Social Science Book Full

[i-al

S_ Cience

An lntrodu(tion to the Study of So(iety

FOURTEENTH EDITION

Elgin F. Hunt
Late Chairman ofSocial Science Department
Wilson junior College
David (.Colander
Department ofEconomics
Middlebury College

Allyn & Bacon

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hunt, Elgin F.
Social science: an introduction to the study of society I Elgin F.

Hunt, David C. Colander.-14th ed.
p. em.

Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-205-70271-8
ISBN-10: 0-205-70271-6
1. Social sciences. I. Colander, David C. II. Title.
H85.H86 2020
300-dc22

2009054359

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I HAM 14 13 12 II 10

Allyn & Bacon
is an imprint of

PEARSON ISBN 10: 0-205-70271-6

--- www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN 13:978-0-205-70271-8

Contents

Preface XlX

Part I Introduction l
Chapter l Social Science and Its Methods

Social Science 5

Social Science as a System of Rules 7

The Scientific Method and Its Application 8

Methodology and the Social Sciences 10

The Methods of Social Science H

Social Science Approaches to Problems 16

Common Sense in the Social Sciences 18

The Use ofStatistics 18

The Interdisciplinary Approach 21

Social Science and Society Zl

Agreeing on Policy 21

Values, Terminology, and Rhetoric 22

Conclusion ll

fLppendix Historical Roots of Social Science Z5

The Enli!lhtenment Z6

From Philosophy to Social Science l7

Chapter Z HumanOrigins Z8

The Origin of the Human Species zg

Darwin and the Theory ofEvolution 29

Recent Developments in Genetics 32

Some Implications ofRecent Developments 33

vii

viii Contents Contents ix

Sociobiology 34 Factors Stabilizing Culture 81

Punctuated Equilibrium versus Gradual Change 35 Social Change versus Social Stability 81

The Evolution of Human Beings 57 Social Change and Social Problems 8Z

Science, Faith, and Controversy 37 Cultural Lag and Social Problems 83
38
Predecessors of Modem Humans Limitations of the Cultural Lag Theory 84

Conclusion 45 Contrasts among Cultures 84

The Interaction of Humans and Society 85

Chapter) Origins of WesternSociety Cultural Relativism 85

48 Approach to the Study of Society 86

From the Stone Age to the_ Agricultural Age 48 ChapterS Geography, Demography, Ecology, and Society 89

Early Civilizations 49

The Cradle of Modern Civilization: Mesopotamia and Egypt 49 Geography 89

Development of the Greek Civilization 52 Demography 91

The Persian Empire 52 Population Estimates 9/

Roman Civilization 54 Determinants of Population Growth 93
94
The Middle Ages (A.D. 476-1455) 56 The Growth of Population over Time
96
The Renaissance 59 The Problem of Counting 95 97
97
The Development of Modern Economic and Political Institutions 61 The Malthusian Theory 96

64 Population and Means of Subsistence

From Setfdom to Mercantilism 61 The Concept of Optimal Population

The Emergence of Nation-States 63 The Question of Population Quality

The Industrial and Political Revolutions of the 1750s to the 1850s Ecology: The Interaction of Geography, Demography,

Conclusion 66 and Environment 99

The Ecological Balance 99

Part II Culture and the Individual Pollution 100
Chapter 4 Society, Culture, and Cultural Change
Conservation and the High Price of Gasoline 102

Conclusion 10Z

68 Chapter 6 Technology and Society lOS

Culture and Multiculturalism 69 The Industrial Revolution 107

Multiculturalism 69 The Development of Industrialism in the United States 107

The Shared Beliefs in Culture 70 Standardization, Interchangeability, and Mass

Culture and the Nature of Society 70 Production 108

Culture and Its Role in Human Societies 71 Technology and Globalization 111

The Elements of Culture 71 Modern Technology and the Need for Skilled

Cultural lntegration 74 Workers 111

Culture, Society, and Social Change 75 Machines and Unemployment 112

Popular Theories of Social Change 76 Technology and Social Change 1H

Factors Causing Cultural Change 76 Problems Created by Technology /13

Language and Cultural Change 79 Technology and Crime 115

X Contents Contents xi

Natural Resources, Economics, and Technology 115 Functions of the Family in Society 150

Natural Resources and the Limits of Economic Growth 116 151

Global Warming 117 Matching Family Patterns with Family Functions

117 Number of Mates 151

Technology of the Past Selection of Mates 152

Technology of the Future 118 Family Control and Reckoning of Descent 152

The Social Basis for Technological P rogress 120 Other Western Family Characteristics and Functions of the Family 153

Future Shock? · 121 The Family in the United States Today 154

Chapter 7 Psycholo�y, Society, andCulture 1Z3 Dating 157

Sex and Singles 157

Children 159

Socialization of the Individual ll4 Senior Citizens 160

Significance of the Early Years of Childhood 124 Family Disorganization and Divorce 160

Significance of Differences in Individual Environment 125 Singles 163

Effects of Extreme Isolation on Children 126 Living Together 163

Personality and Its Development 1Z7 Same-Sex Households 163

The Nature/Nurture Debate 128 The Family in Transition 164

Explanations of Behavior 130 Technology's Effect on the Family 164

The Well-Adjusted Individual 131 The Future of the Family 165

Adjustment and Normality 132 Chapter g Reli�ion 168

The F reudian Concept of Personality 132

Pop Psychologies 134

Intelligence, Personal Adjustment, and Normality 1)4 The Nature of Religion 169

Mental Tests 135 The Great Religions of loday 170

Intelligence and Personal Adjustment 139 � Hinduism 171

Deviance H9 Buddhism 172

Major Theories on Deviance 140 judaism 174

Psychological and Biological Explanations of Deviance 140 Christianity 177

Sociological Explanations of Deviance 141 Islam 180

Economic Explanations of Deviance 142 The Role of Religion in Society 183

Summary of Various Perspectives on Deviance 143 Religion as a Source of Moral Values and Social Change 183

(onclusion 143 Impact of Religion on Education, the Arts, and Literature 184

Interfaith Efforts for Peace 184

Part Ill Institutions and Society The Potential Conflict between Religion and Government 184
Chapter 8 The Family 146
Chapter 10 Education 187

Schools as Agencies of Social (ontrol 188

Variations in the Family Pattern 147 The Dual Thrust of U.S. Education 188

Number of Mates 147 Education and U.S. Democracy 188

Selection of Mates 148 The Development of U.S. Education 189

Family Control 149 Democratic Structure ofthe U.S. School System 191

Reckoning of Descent 149 Formalization of the School System 193

!11 Contents xiii

xii Contents

195 Asians 241

Examining the School System Arab Americans and Americans of Middle Eastern Descent 243

Technological Change and Teaching 195 • Irnmigrants and Minorities 243

Private Schools and Home Schooling 195 Religious Minorities 246

Charter Schools, Privatization, and the Problem of School Finance 196 Women 247

Textbooks 197 Senior Citizens 251

School Dropouts 198 Conclusion Z54

Multiculturalism, Collaborative Learning, and Institutional Fairness 198

How Good Are U.S. Schools? 199 Part IV Politics and Society
Chapterl� The Functions and Forms of Government
The Search for Excellence 201

