Social Science Book Full

182 �51 Rel i gion The Role of Rel i gion in Soc iety 183

assumes a living Imam as ruler. Because Imams carry enormous power among believers t debates are still going on in Islamic society, and the outcome will play an important role in
people what to do, Imamah can, and often does, come in conflict with governments, '' the peace of the world. .
also claim the right to tell people what to do. An example is Iran, which has a Shiite m,l)c
Iran has both a religious authority-the Imam-and a democratically elected governu • Role of Religion in Society
and there is often confusion about which authority is in charge.
There can be little doubt that in primitive societies and in the earliest civilizations religious
Sunnis do not follow a system of Imamah. This means that Sunnis gener ally are ' beliefs and practices were a strong integrative factor in most societies. Because of these b e­
content with having a secular ruler as long as that secular ruler does not interfere witl liefs and practices, people knew how they must behave individually and as a group to avoid
spiritual dimension of religion. In Iraq there are bothSunnis andShiites, with the Shut the ill will of the gods and to win their favor. They knew certain things were sacred and that
the majority. However, Iraq had never been a democracy, and up until 2004 the Sunn is \ if the group was to avoid famine or other misfortunes, no one must be allowed to treat the
in charge. It was in part to keep the Shiite majority out of power that the United Stak gods with disrespect. Religious beliefs were tied to rules of behavior and usually gave strong
earlier supportedSaddam Hussein in his war with Iran. support to custom and tradition.

After invading Iraq in 2003, the United States struggled w ith setting up a demo� r In the early history of c ivilization, almost every "nation" had its own gods and
government, which the United States stated was one o f the goals of the invasion, i n a '' sometimes, as in ancient Egypt, the king himself was regarded as divine. Even in twentieth­
try w ith a Shiite majority whose bel iefs often put rel igious rule by an Imam above sn century Japan, up until 1945 Shinto doctrine held that the emperor w as a descendant
democratic rule. The type of problem theShiite sect presents today was the kind of proh of the sun goddess. As a result, the people were drawn together not only by their
that led Ro usseau early on in his discussion of democracy to despair of the relationsh ip common beliefs but also by their participation in common r ituals of prayer, praise, and
tween rel igion and government, and to call on government to set up a civil religion sacrifice.
avoided the conflict.
Not infrequently, however, in the more high,ly developed civilizations of the world, dif­
Islamic Fundamenta lism. In recent years, there has been much discussion of wh ferences in religious beliefs have been a source of social conflict, especially when groups
somet imes called Islamic fundamentalism and its connection to terrorism and jihad with different religious beliefs have lived w ithin the same national borders. To get an idea of
Arabic, jihad means "striving," but it is commonly used by the western press to deno the potential problem, look, for example, at Northern Ireland, where Protestants and
sacred war against the Western world. As with all fundamentalist religious groups, tho Catholics clash, and at India, where Hindus clash with Muslims.
much dispute about what is meant by fundamentalist Islam and whether some gro
should be considered as fundamentalist Muslims. According to the dictionary, fundament.tl Reli�ion as a Source o f Moral Values and Social (han�e
consists of "strict maintenance of ancient or fundamental doctrines." The problem is t
there is generally ambiguity about what those doctrines are, and the issue comes dowr Religion, then, can be a socially disruptive force, but it seems clear that over the years its
who is i nterpreting them. As interpreted by Osama bin Laden, these ancient doc t 1 1 major influence has been to integrate and stabilize nations and cultures. In the Western
require Muslims t o fight against the Western world and to reestablish an Islamic st world, where Christianity in its various forms is by a w ide margin the predominant faith,
regardless of the costs to society and humanity. Other Muslims interpret it quite differl'll our ethical and moral values have over the centuries been modified and g iven greater vital­
and many simply want to be left alone to follow their spiritual beliefs, leav ing secular m,lll ity by the teachings of the Christian religion.
to government. Their concern is with religion, not government. For them, relig1
fundamental ism is simply strict adherence to the Five Pillars. The difference between thl' 1 Religion's integrative force derives from the fact that it gives divine author ity to ethical
views of fundamentalism has sometimes been called the difference between revivalists, ' and moral principles. Without people's adherence to such principles, it would be difficult to
want to be spiritually devout, and fanatics and extremists, who exploit this devotion maintain an orderly society with free elections and a wide range of personal freedoms, to
political ends. produce goods with enough efficiency to hope to eliminate poverty, and in general to main­
tain the level of civilization we have already achieved.
For some fundamentalists, the empowerment of Islam, which they see as God's plan
humanklnd, is a sacred end, and it can be achieved only through the establishment ol Through its influence on individuals, religion also has an impact on economic and
Islamic state. Ayatollah Khomeini, who led the Islamic revolution in Iran, combined fun political institutions. The great German sociologist M ax Weber ( 1864-19 20) developed
men talism with the Shiite belief in the role of the Imam and argued that because Isl,u this thesis in his book The Protesta n t Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. According to his
government is a government of law, and because a knowledge of law is necessary for anyc theory, the new Protestant sects that developed out of the Reformation, especially those
to rule, the person who should rule is the person whose knowledge of the law surpaSSl' that were influenced by the doctrines of Calv in, made a major contr ibution to the eco­
oth ers. Under this interpretation, it is appropriate to revolt against existing secular gov� nomic prosperity of England and western Europe and to the development of modern in­
ments and replace them with rule by Islamic clerics, such as himself. This view fit Slu dustrial capitalism. They did so because they believed in the Protestant ethic, the theory
views m uch better than it fit Sunni views, which preferred a separation between rel i�1 that God expects good Christians to work hard, to save, to invest their savings, and to
and secular government. Khomeini also claimed that the West was on a crusade to cl11 show business initiative. The Protestant ethic also played a major role in the develop­
nate Islam from the world and that Western ways were evil. In so doing he portrayed 1 ment of the American ideals of rugged individualism, private enterpr ise, and financial
United States in particular as the great Satan, claiming that good Muslims would reject l success.
tec hnology and way of life.
Putting a high value on work and on the k inds of behavior necessary for material
More recent Islamic scholars such as Hasan alt-Turai and Sayyid Muhammad Hu' progress was never a Puritan or Protestant monopoly. It is a characteristic found every­
Fadlallah have argued that the problem is not that the West is on a crusade to elim111 where among people who are determined to improve their condition, and it can be found
Islam, b ut i nstead that the West has dispossessed Muslims. Unlike Khomeini, these schol in all societies and cultures.
argue that Islam could selectively borrow technology and institutions from the West. Th

