeanythingthat canbemanipulatedbyhand, for examplescissors or gardenshears. Abaddesignmay result inslower work andmoreerrors, andpossiblyaccidents or injury. Thegripandthelevel of muscleexertionneededtooperatethemmust alsobeconsidered. Thewrist angle is important, andslight contouringof thegripor flaredhandles canincreasecomfort andreduceslippageinsweaty hands. Longer handles distributetheforcesmoreevenly across thefingers. Whendesigninghand-heldtools, smoothhandlesthat require wrist rotationshouldbeavoidedbecauseof theincreasedrisk of slippageandrotational wrist damage. Paddinghandles helps toreducetheforceneededtogripthe tool. Theeffect of tool weight is alsoafactor. Useof rests, supports, two-handgrips andsooncanall helptodecrease theeffort requiredtouseheavytools. Try todesigntools andhand-helditems for operationwithbothhands. Whenonlyright-handedusers areconsidered, left-handersmaybeat anincreasedriskofinjury. Designof seatingApproximately 50per cent of peopleinthedevelopedworldsuffersomeformofbackcomplaint, whichis oftenrelatedtopoor seat design. Howwesitandwhatwesitonaffectsthe healthof thespine. Thereis nosingleideal sittingposture, andwecan'tdesignachairfor the best way tosit. What weneedis avarietyof chairsthatallowustositinavarietyofpostures that relatetothecontext theyaretobeusedin. Optimumseat height depends ontheuser andcontext theseatingisusedin, butanthropometric datais applied, sothat aminimumheight shouldbe380mmbasedonthe5thpercentileinwomen(seebelow). Seat contouringandcushioningcanhelptodistributeweight over a larger areaandpromotegoodposture. Thecorrectseatanglehelpsuserstomaintaingoodcontact withthebackrest. For most purposesafivetotendegreeangleisrecommended. Professional designers createfull-sizemock-upstotestcomfort; testingusingreal people is always recommended. Aircraft andcar designersbuildfull-scalemock-upsforuse withreal people, inorder totest thepsychological factors: notonlyphysical sizesbutalsohowpeoplerespondtoandhowtheyfeel about aprototype. Figure1.13ConsiderthedesignandusabilityofhandtoolsKEYTERMSPsychologicalfactors:Suchthingsasmentalreactiontime,variousacquiredmeaningsassociatedwithcertaincolours(e.g.redoftenmeansdanger),thecapabilitiesandlimitationsofshorttermmemory.

10Chapter 1Identifyingrequirements AestheticconsiderationsProductsandsystemshavetobedesignedtosuittheusers'needs.Theymustworkwell,beeasytouseandimproveourlives. Buttheyshouldalsoideallybeaestheticallypleasing.Aestheticsincludesall of thesenses: sight, hearing, touch, tasteandsmell.Apersoncouldbedrawntoaproduct becauseof oneoracombinationoftheseaestheticfactors-forexample, becauseof thevisual impactoftheproductorasaresultofitsshape,colourandtextureor feel. Productscanbeevaluatedaestheticallyusingvariousmeasuresasidefrombeauty.Wemight speakof objectsashavingahigh-techaesthetic, oraruggedaesthetic,oracalmingaesthetic. Aestheticjudgementispersonal (itissubjective), butvisualdesignelementscanbecombinedincertainwaystoevokeacommonemotionalresponse.Designerscombinedesignelementssuchasform, texture, scale, colourandsymmetryindifferentwaystosparkdifferent emotions. TheBauhaus, adesignschool foundedbyWalterGropiusinGermanyin1919,forexample,was veryinfluential inshapinganunderstandingofdesignandtaste.Designwasconsideredcrucial andintegral totheproductionprocessratherthanasmerelyavisualadd-on.'Formfollowsfunction' wasaphraseoftenusedtocountertheprevailingviewthatbeautywas achievedbyincludingadditional featuresanddecorationthatdidn'timproveaproduct'sfunction. Architectsandindustrial designersinthetwentiethcenturywerebeginningtoshowthat theformor shapeof anobjectshouldbebasedonitsintendedpurposeorfunction. Inessence, formandfunctionmustbebalancedandtheform(aesthetics)shouldalways communicatewithfunction. KEYTERMSAestheticallypleasing: Beautiful tothe senses. Aesthetics: Factors concernedwiththeappreciationof beauty - t his canincludehowsomethinglooks, sounds, feels, tastes andsmells. Figure 1.14 BarcelonaChair, Mies vander Rohe(1929) Figure1.15JuicySalif,lemonsqueezer,PhilippeStarck(1990)Examples of products that demonstrateasensitiveconsiderationofbothaestheticsandfunction

11UsabilitywhendesigningprototypesColour Colour is important inproduct design. It elicitsresponsesbystimulatingemotions, andcanbe usedtoexciteandpersuade. Colours canalsohavenegativeassociations, however. Adesigner must beawareof howpeoplerespondtocolour andcolourcombinations. Forexample, in1998ApplebrokewithtraditionbyintroducingiMaccomputersinawiderangeof colours. They realisedthat homecomputersdidnot needtolookliketheusual officemachine andthat customers wantedamorevisuallyinterestingandappealingdesign. Twoyears earlier, in1996, themediahadpronouncedAppleall butdead. Thecompanyhadlost$878 millionin1997, but under theguidanceof SteveJobsitearned$414millionin1998-itsfirst profit inthreeyears. This was thebeginningof theiProductrevolution. The success of theiMacwas downtoits simplicityinbothformandcolour-agreatexample of theform-follows-functionprinciple. After thereleaseof theiMac, multi-colouredtranslucent plastic housingbecamesuchacommonaestheticintheconsumerproductsindustry that Applehadtomoveonanditerate, droppingthebrightarrayofcoloursfromthe product linewiththereleaseof theflat-panel iMacin2002. Othercompaniesfollowedandnowmost consumer electronics devicesusebrushedaluminium, frostywhiteorglossyblack - t he colours of morerecent iMaciterations. KEYPOINTResearchsuggeststhat70percentofconsumerpurchasingdecisionsaremadein-store.Catchingtheconsumer'sattentionandconveyinginformationeffectivelyarecriticaltosuccessfulsales.Carefuluseofcolourcancatchaconsumer'seye.Figure 1.16 The original iMac (1998) andtheiMac2016iterationColoursandtypical meaningsTable 1.1 Colours andtheir typical meanings Red Aggressive, passion, strongandheavy, danger, socialism, heatBlue Comfort, loyalty, for boys, sea, sky, peaceandtranquillity, conservativism,coldYellowCaution, springandbrightness, joy, cowardice, sunlight Green Money, health, jealousy, greed, food, natureBrown Nature, agedandeccentric, rustic, soil andearth, heavinessOrange Warmth, excitement andenergy, religion, fire, gaudinessPink Soft, healthy, childlikeandfeminine, gratitude, sympathyPurple Royalty, sophisticationandreligion, creativity, wisdomBlack Dramatic, classy andserious, modern, evil, mourningGrey Business, coldanddistinctive, humility, neutralityWhite Clean, pure andsimple, innocent, elegant, peace

12Chapter 1Identifyingrequirements ThecolourwheelThefirst colour wheel wasproducedbySirIsaacNewtonin1666.Allcoloursarederivedfromtheprimarycoloursof red, yellowandblue. Theprimarycoloursmixtoproducethesecondarycolours(green, orangeandpurple), whichsitbetweentheprimarycoloursonthewheel. Colour harmonyisachievedwhencolourscombinetocreateorder,balanceandasenseof pleasure- f or example, coloursnexttoeachotheronthecolourwheelcreatevisualharmony, asinared, orangeandyellowsunset. Complementarycoloursareoppositeeachother onthecolour wheel, forexampleredandgreen. Opposingcolourscreatemaximumcontrast andtheycanworkwell together, asseeninnature; sometimesdesignerschoosecolours tocreatecontrastandimpactratherthanharmony. Figure 1.17 Colour wheel showingprimaryandsecondarycolours Figure1.18RedandgreenworkwelltogetherinnatureProportionandsymmetryProportionreferstotherelativesizeandscaleofthepartsinadesign.Itistherelationshipbetweenobjectsor betweenpartsofawhole. Thismeansthatweneedoftentoconsiderproportionintermsof thecontextoruserinordertodetermineproportions.Symmetrycreatesbalance,andbalanceindesigninturncreatesharmony,orderandaestheticallypleasingresults.Symmetryisfoundeverywhereinnature,andthisisprobablywhywefinditsobeautiful.Symmetrycanbereflective(amirrorimage)orrotational(turnedaroundacentralaxis).Toomuchsymmetry,however,canbeboring.Asymmetryisabreakinsymmetrythat,whenusedeffectively,canmakethingsmoreinterestingfromadesignpointofview.KEYTERMSProportion: Therelative size andscale of the various elements ina design. Symmetry: Whenelements are arrangedinthe same way onbothsides of anaxis or whenrotatedarounda point. Asymmetry: Theabsence of symmetry of any kind. Figure1.19Symmetrycreatesaestheticallypleasingresults

