03. Architect_s Data

COURT REQUIREMENTS Leisure 339 Sport: tennis enclosure dimensions relating to standards of play international & national official championships county & club recommended recreational minendmargin 6400 6400 5490 mm side margin 3660 3660 3050 mm enclosure size for 1 cOurt 36580x 18290 36580x 18291 34750x 17070 wior courts in 1 enclosure 33530 31700 waddedloreach additional court 15240 14630 Playing space neeoed for courts of different standards according to requirements of (UK) Lawn Tennis Association Playing space needed for court —(1): h of net at centre 915, at posts 1 060; netting enclosure h 4000; 2.5 wire 40 mesh. Artificial lighting 10 m h at long sides. Scale of courts to population: regular players av 2% of total; ratio courts/players 1:30 to 1:35 very good, 1:45 or over poor; new courts 1:30. Additional space amounting to 25% of playing space needed for car park, children's play area, paths, bldg etc. Surface: exceptionally smooth, hard and pervious to rain: must attract very little dust and be dazzle free; materials: grass, cinders, plastics. h —6400 11.89 1 h= 11.0 9000 7000 4 Covered court h I 14.0 2000I 10.0 i'2000.i 'f I neth800 10970 1370 enclosure end margin 3 Drainage plans for tennis courts fl! - —36.57- (TeTh 10.97- 16.27 :.:.:.z.L.:.;:.:!:!r:..t.:.J.:.:.:.: a 2 Dimensions & shapes for covered courts —(4) sections a longitudinal 5 Children's court b cross

340 Leisure Sport SKI JUMPING SLOPES 1 Sketch for construction of ski jump slopes Following symbols should be used: P datum point TP table point K critical point (end of Slowing down section & start of run out slope) B end of landing run for vaulting M slowing-down section (distance from Plo K) Mi distance from P to B L distance from edge of slope to P Li distance from edge of slope to K H verticaf projection of L N horizontal projection of L H:N ratio of verticals to horizontals a slope of platform b slope of jump-off track at datum point (P) up to critical point (K) C run upslope Ri radius of bend from run up to platform R2 radius of bend from lump-off to run Out R3 radius of bend from platform to jump-off track I I of platform U part of run up in which speed no longer increases E part of run up in which speed increases F OveralllOfrunup(F=U±E+I) A lofrunout Vo speed at platform edge in rn/s D horizontal distance from platform edge to lower part of referees tower 0 distance from jump off track access to referee's tower front edge Standards for chief parts of platform: H:N 0.48—0.56 Datum point of platform can be determined: P Li —M, where standards for Mare: M 0.5—0.8 Vo for platforms up toP = 70 m M 0.7—1.1 Vo for platforms up toP = 90m Mi 0—0.2Vo Ri 0.12Vo2—0.i2Vo2 + 8m R2 0.14 Vo2—0.14 Vo° + 2Dm R3 profile selected for front structure which best meets angle of flight D 0.5—0.7 x Li to loweredge of tower 0 0.25—0.50 x Li small jumps E L c c C 8—10 7—9 6—8 30° 35' 40 U T Vo =0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.4 0.38 b .1. 25 23 21 4.5 3.3 15 20.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 18,0 17.5 170 30—34 32 28 25 5.1 3.5 16 25.5 24.8 24.0 23.3 22.5 21.8 21 0 3O—35 39 32 28 5.8 3.7 17 31.0 300 29.0 28.0 27,0 26.0 250 33—30° 46 37 32 6.5 4.0 18 36.5 35.3 34.0 32.8 31.5 30.3 29.0 33—30° 52 43 37 7.2 4 2 19 42.0 40.5 39.0 37 5 36 0 34.5 33.0 34—37 59 49 42 8.0 4.4 20 47 5 45 8 44.0 42.3 40.5 38.8 37.0 34—37W 2 Dimensions small slopes Djstance from parapet of lower referee's cabin of horjzontal 'd' beneath edge of platform: D x tg 16°—20°. Cabins should be located stepped along diagonals formed by line from platform edge to end of point 'D'. Upper side of floor of individual cabins lies 1 000—1 200 beneath parapet. Diagonal of tower to access of track should be 7°—i 0°so that referee can properly observe entire flight and landing. As many starting points as possible should be located on run up distributed evenly along length E15 whose distance should amount to about 1 000 vertically. Bottom starting point: E — E/5. Mm width of jump-off track at K: L1/7 + 4 m. Remarks All slopes given in old grading (360°). If transfers parabolic, then Ri and P2 smallest curves on those parabolas. With natural run up, sections mainly used should be marked every 2000 to help locate starting point precisely. Gradients on platform and several points in curve between run up and platform end should be recorded on both sides by fixed built-in profiles so that even non-experts can determine correct and precise profile when jump being worked. Profile markings should be applied along jump-off profile both sides down to run-out, allowing exact snow profile to be determined particularly in deep snow. Jumps with L more than 5Dm should not normally be built with Vo of less than 21 m/s. Jumps with L over 90 m not approved by Fédération internationale de ski (FIS) (except for aerial ski jumps). 3 Dimensions larger slopes Example: according to terrain following data apply to LI & H:N eg H/N = 0.54; C = 35°; L = 87 m; in table you will find L = 87 & in column to left Vo = 26; at somelevelbeneathc=35°,E=gOm,U= 14&T=5.7;F= E+ U+T= 90 + 14 + 5.7 = 109.7 m: ski jump with dimensions differing from above can be approved by FIS but in such cases designer must give written reasons pian / I 0.22Vo U 0.02Vo2 A 4—5 Vo on horizontal run Out medium & large jumps E L C C C 9—12 8—10 €a 3O 35' 4O U I Vo 0 56 0.54 0.52 0 5 0.48 b .1. 62 52 44 8.8 4 6 21 53.0 51 0 35—37 71 58 49 9.7 48 22 65.3 630 60.8 58.5 562 80 65 54 10.6 5.1 23 71.5 69.0 665 64.0 61.5 36—30° 89 72 60 114 53 24 77.7 750 722 695 66.7 99 80 67 125 5.5 25 840 81 0 780 750 72.0 37—30° 111 90 74 140 5.7 26 902 870 837 805 77.2 124 100 81 150 5.9 27 96.3 930 895 860 82.5 38—40° 137 110 88 16.0 62 28 915 87.7

SKI JUMPING SLOPES 1 Ski jumps at a GarmischPartenkirchen Germany b Holmenkollen Norway: 1 start 2 run up 3 take-off platform 4 run out 5 grandstand 6 umpires towers Leisure 341 Sport ICE RINKS Hosed ice rinks in some countries on tennis courts, roller skating rinks and similar large areas (surrounding wall h approx 100—150); water layer 20; drainage for letting out water. Artificial ice rinks with refrigeration system 25 below screed. Pump system with deep freeze salt solution or cold air chambers (usually ammonia compression method) —e(3)—(5). Sometimes combination of roller skating rink summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink winter (Dec—Feb). Refrigeration system 25—50 below top of rink surface (not possible on terrazzo). 3 Artificial ice rink: layout of refrigeration system (brine) Standard racetrack: 1300 m, 333.3 m, standard 400 m: measured 500 in from edge of track —e(2). In double track system each track w 3000 5000. Ice hockey —ep342. Bobsleigh runs with pronounced camber made of ice blocks at curves. Spectators preferably on inside curves, otherwise protective mounds of snow or straw bales. Toboggan runs situtated on N-NW-NE slopes, preferably in hollow: I 1 500—2500 m; incline 15—25%; w 2000. FIat finish or rise in opposite direction, camber at curves, obstacles protected with straw bales or snow mounds. Walk-up alongside not on run. 5 a I I junior lumP if" LI 4 _ Olympic jump I , !6 5 ___________________ 0 6 12 18 24m 40 40 40 ott b m vi Olympic jump 25 400mracetraclc 2xosntralaxis= 2x111.94= 223.88m innercurve =25.5x3.1416= 80.11 m oulercurve =30.5x3.1416= 95.82 m 111.94 CrOSSIng —20.97 70 20.97—1O00m P / ) JcringPxtradsw startls0Om 41 3000m //i! from70m 7.95 7.76 inner lane ,- 5000 m_/'/'/ =0.18m ----.- crossing straight 2 Standard race track 400 m I sub-concrete p rig insul- -— _.....f elf ahon concrete felt gravel seamless pipes distrbution rods in 75 concrete md trios-salt steel reinforcement 100 end line m crease 2' protective ordIe radius 2000 4 Detail of surface pipes 5 Detail of embedded pipes 6 Long curling ground

342 Leisure Sport ICE RINKS (cont) Curling —(1): ground 42 m; w 4000 (30 x 3000 also possible); intermediate tracks (strips) 1 m; pitch ends 600. Starting and aiming areas surrounded with easily crossed wooden barrier on 3 sides. Scottish curling —e(2): field 142 m; target area (tee) 03650. To centre point of tee 38.35 m. If ice poor, reduce to 29.26 m. Curling stone: weight 19.958 kg, circumference 914, h 1/8 of circumference. Ice hockey —o(3): ground 26 x 56 m, 30 x 61 m. Goal 1830w, 1220 h; may be played around back. Pitch requires wooden barrier 1200 h—u(3). Figure skating: rectangular rink 26 x 53 m 30 x 60 m. Combination of roller skating rink in summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink in winter (Dec—Feb). Cold pipe system 25—50 beneath track surface —*p34l (5). ROLLER SKATING RINKS 1 Sports tracks roller skating hockey—.(4)15 x 30— 20 x 40 m figure skating 25 x 50 m 2 Play tracks lOx 10— 20 x 20m. Impact board 250 h, 30 above track, 800 parapet along all sides, 2000 chain-link grid at narrow end (to catch ball), surrounding walking areas 1200; 50—1 00 deeper. Joints 5—6, slope 0.2%. Surface water in gutters or ditches, frost protection layer 200 —*(4). Construction Asbestos cement panels 15; laid on squared timber or on sand bed. Concrete tracks, 100— 150 according to type of bed, jointless if possible, but imitation joints may be incised 2—3 wide. Space joints every 25—30 m, gap width 15. Hard concrete screed, 8 on fresh concrete base (20 mortar if possible to take up stress between screed and concrete base). Cement screed with additives 1—10. Terrazzo, polished, 15, joint rails of brass, metal alloy or plastics, only for indoor tracks. Cast asphalt tracks on fixed base, as normal. m-nee sideline — — 0 l() target ground run-ott — I 0 .LI —I 1000 .Le5aO a 2 Scottish curling rink 1000—2000 I .+_5400-÷--5000_1 centre E 1 point I I I 1215 1000 ptnalt4 a Ib o Cs I 2 jj 200 I Iu I I 30-40m 4 Roller skating hockey Thn x roller skate track \n 30m N9 team changing rm vc cxi, L=rr 5 ArtifIcial ice & roller skating track

Leisure 343 Sport: golf SITE Courses generally cover between 40 and 60 ha. Most popular those among sand dunes or on heath land, neither hilly nor flat. Well-drained arable land generally suitable; in UK government grants may enable more expensive works be considered if derelict or tipped land reclaimed. Golf holes need proper safety margin: should not pass close roads or through narrow tongues between houses. LAYOUT—(1) Normally 18 holes: often prudent start with 9 holes while providing future extension. Site round club house 1st and 10th tee, 9th and 18th green (preferably in full view), putting green, practice ground, car parks, members entrance and service access. If professional's shop separate, place on way to first tee. Area dictates total length absolutely; contour, natural features and obstacles affect it marginally. Expect about 5300 m from 40 ha 6220 m from 60 ha Par is rating of av professional performance and yardstick by which measure skill, errors and course difficulty: applied to each hole and totalled for 18—.(2). Tees May be combined on av length course but may be separated into championship, medal, club, ladies at progressively shorter distances. Allow 300 m2 (400 m2 at par 3 holes). Greens —(4) Size to suit approach shot and need to spread wear by changing holes: say 400 m2 to 600 m2. 1 Golf course layout (Golf Development Council) strokes par par! hole usuall m 75 72 71 67 67 3 4 5 110—1921—2 290—410 1 1 2 440—500 1 2 2 3 9 6 4 11 3 5 13 0 4 12 1 4 10 4 avm 6310 5580 5120 5120 6760 Fairways Width normally 30—40 m. Start 100 m from men's tee. Playing width! hole: 60 m (90 m on boundaries). Rough Carry rough: tee to fairway Marginal rough: to either side of fairway, generally with mown band of semi-rough' of approx 10 m before trees, shrubs etc. Bunkers Sand areas averaging perhaps 100 m2 but of all shapes and sizes. To influence play determine optimum line, provide options and penalise mistakes. 3 a golf club b golf bag C golf trolley a 2 Par values 4 Typical green: 59 m2