Changes in the College Curriculum 202

Is the U.S. Educational System Equal? 204

How Much Education Should the Average Citizen Receive? 204 ZS7

Interaction of Economics, Politics, and Social Institutions Z06 Z58

Chapterll Social and Economic Stratification The Primary Functions of Government

zog Maintaining Internal Order and External Security 258

Ensuring justice 258

ZlO Safeguarding Individual Freedoms 259

Types of Social Stratification Regulating Individuals' Actions 260

Estates 210 Promoting the General Welfare 260

Castes 210 Debates about the Nature of Government Z6l

Social Classes 211 Political Theory and Government 262

Social Mobility Zl4 Three Views of the Nature of Government 262

Who Are the Upwardly Mobile? 215 Elements of Truth in Each of the Views 266

Education and Social Mobility 216 Forms of Government Z66

Class Consciousness in the United States 217 Democracies 267

Class Consciousness, Marx, and Weber 218 Autocracy 270

Economic and Social Inequality Zl8 Governments Are Far from Simple Z76

Causes of Income Inequality 219

Measuring Poverty 220 Chapter 14 Governments of the World

Increasing Social and Economic Inequality zzz ng

Policies to Reduce Inequality 223 Z79

Some Conclusions about the U.S. Class System 224 French Government

ChapterlZ Stratification, Minorities, and Discrimination The French Parliamentary System 280

ZZ6 The French Executive Branch 280

Mexican Government Z8Z

Race and Ethnicity ZZ6 Nigerian Government ZS6

Questions of Ethnic and Racial Superiority 227 The British Influence 287

Ethnic and Racial Prejudice and Discrimination 228 Modern Nigeria's Government: The Fourth Republic 289

The Melting Pot 230 Russian Government Z89

Minorities nl Saudi Arabian Government zgz

Native Americans 231 Some Lessons about Governments Z95

Blacks (AfricanAmericans1) ' 232 Z95

Hispanics 239 Future (hanges in Governments

111 Contents XV

xiv Contents

Chapter 15 Democratic Government in the United States Whose Desires Does the Government Reflect? 342

zgs Fluctuating Attitudes toward Regulation 342

zgs Government's Direct Role in the Economy )4)

Histori(al Development of U.S. Government Where the Government Spends Its Money 343

The Stru(ture of U.S. Government zgg Where Government Gets Its Money 344

Structure of the National Government 300 Alternative Methods of Supply in a Pragmatic Market

I The Nature of Our National Government 302 Economy 344

The Politi(al Pro(ess )ll Some Controversial Roles of the Government )45

Political Parties 313 Income Redistribution through Government 345

Elections 314 Government's Macroeconomic Role 347

The Fourth Estate 317 Economi( Challenges Facing the U.S. in the Future )51

The Political Elite 317 The Fiscal Crisis 351

The Military-Industrial Complex and Pressure Groups 318 The Globalization Crisis 353

Evaluation of the Demouati( Politi(al Pro(ess )ZO Global Warming 355

Part V Economics and Society Conclusion )56

ChapterII 16 The Organization of Economic Activities "5ll Part VI Global Issues
Chapter 18 International Political Relations
The Nature of an Economy )l) -;sg

Functions of an Economy 323 )5g

Economics and the Social Sciences 323 The State in International Relations

Economic Wants and Economic Goods 323 The Nation-State 360

The Economic Aspects of Culture 324 The Establishment and Disappearance of Nation-States 362

The Great Economic Problem 324 The Rise ofthe European Union 362

The Evolution of Economi( Systems )Z5 Sovereignty of States 363

From Feudalism to Mercantilism 325 Power in the World Community )64

From Mercantilism to a Pragmatic Market Economy 326 The Nature and Sources ofNational Power 365

Planned and Unplanned Economies )zg Other Sources ofPower 367

How Planned Economies Are Supposed to Work 329 Maintaining Security 368

Why Central Planning Did Not Meet Its Goals 330 Foreign Policies )70

How Market Economies Are Supposed to Work 331 Geography and Foreign Policy 371

Supply and Demand ))Z Values, Ideologies, and Foreign Policy 371

Modern Economies Are Pragmati( Market Economies ))5 The United States in the World Community )74

))6 The President and Foreign Policy 374

Conclusion U.S. Foreign Policies 376

Chapter 17 The Economy, Government, and EconomicChallenges Chapter 19 International Economic Relations :580
Facing the UnitedStates -;-;g

))g The Terminology of Trade )81

Government's lndire(t Role in the Economy The Balance of Trade and the Balance ofPayments 381

The Problem ofRegulating an Economy 340 Visible and Invisible Trade 382

xvi Contents Contents xvii

I Advantages and Disadvantages of International Trade '58'5 Chapter Zl International Institutions and the Search for Peace 418

Three Advantages of Trade 383

Disadvantages of Trade 384

Why Economists Genera l ly Support Free Trade 384 The Problem of War 419

W hy You Can't Get the Advantages without The Causes of War 419

the Disadvantages 385 Approaches to the P roblem of War 421

Restrictions on International Trade '585 The United Nations 4Z'5

Tariffs on Imports 386 Is the UN Worth It? 424

Il Import Quotas 388 The UN's Role in Keeping the Peace 426

Removing Trade Restrictions 388 Other UN Approaches 428

G lobalization and Trade Restrictions 389 4Z9

Foreign Exchange '590 The Outlook for Peace

The Meaning of Foreign Exchange 390 Trouble Spots ofthe World 431

Fixed and F lexible Exchange Rate Systems 391 The War on G lobal Terrorism 437

Globalization, Trade Imbalances, and Exchange Rates '594
I Conclusion
'594 Index 439
Credits 455

I Chapter ZO The Political Economies of Developing Countries )gJ

Problems of Developing Countries '599

The Po litical Consensus Prob lem 400

The Corruption Problem 400

The Economic Problem 401

The Debt Problem 404

The Popu lation P roblem 404

The Brain Drain Prob lem 404

Mission Impossible: Advice to a Potential Leader 405

Options of Developing Countries 406

Political Options 406

Economic Options 406

Foreign Policy Options 406

Popu lation Options 406

The Brain Drain Option 407

Who Will Be the Next Leader? 407

Case Studies 407

China 407

I Mexico 411

I I Uganda 413

Conclusion 415

I

\II Preface

I .._._ . .... . __

II Social science is taught in diverse ways. Some courses take a global perspective, some an
anthropological perspective, some a psychological perspective, some a sociological perspec­
l tive, and some a historical perspective-to name just a few. In my view, although each indi­
vidual social science perspective has something to offer, what distinguishes the social
science course is that it looks at problems from as many different perspectives as possible,
relying on the scholar's common sense to choose the perspective that is most useful for a
particular problem. The commonsense perspective is the social science perspective.

Social science is an important course. All too often our educational system rushes stu­
dents into specializations before the students have an overall picture-before they know
where they want to go. Once they have an overall picture, specialization is necessary, but to
specialize before having an overall picture is unfair to students. Students who specialize too
early don't develop a commonsense perspective; they aren't sensitive to the interrelation­
ships and resonances among disciplines. At worst, they become slaves of their discipline's
approach. At best, they have the wisdom to recognize that there are many approaches to a
problem, but their lack of training forces them to recreate the wheel. Knowledge of the
other disciplines would have saved them the trouble and been far more efficient.

That's why I am a strong advocate of the social science course. It is one of the most im­
portant courses students take in college, and in my view it is a necessary prerequisite to tak­
ing courses in specific disciplines. It puts those other courses in perspective.

The changes in this edition have been made to strengthen the presentation and to keep
the book current. I have reworked sections that reviewers thought needed work and
updated all chapters. The major changes are in the political, economic and international
sections. The economic chapters in the previous edition reflected the formerly socialist
countries' transition to a market economy. Their adjustment is now more complete and I
have rewritten the chapters to reflect that. All major economies of the world are now prag­
matic market economies. The interesting policy questions in economics now center less
around socialism vs. the market, but what type of market economy we want to have. With
the financial crisis of 2008 and 2009, such issues will be much in the news and I have rewrit­
ten the economic chapters to reflect that. This meant a major change to Chapter 16, and
almost total rewriting of Chapter 17, which now has the name, "The Economy,
Government, and the Economic Challenges Facing the United States."