14Chapter 2L earningfromexistingproducts andpracticeSuccessful product designinvolveslearningfromotherdesignswithsimilarfeatures.Professional designersanalyseexistingproductsasakeystageinthedesignanddevelopment of newproducts, orasastartingpointforfurtherdevelopmentorredesign.Wecanlearnfromthematerialsandtechnologiesthathavebeenused,fromhowtheproduct wasmadeandhoweasyitistouseandunderstand.Inthecommercialworldthis canresult inthedevelopmentof amorecompetitiveproduct.Itcanalsohelpidentifyfeaturesof successful productsthatcanbeimproved, andfindtechnologiesthatcanbeusedindifferent ways. OpportunitiesandconstraintsthatinfluencedesignandmakingrequirementsLEARNINGOUTCOMESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowandunderstandhowtoexploreandcritiqueexistingdesigns, systemsandproductstoidentifyfeaturesandmethods,including: ➜howtoidentifymaterials, componentsandprocessesthathavebeenused➜howfashion, trends, tasteand/orstylehaveinfluencedexistingproducts➜theinfluenceofmarketingandbranding➜theimpact onsociety➜theimpact onusability➜theimpact ontheenvironment➜lifecycleassessment➜theworkof pastandpresentprofessionalsandcompaniesintheareaofDesignandTechnologyLearningfromexistingsolutionsisoneofthemostvaluablesourcesofinformationfor designers. Exploringandcritiquingexistingdesigns,systemsandproductsWhenexploringexistingproducts, youneedtounderstandthechoicesthedesignerandmanufacturer madeinordertoensurethattheproductisfitforpurposeanduse.Thiscanincludethefollowing: lFunctionlMaterialsandcomponentslMethodsof constructionandmanufacturelErgonomicandanthropometricconsiderationslAesthetics, fashionandstylelHowtheproduct impactstheenvironmentduringitsuselEaseof recyclinglHowtheproduct hasbeeninfluencedbytheworkofpastandpresentdesigners.CHAPTER2Learningfromexistingproductsandpractice

15OpportunitiesandconstraintsthatinfluencedesignandmakingrequirementsWhenanalysingexistingproducts, trytoexamineactual productsratherthanimages. Thishelps youget a true'feel' for theproduct andestablishitsstrengthsandweaknesses. Ifyouaren't the user of theproduct, observetheproduct inusebyitsprimaryusers. The study of existingproducts andcontextscandevelopunderstandingofothertopicsincludedinthis course, suchas materials considerations, manufacturingprocesses, technicalunderstanding, ergonomics, andinclusivedesignandwider issues, suchaslearningwhyhistorical andcurrent professionals haveapproacheddesignindifferentways. Whenapproachingtheanalysis of existingproductsyoushouldidentifythefeaturesoftheproduct andask yourself questions about them, for example: lStart by analysingtheaesthetics (appearance) of theproduct-i tscolour, shape, proportions andtexture. Does it haveanyspecial finishesorprotectivecomponents?Isitobvious howtheproduct functions?lWhat is thefunctionof theproduct?Doesit functionwell, andhowisthisfunctionachieved? Is theproduct successful?Whereistheproductintendedtobeusedandbywhom(context)? lIs it mass or batchproduced, andwhat manufacturingmethodshavebeenused?Whatmaterials havebeenused? Aretheir propertiessuitablefor thisuse?Cantheyeasilyberecycledat theendof theproduct's life?Doestheproductuseenergy, andifsohowisthis created? Is theproduct easytomaintain, andcanpartsbereplaced?Materials, componentsandprocessesIt is useful toquestionwhyadesigner haschosenparticular materials, componentsorprocesses. Their choices will bedependent uponthecontextforwhichtheirdesignsolutionis intended, andarelikelytobebasedonthefollowingconsiderations: lWhere andhowis theproduct tobeused?lWhat aretheneeds of theprimaryuser andwider stakeholders?lWhat arethesocial, cultural, moral andeconomicfactorsthatinfluencedthedecisionsabout whichmaterials, processes andcomponentstouse?Analysingexistingproducts that aremadefrommultiplematerialsandrelevanttothecontext andusers they aredesignedfor canhelpyoutodevelopunderstandingoftheproperties anduses of materials, andwhytheyhavebeenchosen. Foranygivencontext, existingproducts canbestudiedindepthtodevelopunderstandingofthephysical andworkingproperties of specificmaterials and/or systemcomponents, andoftheuseofstandardcomponents suchas clips, fastenersandbindings; hinges, bracketsandscrews; andrivets, hinges, caps, fasteners andbolts. Analysingproductsalsodevelopsanawarenessofthe processes that canbeusedtoensurethestructural integrityof aproduct(forexampletriangulation, plastic webbingandreinforcing). Youcanidentifythemethodsusedtoshape, fabricate, construct andassembleitems, suchasperforatingandfolding, steamingandpressing, bending, castingandvacuumforming. Youcanalsoidentifythemethodsusedformanufacturingat different scales of production, for exampleone-off, bespokeproduction, batchproductionandmass production.

16Chapter 2L earningfromexistingproducts andpracticeMoreinformationonmaterials, componentsandprocessescanbefoundinSection2ofthis textbook. STRETCHANDCHALLENGESelect aproduct, andlist thematerialsandcomponentsthathavebeenusedtomakeit.Identifywhythedesigner selectedeachone.Youshouldconsider: lcost lpropertieslaestheticsDisassemblyDisassembling(takingapart) apieceofmachineryoraproductcanbeagoodwaytoexamineit indetail, toseehowmanymaterialsandcomponentsitismadefromandhowtheyareassembledandconstructed. Considereachpart, andalsowhatmighthappentoitat theendof itsuseful life. Figure 2.1 Examples of products fromdifferent material categories canbeusedto developknowledgeof materials, properties andconstructional techniques, and understandingof structural integrity ACTIVITYSelectaproductfromyourchosenin-depthareasoflearninganddisassembleitifpossible.lTakephotosoftheproductonceseparatedintoallcomponentparts.lWhatmaterialshavebeenusedandwhy?lWhatmethodsofconstructionandmanufacturehavebeenusedandwhy?lWhatergonomicandanthropometricmeasurementshavebeenconsidered?lWhatstrengthsandweaknessescanyoulistrelatingtotheproduct?lHoweasyistheproducttodisassemble,andcouldpartsberecycled?Figure 2.2 Disassemblingapieceof machinerycanbeagoodway to examine it indetail

17OpportunitiesandconstraintsthatinfluencedesignandmakingrequirementsKEYTERMSEthical:Correct,goodorhonourable.Aimforanethicalapproachwhenyouaredesigningproducts.Marketpull:Aneedforaproductthatarisesfromcustomersormarketresearchtosolveaneed,ortocompetewithaproductlaunchedbyanothermanufacturer.Marketing:Thebusinessofpromotingandsellingaproduct;canincludeadvertisingandpromotion,andmarketresearch.Technologypush:Whenresearchanddevelopmentofnewtechnologydrivesnewproductdevelopment,e.g.touchscreenandfingerprinttechnologyinsmartphones.Twenty-firstcenturydesign:Currentandforward-thinkingdesignthatconsiderstheevolvingpracticeofdesigntoshapebehaviorforapreferablefuture.Fashion, trends, tasteand/orstyleThroughout designhistorytherehavebeendistinctivestylesthatcanbelinkedtoaperiodintime. FromtheVictorianperiodtopostmodernism, manycontinuetoinfluencedesignerstoday. lVictorian1830s- 1890s lArt nouveau1890- 1905lDe Stijl 1914- 31lBauhaus 1919- 35lStreamlining1930- 1950lScandinaviandesign1935- present lArt deco1925-39lOrganicdesign1930-presentlPopart 1960slMemphis1980-90lMinimalistdesign1960s-presentDesigners areabletoemulatestyles of thepast or follownewtrends, andmanufacturersproduce theseproducts usingmodernmaterialsandmanufacturingprocesses. Inthetwenty-first century, fashionis veryfast-movingandcanbeinfluencedbyanynumberof factors. Recent trends across various areasof designincludeecodesignandethicalapproaches todesign, for example. Manycompaniesemploytrendforecasterstopredictwhat will beinfashionmanyseasons aheadandwhat will influencethemarket. Theseforecasters canpredict themood, behaviour andbuyinghabitsof consumersall overthe world. Twenty-first centurydesignisdevelopingwiththeabilitytoreflectonthe successes of thepast, but beinvolvedintheinventionsof thefuturethroughtheadvancement of newtechnologies, global endeavour andchangesinwaysofthinking. STRETCHANDCHALLENGEChoose one of the styles listedaboveandresearchindetail thematerialsassociatedwiththe era. Howdidtheseinfluenceshapeandform?MarketingandbrandingMarketingandbrandingarewell establishedtoolsthat influencecustomerdecisions. Theaimof all advertisingandmarketingactivityistoinfluencepotential customers, topersuadethemtobuy theadvertiser's product andthereforeallowacompanytomakemoney. Formarketingtobesuccessful inthefirst place, thereneedstobeademandfortheproduct. Itistherefore vital tounderstandwhothetarget market isandtodesignthemarketingtodrawthemin. The manufacturingindustrymust takeintoaccount customer requirementsinordertodevelopnewandimprovedproducts withacompetitiveedge. Newproductsareusuallydevelopedeither becauseof market pull, whereconsumersdemanda particular typeof product, or bytechnologypush, wherenewmaterials and/or technologiesleadtoinnovative products that arereleasedontothemarket. Newmaterials andtechnologies cancauseproductstobecome obsolete; sometimes companiesplanfor products tobecomeobsolete, whichis knownasplannedobsolescenceandis coveredinchapter 3. Successful marketingusuallyincludes promotingabrandimage anddevelopingnewmarkets for theproduct. A'brand' canbea nameor alogo, andsomebrandscanbeincredibly influential onthedecisiontobuy. If aparticular brandis 'infashion' it canbeextremelyprofitablefor thecompany. Theproduct qualitymaybecomparabletoasimilar non-brandeditem, but theadditionof abrandor logocaninfluencethebuyingdecision. Figure2.3Oneexamplewherebrandingisaprimeinfluencingfactoriswithinthesportswearmarket;sportswearisnowwornbymanypeopleintheirdailylife,andnotjustforsports