344 Leisure Sport: equitation INDOOR SCHOOLS Location Preferably at town edges directily connected by bridlepath to woodland, pasture, heath-land or other hacking-out —v( 1). In past riding schools usually grew round existing bldg, eg adding to stables of old house, building asbestos-clad barn structure over riding area to provide all-weather teaching. Siting & access Essential requirements for any site: good access for heavy vehicles as well as cars access to open country and/or bridlepaths adequate el supply adequate water supply, possibly including fire hydrants loose boxes should be protected from prevailing winds low-lying sites which catch water and are usually frosty in winter to be avoided stable smells sited away from adjacent houses turning space for horsebox trailers and for lowering ramps side and rear, with space to load and unload difficult horses; tuming space also required for muck lorry —vp345(1)(2) access for fire appliances; requires roads mm 3600 wide capable of supporting pumping appliance laden weight approx 101, with mm turning circle 17 m dia mm clearance height 3600, for hay lorries 4500: all gate openings mm width 3000 clear space to convert barn or erect purpose-designed indoor school; nun land requirement with outdoor installations —vp345 4 ha. Planning & layout Planning of installations breaks down into 3 main groups: instruction, horse management, admin —vp345. Traditional plan usually arranges loose boxes looking inwards to courtyard with only covered way in front of each box. Later development: totally enclosed loose boxes arranged either side of corridor enabling them to be serviced bytractorand trailor circulating through block—v(3): disadvantage extra cost, including extra fire precautions; horses can become bored without outside view. However, better working conditions for stable girls; ventilation can be controlled to eliminate draughts; easier to maintain even temp; quieter conditions can be advantage if site near road or railways. Other general principles: preferable school not so near stables that voice of command from instructors can be heard and so disturb horses at rest; risk of fire in stables necessitates special planning consideration: straw sto requires mm 1 hr fr from other parts of bldg, or fire break at least 4500 recommended. Consult relevant codes and standards. Space required Size of indoor school dictated by ability of fast moving horse turn 10.0—11.0 mø. Many different standards of covered school. UK National Equestrian Centre has riding area 61 x 24.4 m, large enough contain international size arena and hold dressage and show jumping events, with seating for 300 along 1 side. At other end of scale possible provide — suitable area under Dutch barn, of which sides only clad for 3000 from eaves, with wattle hurdles enclosing floor. Whatever standard of bldg _____________ essential indoor riding space be 42 x 22 m to give 40 x 20 m clear floor space required for elementary dressage, allowing for tilted kicking- board surrounding walls. w of school floor for single circuit accordingly: 12.0 m w of school floor for groups: 15.25 preferably 20.117 m I of school floor ratio 2:110w eg 40.0:20.0 I can be increased: 20.0 x 60.0—80.0 military school: 18.29 x 54.86m h of bldg: 4000—5000 Information based on requirements of British Horse Society (BHS), British Show Jumping Association (BS,JA) and Fédération d'Equitation Internationale (EEl) 3 Plan of Lea Bridge riding school London Lee Valley Regional Park Authority Arch J M V Bishop MG Quinton 1 Country livery stables & riding school size of open track wi front of school: 70.0>' 100.0 clear hot large school: 11.2 clear hot small school 8.0 -. If' >partrm above douhie >'ands closed 0 in at approx 5600 above both gangways&stan ar with lantern round top hot bldg above standings 2400, gangways 4600; lit by lantern above increased hover gangways seroce yard hay sto 20 18 16 14 12 10 muck - container feed - 2 II n ue = amity box 19 17 - i_ yard 13 11 tack Ueichange Ii ii im -r entrance —I

Leisure 345 Sport: equitation 2 Clearance required for manoeuvring large container truck 62.0 60.35 42.0 40.234 I I ..L JL-_ mm riding space I riear_ — I ====1 I temahona 3 Riding school ar: mm h needed for jumping 4000, 5000 preferable; doorw 2300 in twin sliders; if spectator seating needed will be additional to riding ar; judges box & collection/mounting ar also needed f—18.3-4 J manege ring & rail 365 fence surround cinder all-weather well drained surface 4 Indoor show jumping arena with collecting nng, warm-up & practice jump space: for mounting/collecting ar allow for 20—30 horses at 3.5—5 m2each 6 Typical layout for loose box: mm intemal dimensions ponies 3000 x 3000, horses below 16 hands high 3000 x 3500, horses above 16 hh 3500 x 4000; recommended h approx 3000—4000; if internal corr needed mm w 3000 recommended for use by servicing vehicles & as means of fire escape; stalls mm 12700, mm w 1 800; mm passage between stalls 1 800 a section b elevation C plan RIDING CENTRE PREMISES Vehicle and loading areas —+(1 )(2) Instructional: indoor school and areas —u(3)(4); outdoor manege —e(5); grass paddocks (mm 8000 m2); outdoor show jumping ring; outdoor dressage area; cross country training area; club rm/lecture rm/canteen; sf0 for jumps, cavaletti etc (approx 5% activity area). Horse management: stables (loose boxes —a(6) and stalls); utility box: grooming, clipping, shoeing, washing, treatment of cuts etc (size as loose box but without fittings except tie rings); sick box (approx 3500 x 4500): should be away from other boxes but within sight of other horses; door should be in 2 leaves for horse to look out or be enclosed if requires complete quiet; sling suspended from beam with block and chain may be needed: 1 250 kg max loading (for heavy draught horse); larger establishments may need completely isolated box for infectious diseases. Feed sto —u(7), feed rm, tack rm —u(8)(9), tool sto; hay and straw sto: Dutch-barn type structure; size depends on number of horses and method of buying: year's supply of hay most economic way to buy as price rises steeply during winter; straw price not affected so much therefore sto less critical. Data to determine size required: for 1 horse approx 9 kg hay/day, 1/2 bale straw/day; weight: 1 bale hay approx 23 kg, 1 bale straw approx 18 kg; bale size approx 900 x 450 x 450: approx 10% extra volume should be allowed on total sto required for air circulation and remaining stock when new load arrives. Muck sto: traditionally open bunkers with brick or block walls on 4 sides with opening approx 900 wide on 1 side: concrete floor should drain towards this opening with gully outside. Size depends on number of horses and management. Allow approx 5.6 m3/horse/week. After month volume reduced approx two-thirds. Skip-type containers recommended: various sizes depending on number of horses and frequency of removal. Veterinary sto: bandages may be kept in cupboards or pigeon-hole racks. Leg bandage measures 127 wide and approx 75 dia. Medicines and poisons should be kept in separate cupboards and clearly labelled. Smithy: possibly 10—15 m2 in large centres otherwise space to park mobile blacksmith. Administration; reception off; manager's off; staff rm; first aid rm; lavatories; changing rm; garaging for horse boxes, tractors and trailers; resident accn for manager; resident accn for grooms and/or stable girls; plant rm (boilers, el switchgear etc); workshop. 7 Feed sto: size depends on number of _______ horses & method of buying feed (sacks or bulk); each bin capable of holding 101 kg oats, 76kg bran, 178 kg cubes 10.0 7.O(7.0 I 2500 landrover I & trailer I horse box fl7.oI t6.01.11.o i0.O 6.0 manure container 1 Clearance required for manoeuvring horses into trailer/box 33.2 01 E 1' - 101 a C at ra C 5 0 48.8- tm 57.81 • E I a — 24.4—25.9-—'f 5 Manege ring entrance from stables 3500 3500 r_-4 boiIe° racks 8 'feedsto 1200 &o x I skunitL ______ I L_1 _________ j•x900 .—i iJ_ shelf oer hot & cold entrance from yard bucket taps over gulley Jo ii Ivanised metal screen 2 hatter hooks metal channel protective ______ ping to door 11tie ring manger ca kick-over latch fall on floor / j{ straphinges a painted brickwork b hayrack - mange tie ring for hay net ullnose\ tie ring for horse brick automatic o drinking trough or [___/// 1 50O salt lick holder 3500 r C halter hooks enirance from yard bridle racks ce4ng hung r iop e ceiling hung dr'jing rack with units bridle cleaning + + holders 3500 hooks for saddle horse r—4 900 0 451) girths ragchesfS.f1 ffsosk ----8500 cleanrm draining 8 Plan of typical tack & clean rm; in larger establishments separate cleaning rm desirable; BHS recommends 1 tack rm/1 5 horses; value of tack requires rrn specially secure from burglars a 9 Eqp stored in tack rm includes: saddles on racks a not lower than 700 from floor nor higher than 1 800,600 centres; stirrups & leathers; bridles on racks b 1 600 above floor; head collars, girths on hooks 1 800 above floor; blankets, rugs, sheets usually stored in galvanised steel chests (may be kept in general sto) b

346 Leisure Sport: marinas 1 Land to water relationship: a land-locked b built-in c semi-recessed d offshore e island 3 Pontoon layouts: a stretching from land b stretching from breakwaters c stretching from floating elements 4 Yacht basin Chichester England: land locked, 1000 berths 5 Marina Port Grimaud France built on reclaimed marshland: 900 flats each with berth DEFINITION Marina's main role provide shelter from wind, waves and swell of passing craft; access to moorings at all states of tide with space for manoeuvre; tieing-up points for boats with services, eq water, el, telephone, television, refuse collection, fire fighting, sanitation, public address system; sanitary needs and amenities for yachtsmen, eq wc, sho, changing and drying rm, entertaining, sporting activities, shopping; car parking; eqp for launching, lifting, manoeuvring, repairing, maintaining boats; other bldg directly related to boating. TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT Land to water relationship —'(1): land locked —'(4), built-in —'(5), semi-recessed, offshore, island (constructed in open water: special case). Tidal situation: non-tidal: variations of water level 1 000; usually easy for people and trolleys and simple connexions between onshore and offshore service systems; tidal: substantial changes of water level; difficult connexion between pontoons and land for people and services; construction difficulties almost inevitable. Site selection factors: legal problems; transport systems; potential for future extension; construction options and methods; geological, hydraulic, climatic; soil and sub-soil; orientation, physical features, erosion, possibility of flooding; engineering network on shore; materials stability; tides, currents, navigational requirements; pollution control; labour sources; effect of marina on existing environment during construction period and after completion. OFFSHORE BOAT HARBOUR COMPONENTS Area needed: craft sizes vary: I 4.8—21.3 m (USA 4.3—24.4 m), beam 1.8—6.0 m (USA 2—6 m); areas of water calculated on basis of planned number and size of craft moored, pontoon layout, types of berth. Depth of water: mm 600 (USA 610) plus max draft of vessel at lowest astronomical tide, 300 reserved for stilting, 300 for clearance, If too shallow at lowest tide dredging necessary. Channel: leading to entrance 20—30 m wide; main channel within harbour area depends on number and sizes of craft passing through at any 1 time, mm w 18 m. Entrance: protection required from ingress (wave energy to be absorbed before choppy conditions arise in yacht basin) —'(2); suitable protection: spending beaches, rocks or concrete blocks moulded to appropriate shapes, piles. Pontoon layouts: well selected layout very important; main choice limited to pontoons stretching from a land, b breakwaters, c floating elements —'(3). Berth types —'(6): a stern to quay, ietty or pontoon bows to piles (poor for embarking); b same but bows moored to anchors or buoys (not for tidal marinas); c alongside finger piers or catwalks, 1 craft each side (convenient for embarking); d alongside quays, ietties or pontoons, single banked; e same up to 3 or 4 abreast (disadvantage of yachtsmen on outer climbing over inner craft); f star finger. 6 Types of berth water bJFJJW Liwater d / land ®eO N a ////////// L1!IJJ b %'////////// 0 125 250375 500w 4J0 800120016005 2 Energy-absorbing slopes inside Hantsholm harbour Denmark 9 50 10 150 200w 150 300 450 6006 central square kb k Hto a

Leisure 347 Sport: marinas COMPONENTS (cont) Locks: often have more than 1 compartment; should maintain constant water level on 1 side, other side varying with tide; capacity decided by peak use; waiting pontoons either side lock recommended. Pontoon design: often used to carry services and to support lighting units, lockers, refuse collection points, fire fighting devices; service bollards often provided: boats/bollard 2—6; sewage collection points for boats recommended either as holding tanks or as outlets connected with vacuum sewage system leading to onshore network. Mm w main access pontoons 2000 with fingers 500 wide; if total pier I over 100, 2500w more appropriate; mm w floating pontoon 2500. Pontoon types: fixed: for non-tidal marinas; fixed deck (timber, aluminium, plastics decking) resting on structural supports (piles most common); service ducts usually under deck; floating: for tidal marinas or where structural difficulties occur and supports on bed not feasible (eg deep water, geological conditions); deck fixed to floating units and so kept at required level above water; floats of steel, plastics, timber, concrete, polystyrene, filled with lightweight material (eq polystyrene) or left hollow; pontoons held in position by dolphins; in exceptional cases may be anchored to bed; connexion to land by hinged bridge, ramps, lifts, hoists, collapsible steps. Breakwaters: rubble mound: mainly for sites with relatively small tidal variations; alternative concrete blocks moulded to shape: not appropriate for more extensive structures; with relatively shallow slope (1:2 to 1:3) rubble mound occupies large water area otherwise available for craft or other essential uses; vertical face: concrete walls (constructed in open sea conditions as mass concrete or buttress structures): efficient when built, difficult to construct and maintain; caisson type: precast concrete cylinders (either hollow or filled with sand) resting on sea bed; circular shaped cusps between units, positive contribution to wave energy absorption; floating: usually considered for sites with great depth of water and relatively mild conditions; sometimes act as secondary protection or primary barrier, reducing sea impact before waves reach main sea defence. Fuelling points: considered desirable but not required by authorities (UK); floating tanks not usually accepted. NB fire risk prevention at points of flexible connexions between tanks and floating pumps. Pollution control: in non-tidal marinas water circulation certainly required but hard to achieve. Sanitary accn for yachtsmen essential (travelling distance 100 m); provide refuse disposal units close to craft as possible; pollution culverts may also be needed. Onshore elements: car parking: ratio cars: boats 1:1—1:2; not too far from craft for yachtsmen and their eqp; sanitary accn; recommended mm either 1 wc and 1 sho each sex per 20 berths or 1 wc, 1 urinal, 1 hb, 1 sho per 25 men, 1 wc, 1 hb, 1 sho per 25 women (max occupancy of harbour estimated 6O%; suggested ratio men to women 2: 1); yacht clubs: floor ar/P 1.0—5.0 m2: club rm, lay, drying rm, bars, restaurants, meeting rm, indoor sports, off, information centre, sleeping accn, caretaker's flat: hard standing, boat sf0, repair shop and other elements related to boat maintenance and handling; should have suitable device for boat lifting and launching and easy connexion to roads; free areas for manoeuvring; fuel tanks often sited close to boatyards; ancillaries may include customs, coastguards, lock keepers, insurance brokers, car hire, travel agent oft. ter 7 Clubhouse design Stokes Bay sailing club Gosport UK: a W elevation b ground floor c first floor d second floor Sport references: —Bibliography entries 003 006 046 083 183 205 212 297 355 384 388 475514515516517537538549585586587588639 1 CD (I) C CD 4 Boat sto with hoist -l—l- njjiiii_j.I [DDfl .I 1 Marina entrance design Brighton UK a 5 Sto for small motor boats 2 Main components of lock Sto bar lecture rm club C 6 Floating jetty with housing superstructure Brighton marina: section d 3 Sliding caisson & dock entrance