184 � 9 Rel igion Questions for Review and Discussion 185

Because religion is a source of moral values, it can also be a source of " of Christianity leading to war against Muslims, and recent jihad terrorist attacks are an ex­
change. For ex ample, churches led the way in the c iv il r ights battle, just as the) ample of Islam leading to attacks against Western countries.
earlier in the ant islavery movement. Churches have also been act ive in the pml
more general economic and social equality, and for adding issues of mor ality It Christianity and democratic government have made their peace w ith each other, with
p oli tical dialogue. religion playing the spiritual role that Rousseau saw for it as a type of civil religion. The
pope's decrees do not undermine Western governments, and a Catholic in government is
Impact of Religion on Education, the Arts, and Literature seen as following his or her own judgment rather than the pope's decrees on issues such as
gay rights or abortion. The same is true of many other religions.
The influence of religion on education, the arts, music, and literature is pervasive. D1
the Middle Ages, the church and especially the monasteries preserved ancient literatur{ This is not the case, however, with Islam, and Islamic fundamentalism poses the threat
kept learn ing alive. In the United States, from colonial times until well into the ninctt of religion to secular government that Rousseau foresaw. How those theological decisions
centu ry, most of our colleges and universities were started and controlled by religious o r play out will make a significant difference in what happens in the War on Terror.
izations. Many of them are still church controlled, and some religious bodies operate t
sive systems of secondary and primary schools. Many of the great works of art of an• lu mans have always been troubled by the in­ • Modern religions face serious questions. Disputes
Greece and the European Renaissance are representations of personalities or events with tl,lbility of death and the meaning of l ife; their arise both within religions and among religions.
gious significance. In the field of religious music, we find such outstanding compo�o rkrcst in these issues has led them to relig ion.
Bach and Handel, and in literature we have great poems such as Dante's Inferno and M r h Ill' five great religions of today are Hinduism, • Religion has played a central role in society for
udtlhism, Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. thousands of years and is l ikely to do so for thou­
Paradise Lost. sands of years in the future.
n nrrrent soc iety, relig ion is a source of moral
Buddhism and Hinduism have inspired temples, paintings, and sculpture of lues, and it significantly influences all aspects of • Religion presents a potential problem for secular
sophistication, mystery, ferocity, and beauty; Particularly in India, these represent government if religion extends its influence be­
paralleled fecundity and v ital ity. In some countries such as Indonesia and China, tht k yond the spiritual realm.
tire history and development of the religions are carved over acres of temple strutt
or w rested from vast rock-cut caves and cliffs, constituting some of the greatest art me I mportant Terms
and hist orical monuments in the history of human ingenuity. In Japan, hund ml
great gardens have been created to the quiet glory of Buddhism and Shintoism ..,l"mitism ( 175) monotheistic religions ( 174) religion ( 169)
Islamic prohibition of representations of the h uman figure means that the classr1 tks ( 177) Nirvana ( 169) Shiites ( 18 1)
t heir art are exhibited in architecture, caligraphy, and intricate floral and geometrit J 'ystem ( 172) pogroms ( 176) Sikhs ( 1 72)
terns. Sanskrit, which means "per fect language," w as developed in India to preser vt• 1 r digion ( 169) Protestant ethic ( 183) Sunni ( 18 1)
g i ous traditions. In fulfilling this function, Sanskrit also became a great literary lang1 ( 1 82) Qur'an ( 180) Torah ( 1 74)