The political chapters have been rewritten to bring them up to date with the constantly
changing political winds. For the U.S. this means a substantial change. With the election of
Barack Obama as president, and his attempt to deal with the financial crisis, politics in the
U.S. are quite different in 2010 than they were in 2007. It is not only internal politics that
have changed. President Obama has changed the tone of U.S. foreign policy, and the inter­
national chapters have been modified to capture that change in tone.

There were also smaller changes made to many of the other chapters both to reflect the
newest developments in social science thinking and to keep the book current. For example,
in Chapter I I added a discussion of how social science thinking underlies both the law and
international relations to help tie in those sections with the broader social science theme.

xix

\1�1 XX Preface Preface xxi
II
In Chapter 2, I added a discussion of Ben Stein's documentary Expelled: No Intelligence Community College; Norman R. Yetman, The University of Kansas; and George Zgourides.
Allowed to spice up the discussion about intelligent design. Other chapters have similar Primus, Miami-Dade North Community College.
small changes, all made with the goal for keeping this book totally up to date. Finally,
I updated all the internet questions and connections to keep the questions current and to At the end of an earlier edition, I included a sheet for students to grade the book and to
see that the sites are still accessible. I will post links on my website http://community send me suggestions for improvement. A number of students did this, and their suggestions
.middlebury.edu/-colander/links.html) so that you can assign the students the questions have played an important role in shaping the book. Most, I'm happy to say, were highly pos­
and they will only have to click on the link. itive, but a few attacked the book and the course. One particularly memorable student
flunked me on just about every chapter and wrote the following:
Despite all these changes the book remains what it was in the previous edition-a
relatively neutral (at least as neutral as I am able to be) commonsense overview and intro­ Until you and this so called science become legitimized I'd rather spend time gorging myself
duction to the social sciences and social science thinking about the major issues of our day. and then vomiting. Guesses, hypotheses, maybes, might be's don't belong in college; they
belong in elementary school.
('tcknowledgments
That student obviously read the book, because he is correct: The book doesn't tell the stu­
As always, the book benefits from the suggestions of reviewers, colleagues, and students dent what is right or wrong, and it does report guesses, hypotheses, and maybes. But that
who have e-mailed me. I'd like to thank them all. For this edition, I'd specifically like student is wrong about what does and what doesn't belong in college. Guesses, hypotheses,
to thank some great reviewers: Ali Al-Taie, Shaw University; William Plants, University of and maybes are precisely what belong in college, because by the time students are in college
Rio Grande; and David S. Schjott, Northwest Florida State College. they can be expected to have the maturity to understand that knowledge is nothing but
good guesses, reasonable hypotheses, and logical maybes.
Over the last few editions the reviewers have included: Emmanuel Agbolosoo, Navajo
Community College; Ali Al-Taie, Shaw University; Veri Beebe, Daytona Beach Community Social science doesn't tell you what's right. It presents the observations and the theories
College; John Beineke, Kennesaw State College; Thomas J. Bellows, The University of Texas as fairly as it can and lets you decide.
at San Antonio; Dallas A. Blanchard, University of West Florida; Ducarmel Bocage, Howard
University; William K. Callam, Daytona Beach Community College; Pam Crabtree, New This edition I made good use of research assistants who I had do background research,
York University; Bruce Donlan, Brevard Community College; Anthony Douglas, Loman, fact checking, proofreading, and providing me with council about what worked and what
Mississippi; Dr. William M. Downs, Georgia State University; Phil A. Drimmel, Daytona didn't. These students include Kent Diep, Steven Jones, Jing Zhong, Zach Colander, Andrew
Beach Community College; J. Ross Eshleman, Wayne State University; Dana Fenton, City Chong, Sam Parnell and Erik Elderbrock. I thank them all.
University of New York, Borough of Manhattan Community College; Cyril Francis,
Miami-Dade North Community College; Richard Frye, Neuro-Diagnostic Lab, Winchester I would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Executive Editor Jeff Lasser and
Memorial Hospital, Winchester, Virginia; Judy Gentry, Columbus State Community Editorial Assistant Lauren Macey who played valuable roles in helping me prepare this
College; Paul George, Miami-Dade Community College; Don Griffin, University of Fourteenth edition. I also thank Helen Reiff, Erik Elderbrock, and Aaron Brush who
Oklahoma; Charles F. Gruber, Marshall University; Ghulam M. Haniff, St. Cloud State worked on the index. Lauren Traut helped smooth out the process and the team at Elm
University (Minnesota); Roberto Hernandez, Miami-Dade New World Center; Charles E. Street Publishing Services oversaw the production of this book; I thank them for all their
Hurst, The College of Wooster; Sharon B. Johnson, Miami-Dade Community College; hard work. I want to thank my family for helping me find the time to work on the book.
Kenneth C. W. Kammeyer, University of Maryland; Rona J. Karasik, St. Cloud State
University; Lynne! Kiely, Truman College; H. D. Kirkland, Lake City Community College; Finally, I want to mention the unsung heroes-the sales reps who came to me with
Patricia E. Kixmiller, Miami-Dade Community College; D. R. Klee, Kansas City, Missouri; names of reviewers and suggestions for changes and to whom this book is dedicated. These
Casimir Kotowski, Harry S. Truman City College; Errol Magidson, Richard J. Daley sales reps are the backbone of any college publishing company, and I thank them. One rep
Community College; James T. Markley, Lord Fairfax Community College; Stephen in particular deserves special recognition. After the death of Elgin Hunt, who was the initial
McDougal, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse; David J. Meyer, Cedarville University; author of this book, she recruited me for Social Science; she convinced me and Macmillan to
Karen Mitchell, University of Missouri; Catherine Montsinger, Johnson C. Smith do the book, and she continued to provide unending support and encouragement. This
University; Lynn Mulkey, Hofstra University; Roy Mumme, University of South Florida; book was always known at Macmillan as "Wendy's book," and it remains Wendy's book,
Eleanor J. Myatt, Palm Beach Junior College; Quentin Newhouse Jr., Howard University; even though it is now published by Allyn and Bacon.
Annette Palmer, Howard University; Robin Perrin, Pepperdine University; Joseph
Pilkington-Duddle, Highland Beach, Florida; William Primus, Miami-Dade North D. C. C.
Community College; Roger Rolison, Palm Beach Community College; William H. Rosberg,
Kirkwood Community College; Dan Selakovich, Oklahoma State University; Henry A.
Shockley, Boston University; Ruth Smith, Miami-Dade Community College; Scharlene
Snowden, City University of New York, Medgar Evers College; Larry R. Stucki, Reading Area
Community College; Barry Thompson, University of Rio Grande; Judy Thompson,
University of Rio Grande; Elizabeth Trentanelli, Miami-Dade College; Edward Uliassi,
Northeastern University; David Wells, Glendale Community College; Ted Williams, City
College of Chicago; William Plant of the University of Rio Grande W. M. Wright, Lake City

Part I Introduction

S,ocial Science
�l111 and Its Methods

After readinq this £hapter, you should be able to:

• Define social science and explain why it is important

• List the various social sciences Theories should be as simple as
• State the nine steps that make up the scientific method possible, but not more so.
• Discuss some reasonable approaches to problems in social science

1 '1 • Differentiate the historical method from the case method -Albert Einstein
and the comparative method
• Distinguish educated common sense from common sense

• Explain why a good scientist is always open to new ways of looking
at issues

On September 1 1 , 2001, eighteen men boarded airplanes with the intent of crashing them
into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the White House or Capitol. They suc­
ceeded with three of the planes, causing enormous destruction. The fourth plane crashed,
but thanks to passengers who discovered the highjackers' plans and attacked the highjack­
ers, the destruction of the White House or Capitol was prevented. What forces drove the
highjackers to undertake such action? What forces led the passengers to organize together
to thwart them? What might have prevented the highjackings? Such questions fall under the
purview of social science-the scientific study of social, cultural, psychological, economic,
and political forces that guide individuals in their actions.