348 Leisure Theatres REGULATIONS passage i: -& I court I '1' a9o4 !ih1: street 4O 3 Distance if theatre lies between 4 Layout of Vienna State Opera blocks concert opera . revtew . cinema P waiting in booking ha 6% 10% P booking within 20 mm before 8% 20% 100% performance queuing for advance booking 2—15 mm 2—15 mm — ticket control 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm time, if arriving by car 4—12 mm 6—9 mmr 2—5 mm seating 4 mm % of P leaving seats at interval 75 50 — time required for leaving seat to foyer 4 mm 4 mm — time in toilet 1 mm 6 mm — time from seat to drive, excluding do 5 mm 6 mm — waiting for taxis or transport 1—15 mm 1—15 mm — S Table after Burns-Meyer & Cole (—oBibi 52) giving % of P & time in mm needed reach or leave seats, as measured in USA 111111 JI cio/P v'l000for2OP befler 2000 & more 1100—l_00 + IAI 7 Exit&clo refreshment rim L/1 /corr Reg concerning theatre and cinema bldg and schemes not rigid in UK or USA: concern public safety; must be complied with to obtain necessary licence; should be discussed with licensing authority at earliest stage. Principles applicable world wide; main task of architect achieve balance between commercial, artistic and spectator requirements, and design scheme which complies with 'means of escape' and differential detail safety reg. For consents required in UK in addition to theatre or cinematograph licence —.Bib 300 301 328 329 346 347 361 363 591 598 599 For USA —e local bldg codes Organisation Theatres may be divided into 3 parts—e(4): reception: entrance, booking hall, foyer, cloaks etc auditorium stage: main stage, wings, back of stage, scenery sto, workshops, dressing rm, rehearsal rm etc Parts vary in content and size depending on type of theatre: opera, drama, review or cinema. Situation: Bldg for public entertainment must be sited allow audience leave area more rapidly than required leave premises. Check requirements at earliest stage. —v(1 )(2)(3) for typical dimensions. Audience arrival times —s(5) extend from 15—30 minutes, departures 5—20 minutes. Car parks —vp248—50. Capacities usually determined by planning authority. Site vehicle entrance away from theatre entrance. Include covered area for setting down passengers. Exits must all open outwards and comply with requirements for numbers and travel distance. General rule for numbers (UK) 1 600 width for 250 visitors or part thereof with mm of 2 exits —.(6)(7). Ramps not to exceed 10% in UK; can be limited to 5% in continental Europe. Cloakrooms—v(7) Modern systems include self-service lockable coathangers or limited length counters with mm number attendants. Stairs —v(8) —°p408 Must comply with exit widths requirements. If width more than 1 800 should be designed as double stairs with central handrail, 2 x 1100 ie 2200 wide. Risers not exceed 150, treads mm 280. Foyers for theatres can be 100—500 m2/P; for cinenias space required for circulation and exit only, unlikely be more than 100 m2/P. Toilets in accordance with licensing requirements; also —eBibO92. USA reg for exits, stairs etc vary: example —a(1 0). occupancy group classification max travel distance within assembiy space Im) pri- Seconmary dary capacity lP/unit of wI doors or openings aisle & from from stairs cross assembiy safe & aisle space Sr escalators ramps corr, safe ar, exd passageways f-la ffJ f-2 26 38 30 38 53 76 80 90 400 50 80 400 100 60 125 80 500 320 80 100 425 'unit 560 i-i a: enclosed theatres with stages that may have scenic elements, i-lb. enciosed theatres which prohibit use of scenic elements on or above stage: f-2, outdoor assembly spaces 10 Determination of exit & access requirements: extract from New York City bldg code street overt - - 1• passage audience > otherwise v stage passage >4 0 Street 40 1 Distance to adjoining bldg if theatre Ito street 2 Distance if theatre parallel to street EU direct imght& oecitiiation 6 Corrw: llOOforuptolOOP, 1600 for up to 250 P fire-proof wail 8 Stairs:llOOforuptolOOP; 1 600 for up to 250 P; centre handrail required over 1 800w 9 Provide lob between smoking & non-smoking ar: doors to open in direction of exit

Typical seated spectator—(1) Eye height: 1120± 100 Tread of seating tier (row spacing) 1: 800—1150 Head clearance C: C1 = 65: mm clearance/row, assuming spectator will see between heads row in front (every-other-row vision) C2 = 130 allows av spectator see over head av specator in front (every-row vision) Rise R —*(2): difference in height between adjacent seating platforms Floor slope: Arrival point of sight (APS) —(2)(3): intersection of highest sightlmne at focal plane positioned 50 above stage platform Distance: horizontal distance from eye of seated spectator to APS D1 = distance from eye of first row to APS = distance from eye of given row n to APS Elevation: vertical height of eye of seated spectator above focal plane E1 = vertical height of eye of first row above focal plane E = vertical height of eye of given row n above focal plane = 0 establishes max stage height allowable, ie 1 060 Constant rise floor slope —(2): sight lines from rows parallel; APS determined by intersection of sight line from last or highest row at focal plane: T T R=-E1+(N—1)+C D1=—E1+(N—1)C E1 =t(R—C)—C(N—1) N = number of rows in seat bank. Iscidomal floor slope —(3): exponential shape of floor slope results from generation of sight lines from single focal point or APS; iscidomal floor slope makes more efficient use of given total rise: Type and scale of performance will dictate range of performing area sizes —*(4). May be desirable enable performing space accommodate variety of performing area sizes. Containment of audience within 130° angle peripheral spread of vision from performer at point of command will help promote max visual and aural communication between performer and spectator. Largest performing area should fall within boundary defined by 130° angle of peripheral spread of vision from seats at ends of front rows —(5). Limit of centre of action defined by 60° angle of normal, accurate, polych romatic vision from seats at ends of front rows. Point of command should logically fall within centre of action. Boundary limit of seating area of auditorium might be defined by given constant angle of peripheral spread of vision to sides of given stage opening. Limits of both 30° and 60° angles of peripheral spread of vision to various openings illustrated —(6). Leisure 349 Theatres SIGHT LINES CD C') C CD 2 Constant rise floor slopes 3 Iscidomal floor slopes 4 Range of performing ar 5 Relationstiip between 6 Viewing angle fields from stage opening performing ar & seating A 8.5m B 10.7m C 12.8m D 14.9m E 17.Om

350 Leisure Theatres AUDITORIUM Auditorium longitudinal sections shown —.(1 )—(6) have same numbers of rows. Max D: H balcony overhang proportion recommended: 1:1 for concerts, 2: 1 for opera, drama. Flying balcony may allow greater D : H ratio by allowing reverberant energy reach rear seats from behind. Last rows should have clear sight line to central speaker cluster. Balcony overhangs positioned clear of projection beam. Max sight line angle from balcony to stage: 300 Convex and irregular surfaces aid sound diffusion. Domes, vaults and other large concave surfaces may cause acoustic problems. Higher ceiling for longer reverberation time as required for concerts; typical hall volume: 20.5 m3—35 m3/audience seat. Lower ceiling for shorter reverberation time as required for drama, speech; typical hall volume: 7.5 m3—14 m3/audience seat. In halls used for concerts treat stage and audience seating as 1 volume. In multiple-use halls this condition achieved with hard orchestra shell which must be demountable for full use of stage for scenery. Acoustic requirements may dictate that reflective surfaces at ceiling of orchestra enclosure extend out above audience seating. 8 Multiple aisle seating max seats: 12—17(l4typ) USA 18—30 modified continental 14—22 UK max seats permitted per row: 49; unlimited incremental increase in row I sometimes permitted as function of incremental increase in row spacing 9 'Continental' seating movable (flying &/or hinged) auditorium ceiling can be used to vary seating capacity in single ha 6 3 flying baic trap rm ar/musician 1—1.5 m2 seat wagon sb 7 Typical orchestra pit lift detail

Leisure 351 Theatres I All seats fixed tip-up chairs (except in boxes); armchair seating needs 1400 x 750 spaces 5 Section rough auditorium of American 1-balcony theatre with ambulatory & view into rear stalls: equal seat value so standard prices possible 6 Hamilton Place Ontario Canada a orchestra floor b 1St balcony floor Arch Garwood-Jones SEATING Sizes depend on type of chair and determine chair spacing. Decide on chair style at outset. Traditional chairs require mm spacing at 840 and are 500 wide —*(1); most common USA dimension 530. Modern chairs vary considerably: can need 1 400 spacing and width of 750. Standing space —+(2) formerly normal not usual in modern theatres. Seating usually laid out in straight or curved rows; in some theatres angled seating tried —e(3). Seating radius centre point best established by trying alternative positions. Short radius enables whole audience face centre of stage but this must be drawn to ensure adequate circulation space at front stalls sides. BALCONIES Theatres with 1 balcony (frequent in USA) —*(5) can give better sight lines than multiple —*p350, reduce staff requirements, simplify exits, increase spectator convenience. Sometimes movable ceiling. Very deep stalls under balcony .—(5) tend to limit upward sight line. Multiple auditoria have become common —e(7). Containment of sound in each auditorium major problem. FLEXIBLE SEATING —aIso p135 Division of auditoria into smaller rm by sliding folding partitions common in conference centres; more difficult in theatres with stepped floors. Consider closing off areas of seating to provide smaller capacity; to provide full flexibility folding seating areas can slide away to expose level floor —spl35(4). Loose seating used on flat floor gives very poor sight lines: must have temporary fixing. Sto accn for loose seating must be provided; 1 000 folding chairs need 20—36 m2 sto space. 0 3 6 9 12m 10 20 30 40 ft I- 840—1000H 2 Standing room, unusual in modem theatres r— 2000 —1 : H— 2400 — 3 Angled tip-up seats give elbow room 4 Boxes may have 10 chairs & clear way to exit 9 8 1 24m 5 5 15ft 25 50 24 m 75 ft PUIHHHIIIH0011_ key 6 upper lob 7 upper part studio theatre 8 meetings 9 orchestra stage 10 drama stage 11 reCeiving 12 ott & entrance 13 dressingrm 14 rnecheqp 7 Concert ha Helsingborg Finland with 2 ha 1 above other a longitudinal section b plan of large ha Arch S Markelius

STAGE TOWER Dimensions governed by stage machinery, increasingly complex to speed scenery handling and changes. Small stage without side and backstage —(2a). Shifting scenery by hand with trained staff 3 mm; with 'jacknife' trolleys 15 sec —9(2b); if side and backstage with traverse trolleys 10sec—(3). Revolving stage Disc with 2—3 sets —(3) 2 discs with contact at stage centre Reciprocating segments —*(2c) Ring stage with centre upstage —(2d) Ring stage with centre in house —*p353 Stage tower Width of stage twice stage opening —÷(3). Depth of stage from fire curtain 3/4 stage width, height to rigging loft underside medium height of auditorium + height of stage opening Fireman's rm 800 wide, 2200 high scenery at each side of stage, with view and exit to stage; escape route also required. Width of corridor at stage level 2200, otherwise 1 500. If stage (without side and backstage) larger than 350 m2 width of corridors increases by 150/50 m2. Exits from stage areas should be planned provide ready egress from all parts. Include at least 2 exits of which 1 must lead to open air through unventilated lobby. Mm widths should comply with reg. Exit requirements from basement and dressing rm areas similar, ito be independent of stage area and 1 from dressing rm should also lead direct to open air. Workshops (locksmith, carpenter, paint shop) connected by fire lobbies to corridors. Scenery sto at stage level 1 O% of stage area. Height of scenery sto approx 6000—10000. Rigging loft: space over stage used for hanging scenery and lighting eqp. Between loft and roof construction allow 2100 head room. Adequate ventilation equal to 10% stage area to be provided by haystack lantern above loft. Varies from code to code USA. Fire curtain: stage must be separated from auditorium by fire proof curtain of wire-woven asbestos cloth stretched between top and bottom steel pipes, asbestos plates fixed to fire proof steel frame or sheet metal fixed to fire proof steel frame. Hand release to operate fire curtain and drencher system over. Both automatic and hand release usually required in USA. Curtain must be in 1 piece; should move vertically and should close completely in 30 seconds. 352 Leisure Theatres mm normal max m m rn drama 8 10 12 review 10 11 14 musical 10 12 15 opera 12 18 25 1 Stagew I r--t—l 2A i I i L_i a c d Diagrams showing various ways of setting & handling scenery 3 Diagrammatic plan of stage tower with typical dimensions Diagrammatic section of stage tower with typical dimensions