and one of the Indo- European languages from which have derived most of the 111 .lh ( 174) Reformation ( 179)
languages spoken today in Europe, Iran, parts of Asia, and the Americas.
estions for Review and Discussion
In China, the poetry of the eighth-century figure Wang Wei is one of the reason
Tang dynasty is called the golden age. It has some Buddhist undertones, but only sixty \ \\"hy has religion had a strong appeal to human 9. Why is our knowledge of Jesus' teachings indirect?
later the poetry of Han Shan became overtly Zen Buddhist. In India the Ramayana and 10. L ist as many as you can of the more important
Mahabharata embody nearly all of the religious stories and myths on which the count r hcings from earliest times?
nurtured. I n ) apan we might mention the Shingon Buddhist novel of the eleventh ccnl lo Westerners, Hinduism seems a strange faith.· teachings of Jesus.
\\"hy ? l l. Explain how Islam spread from Arabia to other
Ta le ofGenji. l low did Pr ince Shakyamuni Gautama found
Buddhism? parts of the world from the seventh to the eigh­
Interfaith Efforts for Peace \\"hat are the unique characteristics of Judaism? teenth century.
I low did Islam begin? What was the or igin of the 1 2. Why are religious beliefs likely to strengthen the
Despite the many d ifferences, significant similarit ies exist among religions. Relir l)ur'an? moral and ethical principles of a society? How are
leaders have attempted to build on these similarities by creating organizations of mull ..,l,lte some of the similarities of Islam to Judaism they likely to create dissension and war?
religious denominations committed to creating better understanding among the wo 13. On balance, has religion been an integrative or
popul ation. In her book, The Mighty a nd the Almighty, former Secretary of .., hristianity ; also state some of the more im­ divisive factor in today's society? Defend your
Madel i ne Albright argues that because many of the major conflicts in the world havt· r portant differences. answer.
gious roots, interfaith religious efforts are central to solv ing them. What are the Five Pillars of Islam? 14. Why did Rousseau believe that governments
What potential problems does fundamentalist needed to create a civil religion?
The Potential Conflict between Religion and Government J,Jam pose?

The previous two sections discussed the positive elements of religion for society. But r
gion also plays what some consider negative roles. Specifically, it can undermine the
and lead people to fight others, all in the name of religion. The Crusades were an ex,u

�186 !J Rel igion

9nternet Questions 4. Go to ww.w pbs.org/mormons/etc/genealog}'.l 0
Why are Mormons so interested in genealog)
1. Go to www.tibet.com. What is a Dalai Lama? Who A human being is not, in any
is the current Dalai Lama? 5. Using the list of countries' religious m.t� proper sense, a human being till
he is educated.
2. Using information found in ww.w infoplease.com/ http://worldfactsandfigures.com/religion.php.
ipa/A0 193627.html, explain what the Dead Sea countries have indigenous beliefs as their I. -Horace Mann
Scrolls are. Who wrote them?
percentage?
3. Who were the Knights Templar, according to www
.knightstemplar.org? What was their original ding this chapter, you should be able to:
purpose?
how schools serve as agents of social control
7-or Further Study --- brief history of the development of U.S. education

Albright, Madeline, The Mighty and the Almighty, New York, Slifkin, Nosson, Mysterious Creatures: Fantastic A11111 the main problem facing our school system
HarperCollins, 2006. Torah and Scriptures, Brooklyn, NY: Yashar II rize the evolution of the college curriculum
n why the methods of funding education contribute
Eagleman, David, Sum, New York, NY: Pantheon, 2009. 2005.
Evans, Michael D., The American Prophecies: Ancient Scriptures Stewart, Matthew, The Courtier and the Heretic: The I education