18Chapter 2L earningfromexistingproducts andpracticeImpactonsocietyWhenanalysingproducts, youneedtoconsidertheirimpactonsocietyandpeople.Peopleindifferent countriesandcultureswill havedifferentfeelingstowardsproducts(thinkoftheearlier exampleof differinginterpretationsofcolours). It is not onlycultural differences-societyiscontinuallychanging,andpeople'stastesandfashionsreflect this. Oneexampleisthegrowingpopularityofsocialmedia.Youngconsumershavegrownusedtomobilephonesandcomputers, andtheyoungergenerationpreferstousedigital technologytoconnectwithpeopleandshoponline, whileolderpeoplemayprefertosticktotraditional methodsorfindithardertoadapttonewtechnologies.Productscanhavenegativeaswell aspositiveimpactsonsociety.Forexample,increasinguseof digital productsismakingusmoresedentary, contributingtoincreasinglevelsofobesityinsociety. ImpactonusabilityWhenanalysingproducts, considertoohowusability, ergonomicsandappearancehavebeenincorporatedintothedesign, whilestill maintainingfunction.Identifytheergonomicfeaturesinadesignandconsiderhowanthropometricdatawasused. Asanexample, inagarliccrusher, thelengthoftheleverandwidthofthegripandtheforceneededtocrushagarlicclovehaveall beentakenintoaccount.Theedgeswillberoundedfor comfort, andthedesignerwill haveconsideredthesizeofusers'hands(anthropometricdata) inordertoimproveusabilityandergonomics.Howdoyouthinkitcouldberedesigned?Figure 2.4 Think about howadvances inmaterialsandtechnology have affectedsomeof thedomesticproductsweuse. Since Hotpoint's first electrical ironwasintroducedin1905, much of thedesignhas stayedthesame, but modernirons have more safety features, thermostatsandsteamfunctions andaremorelightweight andergonomic, whichall improve usability. Figure2.5Thinkaboutthedevelopmentofthevacuumcleaner, fromcarpetsweeperstothefirstelectricalmodelsintheearly1900s,totoday'sDysoncord-freebaglessmodels, andevenroboticversionsthatmakehouseholdchoreseasierforusallSTRETCHANDCHALLENGEChooseamechanical or electrical domesticproductandresearchhowithaschangedovertheyears as materials, manufacturingtechniquesandtechnologyhavebeendeveloped.

19OpportunitiesandconstraintsthatinfluencedesignandmakingrequirementsTheenvironmentandlifecycleassessmentOne of the mainissues relatingtoproduct development istheimpactontheenvironmentthroughtheconsumptionof energyandmaterials. Inthepast, keepingdevelopmentcostsdownandproduct prices lowtendedtobemoreimportantthanconsideringtheimpactonthe environment whenusingmaterials andmanufacturingproducts. This, combinedwiththe influenceof advertising, encouragingustobuymoreproductsandincreasingdemandfor newproducts, has resultedinproductsfloodingthemarket, encouragingathrowawaysociety/junk culture. This inturnaffects theenvironment asaresultof boththeproductionandfinal disposal of products. Inrecent years, however, peoplehaverealisedthat theimpactontheenvironmentofcertainmanufacturingprocesses canbeirreversible, andthat certainmaterialswill runoutifwecontinue tousethem. This has resultedinconsumersandcompaniesseekingwaystobeenvironmentally friendly, andis supportedbytheintroductionof lawsthatforcecompaniestorecycle or disposeof products inawaythat ismoreenvironmentallyfriendlyattheendoftheir life. Many designers today encouragetheuseof environmentallyfriendlyandsustainablemethods of manufactureandmaterials; andsomedesignersarecontantlylookingtonewmaterial developments that areenvironmentallyfriendly. Productsthatcaneasilybedisassembledat theendof their lifearebeingdeveloped, aswerealisetheimportanceofmovingtowards a circular economy, whereall wastecanbeputbackintothesystemandreusedor recycled. This topicis coveredfullyinChapter 3. Whendisassemblingproducts, thinkabout howeasyit istotaketheproductapartandrecycle the components. Couldfittings beredesignedtomakedisassemblyeasier?Couldtheproduct be madefromfewer parts andmaterials, andbebetterfortheenvironment?Canitbe rethought? Theworkof pastandpresentprofessionalsandcompaniesintheareaof DesignandTechnologyThere are many examples of designers past andpresent whohaveledthedevelopmentof newtechnologies, anduseof materialsandaestheticsinproducts. Thesedesignersareofteninfluencedby aparticular styleor movement that mightbecurrentorhistorical. Whenyoulook at Braun's products byDieter Ramsyoucanseehowtheyhaveinfluencedcurrentdesigns by Jonny Iveat Apple, intheuseof minimal colour andsimplicity; infashionwecansee the influenceof CocoChanel indress andaccessorydesignbyOscardelaRentaandDonna Karan. As weadvancefurther intothetwenty-first century, designersarebecomingmore involvedincollaborations withscientistsandtechnologiststoincorporatenewtechnological developments intoproducts, ensuringtheir knowledgeandunderstandingofdesignoffers a greater potential for newproductsandtechnologiestosucceed. ACTIVITYChooseadesignstyleordesignerandresearchthemaininfluencesintheirstyle.Produceanimageboardandidentifythekeysimilaritiesinstyle.KEYTERMSCirculareconomy:Analternativetoatraditionallineareconomy(manufacture,use,dispose),inwhichweuseresourcesforaslongaspossiblethenreuseandregenerateproductsandmaterials;acradle-to-cradlemodel.Throwawaysociety:Asocietyinfluencedbyconsumerismandexcessiveconsumptionofproducts.

20Chapter 2L earningfromexistingproducts andpracticeHowdevelopmentsindesignandtechnologyinfluencedecisionsLEARNINGOUTCOMESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowandunderstandhownewandemergingtechnologiesinfluenceandinformdesigndecisions,includingbothcontemporaryandpotential futurescenariosfromperspectivessuchas:➜ethics➜theenvironment➜product enhancement. CriticalevaluationofhownewandemergingtechnologiesinfluenceandinformdesigndecisionsWhenexaminingproductsanddevelopingthemtomakeuseofthelatesttechnologies,whether inthedesign, materialsormanufacturing, itiscrucialtobeabletoevaluatethewider impact of newandemergingtechnologies. Therewillalwaysbeargumentsfor andagainst adoptingthem; newtechnologiescanhaveallkindsofimpactsonpeopleandsociety(bothpositiveandnegative), aswellasgivingrisetoeconomicandenvironmental issues. Not everyproduct that usesnewtechnologiesisimmediatelysuccessful.OneveryfamousexampleistheSinclair C5, launchedin1985asasmallone-personbattery-assistedvehicle.Sir CliveSinclair himself saidin2005thattheC5'wasearlyforwhatitwas.Peoplereactednegativelyandthepressdidn'thelp. Itwastoolowdownandpeoplefeltinsecure,henceit got badpress.' Professor StuartColeoftheUniversityofSouthWalesbelievestheC5sufferedasaresult of thedesignof theroadsandattitudesofthetime:'Inthedaysbeforeunleadedpetrol, your facewouldhavebeenattheheightofeveryexhaustpipe,anddriversweren't usedtohavingtoconsiderslower-movingcyclists. Butwithmorecyclelanes,bettereducation, andworkplacesprovidingshowers, etc., theworldnowismuchmoregearedupfor peoplelookingfor alternativestothecar, andhopefullywillbecomeevenmoresointhefuture.' AnotherexampleisGoogleGlass.In2013Googleallowedseveral thousandpeopletopaytotesttheirprototype.Itwasmetwithhypeandcelebrityendorsement,withtechmagazinescallingitagreatinvention.Usersreportedbugs, however, andprivacyconcernswereraised,eventuallyleadingGoogletostopproductionoftheproduct, buttheyarestilllookingatfutureiterations.Itisgoodtorememberthatcompaniesthatcreateproductsthatfaillearnfromthem.BeforetheiPad,ApplereleaseditsprototypewiththeAppleNewtonin1993. Thiswasapersonaldigitalassistantthatwastooexpensive; theaverageconsumerhadnouseforapersonal digitalassistantintheearlynineties.ApplediscontinuedtheNewtonin1998.Figure 2.6 The Sinclair C5, GoogleGlass andAppleNewton: perhaps all these products havehelpedinspirefutureproductsor will returninanother forminfutureKEYTERMSEmergingtechnologies: Newtechnologies that are currently beingdeveloped, or will bedevelopedwithinthenext five totenyears.

21HowdevelopmentsindesignandtechnologyinfluencedecisionsEthics, theenvironmentandproductenhancementEthicsWiththe useof any newtechnologies andthedevelopmentof newproducts, theimpactonthe environment will result inethical decisions; howcompaniesmanagewasteanduseresources needs consideration. Newproductscanput pressureonpeopletokeepupwiththe latest gadgets as well as creatingwaste. Oftentheminingof mineralsandmetalsneededfor electronic gadgets cancausepolitical problemsincountriesaswell asaffectingthelandscape andhabitat. TheenvironmentWaste generatedby obsoleteproducts cancreateenvironmental issuesascantheextractionandprocessingof rawmaterials intoproducts; thistopicisdealtwithindepthinchapter3. Product enhancementMany companies enhanceproducts regularly. Anenhancementisachangeorupgradethat increases a product's capabilities. Communicationandsoftwarecompaniesregularlyprovide softwareor hardwareenhancements, whichcansometimescauseotherproductstobecome obsolete. This canhaveaneffect ontheenvironment. Plannedobsolescenceiscoveredindetail inChapter 3. Meetingcustomer requirements increasinglyrequiresconstantupgradingofproductswithnewtechnologies. Newtechnology, however, must bemanaged. Thisisespeciallytrueforelectronic systems wheretechnologylifeisoftenveryshort. Tothecustomerthismeansthatimprovedperformancefromupgradedandnewtechnologiesismoreeasilyavailableandaffordable, but companies must thinkabout compatibilitywitholdertechnologiesandthiscansometimes hinder development. ACTIVITY1 What are the latest technological developmentswithinyourchosenareaofin-depthlearning?2 Howhas this development benefitedthefunctionof aproductofyourchoice?3 Discuss the advantages anddisadvantages of usingnewtechnologiesinproducts.4 Discuss examples wherenewtechnologyor anupgradehascausedanexistingproductto become obsolete.