Leisure 353 Theatres 3 New London Theatre Drury Lane London: revolving stage & front stalls with adjustable h seating; can be either in the round or proscenium Arch Tvrtkovic & Kenny Chew & Percival MULTI-FORM THEATRE Ring stage with centre in house-.-(1 )—(5) Aims at intimate connexion of audience and actor; brings play amongst audience in contrast to peep-show' stage. These methods call for modern stagecraft. Actor plays surrounded by his audience —(2)(4)(5) without curtain and with little scenery. Auditorium may be round, square or rectangular —(4). Instead of scenery use can be made of film projection. Revolving stages —(2)(3). Revolving auditorium —*(2)(3). 'Theatre in the round' (arena type) where common stage omitted —(5). Combined 'arena' & 'peep-show' stage As arena theatre side walls of auditorium have rolling or sliding out panels which line up with cyclorama and thus enclose space. As 'peep-show' theatre proscenium arch put between auditorium and stage. Theatre references: —4Bibliography entries 015 034 113 114 152266298309340343 350 351 352361 408409413475556572626 6 Circle level Olivier auditorium National Theatre London England Arch Denys Lasdun Plan at balc level Tyrone Guthrie Theater (three-quarter arena) Minneapolis USA Arch Ralph Rapson 1 Arena stage: ground floor plan 2 'Total theatre' with revolving Arch Kreisiinger & Rosenbaum centre: plan shows both positions: after Gropius I Kleines Haus Theater Mannheim (Germany) with adjustable seating a peep-show' stage with orchestra b double-sided arena stage c arena stage all round Arch G Weber 5 Arena Stage Theater Washington DC USA upper level plan Arch Harry Weese

354 Leisure Cinemas —also theatres p348—53 Techniques & regulations Very similar to theatres. Old requirements (UK) for open space round cinemas still applicable —(1 )(2); architect must discuss requirements at earliest stage. Use of court or mall access becomes more common in comprehensive schemes, but unless court fully fire protected may not count as exit—(3). Consult relevant codes and standards for all details. Doors & corridors Widths must match exit requirements. Doors to open outwards against exit flow in corridor and to be free of fastenings except panic bolts. Projections for handrails up to 75 allowed into exit widths but doors must provide clear exit dimension measured from door face to frame when standing open. Doors generally required to be fr and self closing —'(5). Srcases Must also match exit requirements —p348, clear width being measured between walls or wall and balustrade —*(6). Not less than 3 risers permitted; not more than 16 risers in straight flights. Max of 2 successive flights without turn allowed provided number of risers reduced to 12. Landings at top, bottom and between flights should equal width required. Stair risers (UK code) not to exceed 150, treads at least 280; USA codes vary. Stairs —'p408 Seating Layouts similar to theatres —*p349—50, except seat blocks do not normally exceed 14 chairs. Spectator convenience improved for continuous performances; sales of confectionery improve when access from seating increased. Modern chairs, some of which have not tip-up seats, need greater spacing, Distance from screen to front row of seats determined by max allowable angle between sightline from first row to top of screen and perpendicular to screen at that point: max angle 30°—35° recomi3i3 street pa11t1 1 : court. I: ii! 3 Cinemascanbesituatedoff street but may require alternative exits 5 Door&corrwtocornplywithreg —p348: doors to open against exit flow :i.;:;;II;I.1i1r... 6OL120 t1o mended. Limit to sight angle of 35° above horizontal produces distance to screen on centre line of 1.43 x height from front row eye level to top of picture —*p357(4). Seat sizes finally determine layout dimensions —*p350—1. Vertical sight lines determined in similar way as for theatres —p349 except that each spectator should have clear view to bottom of picture. Side seating at front limited by angles of sight to screen —p355(6). Access to auditorium In stepped seating can be from beneath through vomitory or from rear, each to crossover aisle. Side and rear aisles add to ease of access and supervision of audience. Multiple auditorium Now often considered necessary in commercial cinemas. Various theories used to divide total seats needed. Ratios of 1:2 or 2:3 for dual cinemas; ratios of 1:2:3 for triple cinemas; progression of seat totals for larger multiples. Basic requirement: give visitor choice of programmes and enable operator judge business potential of each film so as show it in auditorium of capacity to match public demand. If film playing to half capacity audiences can be transferred to smaller auditorium or vice versa. Seating capacities vary between 100—600 chairs: generally regarded (UK) as mm and max auditorium sizes—(7). Sales, staff, projection and service arrangements can be as for single cinema —*p355—7. Ventilation and acoustic separation must be provided. Single projection rm to link all auditoria preferred but automation and closed circuit tv to monitor programmes make possible separate eqp in conversion of old properties. 7 Cinema Putney London: multiple auditona; part of commercial bldg, with high level common projection rm 0 street •i\\ ! 1court to take total tier of specta tors street 1 Cinemas with more than 2000 seats should have exits on more than 1 public road, or be situated in courts Cinemas with less than 2000 seats should have exits on public road; may be in courts —(3); for passages —(4) slope1:1O. radiatorsin eys audi- door'must tonum open outward direct light & — ventilation tire proof rise 1.1 's15O tread 1. 6 Wofstairstoequaiexitw —p348: flights not less than 3 risers not morethan 16, l2if2flights without turn

Leisure 355 Cinemas 2 Diagram of projection rm; if window installed ensure daylight cannot reach screen a plan b section 3 Projection rm in gallery structure, 4 Internal projection rm with observation through mirrors: with mech ventilation 35 mm also project through mirrors 1:1.37 normal 1:1.66 paramount 1:I.75mgm 1:3.25 i cinerama 1:1.B5columbi 1:2.2 todd ao (70 mm) 1:2.34 cinemascope 6 Film projection planning: viewing point on screen: line of iso-deformation = boundary of seating ar for which spectators will see same apparent distortion: hyperbola shape defined in plan by asymptotes from point on screen; zone I distortion exists but not noticed from seats falling within hyperbola: mm horizontal distance from vertex of hyperbola to screen determined by limitation of vertical angle from eye of first row to top of screen to max of 30°—35°; zone II distortions noticed but tolerated from seats falling outside zone I; zone Ill (seating placed beyond limit of zone II) distortions of projected image not tolerated & viewer will refuse Cloakrooms Not standard requirement in UK cinemas: if provided should be planned not to obstruct exits or normal circulation —*(1 ) —sp348. Projection rooms Used to be divided into separate compartments for rewinding and projecting film with dimmer rm, battery rm, switch rm, spotlight rm, workshop and staff and sto rm, each 6—10 m2 forming suite —e(2)(3). Modern automated systems take about same space and require rewind bench to give operational flexibility. Type of eqp to be used should be established at outset to finalise detail dimensions. Provided non-inflammable (safety) film only used exits can be internal —n(4): if inflammable tim used 1 exit must lead to open air and haystack lantern must be provided, with opening area of 0.19 m2for each 640 m of film used and stored in rm. Exit to public area must be through ventilated protected lobby. Circulation space for servicing and access must be provided round eqp; front wall length of 5500 x rm depth of 3500 is av size. Plan staircase and door widths to allow for access of eqp; risers should not exceed 190 treads at least 250. Mirror projections and observation used where space limited, and before automation became available —(3). With mirrors 1 projection rm can serve multiple cinemas located vertically; but as general rule better avoid mirror projection. Picture ratios vary with film systems: operator must decide what required —n(S). Advance techniques employ variable height and width pictures; as size of arc lamp used determined by picture area max effect obtained by using different ratios of equal areas. Using 70 film makes possible bigger area screens. Normally accepted max screen widths: for 70 film 20 m, for 35 film 13 m. Screen size should be large as possible up to these maxima or width of seating whichever least; ratios of width to max viewing distance should be from 1:2 to 1:3 —v(6). Advisable in very small cinemas accept ratio of 1:2 to enable standard focal length lenses to be used and avoid very small pictures. Wider pictureswould require special lenses. To calculate picture width obtainable from given lens: w= In anamorphic (Cinemascope) projection same formula used multiplied by2. Curved directional screens originally developed to overcome dispersion of reflected light from flat screen. Modern cinema with better screen material able to use curve of screen to reduce amount of apparent distortion to side sight lines. Too much rise on chord can give problems with focus over whole picture area. Screen radius usually between 75—100% of projection throw; rise on chord should not exceed 10— 12% of chord width. seat placed here: viewing flat screen: seating ar represented by ar common to space within 2 hyperbolas; ar in zone I for wide projected images less than zone I for point on screen; seating ar for zone II for wide image on flat screen may correspond approx to zone I point on screen viewing curved screen: zone I ar for grven screen w can be increased by curving screen; appropriate curving will cause overlap of hyperbolas drawn from sides of projected image so as to define greater common seating ar • 1.1 1.6 column F::::::::•:•::-::::::::•::::::: ::...:.-.::::-:::•::.......g ......•..... 1 Ar required for do counter —vp348: not usual in modern cinemas amplifier & portholes as small canopy tape deck P\ arc lamp extract 1 switch gear rm CD (/) C CD film frame apperture w x throw focal I of lens 5 Common film ratios: use adjustable masking to screen to suit picture sizes with vertex \/ zone ii perboia \—asyniptote point on Screen iso-defo,rTlatlon zone limit lutes zonei: y=0.3x'—H' zone ii: y = ii' H = screen h flat screen — seating zone limits zone i: y = ± (0.5W — yO.33x' — H') where, \/0.75W' + 3H' zone ii: y = ± (0.5W — Vii) where, 0.25W' + 3H' curved screen —seating zone limits iso-deformation zone limit tines most easily plotted by graphical method: plot iso-deformation hyperttoia Iron point on screen & rotate axes about centre of screen curvature

356 Leisure Cinemas General layout In addition to public areas must include staff and service areas: m2 m2 boiler house 25—30 plenum chamber 20 el substation 28—38 kiosk stock rm 10—15 ice-cream sto 20 manager off suite 38 staff rm 45 3 sto rm 28 projection rm 19—25 switch, battery, workshop & staff rm 40 Lighting systems Provide in accordance with detail licensing requirements: decorative lighting and any required spotlights to auditorium dimmed to show film, other public areas maintained while spectators use bldg; cleaner's lighting to auditorium and foyers: auditorium system used as emergency lighting under management control; USA emergency lighting operates automatically if main fails; maintained lighting to auditorium and exit boxes throughout bldg: designed provide illumination of seating areas and gangways during film programme (no light to fall on screen or walls); New York City code requires aisles and crossings have mm 5.35 lx at all times; safety lighting to all public, key staff areas and exit boxes throughout bldg: must be kept on as part of maintained system; should main el supply fail safety system must be able provide sufficient light allow public and staff leave bldg safely; N American and continental Europe practice provide separate emergency lighting system which only illumines on failure of main supply: not permitted in UK. other el systems include fire and burglar alarms, speaker wiring, internal telephones, induction systems for both deaf-aids and management call, closed circuit tv, emergency public address and main switchgear for control of heating, ventilation, projection and stage eqp. Heating —*pl 6385—9 Ventilation & air conditioning —*pl 5—16392—4 Heating and ventilation for public entertainment bldg developed as licensing authorities required higher ventilation standards. In UK fresh air ventilation requirement based on number of persons accommodated 3 Cinema in Madrid: diagonally situated in corner bldg with most economic and varies from 70—93 m3/hr/P in auditorium and extract system for use of space & good shape of auditorium; ground floor plan Arch Gutierrez 75% of input air. Where air-conditioning installed at least half this Soto quantity must be fresh air, with up to 50% filtered and recirculated. Foyer and toilet systems based on normally accepted standards —xBlb347. Toilets affected by licensing requirements. Incoming air must be heated; plenum system generally used with air supply at screen end and extract divided in auditorium rear corners to avoid vitiated air being illuminated by projection light ray. General parts of bldg can be heated by low pressure hot water system. Film display In schools, universities, hotels and other bldg 16 eqp used; when approved this does not require separate projection rm, provided clear space maintained round eqp. Regulations for space requirement vary from 900 to 2000. Picture widths up to 6000 possible with suitable light source; anamorphic (Cinemascope) ratio varies from 35 to 1:2.66. Commercial cinemas in USA and UK have used 16 eqp but in UK picture and print quality not good enough. —xalso lecture theatres p135 exit cio-lexit stage podium screenJfl (orchestraLfil artists 't side gangway . auditorium - . wc stair to gaiiery - 4— I LI exit I [ cix -4-- stairto side gangway fresh- gatery j, . secondary entry exit & stair to projection 1 Circulation diagram: stage accn not normally needed; exits to suit seating capacity or 2 Cinema in Oslo: ground floor plan showing circulation in lateral arrangement with double-sided do Arch Blackstad & Dunker box oft staff cix projection I :J1fl I street 4 Cinema in Turku Finland: 590 seats Arch Bryggman