[II Formal social science is relatively new. Nevertheless, a vast amount of information has
been accumulated concerning the social life of human beings. This information has been
used in building a system of knowledge about the nature, growth, and functioning of
human societies. Social science is the name given to that system of knowledge.
All knowledge is ( 1 ) knowledge of human beings, including their culture and products,
and (2) knowledge of natural environment. Human culture has been changing, and knowl­
edge about it has been gradually accumulating ever since the far distant time when humans
first assumed their distinctively human character. But until rather recent times, this knowl­
edge was not scientific in the modern sense. Scientific knowledge is knowledge that has
been systematically gathered, classified, related, and interpreted. It is concerned with learn­
ing the concepts and applying those concepts to particulars, rather than just learning a vast
amount of information.
Primitive peoples acquired much of their knowledge unconsciously, just as we today
still begin the use of our native language and acquire many of the basic elements in our cul­
ture unconsciously. For the most part, they accepted the world as they found it, and if any

1

l· Social Science 3
�2 1 Social Science and Its Methods

Social Science versus the Soaps two types have certain drives, and desires, and cer­ which deals with literature, music, art, and philosophy. The humanities are closely related to
social science in that both deal with humans and their culture. Social science, however, is
I I ! Faced with the events that affect our lives, we have tain rules that are passed on to them, either through most concerned with those basic elements of culture that determine the general patterns of
two options: We can lose ourselves in a parody of real­ their genes or through society's mores. human behavior. The humanities deal with special aspects of human culture and are prima­
ity, such as becoming experts on the soaps (is Laura rily concerned with our attempts to express spiritual and esthetic values and to discover the
The ultimate goal of the game is often unclear, meaning of life. Whereas the social sciences study issues in a systematic, scientific way, the
although its day-to-day objects can be said to consist focus of the humanities is more on the emotions and feelings themselves than on the sys­
tem employed to sharpen that focus.
really sleeping with John's wife's brother?), or we can of continuing to play the game and to keep the game tscinicuoiqrenrunaeTiclnrheyrtee.twlThiamoithnirupolkdsnoi,nsreatgvaaenkntnhdnctaoesgtw.oouvlfenesdrdognecemrialoielefnssctsi.moeAcnuilcalcelthhgsceooisfeeesntfhcfiaeeerldlibassewnayreoaecsnetdshwsetaehrlnleyaatsfsuporeoracualirnfbiycyuopsnonrdoceeidrtausrltycsaitcnnsiedgoniftncosgeosuoc. niIfatdliienssrctsseioterancnnicaade­l

try to understand those events-what actually hap­ itself alive. What winning or losing the game might be

pens. Some educators, following the philosophy of is clouded. Probably, if we commit suicide, we are los­

Plato, try to argue the moral superiority of the latter: ers. If we make a million dollars, are admired by our

Better to be an unhappy learned person than a happy acquaintances for it, and are happy, we are probably

fool. Others find that unconvincing. Following Jeremy winners. Many people even question whether we are

Bentham, the social philosopher, they prefer happi­ playing the game of our own free will or whether we

ness. The problem they have with the soaps is that are merely the pawns of a god who has predetermined

soaps don't make you happy; soaps quickly become all our actions.

boring. You soon play out the options in your head This game is far more diverse and interesting than Social Science
and, often, create far better scenarios than the televi­ other games. The possibilities are endless and the
sion writer. It's a bit like tic tac toe: one move (if you challenge immediate. It has elements of danger, like

know what you are doing), and the game is done. Russian roulette (if we really do goof, we will blow our­ No field of study is more important to human beings than the social sciences. To under­
stand society is to learn not only the conditions that limit our lives but also the opportuni­
Pinochle is somewhat more interesting, and the good selves up). And it has its peaceful moments. But what ties open to us for improving the human condition. Increasing our knowledge of human
society is as important as learning more about mathematics, physics, chemistry, or engi­
TV shows approach the complexity of pinochle. But makes it the most interesting game of all is that we neering, for unless we can develop societies in which human beings can live happy, mean­
ingful, and satisfying lives, we cannot reap the benefits from learning how to make better
here again, after seven or eight cards have been are both the players and the played, at times moving automobiles and skyscrapers, traveling in space, or constructing faster computers. Albert
E instein summed it up: "Politics is more difficult than physics and the world is more likely
I played, the possibilities soon become evident. Chess is ourselves as we make stupid or foolish choices and to die from bad politics than from bad physics."
a step above this, with its infinite number of possibili­ contrive sophisticated or imaginative solutions, and at

ties. But still, after twenty or so moves (and often other times watching other players as they make their

fewer), good chess players can anticipate the outcome choices and contrive their solutions. Trying to under­

and choose to call a draw, resign, or declare victory. stand this game is what social science is all about.

Quite frankly, soaps, tic tac toe, pinochle, and And the reason I am a social scientist instead of a TV

chess are not for this author. I prefer a far more fan is that I watch society and try to understand what Because all expressions of human culture are related and interdependent, to gain a real

complicated game-one in which I'm both a player makes society work. It's a whole lot more challenging understanding of human society we must have some knowledge of all its major aspects. If

and a pawn. That game could be called the game of and fun than watching the soaps. Moreover, unlike the we concentrate on some phases and neglect others, we will have a distorted picture. But so­

life, or it could be called the game of society. It is soaps, watching society has a purpose-if we can un­ cial science today is such a vast complex that no one student can hope to master all of it.
Thus, social science itself has been broken up into anthropology, sociology, history, geogra­
played by some 7.8 billion people, each having a derstand society, we might be able to make it better.

wide variety of possible moves that range from Social science has fascinated enormous numbers phy, economics, political science, and psychology. ( The boxes in this chapter provide a brief

shooting up a playground full of schoolchildren to of people, and a whole set of ponderings about the introduction to each of these disciplines.)

trying to travel farther into outer space, construct game has already developed. These ponderings con­ This list of social science disciplines is both too broad and too narrow. It is too broad
because parts of the fields of history, geography, and psychology should not be included as
faster computers, or improve humans by modifying cern the nature, growth, and functioning of human

their genes. The players in the game of society are societies. This book introduces you to the past social sciences. For instance, parts of history and geography belong in the humanities, and
parts of psychology belong in the natural sciences. The list is too narrow because new so­
divided into two types: male and female. These ponderings of social scientists.

\II cial sciences are emerging, such as cognitive science and sociobiology, that incorporate
explanations seemed called for, they invented supernatural ones. Some primitive peoples new findings and new ways of looking at reality. ( See box on The Evolving Social
believed that every stream,tree, and rock contained a spirit that controlled its behavior. Sciences. )
In modern times, our emphasis is on the search for scientific knowledge. We have di­
vided human knowledge into a number of areas and fields, and every science represents the Because all knowledge i s interrelated, there are inevitable problems in defining and cat­
systematic collection and study of data in one of these areas, which can be grouped roughly aloging the social sciences. Often, it is difficult to know where one social science ends and
into two major fields-social science and natural science. Each of these fields is subdivided another begins. Not only are the individual social sciences interrelated, but the social sci­
into a number of specialized sciences or disciplines to facilitate more intensive study and ences as a whole body are also related to the natural sciences and
deeper understanding. Social science is the field of human knowledge that deals with all as­ strains of the old song, "The hip bone's connected to the thigh bone, . the humanities. The
pects of the group life of human beings. Natural science is concerned with the natural envi­ . ." are appropriate to
ronment in which human beings exist. It includes such sciences as physics and chemistry, the social sciences. To understand history, it is helpful, even necessary, to understand geog­
which deal with the laws of matter, motion, space, mass, and energy; it also includes the raphy; to understand economics, it is necessary to understand psychology. Similar argu­
biological sciences, which deal with living things. The third field of study is the humanities, ments can be made for all of the social sciences.
One of the difficulties in presenting definitions and descriptions of the various social
sciences is that social scientists themselves don't agree on what it is they do, or should be
doing. In preparing this chapter, we met with groups of social scientists specializing in spe­
cific fields and asked them to explain what it was that distinguished their field from others.





