22Chapter 3I mplications of wider issues Newtechnologyisconstantlyemerging, sothatexistingtechnologyeitherbecomesoutdatedor needstoberefinedandimproved. Significantchangesintechnologyareboundtooccur that arelikelytohaveamajorimpactonourlifestyle,industriesandtheenvironment. Thechallengeistoidentifytheseanddecidewhatwillactuallybeagame-changer, andwhat will simplybeabrieffad. Designersalsoneedtoconsidertheimplicationsofotherwiderissuesthatarisewhendesigningandmakingproducts, includingchoosingappropriateenergysourcestomakeproductsandpower systems, aswell asotherwiderenvironmental,socialandeconomicissues that canhaveaninfluenceontheprocessesofdesigningandmaking.TheimpactsofnewandemergingtechnologiesLEARNINGOUTCOMESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowandunderstandtheimpactsofnewandemergingtechnologieswhendevelopingdesignsolutionswithindifferentcontextson: ➜industryandenterprise, suchasthecirculareconomy,➜people, inrelationtolifestyle,cultureandsociety➜other environment➜sustainability. All newtechnologywill haveanimpactonourlives, andwhileitprovidesmanybenefitstherearealsodownsides. Weneedtoconsiderethicalandmoralissuesthatmayarise,forexample, andassessthelikelyimpactonbusiness, industry, individualsandtheenvironmentwelivein. Inorder tounderstandthewiderimplicationsthatemergingtechnologiesmighthave,consider somerecent technological advancesandtheirimpact.For example, internet searchenginesbringaccesstoallkindsofinformation,fromlocalrestaurant reviewstointernational news. Theinternetalsoprovideseffectivemeansofcommunication, includingemail andinstantmessaging. Ithasenabledglobalisation,withcompaniesabletomaketransactionswithclientsandsuppliersworldwide.Wecantracktheweather, or accessmillionsof books, journalsandothermaterials,withaclick,facilitatinglearning. Sometimes, though, theinternetcanhavenegativeeffects.Peoplecanbecomeaddictedtousingsocial networks, bevictimsofcyberbullying,computervirusesorevenonlinefraud. Illegallydownloadingcopyrightedmaterialaffectsthemusicindustryinparticular, threateningartists' livelihoods. Perhapslessobviousistheeffectof theinternetonourenvironment.Onlineshoppingresults infuel usefor deliveries, andthereforeairpollution, althoughitdoesalsoreduceshortjourneysmadebyindividuals. Ithasmadegoodseasiertogetholdof,however,meaningthat wemight upgradeproductsmoreoften. Choiceslikebuyingane-bookinsteadofaprintedbook, watchingafilmonlineratherthanonDVD, ororganisingaworkmeetingtoCHAPTER3Implicationsofwiderissues

23Theimpactsofnewandemergingtechnologiestake place onSkyperather thanflyingfromNewYorktoLondontomeetfacetoface, allreduce environmental impact. However, Melbourne-basedresearchcentreCEETestimatedthat the telecommunications industryas awholeemittedover800milliontonnesofcarbondioxide in2013, andthat theenergydemandsof theinternetcoulddoubleby2020. CEET reports that theinternet nowaccountsfor almost 2per centof theworld'senergyconsumption, whichmeans that if theinternet wereacountryitwouldrankasthefifthlargest for energy consumption. Artificial intelligenceArtificial intelligenceis consideredbysometobeathreat toemployment. Will newtechnologies - f romindustrial robots toadvancesinmachinelearning-l eadtomassunemployment? Artificial intelligenceagentsarealreadyinvolvedineveryaspectofourlives, however - t hey keepour inboxes freeof spam, theyhelpusmakeourwebtransactions, they fly our planes andtheymaysoondriveour cars. Robotshavealreadyrevolutionisedmanufacturing, too, as demonstratedbymoderncar assembly. Workcontinuestodeveloprobots that canfunctionindependentlyandsafelyinanormal environment. BiometricsThe most obvious useof biometrics is inour passports, wheretheyhaveallowedtheuseofautomatedpassport checks. Elsewhere, theuseof biometricsisbecomingmorecommon- f or example, fingerprint scanners areusedfor avarietyof purposesincludingrecordingarrival anddeparturetimes at places of work. Virtual realityCurrent virtual reality is impressive, andis increasinglyusedfor trainingpurposes. It is veryexpensivebut evensoit allows trainingthat wouldotherwisebeimpossible, for exampleallowingpilots topractiseemergency routines. DronesDrones are already usedinnumerous industries, fromretail tomanufacturing. This is currentlystill newtechnology, but theuseof unmannedflyingobjectscouldchangetheworldinwhichwelive. Droneshave the potential tocarryout courier roles, resultinginjoblosses, but therewill alsobeaneedfor moretechnically skilledpeopletomanageanefficient dronedelivery network. ImpactontheenvironmentDesigningproducts tolast has becomeincreasinglyimportantinthetwenty-firstcentury. We all want thelatest technologyanddesigns, however. Youmightfinditfunnywhenyoucome across a product that your parentsor grandparentsusethatseemsreallyoldfashioned, likea vacuumcleaner withabag, achunkyTVthatlookslikeitbelongsinamuseum, or a CDplayer. If theseitems still function, though, whydoweneednewones?Ascompanies introducetechnologies, manyoldproductsbecomeobsoleteanditmightgetharder tofindthevacuumcleaner bags, buyCDsaseasily, or haveaccesstoasmanyfeaturesor be able tolink a product toanewdigital system. Figure3.1Newtechnology:drones

24Chapter 3I mplications of wider issues PlannedobsolescencePlannedobsolescenceisdeliberatelymakinganitemoutofdatebystoppingitssupplyor servicesupport andbyintroducinganewermodelorversion.Thisistoencourageconsumerstoupgrade, andiscommoninthecomputerindustry,forexample.Washingmachinesandwhitegoodsarealsodesignedwithplannedobsolescenceinmind,meaningtheywill last onlyafewyears. Twoorthreeyearsafterpurchase,awashingmachinemight needonlyminor, inexpensiverepairs. Afterfourorfiveyears,however,thevitalpartswill begintowear out, thecompanywon'tprovidereplacementsandanewmachinewillbeneeded. Another exampleisamobilephone. Mobilephonesareoftendesignedwithonlycurrenttechnologyinmind, despitethemanufacturers' knowledgeoffuturetechnologicaldevelopments. For instance, amobilephonemighthaveconnectorsandchargersthatfitcurrent products, suchasheadphonesandcomputers. Eventuallythe'old'USBconnectionswill beupgradedandthiswill maketheproductobsolete. Thecustomerwillthereforeneedanewphone, eventhoughtheiroldonestill works. Sometimesthesechangesarephasedinandcompanieswill havethechangesplannedyearsahead. Sometimesplannedobsolescencecanbeapositivething-newproductssuchasmedicalsyringesanddisposal razorscanavoidthespreadofinfections.Whileapartlydisposabletoothbrushisunavoidable, youcanreduceupto93percentoftoothbrushwastebychoosingareuseablehandlewithreplaceableheads. Whatcanyoudoasaconsumer?Wecanall contributetowardssavingresourcesandenergyby:lconservingenergywhereverpossible: turningdowncentralheating,sharingtravel,walkingor usingabikelmakingdecisionsonwhetherpoweredproductsandsystemsarenecessary;areallgadgetsactuallyuseful?lusingenergy-efficientproducts: refrigerators, freezers, washingmachines,carswithgoodfuel consumptionlusingappliancesefficiently: fillingdishwashers, boilingjustenoughwaterinkettleslchoosingreuseableproductsoverdisposableoneslbuyingproductsthatcanbeupgradedorrepairedlchoosingproductswithminimal packaging, reducingthewastethatyoucreate.SustainabilitySustainabilityreferstotheconceptofmeetingtheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityof futuregenerationstomeettheirownneeds.Itappliestoeconomicdevelopment, environment, foodproduction, energyandsocialorganisation.Makingproductssustainablemeansconsideringthelong-termeffectsthatusingtechnologyandmaterialstocreateproductswill have. Wemust designwithsustainabilityinmind, whichmeansdoingthefollowing:lChoosingnon-toxic, sustainableorrecycledmaterialsthatdon'trequireasmuchenergytoprocess. lManufacturingandproducingproductsusinglessenergy.lMakingproductsfuel- andmaterial-efficient. lProducingproductsthatarelong-lastingandbetter-functioningsothereislessreplacement anduseof products. lDesigningproductsthatcanberecycledwhentheiruseisdone(disassembly).lDevelopingproductsthatareprofitablebutalsoofferincometoproducers.lConsideringtheimpactsof adesignonall ofthestakeholdersinvolvedinitsdevelopment. KEYTERMSPlannedobsolescence: Thebusiness practiceof deliberately outdatinganitembefore theendof its useful life.