Leisure 357 Cinemas 2 Civic centre in central restricted position forces placing of ha for various uses (cinema, concert, exhibition, museum, theatre) above one another: spacious central lob, foyer & stairs shared Arch Cassandra Athens Screen systems Cinema screen in past titted into adapted theatre; today increased picture size (Cinemascope, Cinerama, Todd AD, Circarama, IMAX, for small cinemas closed circuit tv) determines interior design. Traditional cinemas —.( 1 a) had small pictures whereas 3-projector original Cinerama system .—°(lb) involved spectator with 30.5 m screen. This surpassed by new single projector IMAX system with 70 film used horizontally to enlarge frame size and provide 36.5 m picture, seating being placed close screen preventing whole picture being seen without both vertical and horizontal movement of head; calls for special projector and auditorium; used in Canada and USA. Circarama system using 11 projectors gives full involvement but no seating practical and handrails necessary prevent audience tailing over —°(3): used very successfully at Disneyland. Further development used in theme parks and now in Experience theatres world wide: audio-visual technique of automated multiple projection of still pictures with auditorium effects and multi-track magnetic sound systems. Closed circuit projection tv system feasible with electronic line enhancement; gives pictures of 2430 x 1 830. With Eidophor' screen sizes up to 9 m x 12 m possible. Development in progress in USA and UK. Sound systems Have developed considerably; problems of handling magnetic sound recordings on film being answered by Dolby encoding optical system. Stereo across screen and to front and rear provided on 70 film with 5 rear screen speaker tracks and 6th track for auditorium speakers. Wide screens and side sound sources can produce acoustic problems: generally for cinemas reflected sound paths should not exceed direct paths by more than 15 m—.p18395—7. 3 Circarama: screen circular (370°); 11 synchronised projectors produce coherent picture; example; Expo Brussels 4 Basic requirements for auditorium levels; rake not necessarily limited to 10% & 5% in USA a 1 a traditional cinema b for original Cinerama system yroihon ray cenire iune better not to eeceed tO I + —keepeyepoinitor sight hnes from rear sears to bottom of yiciure sight tine angies vary .f_.___distaflce to screen = t .43 v h from front eye ienei to top of screen saeen frame raker

358 Leisure Drive-in cinemas sight lines to bottom of screen — cars titled up to maximise view through windscreen & over cars in front - — - - - - — 0 • o 0 pole with loudspeakers 6100 2OO 1 3400 &elheaters 3 Dual drive-in cinema: 1 projection rm for both screens makes possible staggered starting times; all other services (eg ticket off, bar, lay) used jointly Curved layouts give max of 360 car spaces and individual speakers for each car. Usual layouts on principle of amphitheatre for both individual and multiple schemes. —(1 )(3). Sizes over 1 000 cars unusual. Multiple schemes more acceptable to operators. Some original situations in N America rebuilt to include dual, triple or quadruple layouts. Situation on highways usually away from residential areas. Should be sited so that lights from passing traffic do not disturb spectators or throw light on screen. Layout should provide view of picture at not more than 45° from screen centre; ramps should be designed so that spectators can see over cars in front —*(2). Distance from screen to front row with large screen often more than 50 m. Car holding areas avoid traffic jams on highway. 2 double ticket booths normal mm: 500 cars need mm 20 minutes to enter. Exits should be away from entrance. Cars may leave and enter simultaneously between programmes. Screen size varies with overall capacity: 30.4 x 13 m normal max, 20% of distance to rear cars normal mm. Should face between E and 5, making possible earlier evening performances. Height above ground depends on site profile, determines angles of car ramps. Children's playground and outside seating provided in N America. Surface water drainage catchment pooi often sited in front of screen. Projection bldg in centre or at rear, includes workshop, sto, switchrm, sound and projection system. Can include public toilets, restaurant and office. Max projection throw 137 m nor less than 2 x screen width. Sound reproduction best with speaker taken into car from poles spaced at 5000 centres. El fan heaters may also be on poles. Some N American operators also have air-conditioning by underground ducts with flexible car connexions. Floodlighting provided for intermission; hooded roadway lighting maintained through performance. Cinema references: —Bibliography entries 084 098 099 113 114 129328329339 347 426 598 599 1 Drive-in cinema in fan shape with single ramp, shown for right-hand drive traffic; projection bldg obstructs view from 2 rows to rear 2 Dimensions for double ramp layout: single ramps common in USA increases with steeper car ramps

Leisure 359 Museums 1 Layout diagram 2 Section of gallery lit from 1 Side only, bottom part indirectly, attenuated lighting 3 Install lighting so that angles of incidence correspond with natural light 9 Exhibition rm with folding screens (design K Schneider) allows great variety of rm arrangements ROOMS For showing works of art and obiects of cultural and scientific interest rm must: ensure protection against damage, theft, fire, damp, aridity, strong sunlight and dust; show works in best light (in both senses of term): normally achieved by dividing collection into objects for study (eg engravings, drawings) kept in portfolios and stored in cupboards (with drawers) about 800 deep and 1 600 high; objects for display (eg paintings, frescoes, statuary, ceramics, furniture) Exhibits must be so placed as to be seen without effort: calls for selective and spacious arrangement, with variety and suitable rm shape and sequence. So far as possible each group of pictures in 1 rm or sequence of rm and each picture a wall to itself: ie number of small rm. These also provide more wall space in relation to ground area than large rm, necessary for big pictures: rm size depends on picture size. Normal human angle of vision (54° or 27° up from eye level) achieved with well lit pictures 10 m away = hanging height of 4900 above eye level and about 700 below it —(5). Only with large pictures is there need for eye to travel from bottom of frame up above angle of vision. Best hanging position for smaller pictures: point of emphasis (level of horizon in picture) at eye level Calculations for museum lighting highly theoretical: quality of light what matters. Experiments carried out in America therefore more important (—÷Bib561). In recent times continuous increase in use of artificial lighting, instead of constant variations of light experiences even with N lighting —*p360. GENERAL LAYOUT No continous circular itinerary but wings leading out from entrance. Side rm for packing, despatch, transparency section, restoration workshops, lecture rm. Museums sometimes in bldg originally designed for other purposes. 1001 (Th 1) > T1 i 10 Painting sto with detachable steel mesh frames on which pictures can be hung as required & be ready for removal at any time for study Irecepton restoration registry sto research curator lecture rm gallery check-in entrance CD C', CD spotlight 4 Typical cross-section for museum of natural history space/picture space/sculpture space/400 coins 3—5 m hanging surface 6—10 m2 ground surface 1 m2 cabinet space ribbed glass frosted glass N' _____ screen , largest hanging N S surface best k>1 " 5.6 hanging __________ surfaces j between I- 100 - 950&3.6 5 Well-lit exhibition ha based on Boston experiments 6 Ideally lit rm with uniform lighting front both sides, as worked out by S Hurst Seager (-.Bib561) 900r I27/' iLl 27° 2.0 1.0 1000 1.5 500e h a 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.75 7 Field of vision: h & distance 8 Size & distance AAAA1iAWA1,AI outer wall of glass optional J. I ox+iöo-+io.o' —, 11 Exhibition rm with side lighting: suitable hanging surface between 300 & 600 with mi h of 6700 & dli h 2130 for pictures or 3040—3650 for sculpture, as calculated from Boston experiments 12 Exhibition rm with successful use of available space: panels between central pillars can be rearranged between supports as needed; if outer side-wall of glass installed window arrangement of inner wall can also be varied

360 Leisure Museums LIGHTING Daylight as light source gives mm overheads. Overhead lighting: advantages, independent of orientation, not affected by overhanging trees or neighbouring bldg, easily regulated (lamella ceiling), little reflection, light more widely spread over exhibit area; disadvantages, strong heat build-up, risk of damage from water and condensation, only diffused light. Window lighting: view out (relaxing), rm easily aired and kept at even temp, better light on groups and individual exhibits, illumination of showcases from back. 1 Section & light sources Museum of Western Art Tokyo Japan Arch Le Corbusier 3 Section & light sources Museum of Modem Art Rio de Janeiro Brazil Arch Reidy 4 Main floor Wallraf-Richartz-Museum Cologne Germany Arch R Schwartz & Bernard key 1 rest rm 2 rm reaching to overhead light in upper storey 3 side-lit rm 4 side-lit recess 5 Joan Miro Foundation Barcelona Spain has ramp extending round all 4 sides of sculpture rm allowing works to be viewed from varying heights and aspects; note use of skylights -.section a first floor plan b sections Arch Sert Section key 1 sculpture rm 2 ha 3 print mi 4 balc over ground floor 5 tel with sculptures 6ha 70ff 8director'soff 9restm, lOprintarchives light source a b 2 Section & light sources Museo CiVKO Turin Italy Arch Bassi & Boscheth a-a b-b

Leisure 361 Museums 14 TTjm1' [1] [111 [III [Ii LII [Ii n-i r — r-i r1 r, gairer' : : L. L r- -r - - r1 - - -t gallery : : b EEEJ L. 0 __________ _____ gallery W4EEI1. L 1 Center for British Art Yale USA a section at B—*le bthird floor csecond floor d first floor e ground floor Arch Kahn 2 Vancouver Museum Canada Arch Arthur Erickson key 1 entrance 2 lob 3 off/seminar rm 4 ramped gallery 5 greatha 6 small object gallery 7 theatre 8 visiblestoar 9 lounge 10 outdoor court 3 Air & Space Museum Washington USA a second floor b first floor C ground floor Arch Hok Museums references —*Bibliography entries 040318385476612 EXAMPLES apaceanum auditorium F4iii vvvvv jJ vvvvv[ ir'wri Ia..rJI 'v"" I I ri L1 im I—I rii C

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INTRODUCTION 363 Components Components brings together various categories of construction data intended as an aid to the user of Architects' Data in applying the principles and examples given throughout the body of the book. Under the general heading Services' are guidelines on the spaces needed to install, operate and maintain systems of distribution, heating, ventilation, thermal and sound insulation, lighting. Thereafter follow practical criteria for certain components: doors, windows, corridors and ramps, stairs, escalators, elevators. Data here presented are based on the latest British and European research and are not directly applicable by those working in non-metric units of measurement. The material presented and the approach to its presentation are thought to be of general interest to architects in America as in other continents; but USA practices differ in some respects from what is given here. Such practices are presented in detail in Ramsey & Sleeper/American Institute of Architects Architectural Graphic Standards —Bib 549. Conversions As an aid to readers who do not work in metric units of measurement a list of conversion factors and a set of 42 conversion tables introduce the pages on services systems. Materials Values to be given to physical characteristics of common building materials have been brought together in a table which follows the conversion tables and precedes 'Services' .—p384(1).

364 Conversions FACTORS mass lOg 28.35g 454.0 g (0.454 kg) 1000.0g(1 kg) 45.36 kg 50.8 kg 907.2 kg (0.907 t) 1000.0 kg (1.0 t) 1000.0 kg (1 .0 t) 1016.0kg (1.016 t) mass/unit length 0.496 kg/rn 0.564 kg/rn (0.564 t/km) 0.631 kg/rn (0.631 t/km) 1.0kg/rn 1.116kg/rn 1.488 kg/rn 17.86 kg/rn 0.035 oz (avoirdupois) 1 oz (avoirdupois) 1 lb 2.205 lb 1 cwtUS 1 cwt irnp 1 ton US 0.984 ton irnp 1.102 ton US 1 ton imp 1 Ib/yd 1 ton US/rnile 1 ton irnp/mile 0.056 lb/in (0.896 oz/in) 1 oz/in 1 lb/ft 1 lb/in 0.496 yd/Ib 1 yd/Ib metric 'imperial'/US length 1.0mm 25.4 rnrn (2.54cm) 304.8 mrn (30.48cm) 914.4mm 1000.0mm (1.0 m) 20.117rn 1 000.00 rn (1 km) 1 609.31 m 0.039 in 1 in 1 ft lyd 1 yd 3.4 in (1 .093yd) 1 chain 0.621 mile 1 mile area lOOrnm2(1.Ocm2) 645.2 mm2 (6.452 cm2) 929.03 cm2 (0.093 m2) 0.836 rn2 1.0m2 0.405 ha (4046.9 m2) 1.0 ha (10000 m2) 1.0km2 2.59 km2 (259 ha) 0.155in2 1 in2 1 ft2 1 yd2 1.196yd2(10.764ft2) 1 acre 2.471 acre 0.386 mile2 1 mile2 volume 1004J mm3 (1.0cm3; 1.0 ml) 16387mm3 (16.387cm3; 0.01641; 16.387 ml) 1.01(1.0 drn3; 1000cm3) 0.028 rn3 (28.32 I) 0.765 m3 1.0 m3 0.061 in3 1 in3 61.025 in3 (0.035 ft3) 1 ft3 1 yd3 1.308 yd3 (35.314 ft3) capacity 1.Ornl 1.0 ml 28.41 ml 29.57 ml 0.473 litre 0.568 litre 1.0 litre 1.Olitre 3.785 litre 4.546 litre 100.0 litre 100.0 litre 159.0 litre 164.0 litre 0.O34flozUS 0.035 fI oz imp 1 fI oz imp 1 fI oz US 1 pint (liquid) US 1 pint imp 1.76 pint imp 2.ll3pintUS 1 gal US 1 gal imp 21.99 gal imp 26.42 gal US 1 barrel US 1 barrel imp metric 'imperial'/US mass/unit area 1.0 g/m2 33.91 g/m2 305.15 g/rn2 0.011 kg/rn2 0.013 kg/rn2 0.224 kg/rn2 0.251 kg/rn2 1.0 kg/rn2 4.882 kg/rn2 703.07 kg/rn2 350.3 kg/km2 (3.503 kg/ha; 0.35 g/m2) 392.3 kg/km2 (3.923 kg/ha; 0.392 g/m2) 0.003 oz/ft2 1 oz/yd2 1 oz/tt2 1 cwt US/acre 1 cwt imp/acre 1 ton US/acre 1 ton imp/acre 29.5 oz/yd2 1 lb/ft2 1 lb/in2 1 ton US/mile2 1 ton imp/mile2 density (mass/volume) 0.593 kg/rn3 1.0kg/rn3 16.02kg/rn3 1186.7kg/rn3 (1.187 t/rn3) 1 328.9 kg/rn3 (1.329 t/rn3) 27680.0 kg/rn3 (27.68 t/m3; 27.68 g/cm3) 1 b/yd3 0.062 lb/ft3 1 lb/ft 1 ton US/yd3 1 ton irnp/yd3 1 lb/in3 specific surface (area/unit mass) 0.823 rn2/t 1.0 rn2/kg 29.493 rn2/kg 1 yd2/ton 0.034 yd2/oz 1 yd2/oz area/unit capacity 0.184m2/l 1.0 rn2/l 1 yd2/gal 5.437 yd2/gal concentration 0.014 kg/rn3 0.017 kg/rn3 1.0 kg/rn3 (1.0 g/l) 1.0kg/rn3 (1.0 g/l) 6.236 kg/rn3 7.489 kg/rn3 1 grain/gal imp 1 grain/gal US 58.42 grain/gal US 70.16 grain/gal imp 1 oz/gal imp 1 oz/gal US mass rate of flow 0.454 kg/s 1.0kg/s 1 lb/s 2.204 lb/s volume rate of flow 0.063 I/s 0.076 I/s 0.472 I/s 1.01/s (86.4 rn3/day) 1.01/s 1.0 1/mm 1.0 1/mm 3.785 I/s 4.5461/s 28.32 I/s 0.0038 rn3/rnin 0.0045 rn3/rnin 1.0 rn3/s 1.0 rn3/s 1.0 rn3/h 0.0283 m3/s 1 gal US/minute 1 gal irnp/minute 1 ft3/rninute 13.2 gal imp/s 0.264 gal US/s 0.22 gal imp/mm 0.264 gal US/mm 1 gal US/s 1 gal imp/s 1 ft3/s 1 gal US/mm 1 gal imp/mm 183.162 gal US/s 219.969 gal imp/s 35.31 ft3/h 1 ft3/s velocity 0.005 rn/s 0.025 rn/s 0.305 rn/s 1Dm/s 1 000.0 rn/hr (1 krn/hr) 1 609.0 rn/hr (0.447 rn/s) 1 ft/minute 1 in/s 1 ft/s 3.28ft/s 0.621 rnile/hr 1 mile/hr length/unit mass 1.0 rn/kg 2.016 rn/kg