40 � 2 Human Origins \ �The Evolu eings 41

the evolutionary split between human beings and apes might have occurred as early as 2 5 times as many cells as the cerebral cortex of a typical ape. Today,
million years ago and continued for a long time. This view was strengthened b y a fossil said there seems little doubt that this complex brain is an essential
to be of a 15-million-year-old prehuman jawbone found in 1991 in southern Africa. This ev­ basis of the human power to acquire a vast store of memories, to
idence, however, is contradicted by comparison of blood substances from human beings use word symbols, and to carry on abstract thought.
with those from chimpanzees, indicating the divergence was far more recent-perhaps only
7 million years ago. The DNA analysis has tended to support the later dating and, in fact, re­ With respect to behavior, there are both striking similarities
cent work by David Reich of Harvard has suggested that chimps and humanoids interbred and striking differences between apes and human beings. Like
for hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of years. Even today, chimps' genetic structure humans, apes have family life and care for their young. They
differs from humans' by only 1 .2 percent. While his hypotheses are still debated, the general have emotional responses, can express gratitude and shame, and
belief that genetic analysis will provide important clues about human evolution is shared by often are sociable and cooperative. On occasion, they compete
most scientists. with one another, and sometimes they engage in play. Certain
chimpanzees have responded well to training in various types of
Although there is a dispute as to when the transition from ape to hominid occurred, behavior such as smoking, riding a bicycle, eating with a knife
anthropologists generally agree that all the primates, including hominids, once lived in trees and fork, and drinking from a bottle. They have also shown abil­
and that during this period they developed limbs of great strength, with prehensile fingers ity to solve problems requiring reasoned judgment. But to all
and toes for grasping branches. Most primates, including the gibbon and the orangutan, these accomplishments, there are limits that argue unmistakably
still live in trees, but gorillas, like humans, live on the ground. Chimpanzees sleep in tree for the superior intellectual qualities of human beings.
nests but spend much of the daytime on the ground. Apparently, one reason for this descent The problem for physical anthropologists is to fill in the gaps
to the ground was their increase in size. Gorillas typically weigh from 400 to 600 pounds of precisely how humans evolved, or if the evolutionary theory of
and are far too heavy for life in the trees. Even chimpanzees are too heavy to swing about punctuated equilibrium discussed earlier is true, to explain why
through the branches unless they choose them with care. The great apes can walk on two I 'his eighteen th-century drawingfrom Diderot's the changes occurred when they did. In the last century, and espe­
legs but they have not achieved the human's erect posture and normally walk on all fours. Fucyclopedie shows what some people at that cially since the 1930s, anthropologists have made tremendous
11/IC imagined early humanlike creatures to strides in solving the puzzle. Archaeological finds date our ances­
Perhaps the most important physical difference between human beings and apes is in IIII'C looked like. tors back about 6 million years and a wide variety of early
the size and complexity of the brain. Between various animal species, there seems as a rule
to be some relationship between intelligence and the weight of the brain, especially its hominid fossils have been given forbidding names such as
weight in relation to the body. But the most important factor is the organization of the Africanus ramidus, Zinjanthropus, and Orrorin Tugenessis.
brain. The chief advantage of large size seems to be that it provides space for additional cells A key element in determining when to date the start of modern human history is when
and for more complex mechanisms. On the average, chimpanzees are smaller than humans, these early hominids began using tools. Discoveries of tools with skeletons have been dated
but some weigh as much as 120 or 1 30 pounds. The brain of a small human typically weighs from 2.5 to 1.6 million years ago. This group
about three times that of a chimpanzee of the same body weight, and a normal human cere­ habilis means "maker." of hominids is called Homo habilis because
bral cortex, the part of the brain most concerned with memory and thought, may have ten

he Search for Eve choosing women from all over the world. They found Rema ining Gaps. Despite advances in fossil discoveries, significant gaps remain in our
that the differences in DNA among people all over the knowledge of our ancestors, even among experts with their detailed and technical grasp of
The development of genetic research has introduced a wor ld were amazingly smal l , which suggests that the the subject. For instance, what happened during the intervening years? Were these apelike
new battleground in the debate about our past. The work differences among peoples of the world are also small . beings the predecessors of modern humans or only of apes? Did humans start out in a
of molecular biologists has challenged many evolution­ Hypothesizing that about 2 t o 4 percent o f the D N A number of places or in only one, from which they dispersed throughout the world? These
ists' conviction about the timing of the human family components will mutate over the course of a million questions still are unanswered and probably always will be. However, genetic studies are
tree and where it first took root. Until the early 1 990s, years, they came to the conclusion that , around leading to more specific answers. The latest genetic data suggest that all humans descended
some molecular biologists argued that the evolution from 200,000 years ago, a woman must have existed from from Africa and spread throughout the world along the lines shown in Figure 2.4.
prehistoric to modern Homo sapiens occurred in one whom all now-living human beings are descended. From Homin ids to Homo Sapiens. The earliest known species of Homo (human), Homo
place and that humans descended from one woman Their research caused much debate. In 1 992, how­ habilis, emerged from these early ancestors. Homo habilis had a larger brain but smaller
who lived approximately 200,000 years ago. ever, they discovered an error in their calculations and teeth than these early ancestors and probably produced stone tools and other stone objects.
admitted that their results were far less conclusive
These molecular biologists examined the genetic than they had previously believed, but they still be­ As we move closer to our own century, our information increases somewhat, but de­
differences between chimpanzees and humans and lieved it had elements of truth . spite substantial progress, it is still sketchy and incomplete. An important find occurred in
found that the differences were surprisingly smal l-so 1891 in Java when a Dutch surgeon, Dr. Eugene Dubois, unearthed another piece of the
small, in fact, that they believe chimpanzees parted This research has continued . Bryan Sykes, an puzzle: Homo erectus. Homo erectus lived from about 1.8 million years ago to possibly as re­
company from humans only about 5 to 7 mil lion years Oxford geneticist, argues that he has found "the cently as 2 50,000 years ago and was a hunter who knew how to use fire.
ago. The microbiologists went on to examine mito­ seven daughters of Eve, " that these women lived
chondrial D NA, which is inherited only through the 45,000 years ago, and that all existing humans It is believed that about 1.8 million years ago in Africa, Homo erectus developed from Homo
mother, from the placentas of 1 4 7 pregnant women, descended from them. habilis and then dispersed to Europe and Asia about a million years ago. Homo erectus's brain
was even larger and the teeth even smaller than Homo habilis's. The lessening of tooth size indi­
cates that dependence on hard food such as nuts and seeds, which requires powerful teeth and
jaws, was decreasing as human diet veered toward softer foods such as fruit and, increasingly,
meat. Homo erectus seems to have been very strong-which would have facilitated hunting.