25TheimpactsofnewandemergingtechnologiesYoucanusethefollowingquestions toassesssustainability: lRethink: Howcanit dothejobbetter?Isthereanother wayof doingit altogether? Is it energyefficient?Hasit beendesignedfor disassembly? lReuse: Whichparts canI useagain?Howeasyisit totakeapart?Has it another valuableusewithout recyclingor discardingit?lRecycle: Howeasy is it totakeapart?Canthematerialsberecycled? Howmuchenergywouldit taketoreprocessmaterials?lRepair: Whichparts arelikelytofail or wear?Howeasyisittoreplace parts? lReduce: Whichparts arenot needed?Doweneedasmuchmaterial? Canwesimplifytheproduct?lRefuse: Is it really necessary? Is it goingtolast?Isit fairtrade?Isit toounfashionabletobetrendyandtoocostlytobestylish?Isthere somethingethicallywrong? Is it madefrommaterial thatis scarce? Circular economyAcircular economy is analternativetoatraditional linear economy (make, use, dispose), inwhichwekeepresourcesinuse for as longas possible, extract themaximumvaluefromthemwhile they areinuse, thenrecover andregeneratepartsandmaterials at theendof their life. CradletocradleIncradle-to-cradleproduction(as opposedtocradle-to- grave), all material inputs andoutputs areseeneither astechnical or biological nutrients. Technical nutrientscanberecycledor reusedwithnoloss of quality, andbiological nutrients canbecompostedor consumed. The followingaresomeexamples of this approachinaction: lSports brandAdidas andenvironmental initiativeParleyfor the Oceans releasedtrainers withuppersmadeusingrecycledplastic recoveredfromthesea. ParleyalsopartneredwithG-Star RAWtoproducecollectionsof denimgarments madefromrecycledplasticsremovedfromtheoceans. lLauffenmuhleinventedatextileyarndesignedfor workwear suchas uniforms, whichusesablendof cellulosic fibres derivedfromFSC-certifiedwood(Forest StewardshipCouncil sustainablysourcedwood) andbiodegradablesyntheticpolymers. lBill Stumpf andDonChadwickdesignedtheAeronChair tobe sparingof natural resources, durableandrepairable, andconstructedfor easeof disassemblyandrecycling. Figure3.2CircularvslineareconomyFigure3.3TheAeronChairSTRETCHANDCHALLENGEFind your ownexamples of cradle-to-cradleproductionand the circular economy.

26Chapter 3I mplications of wider issues ChoosingappropriatesourcesofenergyLEARNINGOBJECTIVESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowandunderstand:➜Howdesignerschooseappropriatesourcesofenergytomakeproductsandpower systems➜Thegenerationofelectricityandhowenergyisstoredandtransferred.➜Theappropriateuseinproductsandsystemsofrenewableandnon-renewablesourcesincludingfossil fuels,nuclearfuel,bio-fuel,wind,hydro-electricity,tidalandsolar. Manycountriesalreadyhavehugeenergydemandsanddemandforenergycontinuestoincrease, particularlyasdevelopingcountriesemergeasrapidlygrowingindustrialpowerswithplansfor further expansion. Meetingthesedemandsposesgenuineconcernsovertheuseof existingresourcesandtheenvironmental effectsofusingexistingtechnologiestogenerateenergy. Thethreefossil fuels- oil, natural gasandcoal -arefinite-thedepositsthatexistcannotbereplenishedwhentheyareused. Withfurtherhigh-leveluse, allareindangerofrunningout.Therearemanydifferentopinionsandcalculationsaboutthis,andnonereallyagreeontheexact timingof wheneachfossil fuel couldrunout. Howfastweareusingeachfossilfuelat themoment might changeinthefuture. Ifwestartswitchingtoalternativefuelsourcesthat arerenewablerather thannon-renewableandifwemakemoreuseofrecycledplasticmaterials, thereservesthatwehavewill obviouslylastlonger.However,whilenewenergysources providemanybenefitsandopportunities, theymayalsointroducetheirowntechnological andenvironmental challenges. HowenergyisstoredandtransferredWeobtainenergyfor thegenerationofelectricityfrommanydifferentenergysources,includingrenewableandnon-renewablesources. Thesedifferentenergysourcesstoreandtransfer energyindifferentwaystoproduceelectricity, andarediscussedinmoredetailbelow. Therearedifferentwaysinwhichenergycanbestored,including:lKineticenergy: theenergyinamovingobjectiscalledkineticenergy.Dynamosandwind-upmechanismstransferpotential energy(storeduntilitisreleased)intokineticenergy. lThermal energy: thermal energyisenergythatcomesfromheat.Thesun,radiatorsandfires giveoff thermal energy. lChemical energy: chemical energiesareavailableinmanydifferentformsandarestoredinfuelsthat weburntoreleasethermal energy. Batteriesalsousechemicalenergy.Renewableandnon-renewablesourcesofenergyNon-renewablesourcesofenergyNon-renewableenergysourcescomeoutofthegroundasliquids,gases,andsolids.Coal, crudeoil, andnatural gasareall consideredfossilfuelsbecausetheywereformedfromtheburiedremainsof plantsandanimalsthatlivedmillionsofyearsago.Compressionover timefossilisedtheremainsoftheseplantsandanimals,creatingcarbonrichfuel sourcesthat storechemical energy. Inpowerstationsthesefossilfuelsareburnttogenerateheat (thermal energy), whichisusedtoheatwaterandgeneratesteam,thatturnsturbinesandgenerators(kineticenergy)togenerateelectricity(electricalenergy).KEYTERMSNon-renewableenergy: Sources comeout of the groundas liquids, gases andsolids andcannot bequickly replenished.

27ChoosingappropriatesourcesofenergyUraniumore, a solid, is minedandconvertedtoafuel usedat nuclear power plants. Uraniumis not afossil fuel, but it isclassifiedas a non-renewablefuel. It generatesheat (thermal energy) throughtheprocess of nuclear fusion, whichisthenusedtoheat water, generatesteamandturnturbinesandgenerators togenerateelectricity. Table 3.1 Non-renewablesources of electricityMethod Howit is usedtogenerateelectricityNuclear Nuclear fissiongenerates heat, whichheatswater to generate steam, steamturns turbines, turbinesturn generators, electricity is distributed. Gas/coal/oil Fuel is burnt togenerateheat, whichheats water to generate steam, steamturns turbines, turbinesturn generators, electricity is distributed. We are approachingaworldwidecrisis intermsof oil supply, andthere is a global movement toreducetheamount of fossil fuels that weuse. Usingfossil fuels togenerateenergyalsohasasignificant environmental impact. Burningfuels produces wasteproducts, includingvariousgasessuchassulphurdioxide, nitrogenoxide andother volatileorganiccompounds, whichcanhaveaharmful effectontheenvironment. Theburningof fossil fuels createscarbondioxide, whichmanyscientistsagreeis a significant contributoryfactor toglobal warming. RenewablesourcesThere are plenty of alternativeenergysourcesthat arerenewable, orinconstantsupply. Renewableenergysources suchas solar andwindcanbereplenishednaturallyinashortperiodof time. Most peoplearenowrealisingthat amassiveswitchtothesetypesofpowersource will berequiredinthefuture. Table 3.2 Renewable sources of electricityMethod Howit is usedtogenerateelectricityHydroelectric Damis usedtotrapwater, thewater releasedturns turbines, turbines turngenerators, electricity is distributed. Wind Blades are designedtocatchwind, bladesturnturbines usinggears, turbines turngenerators, electricity is distributed. Solar photovoltaic Photovoltaic cells convert light toelectricity. Tidal barrages Barrage built across river estuary, turbinesturnas tide enters (andwhentideleaves), turbinesturn generators, electricity is distributed. Wave Motion of waves forces air upcylinder toturnturbines, turbines turngenerators, electricityisdistributed. Geothermal Cold water is pumpedundergroundthroughheated rocks, steamturns turbines, turbinesturngenerators, electricity is distributed. Biomass Fuel (wood, sugar cane, etc.) is burnt togenerateheat, whichheats water togeneratesteam, steamturns turbines, turbines turngenerators, electricityis distributed. Figure3.4FormsofenergyKEYTERMSRenewableenergy:Sourcescanbereplenishednaturallyinashortperiodoftime.Figure3.5Renewableenergy

28Chapter 3I mplications of wider issues BatteriesAbatteryisaself-contained, chemicalpowerpackthatcanproducealimitedamountofelectricalenergywhereverit'sneeded. Unlikenormalelectricity,whichflowstoyourhomethroughwiresthatstartoffinapowerplant,abatteryslowlyconvertschemicalspackedinsideitintoelectricalenergy,typicallyreleasedoveraperiodofdays,weeks,monthsorevenyears. Althoughwegetthroughbillionsofthemeveryyearandtheyhaveabigenvironmentalimpact,wecouldn'tliveourFigure 3.6 Batteries comeinavarietyof shapesandsizesmodernliveswithoutbatteries.WiderimplicationsthatcanhaveaninfluenceontheprocessesofdesigningandmakingLEARNINGOBJECTIVESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowandunderstandthewiderenvironmental, social andeconomicinfluencesthatcanhaveaninfluenceontheprocessesof designingandmaking,including:➜environmental initiatives➜fair trade➜social andethical awareness➜global sustainabledevelopmentAs well astheimpactsof newandemergingtechnologiesandchoosingappropriatesourcesof energy, thereareother widerissuesadesignermustconsiderwhendesigningandmakingproducts. Theseincludetheenvironmental, social andeconomicfactorsthatcanhaveaninfluenceonthedesigningandmakingprocess. EnvironmentalinitiativesEarlierinthischapterwehavealreadyconsideredtheenvironmentalimplicationsofwastingresourcesandofthecontinueduseofnon-renewableenergywhendesigningandmakingproducts.Therearemanyenvironmentalinitiativesinplacethataimtolimittheimpactthatthedesignandmakingprocesseshaveontheenvironment.Wehavealreadyexploredtheconceptofthecirculareconomy, inwhichweuseresourcesforaslongaspossiblethenreuseandregenerateproductsandmaterials. Wehaveconsideredtheuseofrenewablesourcesofenergyasalternativestofossilfuels.Fashioncompanies, forexample,realisetheyhavearesponsibility, andarecommittedtoreducingtheirimpactontheplanet.Forexample,ASOShaveworkedwitheco-friendlybrandsandglobalinitiativestomanufactureclothing,accessoriesandbeautyproductsthatfitwithintheircriteriaforsustainability. Theyhavesetupafair-tradeclothinglabel ASOSMadeInKenya,madeinpartnershipwithSOKOKenya. Figure 3.7 SOKO, Kenya