365 Con versions metric 'imperial'/US fuel consumption 1.0 I/km 1.01/km 2.352 I/km 2.824 I/km 0.354 gal imp/mile 0.425 gal US/mile 1 gal US/mile 1 gal imp/mile acceleration 0.305 rn/s2 1.0 rn/s2 9.806 m/s2 = g (standard acceleration due to gravity) itt/s2 3.28 ft/s2 g = 32.172 ft/s2 temperature X°C x(X—32)°C (X+32)°F X°F temperature interval 0.5556 K 1K=1°C 1°F 1.8°F energy 1.OJ 1.356J 4.187J 9.807 J (1 kgf m) 1 055.06 J 3.6 MJ 105.5MJ 0.239calorie 1 ftlbt 1.Ocalorie 7.233 ft lbf 1 Btu 1 kilowatt-hr 1 therm (100000 Btu) power (energy/time) 0.293W 1.0W 1.163W 1.356W 4.187W 1 kgf rn/s (9.807W) 745.7W 1 metric horsepower (75 kgf rn/s) 1 Btu/hr 0.738ttlbf/s 1.0 kilocalorie/hr 1 ftlbf/s 1 calorie/s 7.233 ft lbt/s) 1 horsepower 0.986 horsepower intensity of heat flow rate 1 W/m2 3.155 W/m2 0.317 Btu/(ft2 hr) 1.0 Btu/(ft2 hr) thermal conductivity 0.144 W/(rn.K) 1.OW/(m.K) 1 Btu in/(ft2 hr°F) 6.933 Btu in/(ft2hr°F) thermal conductance i.OW/(rn2.K) 5.678 W/(m2.K) 0.176 Btu/(ft2hr°F) 1.0 Btu/(ft2 hr °F) thermal registivity 1.0 m K/W 6.933 rn K/W 0.144 ft2 hr °F/(Btu in) 1.0 ft2 hr °F/(Btu in) specific heat capacity 1.0 kJ/(kg.K) 4.187 kJ/(kg.K) 1.0 kJ/(rn3 K) 67.07 kJ/(m3 K) 0.239 Btu/(lb °F) 1.0 Btu/(lb °F) 0.015 Btu/(ft3 °F) 1.0 Btu/(ft3 °F) specific energy 1.0 kJ/kg 2.326 kJ/kg 1.0 kJ/m3 (1 kJ/l) 1.OJ/l 232.1 J/l 0.43 Btu/lb 1.0 Btu/lb 0.027 Btu/tt3 0.004 Btu/gal 1.OBtu/gal metric 'imperial'/US refrigeration 3.517 kW 12000 Btu/hr = ton of refrigeration illumination 1 lx (1 lumen/rn2) 10.764 lx 0.093 ft-candle (0.093 lumen/ft2) 1.0 ft-candle (1 lumen/ft2) luminance 0.3183 cd/rn2 1 .0 cd/rn2 10.764 cd/rn2 1 550.0 cd/rn2 1 apostilb 0.000645 cd/ft2 1 cd/ft2 1.0 cd/in2 force iON 1.0 kgf (9.807 N; 1.0 kilopond) 4.448 kN 8.897kN 9.964 kN 0.2251bt 2.205 Ibi 1.0 kipf (1000 lbf) 1.OtonfUS 1.0 tont imp force/unit length 1.0 N/rn 14.59 N/rn 32.69 kN/m 175.1 kN/m (175.1 N/mm) 0.067 lbf/ft 1.0 lbf/ft 1.0 tont/ft i.Olbf/in moment of force (torque) 0.li3Nm(113.ONrnm) 1.ONrn 1.356 Nm 113.ONrn 253.1 Nm 1356.ONm 3037.ONm 1.Olbfin 0.738lbfft 1.0 lbf ft 1.Okipfin 1.Otonfin 1.Okipfft 1.Otonfft pressure 1.0 Pa (1.0 N/rn2) 1.OkPa 100.OPa 2.99kPa 3.39 kPa 6.9 kPa i0O.OkPa 101.33 kPa 107.25 kPa 15.44 MPa 0.021 bt/ft2 0.1451bf/in2 1.Omillibar 1 ftwater 1 in mercury 1.0 lbt/in2 1.Obar 1.0 standard atmosphere 1.0 tonf/ft2 1.Otonf/in2 Metric system references: —Bibliographyentries010012 127135228473479494495531 610

366 Conversions TABLES List of tables 1 millimetres to inches 2 decimals of inch to millimetres 3 inches & fractions of inch to millimetres 4 feet & inches to metres 5 metres to feet 6 feet to metres 7 metrestoyards 8 yards to metres 9 kilometres to miles 10 miles to kilometres 11 square centimetres to square inches 12 square inches to square centimetres 13 square metres to square feet 14 square feet to square metres 15 square metres to square yards 16 square yards to square metres 17 hectares to acres 18 acres to hectares 19 cubic centimetres to cubic inches 20 cubic inches to cubic centimetres 21 cubic metres to cubic feet 22 cubic feet to cubic metres 23 litres to cubic feet TABLES 24 cubic feet to litres 25 litres to gallons imperial 26 gallons imperial to litres 27 litres to gallons US 28 gallons US to litres 29 kilograms to pounds 30 pounds to kilograms 31 kilograms per cubic metre to pounds per cubic foot 32 pounds per cubic foot to kilograms per cubic metre 33 metres per second to miles per hour 34 miles per hour to metres per second 35 kilograms force per square centimetre to pounds force per square inch 36 pounds force per square inch to kilograms force per square centimetre 37 kilonewtons per square metre to pounds force per square inch 38 pounds force per square inch to kilonewtons per square metre 39 watts to British thermal units per hour 40 British thermal units per hour to watts 41 watts per square metre kelvin to British thermal units per square foot hour degree F 42 British thermal units per square foot hour degree F to watts per square metre kelvin th millimetres to inches mm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 In 0 10 20 30 40 0.39 0.79 1.18 1.57 0.04 0.43 0.83 1.22 1.61 0.08 0.47 0.87 1.25 1.65 0.11 0.51 0.91 1.3 1.69 0.16 0.55 0.94 1.34 1.73 0.2 0.59 0.98 1.38 1.77 0.24 0.63 1.02 1.41 1.81 0.28 0.67 1.06 1.46 1.85 0.31 0.71 1.1 1.5 1.89 0.35 0.75 1.14 1.57 1.93 50 60 70 80 90 1.97 2.36 2.76 3.15 3.54 2.00 2.4 2.8 3.19 3.58 2.05 2.44 2.83 3.23 3.62 2.09 2.48 2.87 3.27 3.66 2.13 2.52 2.91 3.31 3.7 2.17 2.56 2.95 3.35 3.74 2.21 2.6 3.0 3.39 3.78 2.24 2.64 3.03 3.42 3.82 2.28 2.68 3.07 3.46 3.86 2.32 2.72 3.11 3.5 3.9 100 110 120 130 140 3.94 4.33 4.72 5.12 5.51 3.98 4.37 4.76 5.16 5.55 4.02 4.41 4.8 5.2 5.59 4.06 4.45 4.84 5.24 5.63 4.09 4.49 4.88 5.28 5.67 4.13 4.53 4.92 5.31 5.71 4.17 4.57 4.96 5.35 5.75 4.21 4.61 5.0 5.39 5.79 4.25 4.65 5.04 5.43 5.83 4.29 4.69 5.08 5.47 5.87 150 160 170 180 190 5.91 6.3 6.69 7.09 7.48 5.94 6.34 6.73 7.13 7.52 5.98 6.38 6.77 7.17 7.56 6.02 6.42 6.81 7.21 7.6 6.06 6.46 6.85 7.24 7.64 6.1 6.5 6.89 7.28 7.68 6.14 6.54 6.93 7.32 7.72 6.18 6.57 6.97 7.36 7.76 6.22 6.61 7.01 7.4 7.8 6.26 6.65 7.05 7.44 7.83 200 210 220 230 240 7.87 8.27 8.66 9.06 9.45 7.91 8.31 8.7 9.09 9.49 7.95 8.35 8.74 9.13 9.53 7.99 8.39 8.78 9.17 9.57 8.03 8.43 8.82 9.21 9.61 8.07 8.46 8.86 9.25 9.65 8.11 8.5 8.9 9.29 9.69 8.15 8.54 8.94 9.33 9.72 8.19 8.58 8.98 9.37 9.76 8.23 8.62 9.02 9.41 9.8 250 9.84

367 Con versions in 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 mm 0.0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.254 0.508 0.762 1.016 0.0254 0.2794 0.5334 0.7874 1.0414 0.0508 0.3048 0.5588 0.8128 1.0668 0.0762 0.3302 0.5842 0.8382 1.0922 0.1016 0.3556 0.6096 0.8636 1.1176 0.127 0.1524 0.381 0.4064 0.635 0.6604 0.889 0.9144 1.143 1.1684 0.1778 0.4318 0.6858 0.9398 1.1938 0.2032 0.2286 0.4572 0.4826 0.7112 0.7366 0.9652 0.9906 1.2192 1.2446 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 1.27 1.524 1.778 2.032 2.286 1.2954 1.5494 1.8034 2.0574 2.3114 1.3208 1.5748 1.8288 2.0828 2.3368 1.3462 1.6002 1.8542 2.1082 2.3622 1.3716 1.6256 1.8796 2.1336 2.3876 1.397 1.4224 1.651 1.6764 1.905 1.9304 2.159 2.1844 2.413 2.4384 1.4478 1.7018 1.9558 2.2098 2.4638 1.4732 1.4986 1.7272 1.7526 1.9812 2.0066 2.2352 2.2606 2.4892 2.5146 0.1 2.54 in 1/16 1/8 /16 1/4 /16 3/ /I8 1/2 /16 /8 11/16 3/4 13/16 /8 15/16 mm 1 2 3 4 5 25.4 50.8 76.2 101.6 127.0 1.6 3.2 27.0 28.6 52.4 54.0 77.8 79.4 103.2 104.8 128.6 130.2 4.8 6.4 30.2 31.8 55.6 57.2 81.0 82.6 106.4 108.0 131.8 133.4 7.9 33.3 58.7 84.1 109.5 134.9 9.5 11.1 34.9 36.5 60.3 61.9 85.7 87.3 111.1 112.7 136.5 138.1 12.7 14.3 15.9 38.1 39.7 41.3 63.5 65.1 66.7 88.9 90.5 92.1 114.3 115.9 117.5 139.7 141.3 142.9 17.5 19.1 42.9 44.5 68.3 69.9 93.7 95.3 119.1 120.7 144.5 146.1 20.6 22.2 23.8 46.0 47.6 49.2 71.4 73.0 74.6 96.8 98.4 100.0 122.2 123.8 125.4 147.6 149.2 150.8 6 7 8 9 10 152.4 177.8 203.2 228.6 254.0 154.0 155.6 179.4 181.0 204.8 206.4 230.2 231.8 255.6 257.2 157.2 158.8 182.6 184.2 208.0 209.6 233.4 235.0 258.8 260.4 160.3 185.7 211.1 236.5 261.9 161.9 163.5 187.3 188.9 212.7 214.3 238.1 239.7 263.5 265.1 165.1 166.7 168.3 190.5 192.1 193.7 215.9 217.5 219.1 241.3 242.9 244.5 266.7 268.3 269.9 169.9 171.5 195.3 196.9 220.7 222.3 246.1 247.7 271.5 273.1 173.0 174.6 176.2 198.4 200.0 201.6 223.8 225.4 227.0 249.2 250.8 252.4 274.6 276.2 277.8 In 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 m ft 0 0.0254 0.0508 0.0762 0.1016 0.127 0.1524 0.1778 0.2032 0.2286 0.254 0.2794 1 0.3048 0.3302 0.3556 0.381 0.4064 0.4318 0.4572 0.4826 0.508 0.5334 0.5588 0.5842 2 0.6096 0.635 0.6604 0.6858 0.7112 0.7366 0.762 0.7874 0.8128 0.8382 0.8636 0.889 3 0.9144 0.9398 0.9652 0.9906 1.016 1.0414 1.0668 1.0922 1.1176 1.143 1.1684 1.1938 4 1.2192 1.2446 1.27 1.2954 1.3208 1.3462 1.3716 1.397 1.4224 1.4478 1.4732 1.4986 5 1.524 1.5494 1.5748 1.6002 1.6256 1.651 1.6764 1.7018 1.7272 1.7526 1.778 1.8034 6 1.8288 1.8542 1.8796 1.905 1.9304 1.9558 1.9812 2.0066 2.032 2.0574 2.0828 2.1082 7 2.1336 2.159 2.1844 2.2098 2.2352 2.2606 2.286 2.3114 2.3368 2.3622 2.3876 2.413 8 2.4384 2.4638 2.4892 2.5146 2.54 2.5654 2.5908 2.6162 2.6416 2.667 2.6924 2.7178 9 2.7432 2.7686 2.794 2.8194 2.8448 2.8702 2.8956 2.921 2.9464 2.9718 2.9972 3.0226 10 3.048 2 decimals of inch to millimetres 3 inches & fractions of inch to millimetres 4 feet & inches to metres