42 � 2 Human Origins 43The Evolution of Human Bei ngs

•(:t.t , seem to have been unable, for instance, to adapt to harsh climates, or to find food more eas­
ily than did Homo erectus.
Pacific Pacific
Ocean Ocean Neanderthals. Remains from periods longer than 100,000 years ago are few. We do
know, however, that the evolutionary network produced the Neanderthals, who bore a
')':, dose resemblance to modern human beings, about 100,000 years ago. Despite this close
resemblance, the recent fossil evidence and genetic studies strongly suggest that the
Figure 2.4 Neanderthals were not our ancestors. Instead, they probably shared a common ancestor
with modern man. If modern features already existed in Africa 160,000 years ago, we could
Early human migration. not have descended from a species like the Neanderthals.

trtnmhhioaaoalun,tnnAtIHHhnacmeanoo1dtocmm9tento9ooshgtw7oaahHattranwrboottdheoimflcteiNhesoSirspemeseasaoertannenrudcdidds(teehumy,orsst'pfoasuhHnafcanlhle8owoso0mnahan0snboo,t0aidooeg0xlrHdoo0eeese-gco,gytsimusaerbtsnaaos'edsrd,f-saJoeaotobxrhplseldieiees)etrfneweBionsseaiscs(arssedmitel,seisvesHuciapfdduoroaeeeumsrnzsanfoecotddeeduee,rsnnifnepCredcoeaxtScummstpit)sera.olsoaTeirnswaehharhnelesneysoodaepdasdiJpnhssutediaoatschntucupiechlAsomaaaestrtresesfrtiidudeobradetloge.bhmbaeac,jltoaeiaettcmnhevts­e­e­ Neanderthals get their name from the Neander Valley in Germany, where in 1856 the
pfnhoroosetlsddiaHlesstctoteahhmslalesotoydHrefesorao,eurmdc.ntooAudsneritrsonieeftceantsmcuohtsrsostmwohtofeamryhHnahuovSacmepvhoeabcibenehceraeroenecnmtpguteresoe,oeosaexvclnettoirhtnnoemcsmuteognrirgvheeraaamttrhinlvoyatesrn5eaf0nras0odom,m0pin0ihlA0lfiilsofeytrxnieicciaabayrtle.seeadatrogsto.haT.adTnhahuptesth,torooesneacsehooatfnhntseghoaienrrieygr first evidence of their existence was found. They lived in Europe and spread to Asia, al­
cbsbsbettsoaohhriarulpanmaeratfnliidtiniAeeenaecianmstcrhndfisclooatoeaowohnnsirttsrsfahgeadsdineas.lmemsinbnrttgoohychigrtgedfehoetrtehtueNoaofhrooeptfneeirsgobhasosymeenneiufnltidhmarshtoeeneeutfoatcrrimhcmnthionqhakruaeiuatdniEmnvnla.HsiitdWdldaahiaotenns.inyeomnscTwdpecctohehoseaitvaetolhoeoelstrlfeehnrosibestetuocesstuytruhgtruawahsapemslneneiylptlygdrvahomtieiyswonrdusrtagaehdptdcsctoariphheefovdtflne.ahaeeuaEntnerrygeugegthmfmxepererli,odonlysoeasptmemdacfeetereledpilaobcmtrahnomenasrertestaashhnuit2rnleuotido0ndprfmti0ngehrhHA,ges0aeuidfonn0ooamrem0,tfrgiccoyHoatoeta-hnosntosaselwamio3s"ksptoO0rioie8itsm0eeub0ssn,bsa0p0ertsypa0h,e.oa0ni0Actanef0hicvneyd0Ahe2essei0.fepyaryar0sHerliirl.acs3eaaocoOarlroufdesm"gon­le­nedosodedr­,f though a few researchers believe they developed independently in Asia. Physically, they dif­
toHttwhhopeoedaermnawdeHyotota.hohrseHemlsardieonpgocwaentHstoueeastpovdphmewlieetreooa,nttshieesamader(neryierscle,eywatwauspHeusspro.scoepeTnhmareihnreacoeispigneyNslgsaamf..ciperIiaOainstenntngin)dsa,cspeawetsrhpnhataeedhsgaaasartarpehliesndesed. ,pcymwiieendcesaiiAfentsfsoefeyrerciwcecothdahhmaesiarcponanhocdmestaweeElulrducpimsrhoetoiooffcprdppseoeleemwarobndiptHoihhlsuepoutHmmlmatohoyoamierennersogeabhcmeleatirigureneshgcgttetliusyhmrsba.bdeteTrelttavohhhienneealyg­yst fer from all other people, modern or extinct, in the shape of their heads and, strangely, in
the length of their thumbs, which were about as long as their other fingers.

It used to be thought that Neanderthals were dim-witted, slouching cavemen com­
pletely covered with hair. But this reputation is based on just one fossil, which modern
scholarship has proved happens to be that of an old, diseased, and injured man. He was ap­
proximately forty or forty-five years old when he died-very old for people at that time.
Healthy Neanderthals probably walked erect. Objects found at Neanderthal sites show that
Neanderthals could make complex tools, and characteristics of their skulls, and what can be
deduced from skulls about their brains, mean that they probably could speak, although per­
haps not with the full range of sounds that modern humans make. Sites also show that they
did not necessarily live in caves, but if they did they altered the caves to make them more
livable. Sometimes they built shelters rather than settled in caves. In 1996, scientists digging
at a Neanderthal site in Slovenia announced they had found what appeared to be a musical
instrument, a fl ute made from a bear bone.

As we will discuss in later chapters, the development of language capability was a major
evolutionary step. (See the box on the uniqueness of the human species.) It allowed the
species much greater interaction and hence social development than could occur in non­
speaking species. In doing so, it made the passing on of learned knowledge about the envi­
ronment much more efficient. It also allowed the species to develop concepts of time, space,
and quantity, thereby creating the potential for symbolic interaction.

The Neanderthals were powerfully built but somewhat shorter-about five feet four
inches-than present-day males. They had sloping foreheads, heavy ridges over the eyes,
large wide noses, and protruding jaws, and the Neanderthal brain was larger than that of
the average modern person. A tribute to their humanity is the fact that among the buried
remains are people who were handicapped or aged, which means that Neanderthals cared
enough and were organized enough to provide for these economically unproductive mem­
bers of their communities.

To date, few Neanderthal sites have been found from the period 35,000-60,000 years
ago. Because this is also the period in which they seem to have disappeared, there is little or
no evidence of why they disappeared. Theories of what happened include the following: (1 )
they interbred with another group, Cro-Magnons (discussed below), and eventually
Neanderthal characteristics were completely absorbed into Cro-Magnons; (2) they battled
with Cro-Magnons in a struggle and were annihilated; and (3) they wandered away into re­
gions that were too environmentally inhospitable for survival. Recent genetic testing seems
to confirm, at least in Europe, that Neanderthals were replaced by rather than absorbed into
the Cro-Magnon gene pool.

Cro-Magnons. There is another group of people whose origins are uncertain but who may
have been the immediate precursors of Homo sapiens. Cro-Magnons were anatomically
modern, tall, well-built people with skull capacity comparable to that of present-day
humans. They are called Cro-Magnons from the name of the French village near which the