29WiderimplicationsthatcanhaveaninfluenceontheprocessesofdesigningandmakingFairtradeFair trade is about establishingbetter prices, workingconditionsandtermsoftradeforfarmers andworkers. Many supermarkets anddepartment storesnowstockfair tradegoodsandingredients, suchas tea, sugar, coffee, rice, driedfruit andchocolate. Theseproductshavebeenmadewithfairtrade standards inmind. Social andethical awarenessProducts aremadeby real people- s otherearemoral implications for all of us whenwebuythings. Weneedtoconsider theconditions of thoseinvolvedindesigningandmakingthe products webuy. As designers, wealsoneedtoconsider thesocial andethical issues associatedwithour designs andtheir impact. The cottonindustry, for example, has ahugeethical andenvironmental impact, as it struggles withissuesaroundchildlabour andwelfareof workers. Despitesomepositiveexamples fromcottonproducingplants that promotegoodworkingpractices, organisations likeActionAidworkalongsidetheir partners, suchas theLabour EducationFoundation, tocontinue improvingworkingconditions, health, educationandchildcare. What canyoudo?Youcanmakea differencebybeingawareof sustainableandethical issuesandmakinginformedchoices whenyoudesignor buyproductsor bysourcingethicallyproducedmaterials. For example, buyingclothes madewithFairtradecottonhelpslow-paidcottonfarmers aroundtheworld. Thepriceof cottonhasdroppedinthepast30yearseventhoughthe cost of producingit has risen, andthat meansfarmersinplaceslikeIndia, KyrgyzstanandWest Africa arestrugglingtosurvive. BuyingFairtradeproductsensuresthatfarmersreceiveafair andstablepricefor their cotton, as consumersfavouringtheseproductsmeansdesignersandmanufacturers will ensurebothawarenessof issuesandworkingstandardsareraised. Global sustainabledevelopmentGlobal sustainabledevelopment is, asdefinedbytheBrundtlandCommission, development that 'meets theneeds of thepresent generationwithoutcompromisingthe ability of futuregenerations tomeet their ownneeds'. Whendiscussingsustainability, we must first consider that theproduct development andproductionprocessrequiresenergy tosourceandprocess materials, whichcancausepollutionandaffectclimatechange, damagingpeople's health. Thematerialsandenergyweusecan, therefore, haveanimpact onresources andtheenvironment causingconsequencesforfuturegenerations. As manufacturinghas becomeincreasinglyglobalised, governmentsworldwidehaverecognisedtheneedfor collectiveactioninorder tominimiseitsconsequences. The Paris Agreement madein2016was thefirst Global SustainableDevelopmentAgreement. It focuses onreducinggreenhousegasesandemissionsbutalsoincludeswiderglobal goals. Thechoiceof materials, technologiesandthewayinwhichweuseanddisposeof products has a significant impact onachievingthesegoals, andtechnological research, designanddevelopment is akeydrivingforcebehindit. Closertohome, theUKSustainableDevelopment Strategy recognises theneedfor anew, moreenvironmentallysoundapproachtodevelopment interms of energyproduction, transportandwastemanagement. Designers andconsumers canall dosmall thingstomakeadifferencetowardsthesegoals; consider theapproaches andsteps identifiedearlier inthischapter. ACTIVITYTrytofindexamplesofFairtradeproductsandexamplesofcompanies'ethicalpoliciesnexttimeyouareshoppingonthehighstreetoronline.ACTIVITYResearchtheissuesdescribedinthissection,andprovidesomeexamplesofindustries(forexample,coffee,clothing,electronics)inwhichindividualsorgroupsaredisadvantagedbyunfairworkingconditionsortradingpractices.Figure3.8Cottonpickersandcottonplantsreadyforharvest

30Chapter 4DesignthinkingandcommunicationCommunicationisveryimportantinanydesignprocess. Professionaldesignteamsanddesignersoftenneedtopitchideastoclientsandstakeholders,andtheabilitytopresentideas anddesignthinkingclearlycanbethedifferencebetweensuccessandfailureofaproduct. Designersusearangeof graphical techniquestocommunicatetheirideasandtheconstructional andtechnical considerationsrelatedtoadesignsolution.Whenthinkingabout problems, designersoftenrelyondifferentdesignapproachesandsourcesof information. Technological innovationandinventiongivedesignerstheopportunitytocollaborateoncomplexprojects. Adesignteammightincludeindividualswhohavetrainingandexperienceinavarietyofdisciplines, suchaselectricalengineering,industrial design, fashionandarchitecture; theyall bringspecialistknowledgetoaproject.Goodcollaborationcanbekeytoateam'seffectivenessinreachingasuccessfuloutcome;thefinal result canoftenbemoresuccessful thanthatofanindividualdesignerundertakingthesameproblem. CommunicationofdesignsolutionsLEARNINGOUTCOMESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowandunderstand:➜Howdesignsolutionscanbecommunicatedtodemonstratetheirsuitability➜Theuseof graphical techniquestocommunicateideas,modifications,constructional andtechnical considerations,usingclear2Dand3Dsketcheswithnotes, sketchmodelling, explodeddrawingsandmathematicalmodellingTheabilitytorepresent designconceptsusingeffectivevisualmethodsenablescommunicationbetweendesignersandstakeholders. Designersoftenfindthatsketching,modellingandother visual techniquesisanefficientwayofdevelopingideasandcommunicatinginstructionsandtechnical details. 2Dand3DsketchingAsketchcanexpressmorethanwordsandprovidegreaterunderstandingofanidea.Sketchesareaneasyandfastwaytocommunicateanideatoothers.CHAPTER4DesignthinkingandcommunicationFigure4.1Sketchesareproducedbydesignersofalldisciplines

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32Chapter 4DesignthinkingandcommunicationIsometricdrawingIsometricdrawingisanotherwayofpresentingdesigns/drawingsinthreedimensions.Inorder for adesigntoappear threedimensional, a30-degreeangleisappliedtoitssides.Theshapes abovehavebeendrawninisometricprojection. Designsdrawninthiswaycanbedrawnpreciselyusingdrawingequipment. Anisometricgridcanbeusedasanunderlay,toensurethat linesaredrawninproportion. Manydesigners, however,use'freehand'sketchinginisometricprojectiontoproduceuseful quicksketchesortoputthoughtsdownonpaper.Isometricprojectionisusedtoproduceexplodedviews; thesecanhelpdesignersandengineersworkout howpartsof aproductfittogethertoformawhole.ObliquedrawingObliquedrawingisasimple3Dsketchingtechniquethatshowsonefaceoftheitemsquareonandusingreal proportions, withotherangledlinestogivedepthnotnecessarilyinperspective.Isometricandperspectivearemorecommonlyusedbydesignersforthisreason.CirclesandellipsesAcompassisoftenusedtodrawcircles. However, circlescanbeconstructedinisometricperspectivebyfirst drawingaboxandthenconstructingthediagonalsandconnectingthemiddlesof theopposingsides. Theshapecreateis, infact, anellipse.Figure 4.3 Circles areacommon feature inmany designs. Use squares to create boxes onthecorners of your shapethenconstruct arches inthesecubes toformcircles or ellipses. Figure4.4Sketchingellipsesandcircles30° 30° Isometric cube IsometriccurvesTwo-pointperspectiveFigure 4.2 Isometric drawing. KEYTERMSIsometric drawing: a 3Dtechnique inwhichparallel lines at 30-degree angles areappliedtothe sides of the drawnobject.

33CommunicationofdesignsolutionsDetailsandnotesAddingdetails to3Dsketches at thelater stagesof product developmentprovidesessential informationfor stakeholders andhelpsadesigner togiveamorerealisticviewof their product. This caninclude, for example, informationontheoverall sizeof anobject andhowit will beused(i.e. user needs, thecontextandscenarioofuse, functional andmaterial choices, possibilitiesfor manufacture, etc.). Designisaniterativeandreflectiveactivity, inwhichdesignsolutionsareassessedandevaluatedagainst the understandingof thedesignproblem. Consideringhowtheuserwill interact withandusetheproduct canbedonethroughstoryboard/scenariosketches. (These canbehelpful whenpresentingideastostakeholders.) WorkingdrawingsWorkingdrawings containall theinformationneededtomakethe design, including: ldimensions ldetails of components lmaterials lassembly instructions. Workingdrawings arenormally2Dorthographicprojections, witha plan, front andsideview, andoftenasectional view. For someproducts a3Dtechnical drawingcanbe more appropriate, or asectional or explodedview. Althoughtraditionally thesedrawings wereproducedbydraftsmenondrawingboards usingT-squares, today's designers, architectsandengineers tendtouseCADpackages. SketchmodellingSketchmodels aresimplephysical modelsmadeof soft, low-cost, easy-to-work materials suchascardboard, Styrofoam, foamboardor calico. Theyareusuallyusedtoexplore or createinitial ideas andcanprovide2Dand3Dmodels tophysically test withusers andother stakeholders. Later models may becomemoreandmoreaccurateandfocusedonspecific details. Figure4.5DetailedsketchescanbeproducedbyhandorusingCADSelvedges FoldFigure 4.6 Alay planincludingsectional viewFigure4.7SketchmodellingexamplesKEYTERMSOrthographicprojections:2Dsketchesthatshowdifferentviews(forexample,plan,front,sideandsectional views).Sketchmodels:Quickmodels,oftenofjustpartsofadesign,madefromeasy-to-workandlow-costmaterialssuchascardboardorfoam.KEYTERMSIterativedesign:Adesignprocessbasedonacyclicprocessofprototyping,testing,reflecting,analysing,evaluatingandrefiningaproductorprocess.Theprocessoccursoverandoveragaintoachievetheoptimumdesign.