Reveal Our Nation's Future, Nashville, TN: Warner Faith, God in the Modern World, New Haven, Cl Everything you do involves, or should involve, learning or education. Education is a never­
2004. University Press, 2006. ending process that begins with the socialization of the child and continues through all of
Hecht, jennifer Michael, Doubt: A History: The Great Yusa, Michiko, Japanese Religions, London: Routledge, adult life. In common usage, however, the term education has a more limited meaning.
Doubters and Their Legacy of Innovation, San Francisco: WWW Academic Info Religion Gateway ww.w acadcnu
HarperSan Francisco, 2004. .net/religindex.html Education refers especially to efforts, usually by the more mature members of a society, to
Mailer, Norman, and john Buffalo Mailer, The Big Empty: WWW Adherents.com ww.w thearda.com
Dialogues on Politics, Sex, God, Boxing, Morality, Myth, WWW American Religion Data Archive ww.w theard.1 teach each new generation the beliefs, the way of life, the values, and some portion of the
Poker and Bad Conscience in America, New York: Nation WWW Buddhist Education and Information Nl'l knowledge and skills of the group; it also refers to efforts to learn on the part of those who
Books, 2006. www.buddhanet.net are the objects of teaching.
Mishra, Pankaj, An End to Suffering: The Buddha in the World, WWW Christianity Today ww.w christianitytoday.com
New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2005. WWW Islam Online www.islamonline.net/english/indcx In modern society, there is so much to learn that any one person can acquire, at most,
Paine, jeffrey, Re-Enchantment: Tibetan Buddhism Comes to WWW judaism 101 ww.w jewfaq.org only a very small part of the total knowledge. Therefore, individuals must specialize in
the West, New York: Norton, 2004. WWW World Council of Churches ww.w wcc-coe.oru particular fields. Furthermore, in many fields, such as medicine and engineering, the
Scafi, Alessandro, Mapping Paradise: A History of Heaven on knowledge and skills required have multiplied until they not only take years to learn but
Earth, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006. also require highly specialized educational arrangements in colleges, universities, and re­
search institutions. Thus, as our modern industrial society increases in complexity, it be­
comes more and more dependent on formal education-that is, on a system of schooling­
both for transmitting and for developing its cultural heritage. In the United States, we have
created a school system that provides more opportunities for more people than any the
world has ever known. In 2008, we spent well over $800 billion to meet the needs of more
than 75 million students at all levels of the educational ladder.

In the early 2000s, there was enormous concern about what we are getting for that

money. Are we simply credentializing individuals, which means using school diplomas as a

way to limit entry into jobs but not to train people appropriately? Why do U.S. students rate
so poorly when compared internationally? Should we be providing "schooling"-the teach­
ing of knowledge and skill-or should we be providing broader educational and social
skills-the teaching of critical thinking and multicultural topics? And, finally, how can we
get more for less?

187



































�222 11 Soc ial and Econom i c Stratification Increas i ng Soc i al and Economi c I nequ al i ty 223