44 � 2 Human Origins 45Key Points

9s the Human Species Unique? and that ability has given them power over other crea­ first specimens were found in 1 868. Cro-Magnons and other early anatomically modern
tures, but power is not necessar ily differentiation, and sapiens existed before Neanderthals disappeared. In western Europe, no Cro-Magnon skele­
There is an ongoing debate among social scientists animals use a variety of tools and social structures. For tons have been found older than 30,000 years, but 40,000-year-old tools that archaeologists
about whether the human species is unique. The ar­ example, the cattle-tending ant gets honeydew by cul­ believe must have been made by modern people have been found at a number of western
gument that human beings are unique emphasizes tivating aphids and other insects who secrete it, and it European locations. Cro-Magnons appear to have flourished only beginning about 35,000
that ( 1 ) only humans can think and reason, ( 2 ) only even constructs she lters, such as underground gal­ years ago. Their remains have been found at various European sites and, in smaller num­
humans can com mun icate with others by means of leries, in which to herd its aphids. bers, in the Near East, China, Indonesia, Australia, and Africa.
language, and (3) only humans can use tools. Each of
these points is debatable . Social scientists who argue To counter these arguments, supporters of human The remains indicate that they were not as strong as Neanderthals, probably because
that human beings are not unique point out that ani­ uniqueness assert that the power of the human mind they didn't need to be. Less strength, for instance, means less food is necessary, so the same
mals have solved enormously complex problems, some to solve complex problems goes far beyond that of ani­ total amount of food could support a larger population.
better than humans have. mals and that although animals can learn words, they
cannot learn syntax, an important aspect of language . o ndusion
Certain social scientists argue that language is As the linguist Noam Chomsky put it, to say that ani­
not limited to humans and have shown that chim­ mals can com municate with each other by language is tTiTttMnrihhhcageosede.drwcecBeaeilwrvyotihnesisatephabcprloaoesgwiloourdnepotteciul3cvenloip5igmda,ms0sreaa0eentts0hecdtmaoseiytsbeuootcayicufanrhntsrighnuaaosecgsiwtrsiocnelhnol,aienntbstdhiiseenmettfrsygyreuelomyswecm,nteciit,lrohoeteenemhsseepamapxipenrhloceadiiarxrbaentuis.ltclesoyieevncsiigiotndaofcelrsuncsoollcorutbeugttyahhrwnaiemnelirzgnosfaiornatFepindorhtdaniohnstaftachinsenceuadpacbtnhhieuodyvinssletndi,nrcifoaanotrslgertoghcmoehiexefaresansrmlahaicSsemptplcetlieaeortireipinssdn­­..
panzees can com municate by sign language and by like say ing that because people can rise into the a ir by owoyafqfsehwsmirepbaptmueeuoaaemamormlemmrrndeenusseeeAerTc,tTaptgnaineiplrthntothahge,1ettiltenssyinoaemm1ohsbitsrc,socnniC0iaeeealehescfyien0i,iksraepiwonttn0dosoloehamooulg,shl-ryteyyiflaspMeaaencet.SdshwdtsltotaatatFithahui,.enfroaicsgoowanftsmTrnenehnttterdgeahtrhreaeiothugeetnesithAonnrhnoontxerdeofosgseetabkeoetap,aeprdmftehabaofeor,nelahoariorwopcfmltskaesoctu,mituwlhuevhniegwucritoiice,ignhccooctismncr1alwhhhnotresf0lwsno?ensuh,oostfa0asgdoAoicsmafnnNigs0ieaeovtdnaten0dlrweaeehdletindi.rdanrhBrftlcaaTiaanoaed.hechobCdnytathpidaenunilv.hdsdeoenoebWmattSetnrtrlmesncutohsltoayueothohcondegnohvranemmmafiiaeesvnsscaelbntrtosc?ioeaarhgsev,sAsortkldieBeoiwoaiyawvnetgiffebpowhlfeeageeiotcltrrrhtece,shaerahiefeet,odiegasiusedcsdwsbnritshdts,nyhpuidbeaheqenuco,useatitreuaqdsrieurewtonbqtcweieuharaeftotoeousbeaoketdaecthdvreralsryialnk.euatobetssubitiAreoamneeonhtceseasethslaeosnaddgenatcabbtniiwscnaodhdnvvoe,wtrbtfneeiiicnabiuedooogidnatonlsiettuhaarunnuuehuildotteatnegastcehheleegtgptetsssiteeoxhmiesnhdpSisrci,pcteneee.nsteaohlhtloeotralahfrhenedasnitmrideerun;hvoenearaeievimdlttngsenvtoAshheileeoegrgaatnalegfxoohlftinonayegotcetuepsthfsa.phhccgr6mr.elvtmiheueohF0hndademama0ooleereaenpym,rintvatv0atothhiteietie0nnehunune.ollr0d­s­gers,s­­f
touching geometric symbols. One ch i mp has learned jumping they can fly l ike birds, only not as we l l.
over 1 50 different signs, and a psycho logist has
taught a gorilla, Koko, more than 500 words. What difference does it make whether human beings
Moreover, Koko can express emotion: When her pet are unique? A lot. Consider the following questions: Is it
cat was killed in a traffic accident, she mourned its morally wrong to use animals in experiments? Should
death. After a t i me, she "asked" to be given another we eat meat? If you bel ieve that human beings are
cat to care for and love. Moreover, the gorilla spec ifi­ unique, it is relatively easy to argue that animals can
cally asked that it be replaced with a Manx cat (a and should be used by human beings. If human beings
highly unusual breed remarkable for having no tail). are not unique, then it is much harder (but not impossi­
ble) to argue in favor of using animals in ways that we
The ability to use tools, disputants hold, is another would not use human beings.
characteristic not unique to human be ings. Yes ,
humans have a greater ability to devise and use tools, In the space between these two views on the
morality of kil l ing living creatures, we find a number
Key Points • Whether evolution is punctuated or continuous is
of places where we can draw a l ine . still much in debate.
It may, for example, be okay to kill a • Darwin's theory of evolution centers on the sur­
cockroach , but not a dog, a cow, o r vival of the fittest or natural selection; beneficial • The evolutionary split between human beings and
a pig. Precisely where to draw that mutation makes evolution possible. apes occurred more than 25 million years ago.
line is the problem, however, and
some radical thinkers have even • Genes contain DNA, the building block of living • The search for human origins has led to many
argued that not only is there nothing organisms. DNA contains the codes that deter­ fossil finds but not to a definitive statement: "This
dist inctive about human beings, but mine an organism's development. is where human beings began."
that it is moral for society to el i m i­
nate individua ls whose l ife is no • Sociobiologists argue that behavior that decreases • Cro-Magnons may have been the immediate pre­
longer worth liv ing-for instance, chances of survival will eventually be eliminated cursors of Homo sapiens.
peop le with brain damage or individ­ from human behavior.
uals who have lived out their "use­
ful" l ives and are no longer able to
care for themsel ves.

Don't expect any of these debates
to be settled any t i me soon; rather,
we ask you to acknowledge here, and
throughout this book , that recogniz­
ing the arguments of many sides,
considering them thoroughly and ob­
jectively, and coming to a conclusion
that does not stubbornly exclude
every other theory are the essential
qualities of a good socia l scientist .

46 � 2 H u man Origi ns 47For F u rther Study

Some Important Terms l1•llv, Alison, Lucy's Legacy: Sex and Intelligence in Human Slifkin, Nosson, The Science of the Torah, Brooklyn, NY:
'volution, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Yashar Books, 2005.
alleles (30) hominids (39) Neanderthals (43) 1 999.
Cro-Magnons (4 3 ) Homo antecessor (28) primates (29) Zimmer, Carl, At the Wa ter's Edge: Macroevolution and the
DNA (32) Homo erectus (28) punctuated equilibrium (35) \ l .tddox, John, What Remains to Be D iscovered: Mapping the Transformation of Life, New York: Free Press, I 998.
dominant allele ( 30) Homo habilis ( 28) recessive allele ( 30) Secrets of the Universe, the Origins of Life, and the Future
evolution (29) Homo sapiens ( 28) scientific creationism (37) of the Human Race, New York: Free Press, 1 999. WWW Action Bioscience www.actionbioscience.org
genes (30) sociobiology (34) WWW Creation/Evolution Newsgroup A rchive ww.w
genetic engineering ( 32) intelligent design ( 38) species ( 38) ;\ l.trks, jonathan, What It Means to Be 98% Chimpa nzee:
genetics ( 30) Apes, People, and Their Genes, Berkeley: University of talkorigins.org
mutation ( 30) California Press, 2002. WWW Genetic Engineering News www.genengnews.com
WWW Human Genome Project http://genomics.energy.gov
natural selection ( 29) t ll,on, Steve, Mapping Human History: Discovering the Past WWW Thailand National Center for Genetic Engineering
through Our Genes, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002.
Questions for Review and Discussion and Biotechnology www.biotec.or.th
1 lppenheimer, Stephen, Out of Eden: The Peopling of the WWW A Science Odyssey: Human Evolution, Interactive ww.w
World, London, U K: Constable and Robinson, 2003.
pbs.org!wgbh/aso/tryit/evolution/shockwave.html
'' ngh, Simon, Big Bang: The Most Important Scientific Discovery WWW Sociobiology http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/
ofAll Time and Why You Need to Know About It, New York:
Fourth Estate ( Division of HarperCollins), 2005. sociobiology.h t m l (accessed June 25, 2009)

l . Why do we say the human being is a social creature? 8. Should scientific creationism be taught in schools?
2. Why are humans, apes, and monkeys all placed in Why or why not?

the biological order of primates? 9. How long ago do you think humanlike creatures
3. Explain Darwin's theory of evolution. appeared on earth? Why is it so hard to determine
4. How have modern geneticists modified Darwin's the date, and why do you think we keep trying?

theory? I 0. Who are some of the earliest precursors of human
5. Can scientists create life? What possibilities can beings? What makes them like us? What makes
them unlike us?
you see in genetic engineering?
6. How does sociobiology explain the development 1 1 . What three abilities gave humans advantages over
all other creatures? Are humans unique?
of human behavior?
7. What is the theory of punctuated equilibrium,

and why is it important?