            
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35Sourcesofinformationandthinkingwhenproblem-solvingSchematicdiagramsSchematic diagrams areusedtoshowthearrangement of componentsinelectrical andmechanical systems. Theyareusedtoindicatetherelativepointsof interconnectionofthecomponents rather thantheactual positionsof thecomponentswithinasystemasawhole. Sourcesofinformationandthinkingwhenproblem-solvingLEARNINGOUTCOMESBy theendof this sectionyoushouldknowandunderstand: ➜Howdesigners sourceinformationandthethinkingusedwhenproblemsolving➜Different designapproaches, includinguser-centreddesignandsystemsthinking➜Theimportanceof collaborationtogainspecialistknowledgefromacrosssubjectareas whendeliveringsolutionsindesignandmanufacturingindustriesWhenconsideringhowtoapproachadesignproblem, designersoftenmakeuseofawiderange of sources of information. lYoucancollect informationfirst handusingquestionnaires, byinterviewingpeople, throughfocus groupsandbycarryingout surveys, andfromfirst-handresearchandobservations. lYoucanalsoget informationfromlookingat solutionstosimilarproblems, otherproducts withsimilar features, andother productsusedinthecontextyouaredesigningfor. lYoucanlook tonatureandincorporateitsapproachestoproblemsintodesignsolutions(this is calledbiomimicry). lYoushouldconsider thesizes of itemsthat your productorsystemwill needtofunctionwithor thespaceit needs tofunctionwithin. lYoucanlook at datafrommagazines, referencebooksandgovernmentagencies. Thiscouldtaketheformof dataabout materials' propertiesor components' characteristics, orbe tables of anthropometricdata, informationonforces, strengthstopushandpull. lThese sources of informationareusedbydesignerstoinspirenewideasordifferentwaysof lookingat a problem. Theycanhelpadesigner toavoiddesignfixation(focusingontheir owninitial ideas andnot consideringalternativeapproaches) andtohelpthemtocreate moreinnovativedesignsolutions. Whengatheringresearchandlearningfromtheworkof others, designersrecordanddocument this explorationas it occurs, sothat theycanrefer backtoitthroughoutthedesigningandmakingprocess. Youwill useasimilar processwhenworkingonyourNEA. KEYTERMSFocusgroup:Anorganiseddiscussionledbyamoderator,whereagroupofpeopleareaskedabouttheirviewsandexperiences,perceptionsofandattitudestowardsaproduct,brand,service,idea,advertisementorpackaging.User-centreddesign(UCD):Sometimescalled'human-centreddesign',user-centreddesignisadesignstrategy,ordesignapproach,withtheaimofmakingproductsandsystemsuseable.Itfocusesontheuserinterfaceandhowtheuserinteractswithandrelatestotheproduct.

36Chapter 4DesignthinkingandcommunicationUser-centreddesignUser-centreddesign(UCD)isbasedontheunderstandingofusers,thetaskstheydoandtheenvironmentsinwhichtheyliveandwork. Usersareinvolvedateverystagethroughoutdesignanddevelopmentof products. Designisdrivenandrefinedbyuserevaluationandfeedback, anduser-centreddesignconsidersthewholeuserexperience.Theprocessis iterative. SomemethodscommonlyusedinUCDare: lFocusgroups, whereaninvitedgroupofintendeduserssharetheirthoughts,feelings,attitudesandideas. lUsabilitytesting, whichevaluatesproductsbycollectingdatafrompeopleastheytryout aproduct. lParticipatorydesigndoesnotjustaskusersfortheiropinionsondesigns,butactivelyinvolvestheminthedesignanddecision-makingprocessesateverystage.lInterviewsareusuallycarriedoutwithoneparticipantatatime.lQuestionnairesareusedtoaskusersfortheirresponsestoasetofquestions.Product specification Concept and detail design Selection of materials and processes etc. Manufacture of a prototype Runandtest Full productionrunComputer-aideddesignComputer-automateddraftinganddocumentationProduct concept DesignengineeringDraftingOrdernewequipmentandtoolingProcessplanningComputer-aidedprocessplanningQualitycontrol ProductionSchedulingComputer-aidedqualitycontrol Computer-controlledrobots,machines,etc.Computerisedscheduling,materialrequirements,planning,shopfloorcontrolCustomers andmarketsTime Figure 4.11Block diagrams showingaconcurrent engineeringprocess andhowelements of the process overlapKEYTERMSSystems thinking: Theunderstandingof a product or component as part of alarger systemof other products andsystems. Inthe iterative designprocess, considerationof the role of all components andsub- systems of the product or system, includingthe user experienceandthemarketingof the object beingdesigned, ensures all aspects of theproduct aregiventherequiredattentiontodetail. SystemsthinkingAproductisnotjustaproduct, itisactuallyawholeservice.Acamera,for example, isthoughtofasaproduct, butitsrealvalueistheserviceitofferstoitsowner: providingmemories. Similarly,musicplayersprovideaservice-theenjoymentoflistening. Smartphonesoffercommunicationandinteraction. Whenthinkingaboutaproduct, adesignershouldnotonlyconsidertheproductitself, butthewholeexperienceassociatedwithit-theopeningof thepackaging, thefirstandcontinueduseoftheproduct,howitisupdatedandmaintained, andhowitisdisposedof,updatedor exchangedattheendofitslife. Ifyouthinkofeveryproductasaservice, thepointofanysuccessfulproductwillalwaysbetooffergreatexperiencestotheuser. Applyingsystemsthinkingtodesignsmeansconsideringthewholeofaproblemratherthanfocusingoneaspectalone,andhelpsadesignertolookatall possiblesolutionstoprovidethebestservicetotheuser.

37Sourcesofinformationandthinkingwhenproblem-solvingThe Apple iPod, for exampleis agoodexampleof systemsthinking: notonlyistheiPodwell-designed(it looks goodandis easytoholdanduse), buttheprocessofpurchasing, downloadinga songtoacomputer andthentotheiPod, or upgradingitssoftware, isalsoa smoothandeasy process. The'Genius Bar' (theexpertswhoofferfreein-storeadvicetoApple customers) improves thecustomer serviceexperience; andApplealsooffersarecyclingschemetoencouragecustomerstoupgradetonewermodels. IndesigningtheiPod(andindeedall of their products) Applehaveconsideredtheentireexperienceoftheproduct, fromstart tofinish. CollaborationDesigncanbeseenas ateamsport, withmorethanonepersonseekingtofindsolutionswitha mutual objectiveof improvement. Effectivecollaborationbetweendesigners, developers, users andother stakeholders canbethedifferencebetweensuccessandfailure. Collaboration, however, adds complexitytoadesignproject. Differentcollaborationstylesare neededtoensureaproject's success, but somestagesmayrequiremorecontrol inorder tomaketheproject deliverable. Therefore, acollaborativeprojectcanmovethroughdifferent types of collaborationas it followstheiterativedesignprocess. KEYTERMSCollaboration:Workingwithothersformutualbenefit.

38Chapter 5Material considerations CHAPTER5MaterialconsiderationsThis chapter looksat themaincategoriesofmaterialsavailabletodesignerswhendevelopingdesignsolutions. Itprovidesanoverviewandintroducesthedesignconsiderationswhenselectingmaterials. Specificcategoriesofmaterialsarelookedatinmoredetail inChapters8- 12. LEARNINGOUTCOMESBytheendof thissectionyoushouldknowaboutandunderstand:➜that productsarepredominantlymadefrommultiplematerials➜about themaincategoriesofmaterials➜thedevelopmentsinmaterials,includingmodernandsmartmaterials,compositematerialsandtechnical textiles.5.1CategoriesofmaterialsPaperandboardsPaper andboardarewidelyusedbydesignersforarangeofpurposes,fromthesketching,drawingandplanningof ideasthroughtothemodellingandprototypingofdesignsolutions.Papers andboardscomeinawiderangeofdifferentthicknesses,sizesandtypes,whicharelookedat inthissectionandalsocoveredinmoredetailinChapter8.InEuropethethicknessof paperisknownasits'weight'andthisismeasuredingramspersquaremetre, oftenabbreviatedasg/m2orgsm. Thisistheweightingramsofasinglesheet of paper measuring11minsize. Commonpaper weightsusedbydesignersare: l80gsml90gsml100gsml120gsml130gsml150gsml170gsm.Aweight greater than170gsmisclassifiedasaboardratherthanapaper.Boards areusuallyclassifiedbythicknessaswell asbyweight.Thisisbecause,dependingonthetypeof board, differentsheetsmaybethesameweightbutdifferentthicknesses.Forexample, asheet of corrugatedcardboardandasheetofmountingboardmaybothbethesamethicknessbut will weighdifferentamounts. Thethicknessof boardismeasuredinmicrons; amicronisone-thousandthofamillimetre.Figure 5.1 Newspapers and magazines areacommon use of paper PaperPaperisafamiliarmaterialthatwecomeintocontactwitheveryday. Newspapers, magazines,comics,bustickets,receiptsandeventoiletpaperarecommonexamplesofdifferenttypesofpaper. Commonpapertypesinclude:lLayoutpaperlCopierpaperlCartridgepaperlBleedproofpaperlSugarpaper.Formoreinformationondifferentpapertypes,seeSection8.1. KEYTERMSgsm: Grams per square metre. Usedtoclassify the weights of paper andcard. Micron: One- thousandthof amillimetre. Usedtoclassify the thickness of paper andcard.