9nueasin!} Social and Economic Inequality to a low-wage worker outside the United States, or transferred to a low-wage recent immi­
grant willing to do the same work for much lower pay. High-wage workers with specialized
It would seem that a country as rich as the United States should be able to cl n skills are also now beginning to feel the pressure of global competitiveness, as new tech­
poverty, if what we mean by that is simply providing everyone with enough incor nologies have allowed more and more of their jobs to be outsourced.
physical comfort and security.3 To do so, the United States has instituted a variety '
grams including public assistance, unemployment insurance, Medicare, Social Securrl These structural forces pushing for inequality have been compounded by policy
Supplemental Security Income (SSI). In many ways, these programs have succecdt I changes-the progressivity of the U.S. income tax has been significantly reduced, the
they have also introduced new problems. inheritance tax has been reduced, and the capit-al gains tax-a tax on the increase in
value of assets that falls mainly on the rich-has been reduced. Advocates for these
Being poor in the United States is quite different from being poor in a devl policy changes claim that they kept the U.S. economy expanding, and that the focus of
country; it is consistent with having air conditioners and cable TV. That said, it shou attention should not be on inequality, but on the overall health of the U.S. economy.
be noted that most people view their positions in society relatively, not absolutely. A n Critics see the policy changes as giveaways to the rich-taking from the poor to give to
tively, over the past twenty-five years inequality has been increasing substantially. t\ the rich. With the election of Barack Obama as president in 2008, most observers
family income has risen by about 20 percent over those twenty-five years, but the 11 believed that the progressivity of the U.S. tax structure was likely to increase in the
income of the top 1 percent has increased by 200 percent over that same period. Mor coming years.
the median income of most families has risen over that period only because wom�·r
entered the workforce in increasing numbers. The wage (adjusted for inflation ) Policies to Reduce Inequality
worker makes has actually fallen.
The view that economic inequality should be reduced is widely shared. While there is noth­
Table 11.3 gives you an idea of how U.S. income distribution has changed ovu ing inherently correct about this view, it is prominently held, which raises the question of
In it you can see that the number of households earning over $ 1 00,000 has incr�:,r how to do it. High progressive taxes are one W'!Y· but they tend to hurt entrepreneurial in­
proportion, and the low-income groups have shrunk, but nowhere near as much centives. Moreover, they are hard to enforce and they tend to create numerous evasion and
high-income group's wealth has risen. In terms of wealth, the situation is even mor avoidance schemes that misdirect resources and cause economic inefficiency. As govern­
equal. The top 1 5 percent of the population controls 85 percent of the nation's '' ment tries to prevent this evasion and avoidance, the taxes often become bureaucratic and
The bottom 50 percent controls only 2 . 5 percent. In the early 2000s wealth becam� legal nightmares. These serious problems with highly progressive taxes have led to the
more unequal, but the recession that began in 2007 reversed that as the rich fount supply-side argument that in some cases lowering tax rates actually can raise tax revenues.
they lost wealth, while the poor didn't have any to lose. That said, most economists believe it is technically possible to have an effective, more pro­
gressive tax system in the United States than we currently have, although the political
The reasons for these changes are both structural and policy related. Struct r process of implementing the system usually so distorts it from the ideal that the end result
global competition has hit low-income, nonspecialized workers hardest. They wca is often problematic. The bottom line: What can be achieved with a progressive tax system
sented with a difficult choice: lower your wage or your job will be outsourced-trall\1 is limited.

Table 11.3 Another way for government to redistribute income involves government programs to
help the poor, but these too tend to have serious negative incentive effects-for example,
Distribution of Money Income of Households in Constant Dollars, 1 971 - 2006 they usually have a cutoff so if you work or earn above a certain amount, you are no longer
eligible. That cutoff discourages work-to stay eligible for the program, people don't work.
UN DER $15,000- $25,000- $35,000- $50,000- $75,000- It was such negative incentive effects that led to the welfare reforms in the 1 990s, which lim­
$15,000 $24,999 $34,999 $49,999 $74,999 $99,999 ited public assistance eligibility to a five-year window and placed a work requirement on
those collecting public assistance benefits.
1971 18.0 13.3 13.7 19.5 21.1 8.3
1976 16.8 14.0 13.3 17.7 21.7 9.6 Both these government approaches attempt to redistribute income after it has been dis­
17.0 13.8 13.0 16.8 20.7 10.2 tributed by the market. But because the government sets the laws that govern the economy,
198 1 16.1 12.6 11.8 16.2 20.2 11.4 it can equalize income in other ways. Specifically, it can directly affect the way in which in­
15.8 12.8 12.1 15.8 19.6 11.2 come is distributed through legislation. For example, patents, copyrights, and intellectual
1986 14.8 12.9 11.9 14.8 19.0 11.8 property rights tend to create income inequality. Shortening the length for which these are
1991 13.7 11.7 11.5 14.7 18.3 12.1 given out would lead to less inequality, although it would also reduce the incentive to inno­
1996 13.4 11.8 11.5 14.6 18.2 11.3 vate. All economists agree that an appropriate trade-off must be found between equity and
2001 incentives to innovate, but many economists believe that the current trade-off leans far too
2006 heavily toward those with intellectual property rights protected by government patents and
copyrights. In developing countries, economist Hernando de Soto found that the lack of
Source: U.S. Census Bureau. capitalizable property rights (property rights that can be used as collateral for loans) was a
major reason why the poor stayed poor, and that a key element to reducing inequality
31f we define poverty in relative terms, as many sociologists do, then to some degree the prohl would be for government to reduce the number of permits and restrictions on the poor's
always be with us. No matter how much incomes rise, if we assume the continuance of substantial incqt activities.. He also argued that governments should simultaneously formalize the titles to
people with relatively low incomes will continue to be deprived of various things that the rest can enJu property of the poor.