9nternet Questions

l . Read the short essay at ww.w sfgate.com/cgi-bin/ 4. According to the information at http:

article.cgi? f=/c/a/2002/0 5/27/MN226754.DTL. discovermagazine. com/2006/apr/chimp- genome

What are some of the examples given as evidence ( accessed June 25, 2009), even though humans and

for punctuated equilibrium? Is one mechanism of chimps share 98.7 percent of their genes, what

evolution singled out for these cases? makes them so different?

� � 2. Pick one of the articles about a recent discovery in 5. Go to ww.w expelledthemovie.com and watch the
paleoanthropology listed on www.talkorigins.org/ trailer to Ben Stein's documentary, "Expelled: No
faqs/homs/recent.html. What was found? Where was Intelligence Allowed" on Darwinism and what he

it found? considers the suppression of intelligent design. Is

3. Go to ww.w youtube.com/watch?v=4LThjf-Qbi4 it an alternative to the theory of evolution, and

and watch the video. What are homologous struc­ how does the scientific community explain their

tures? What are vestigial organs? dislike of this theory?

'l ---or Further Study

Arusaga, juan Luis, The Neanderthal's Necklace: In Search of Dawkins, Richard, Climbing Mount Improbable, New York:
the First Thinkers, translated by Andy Klatt, New York: Norton, 1 996.
Four Walls Eight Windows, 2004.
Dennett, Daniel C., Darwin's Da ngero us Idea: Evolution and
Darwin, Charles, The Origi11 of Species, Irvin, Charlotte, and the Meaning ofLife, New York: Simon & Schuster, I 995.
William Irving, eds., New York: Ungar, 1 9 59 ( first pub­
lished in 1859). Hess, Elizabeth, Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be
Human, New York: Bantam, 2008.

�aOriflins of Western Society Early Civilizations 49

After readin� this £hapter, you should be able to: Time is a river of passing events, (through domestication for carrying, riding, pulling, and the systematic practice of egg
gathering and milking). These developments moved human beings from the Stone Age to
• Explain why the domestication of animals and control of land and its current is strong. No what we call the Age of Agriculture, a period beginning about 1 1 ,000 years ago and char­
were central developments that created society as we know it today sooner is a thing brought to sight acterized at first by the storing of wild crops and then by the cultivation of land, domesti­
than it is swept by and another cation of animals, and creation of permanent communities. The Age of Agriculture
• Trace the development of modern civilization from Mesopotamia takes its place-and this too will changed the habits of most human beings from those of roving hunters to those of people
and Egypt to today be swept away. living in a more or less fixed community.

• Explain the Greek and Roman origins of modern civilization -Marcus Aurelius The importance of these developments for society can not be overemphasized. People
could live in one place; they could accumulate more physical items and pass those on to
• Distinguish three periods of the Middle Ages their children. Moreover, once they could be assured of food, they could devote time to
• Explain the importance of the Renaissance to modern civilization other aspects of life. During the Age of Agriculture, pottery was invented, making it easier
to store surplus liquids; it was discovered how to make cloth from both flax ( linen) and
• Define the Age of Revolutions wool. Moreover, because agriculture and domesticated animals required constant care, peo­
ple built permanent buildings, usually in clusters. Thus began villages.
�Throughout most of the remainder of this book, we look at and contrast the origins, dev
b �opment, and operation of societies' cultures so that we The agricultural revolution produced significant population growth in what is now the
Middle East and Europe, although village living fostered disease because there was little or
!ems. However, at this point, it seems advantageous to no understanding of the need for sanitation. Moreover, the same technological develop­
can better understand mofohdiestronrpyraond� ments that made farming possible also made warfare more effective. Horses provided better
take a whirlwind tour transportation, and bows and arrows provided better attack mechanisms. Archaeological
the development of Western culture. On this tour, we see some of the influences that have led excavation has revealed various weapons from this period. Although many could be used in
to the formation of the types of societies we have, and although what we can cover in a chap- hunting, they are also suitable for attacking and for holding off attackers. Conflict and the
wticeareldispesesercvsrpeibreeeclthyivilsietmoairntiecddalu, wpseeericitoatdnosa.ftTinlhedeascctohininettfirnopuduiurtpycoeasyneodoufstioomusirolatmroiuetireo,sfthathomeuogtnehrg,mispientoroioglodagisnyawsnoedmudeseehvwieslthooeprn-­ lack of sanitation kept the level of population from exploding.
glance at them casually and individually, seem different from one another.
ments that, if we section, we take you on that whirlwind tour, covering mil lennia in half arly Civilizations
In the next o, we consider the origins of Western culture as embodied in the social, po­
In doing s Slowly over this period people addressed two issues that are crucial to the preservation and
pages. extension of the human life span: They learned about the need for sanitation, and they
litical, and economic institutions that shape our modern society. began to try to solve the problem of constant fighting. These developments were most pro­
nounced in the Middle East. Approximately 4000 B.C., large numbers of people began
1rom the Stone Age to the Agricultural Age moving into the lowlands of Mesopotamia ( modern-day Iraq) and Egypt. During this
time, writing developed ( about 3000 B.C.) and with it began what we call recorded history.
We ended the last chapter with a cliffhanger, saying some technological development sig­ Because of that development we have a much better knowledge of this period than of pre­
nificantly changed the nature of hu mankind and society. I f you guessed that this develop­ recorded history.
ment was the bow and arrow, you were right in guessing that Stone Age humans developed
these, but wrong in thinking that was what caused the change. The bow and arrow im­ The Cradle of Modem Civilization: Mesopotamia and Egypt
proved Stone Age humans' ability to hunt but did not change the basics of their daily lives.
Another technological development did fundamentally change society. Central develop­ Although we do not know the reason for the development of cities in the Middle East, we
ments that created society as we know it today occurred when human beings learned that can deduce that it was made possible by improved methods of cultivation, which created a
they could exercise control over the land (through cultivation by hoe) and animals surplus of food and improved sanitation conditions. Once in existence, cities took on the
purposes of administration, commerce, and entertainment. It seems likely that in order to
protect themselves from constant warfare, individuals submitted to a powerful leader, and
for that protection they had to pay a certain percentage of their farm output. Thus began
our basic political institution, which is the gathering of people into a spatially and ethni­
cally defined unit organized and run by a small group. This group's efforts provide the sta­
bility within which individuals in the unit can work, play, buy, sell, and plan because they
have been willing to recognize and pay administrators who will enforce accommodation
among the members of the unit and defend the peace against outsiders.

Agricultural surpluses also created questions about the division of the surplus and the
opportunity for other groups to take it away. Because of constant disputes among various lo­
calities, it probably became obvious to people that some method of stopping the fighting

48