395.1CategoriesofmaterialsCardandcardboardCardandcardboardarethicker thanpaper, andarealsocommonlyencounteredineveryday life. CardThincardis slightly thicker thanpaper, around180to300gsminweight. Likepaperitisavailable ina widerangeof colours, sizes andfinishes, includingmetallicandholographicshades. Thincardis easytofold, cut andprint on, makingitideal forgreetingscards, paperback book covers andsoon, as well asfor simplemodellingapplications. CardboardCardboardis availableinmanydifferent sizesandsurfacefinishes, withthicknessfromaround300 microns upwards. Cardboardis widelyusedfor thepackagingof manydifferentproducts- f or exampleit is usedfor cereal boxes, tissueboxes, sandwichpackets, etc. -becauseitisrelatively inexpensiveandcanbecut, foldedandprintedontoeasily. Cardboardcanbeusedtomodel designideas andis oftenusedtomaketemplatesfor partsandpiecesofproducts, whichonce correct canthenbemadefrommetal or other moreresistantmaterials. CorrugatedcardboardCorrugatedcardboardis astrongbut lightweight typeof cardthat is madefromtwolayers of cardwithanother, flutedsheet inbetween. It is availableinthicknesses rangingfrom3mm(3000microns) upwards. Theflutedconstructionmakes it verystiff anddifficult tobendor fold, especiallywhenfoldingacross theflutes. Becauseof thespacesbetweenthetwolayers createdbytheflutedsheet, corrugatedcardcanabsorbknocks andbumps. This makesit ideal for packagingfragile or delicateitems that needprotectionduringtransportation. Itisalsowidely usedas packagingfor takeawayfoods, suchaspizzaboxes, astheflutedconstructiongives it goodheat-insulatingproperties comparedtonormal cardboard. Double wall corrugatedcardis alsoavailable, whichistwiceasthickascorrugatedcardandgives extra strengthanddamageresistance. For more informationoncardboard, seeSection8.1. BoardsheetsMountingboardis arigidtypeof cardwithathicknessof around1.4mm(1400microns)anda smoothsurface. It is availableindifferent coloursbutwhiteandblackarethemostcommonly availableandusedcolours. Mountingboardisoftenusedforpictureframingmounts andarchitectural modelling. For more informationonboardsheets, seeSection8.1. LaminatedlayersLaminatedlayers includevarious other materialsthat comeinsheetform, likepaperandcardboard, andcanbeusedinsimilar ways. FoamboardFoamboardis a lightweight boardthat is madeupof polystyrenefoamsandwichedbetweentwopieces of thincardor paper. It hasasmoothsurfaceandisavailableinarangeof colours, sheet sizes andthicknesses, with5mm(5000microns) beingthemostcommon. Foamboardis a very lightweight but rigidmaterial andisideal formodellingandpoint-of-sale displays. It is easy tocut andcanbeeasilyfoldedwiththecorrecttechnique. Figure5.2Corrugatedcardboardisstiffandoftenusedaspackagingfortakeawayfood

40Chapter 5Material considerations StyrofoamStyrofoamisatradenamefor expandedpolystyrenefoam. Itisavailableinawiderangeofsizesandthicknessesbut canbeidentifiedbyitsbluecolour. Styrofoamhasastructureofuniformlysmall, closedcellsthat makeiteasytocut, shapeandsandtoasmoothfinish.Styrofoamisstrongandlightweight, aswell asbeingwater-resistantandhavinggoodheat-insulationproperties. It isusedasawall insulationmaterial incaravans, boatsandlorriesbutitisalsoidealfor creatingthree-dimensional modelsandmouldsforvacuumformedorglassfibreproducts.CorrifluteCorrifluteisanextrudedcorrugatedplasticsheetsimilarinstructureandthicknesstocorrugatedcardboard. It ismadefromahigh-impactpolypropyleneresinandavailableinawiderangeof coloursandsheetsizes. Corrifluteisrigidandlightweightaswellasbeingextremelywaterproof. It iseasytocutbutcanbedifficulttofold,especiallyacrosstheflutes.Corrifluteisoftenusedfor outsidesignssuchasestateagents'signsonhouses,andsignsoutsidecar forecourtsor shops. Itisalsousedforplasticcontainers,packaging,point-of-saledisplaysandfor modellingpurposes. For moreinformationonlaminatedlayers, seeSection8.1. ACTIVITYCopyandcompletethefollowingsentencesusingthewordsbelow.cartridgefoamweight bluemicronsgsmreceiptsshapeNewspapers, magazines, bustickets, ________andtoiletpaperareexamplesofdifferentuses of paper. Commonpapertypesincludelayoutpaper,copierpaper,_________paper,bleedproof paper andsugarpaper. Thethicknessof paper isknownasits________andthisismeasuredingramspersquaremetre(g/m2or ___). Paper withaweight greaterthan170gsmisclassifiedasaboard.Thethicknessofboardismeasuredin_______. Examplesofboardarecardboard,corrugatedcardboardand____board.Styrofoamis ____incolour. Itisideal forcreating3Dmodelsbecauseitiseasytocut,_____andsandtoasmoothfinish. NaturalandmanufacturedtimberFor thousandsof years, treeshaveprovideduswithwood, amaterialusedtomakeawidevarietyof products. Woodisanatural material andtimberisthegeneralnamegiventowoodmaterialsoncetheyhavebeenprocessedintouseableformssuchasplanksandstrips.Therearethreemaintypesof timber: hardwoods, softwoodsandmanufacturedboards.Figure 5.5 Trees arecut downintologs Figure5.6LogsarecutintotimberFigure 5.4 Corrifluteis often usedfor outdoor signs. Figure 5.3 Styrofoam™is strong, lightweight, water-resistant andagood heat insulator.

415.1CategoriesofmaterialsFigure 5.7 An oak treeFigure5.8AnoakchairSoftwoodsSoftwoods comefromconifers - evergreentreesthat keeptheirneedlesall yearround, likepine, cedar andspruce. Theygrowfaster thanhardwoodtreesandthewoodisusuallylighterincolour. Softwoods arecheaper thanhardwoodsandareusuallyusedinthebuildingindustry for roof, wall anddoor frames. Figure 5.9 Apine treeFigure5.10AroofframeonahouseKEYPOINTTheterms'hardwood'and'softwood'areusedtodescribethetypeoftreethewoodcamefrom.Itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthewooditselfishardorsoft.Forexample,balsawood(averysoftandlightweightwood)isactuallyclassifiedasahardwood.HardwoodsHardwoods comefrombroad-leafed, deciduoustreesthat losetheirleavesoverwinter, suchas oak, birchandteak. Thesetreesgrowslowlyandasaresultthetimberobtainedfromthemtends tobedense, hardandheavy. Timberscomeinmanydifferent colours andaregenerallyusedfor high-qualityitemssuchasfurniture.

42Chapter 5Material considerations Roundbar AngleBoxsectionPipeTubeHexagonT-sectionSheetRSJsSquarebarChannelFlatbarFigure5.13Standardmetal formsMDF PlywoodBlockboardChipboardHardboardFigure 5.11 There areseveral different typesof manufacturedboards. ManufacturedboardsManufacturedboardsaresheetsof timbermadebygluingeitherwoodfibresorwoodlayerstogether. Thisisagoodwayof makinglargeflatboardsthatarestableandeasytoworkwith,as natural timber cantwistandwarp. ExamplesofmanufacturedboardsareMDF,plywood,andchipboardor blockboard. Figure 5.12 AtablemadefromMDFMorein-depthinformationontimbercanbefoundinChapter9. MetalsMetal ismadebyextractingmetaloresfromrocksintheEarth'scrustbymining. Themetaloreisthenprocessedandrefinedtocreateamoreuseablematerialwithimprovedproperties. Therearetwomaincategoriesortypesofmetal:lFerrousmetals-metalsthatcontainiron.lNon-ferrousmetals-metalsthatdonotcontainiron. KEYTERMSFerrous metal: Ametal that contains iron. Non-ferrous metal: Ametal that does not containiron. Ferrous metalscontainironandwill corrodequicklyandeasilybecauseoftheirironcontentunless theyaretreatedwithasuitablesurfacecoatingsuchaspaint,oilorwax.Themajorityof ferrousmetalsarealsomagneticsowill beattractedtoamagneticforce.Non-ferrousmetals aremuchmoreresistanttocorrosionandmanyaresignificantlybetterelectricalconductorsthanferrousmetals. Generallynon-ferrousmetalsarealsomoreexpensivethanferrous metals. Bothtypesof metalsareavailableinawidevarietyofshapesandsizes.

435.1CategoriesofmaterialsFigure 5.14 Mildsteel is widelyusedfor buildingandengineering - f or example, insteel joists andgirders. Figure 5.15 Stainless steel is resistant tocorrosionandisused for cutlery. FerrousmetalsFerrous metals include: lMildsteel lCarbonsteel lStainless steel lCast ironlWrought iron. For more informationonferrous metals, seeSection10.1. Figure5.16Aluminiumhasawiderangeofuses,includingladders. Figure5.17Tinisoftenusedforfoodcontainers,or'tin'cans.Non-ferrousmetalsNon-ferrousmetalsinclude: lAluminiumlCopperlTin. Formoreinformationonnon-ferrousmetals, seeSection10.1.

44Chapter 5Material considerations AlloysAnalloyisametal that ismixedorcombinedwithothersubstancestomakeitstronger,harder, lighter, or better insomeotherway. Alloys include: lBrasslBronzelPewter lLead/tinsolder. For moreinformationonalloys, seeSection10.1. Figure 5.18 Brass is often usedindecorativeproducts suchas this door knocker. Figure5.19Solder isusedforelectrical connectionsonprintedcircuitboards.ACTIVITYCompletethetablebyaddingthemissinginformation.CategoryDefinitionExample1Example2Example3Ferrous metals Mildsteel Metalsthat donot containironCopperAlloys BrassThermoandthermosettingpolymersApolymerisaverylarge, chain-likemoleculemadeupofmonomers, whicharesmallmolecules.Polymerscanoccurnaturallyorbemanufactured. Examplesofnaturallyoccurringpolymersincludesilk, wool, hairandevenanimalhorn.Manufacturedpolymersarecommonlyreferredtoasplasticsandarederivedfrompetroleumoil.Differenttypesincludenylon, polyethyleneandacrylic. Rubberitemsarealsoatypeof polymer. Therearetwofamiliesofpolymers-thermoandthermosetting. Figure 5.20 This Vikingdrinkinghornis madefromanaturallyoccurringpolymer. KEYTERMSAlloy: Ametal madeby combiningtwoor more metals togivegreater strengthor resistance tocorrosion.