368 Conversions 5 metres to feet 7 metres to yards 9 kilometres to miles m ft 0 10 20 30 40 32.8 65.62 98.43 131.23 3.28 36.09 68.9 101.7 134.51 6.56 39.37 72.17 104.99 137.8 9.84 42.65 75.45 108.27 141.08 13.12 45.93 78.74 111.55 144.36 16.40 49.21 82.02 114.82 147.63 19.69 52.49 85.3 118.11 150.91 22.97 55.77 88.58 121.39 154.2 26.25 59.06 91.86 124.67 157.48 29.53 62.34 95.14 127.95 160.76 50 60 70 80 90 164.04 196.85 229.66 262.46 295.28 167.32 200.13 232.94 265.75 298.56 170.6 203.41 236.22 269.03 301.84 173.89 206.69 239.5 272.31 305.12 177.17 209.97 242.78 275.59 308.4 180.45 213.25 246.06 278.87 311.68 183.73 216.54 249.34 282.15 314.96 187.01 219.82 252.63 285.43 318.24 190.29 223.1 255.91 288.71 321.52 193.57 226.38 259.19 292.0 324.8 100 110 120 130 140 328.08 360.89 393.7 426.51 459.32 331.37 364.17 396.98 429.79 462.6 334.65 367.45 400.26 433.07 465.88 337.93 370.74 403.54 436.35 469.16 341.21 374.02 406.82 439.63 472.44 344.49 377.3 410.1 442.91 475.72 347.77 380.58 413.39 446.19 479.0 351.05 383.86 416.67 449.48 482.28 354.33 387.14 419.95 452.76 485.56 357.61 390.42 423.23 456.04 488.85 150 160 170 180 190 492.13 524.93 557.74 590.55 623.36 495.41 528.22 561.02 593.83 626.64 498.69 531.5 564.3 597.11 629.92 502.0 534.78 567.59 600.39 633.2 505.25 538.06 570.87 603.68 636.48 508.53 541.34 574.15 606.96 639.76 511.81 544.62 577.43 610.24 643.05 515.09 547.9 580.71 613.52 646.33 518.37 551.18 583.99 616.8 649.6 521.65 554.46 587.27 620.08 652.89 200 210 220 230 240 656.17 688.98 721.79 754.59 787.4 659.45 692.26 725.07 757.87 790.68 662.73 695.54 728.35 761.16 793.96 666.01 698.82 731.63 764.44 797.24 669.29 702.1 734.91 767.72 800.53 672.57 705.38 738.19 771.0 803.81 675.85 708.66 741.47 774.28 807.09 679.13 711.94 744.75 777.56 810.37 682.42 715.22 748.03 780.84 813.65 685.7 718.5 751.31 784.12 816.93 250 820.21 m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 yd 0 10 20 30 40 10.94 21.87 32.8 43.74 1.09 12.03 22.97 33.9 44.84 2.19 13.12 24.06 35.0 45.93 3.28 14.22 25.15 36.09 47.03 4.37 15.31 26.25 37.18 48.12 5.47 16.4 27.34 38.28 49.21 6.56 17.5 28.43 39.37 50.31 7.66 18.59 29.53 40.46 51.4 8.75 19.69 30.62 41.56 52.49 9.84 20.78 31.71 42.65 53.59 50 60 70 80 90 54.68 65.62 76.55 87.49 98.43 55.77 66.71 77.65 88.58 99.52 56.87 67.8 78.74 89.68 100.61 57.96 68.9 79.83 90.77 101.71 59.06 69.99 80.93 91.86 102.8 60.15 71.08 82.02 92.96 103.89 61.24 72.18 83.11 94.05 104.99 62.34 73.27 84.21 95.14 106.08 63.43 74.37 85.3 96.24 107.17 64.52 75.46 86.4 97.33 108.27 100 110 120 130 140 109.36 120.3 131.23 142.17 153.1 110.46 121.39 132.33 143.26 154.2 111.55 122.49 133.42 144.36 155.29 112.64 123.58 134.51 145.45 156.39 113.74 124.67 135.61 146.54 157.48 114.83 125.74 136.7 147.64 158.57 115.92 126.86 137.8 148.73 159.67 117.02 127.95 138.89 149.83 160.76 118.11 129.05 139.99 150.92 161.86 119.2 130.14 141.08 152.01 162.95 150 160 170 180 190 164.04 174.98 185.91 196.85 207.79 165.14 176.07 187.0 197.94 208.88 166.23 177.17 188.1 199.04 209.97 167.32 178.26 189.2 200.13 211.07 168.42 179.35 190.29 201.23 212.16 169.51 180.45 191.38 202.32 213.26 170.6 181.54 192.48 203.41 214.35 171.7 182.63 193.57 204.51 215.44 172.79 183.73 194.66 205.6 216.53 173.89 184.82 195.76 206.69 217.63 200 210 220 230 240 218.72 229.66 240.56 251.53 262.47 219.82 230.75 241.69 252.63 263.56 220.91 231.85 242.78 253.72 264.65 222.0 232.94 243.88 254.81 265.75 223.1 234.03 244.97 255.91 266.84 224.19 235.13 246.06 257.0 267.94 225.28 236.22 247.16 258.09 269.03 226.38 237.31 248.25 259.19 270.12 227.47 238.41 249.34 260.28 271.22 228.57 239.5 250.44 261.37 272.31 250 273.4 km 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 mile 0 10 20 30 40 6.21 12.43 18.64 24.85 0.62 6.84 13.05 19.29 25.47 1.24 7.46 13.67 19.88 26.1 1.86 8.08 14.29 20.5 26.72 2.49 8.7 14.91 21.13 27.34 3.11 9.32 15.53 21.75 27.96 3.73 9.94 16.16 22.37 28.58 4.35 10.56 16.78 22.99 29.2 4.98 11.18 17.4 23.61 29.83 5.59 11.81 18.02 24.23 30.45 50 60 70 80 90 31.07 37.28 43.5 49.7 55.92 31.69 37.9 44.12 50.33 56.54 32.31 38.53 44.74 50.95 57.17 32.93 39.15 45.36 51.57 57.79 33.55 39.77 45.98 52.2 58.41 34.18 40.39 46.6 52.82 59.03 34.8 41.01 47.22 53.44 59.65 35.42 41.63 47.85 54.06 60.27 36.04 42.25 48.47 54.68 60.89 36.66 42.87 49.09 55.3 61.52 100 62.14

369 Con versions 10 miles to kilometres 6 feet to metres 8 yards to metres m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 10 20 30 40 3.05 6.1 9.14 12.19 0.31 3.35 6.4 9.45 12.5 0.6 3.66 6.71 9.75 12.80 0.91 3.96 7.01 10.06 13.1 1.22 4.27 7.31 10.36 13.41 1.52 4.57 7.62 10.67 13.72 1.83 4.88 7.92 10.97 14.02 2.13 5.18 8.23 11.28 14.36 2.44 5.49 8.53 11.58 14.63 2.74 5.79 8.84 11.89 14.94 50 60 70 80 90 15.24 18.29 21.33 24.38 27.43 15.54 18.59 21.64 24.69 27.74 15.85 18.9 21.95 24.99 28.04 16.15 19.2 22.25 25.3 28.35 16.46 19.58 22.56 25.6 28.65 16.76 19.81 22.86 25.91 28.96 17.07 20.12 23.16 26.21 29.26 17.37 20.42 23.47 26.52 29.57 17.68 20.73 23.77 26.82 29.87 17.98 21.03 24.08 27.13 30.18 100 110 120 130 140 30.48 33.53 36.58 39.62 42.67 30.78 33.83 36.88 39.93 42.98 31.09 34.14 37.19 40.23 43.28 31.39 34.44 37.49 40.54 43.59 31.7 34.75 37.8 40.84 43.89 32.0 35.05 38.1 41.15 44.2 32.31 35.37 38.41 41.45 44.5 32.61 35.67 38.7 41.76 44.81 32.92 36.0 39.01 42.06 45.11 33.22 36.3 39.32 42.37 45.46 150 160 170 180 190 45.72 48.77 51.82 54.86 57.91 46.02 49.07 52.12 55.17 58.22 46.33 49.38 52.43 55.47 58.52 46.63 49.68 52.73 55.78 58.83 46.94 49.99 53.04 56.08 59.13 47.24 50.29 53.34 56.39 59.44 47.55 50.6 53.64 56.69 59.74 47.85 50.9 53.95 57.0 60.05 48.16 51.21 54.25 57.3 60.35 48.46 51.51 54.56 57.61 60.66 200 210 220 230 240 60.96 64.01 67.06 70.1 73.15 61.26 64.31 67.36 70.41 73.46 61.57 64.62 67.67 70.71 73.76 61.87 64.92 67.97 71.02 74.07 62.18 65.23 68.28 71.32 74.37 62.48 65.53 68.58 71.63 74.68 62.79 65.84 68.89 71.93 74.98 63.09 66.14 69.19 72.24 75.29 63.4 66.45 69.49 72.54 75.59 63.7 66.75 69.79 72.85 75.9 250 76.2 yd 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m 0 10 20 30 40 9.14 18.29 27.43 36.58 0.91 10.06 19.2 28.35 37.49 1.83 10.97 20.12 29.26 38.4 2.74 11.89 21.03 30.18 39.32 3.65 12.8 21.95 31.09 40.23 4.57 13.71 22.86 32.0 41.15 5.49 14.63 23.77 32.92 42.06 6.4 15.54 24.69 33.83 42.98 7.32 16.46 25.6 34.75 43.89 8.23 17.37 26.52 35.66 44.81 50 60 70 80 90 45.72 54.86 64.0 73.15 82.3 46.63 55.78 64.92 74.07 83.21 47.55 56.69 65.84 74.98 84.12 48.46 57.61 66.75 75.9 85.04 49.38 58.52 67.67 76.81 85.95 50.29 59.44 68.58 77.72 86.87 51.21 60.35 69.49 78.64 87.78 52.12 61.27 70.41 79.55 88.7 53.04 62.18 71.32 80.47 89.61 53.95 63.09 72.24 81.38 90.53 100 110 120 130 140 91.44 100.58 109.73 118.87 128.02 92.35 101.5 110.64 119.79 128.93 93.27 102.41 111.56 120.7 129.85 94.18 103.33 112.47 121.61 130.76 95.1 104.24 113.39 122.53 131.67 96.01 105.16 114.3 123.44 132.59 96.93 106.07 115.21 124.36 133.5 97.84 106.99 116.13 125.27 134.42 98.76 107.9 117.04 126.19 135.33 99.67 108.81 117.96 127.1 136.25 150 160 170 180 190 137.16 146.3 155.45 164.59 173.74 138.07 147.22 156.36 165.51 174.65 138.99 148.13 157.28 166.42 175.57 139.9 149.05 158.19 167.34 176.48 140.82 149.96 159.11 168.25 177.39 141.73 150.88 160.02 169.16 178.31 142.65 151.79 160.93 170.08 179.22 143.56 152.71 161.85 170.99 180.14 144.48 153.62 162.76 171.9 181.05 145.39 154.53 163.68 172.82 181.97 200 210 220 230 240 182.88 192.02 201.17 210.31 219.46 183.79 192.94 202.08 211.23 220.37 184.71 193.85 203.0 212.14 221.29 185.62 194.77 203.91 213.06 222.0 186.54 195.68 204.83 213.97 223.11 187.45 196.6 205.74 214.88 224.03 188.37 197.51 206.65 215.8 224.94 189.28 198.43 207.57 216.71 225.86 190.2 199.34 208.48 217.63 226.77 191.11 200.25 209.4 218.54 227.69 250 228.6 mile 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 km 0 10 20 30 40 16.09 32.19 48.28 64.37 1.61 17.7 33.8 49.89 65.98 3.22 19.31 35.41 51.5 67.59 4.83 20.92 37.01 53.11 69.2 6.44 22.53 38.62 54.72 70.81 8.05 24.14 40.23 56.33 72.42 9.66 25.75 41.84 57.94 74.03 11.27 27.36 43.45 59.55 75.64 12.87 28.97 45.06 61.16 77.25 14.48 30.58 46.67 62.76 78.86 50 60 70 80 90 80.47 96.56 112.65 128.75 144.84 82.08 98.17 114.26 130.36 146.45 83.69 99.78 115.87 131.97 148.06 85.3 101.39 117.48 133.58 149.67 86.9 103.0 119.09 135.19 151.28 88.51 104.61 120.7 136.79 152.89 90.12 106.22 122.31 138.4 154.5 91.73 107.83 123.92 140.01 156.11 93.34 109.44 125.53 141.62 157.72 94.95 111.05 127.14 143.23 159.33 100 160.93

370 Conversions Area 11 square centimetres to square inches 13 square metres to square feet cm2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 j2 0 10 20 30 40 1.6 3.1 4.65 6.2 0.16 1.71 3.26 4.81 6.36 0.31 1.86 3.41 4.96 6.51 0.47 2.02 3.57 5.12 6.67 0.62 2.17 3.72 5.27 6.82 0.78 2.33 3.88 5.43 6.98 0.93 2.48 4.03 5.58 7.13 1.09 2.64 4.19 5.74 7.29 1.24 2.79 4.34 5.9 7.44 1.4 2.95 4.5 6.05 7.6 50 60 70 80 90 7.75 9.3 10.85 12.4 13.95 7.91 9.46 11.01 12.56 14.11 8.06 9.61 11.16 12.71 14.26 8.22 9.77 11.32 12.87 14.42 8.37 9.92 11.47 13.02 14.57 8.53 10.08 11.63 13.18 14.73 8.68 10.23 11.78 13.33 14.88 8.84 10.39 11.94 13.49 15.04 9.0 10.54 12.09 13.64 15.19 9.15 10.7 12.25 13.8 15.35 100 110 120 130 140 15.5 17.06 18.6 20.15 21.7 15.66 17.21 18.76 20.31 21.86 15.81 17.36 18.91 20.46 22.01 15.97 17.52 19.07 20.62 22.17 16.12 17.67 19.22 20.77 22.32 16.28 17.83 19.38 20.93 22.48 16.43 17.98 19.53 21.08 22.63 16.59 18.14 19.69 21.24 22.79 16.74 18.29 19.84 21.39 22.94 16.9 18.45 20.0 21.55 23.1 150 160 170 180 190 23.25 24.8 26.35 27.9 29.45 23.41 24.96 26.51 28.06 29.61 23.56 25.11 26.66 28.21 29.76 23.72 25.27 26.82 28.37 29.92 23.87 25.42 26.97 28.52 30.07 24.03 25.58 27.13 28.68 30.23 24.18 25.73 27.28 28.83 30.38 24.34 25.89 27.44 28.99 30.54 24.49 26.04 27.59 29.14 30.69 24.65 26.2 27.75 29.3 30.85 200 210 220 230 240 31.0 32.55 34.1 35.65 37.20 31.16 32.71 34.26 35.81 37.36 31.31 32.86 34.41 35.96 37.51 31.47 33.02 34.57 36.12 37.67 31.62 33.17 34.72 36.27 37.82 31.78 33.33 34.88 36.43 37.98 31.93 33.48 35.03 36.58 38.13 32.09 33.64 35.19 36.75 38.29 32.24 33.79 35.34 36.89 38.44 32.4 33.95 35.5 37.05 38.6 250 38.75 m2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ft2 0 10 20 30 40 107.64 215.29 322.92 430.56 10.76 118.4 226.01 333.68 441.32 21.53 129.17 236.81 344.45 452.08 32.29 139.93 247.57 355.21 462.85 43.06 150.66 258.33 365.97 473.61 53.82 161.46 269.1 376.74 484.38 64.58 172.22 279.86 387.5 495.14 75.35 182.97 290.63 398.?7 505.91 86.11 193.75 301.39 409.03 516.67 96.88 20451 312.15 419.79 527.43 50 60 70 80 90 538.2 645.84 753.47 861.11 968.75 548.96 656.6 764.24 871.88 979.52 559.72 667.36 775.0 882.64 990.28 570.49 678.13 785.77 893.41 1 001.04 581.25 688.89 796.53 904.17 1 011.81 592.02 699.65 807.29 914.93 1 022.57 602.78 710.42 818.06 925.7 1 033.34 613.54 721.18 828.82 936.46 1 044.1 624.31 731.95 839.59 947.22 1 054.86 635.07 742.71 850.35 957.99 1 065.63 100 110 120 130 140 1 076.39 1 184.03 1 291.67 1 399.31 1 506.95 1 087.15 1194.79 1 302.43 1 410.07 1 517.71 1 097.92 1 205.56 1 313.2 1 420.84 1 528.48 1108.68 1 216.32 1 323.96 1 431.6 1 539.24 1119.45 1 227.09 1 334.72 1 442.36 1 550.0 1130.21 1 237.85 1 345.49 1 453.13 1 560.77 1140.97 1 248.61 1 356.25 1 463.89 1 571.53 1151.74 1 259.38 1 367.02 1 474.66 1 582.29 1162.5 1 270.14 1 377.78 1 485.42 1 593.06 1173.27 1 280.91 1 388.54 1 496.18 1 603.82 150 160 170 180 190 1 614.59 1 722.23 1 829.86 1 937.5 2045.14 1 625.35 1 732.99 1 840.63 1 948.27 2055.91 1 636.11 1 743.75 1 851.39 1 959.03 2066.67 1 646.88 1 754.52 1 862.16 1 969.8 2077.43 1 657.64 1 765.28 1 872.92 1 980.56 2 088.2 1 668.41 1 776.05 1 883.68 1 991.32 2098.96 1 679.17 1 786.81 1 894.45 2002.09 2109.73 1 689.93 1 797.57 1 905.21 2012.85 2120.49 1 700.7 1 808.34 1 915.98 2023.62 2131.25 1 711.46 1 819.1 1 926.74 2034.38 2142.02 200 210 220 230 240 2 152.78 2260.42 2368.06 2 475.7 2583.34 2 163.55 2271.19 2378.82 2 486.46 2594.1 2 174.31 2281.95 2389.59 2 497.23 2604.87 2 185.07 2292.71 2400.35 2 507.99 2615.63 2 195.84 2303.48 2411.12 2 518.76 2626.39 2206.6 2314.24 2421.88 2 529.52 2637.16 2217.37 2325.0 2432.64 2 540.28 2647.92 2228.13 2335.77 2443.41 2 551.05 2658.69 2238.89 2346.53 2454.17 2 561.81 2669.45 2249.66 2357.3 2464.94 2 572.57 2680.21 250 260 270 280 290 2 690.98 2 798.62 2906.26 3013.89 3121.53 2 701.74 2809.38 2917.02 3 024.66 3132.3 2 712.51 2820.14 2927.78 3035.42 3143.06 2 723.27 2830.91 2938.55 3 046.19 3153.83 2 734.03 2841.67 2949.31 3056.95 3164.59 2 744.8 2852.44 2960.08 3067.71 3175.35 2 755.56 2863.2 2970.84 3078.48 3186.12 2 766.32 2873.96 2981.6 3089.24 3196.88 2 777.09 2884.73 2992.37 3 100.01 3207.65 2 787.85 2895.49 3003.13 3 110.77 3 218.41 300 310 320 330 340 3 229.17 3336.81 3444.45 3552.09 3 659.73 3 239.94 3347.58 3455.22 3562.85 3 670.49 3 250.7 3358.34 3465.98 3573.62 3 681.26 3 261.46 3369.1 3476.74 3584.38 3 692.02 3272.23 3379.87 3487.51 3 595.15 3 702.79 3282.99 3390.63 3498.27 3605.91 3 713.55 3 293.76 3401.4 3509.03 3616.67 3 724.31 3 304.52 3412.16 3519.8 3627.44 3 735.08 3 315.28 3422.92 3530.56 3638.2 3 745.84 3 326.05 3433.69 3541.33 3648.97 3 756.6 350 360 370 380 390 3 767.37 3875.01 3982.65 4090.29 4197.93 3 778.13 3885.77 3993.41 4101.05 4208.69 3 788.9 3896.54 4004.17 4111.81 4219.45 3799.66 3907.3 4014.94 4122.58 4230.22 3 810.42 3918.06 4025.7 4133.34 4240.98 3821.19 3928.83 4036.47 4144.11 4251.74 3831.95 3939.59 4047.23 4154.87 4262.51 3842.72 3950.36 4057.99 4165.63 4273.27 3 853.48 3961.12 4068.76 4176.4 4284.04 3 864.24 3971.88 4079.52 4187.16 4294.8 400 410 420 430 440 4305.56 4413.2 4520.84 4628.48 4736.12 4316.33 4 423.97 4531.61 4639.25 4746.88 4327.09 4434.73 4542.37 4650.01 4757.65 4337.86 4 445.49 4553.13 4660.77 4768.41 4348.62 4 456.26 4563.9 4671.54 4779.18 4359.38 4467.02 4574.66 4682.3 4789.94 4370.15 4477.79 4585.43 4693.06 4800.7 4380.91 4488.55 4596.19 4703.83 4811.47 4391.68 4499.31 4606.95 4714.59 4822.23 4402.44 4 510.08 4617.72 4725.36 4833.0 450 460 470 480 490 4 843.76 4951.4 5 059.04 5166.68 5274.32 4 854.52 4 962.16 5 069.8 5177.44 5285.08 4 865.29 4 972.93 5 080.57 5188.2 5295.84 4 876.05 4983.69 5091.33 5198.97 5306.61 4 886.82 4994.45 5 102.09 5209.73 5317.37 4 897.58 5005.22 5 112.86 5220.5 5328.14 4 908.34 5015.98 5 123.62 5231.26 5338.9 4 919.11 5026.75 5 134.39 5242.02 5349.66 4 929.87 5037.51 5 145.15 5252.79 5360.43 4 940.63 5048.27 5 155.91 5263.55 5371.19 500 5381.96

j2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 cm2 0 10 20 30 40 64.52 129.03 193.55 258.06 6.45 70.97 135.48 200.0 264.52 12.9 77.41 141.94 206.45 270.97 19.36 83.87 148.39 212.9 277.42 25.81 90.32 154.84 219.35 283.87 32.26 96.77 161.29 225.8 290.32 38.71 103.23 167.74 232.26 296.77 45.16 109.68 174.19 238.71 303.23 51.61 116.13 180.65 245.16 309.68 58.06 122.58 187.1 251.61 316.13 50 60 70 80 90 322.58 387.1 451.61 516.13 580.64 329.03 393.55 458.06 522.58 587.1 335.48 400.0 464.52 529.03 593.55 341.94 406.45 470.97 535.48 600.0 348.4 412.91 477.42 541.93 606.45 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.39 612.91 361.29 425.81 490.32 554.84 619.35 367.74 432.26 496.77 561.29 625.81 374.19 438.71 503.23 567.74 632.26 380.64 445.16 509.68 574.19 638.71 100 110 120 130 140 645.16 709.6 774.19 838.71 903.22 651.61 716.13 780.64 845.16 909.68 658.06 722.58 787.1 851.61 916.13 664.51 729.03 793.55 858.06 922.58 670.97 735.48 800.0 864.51 929.03 677.42 741.93 806.45 870.97 935.48 683.87 748.39 812.9 877.42 941.93 690.32 754.84 819.35 883.87 948.39 696.77 761.29 825.81 890.32 954.84 703.22 767.74 832.26 896.77 961.29 150 160 170 180 190 1 1 1 1 967.74 032.26 096.77 161.29 225.8 974.19 1 038.71 1103.22 1167.74 1 232.26 980.64 1 045.16 1109.68 1174.19 1 238.71 987.1 1 051.61 1116.13 1180.64 1 245.16 993.55 1 058.06 1122.58 1187.09 1 251.61 1 000.00 1 064.51 1129.03 1193.55 1 258.06 1 006.45 1 070.97 1135.48 1 200.0 1 264.51 1 012.9 1 077.42 1141.93 1 206.45 1 270.97 1 019.35 1 083.87 1148.38 1 212.9 1 277.42 1 025.8 1 090.32 1154.84 1 219.35 1 283.87 200 210 220 230 240 1 1 1 1 1 290.32 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.38 1 296.77 1 361.29 1 425.8 1 490.32 1 554.84 1 303.22 1 367.74 1 432.26 1 496.77 1 561.29 1 309.67 1 374.19 1 438.71 1 503.22 1 567.74 1 316.13 1 380.64 1 445.16 1 509.67 1 574.19 1 322.58 1 387.09 1 451.61 1 516.13 1 580.64 1 329.03 1 393.55 1 458.06 1 522.58 1 587.09 1 335.48 1 400.0 1 464.51 1 529.03 1 593.55 1 341.93 1 406.45 1 470.96 1 535.48 1 600.0 1 348.38 1 412.9 1 477.42 1 541.93 1 606.45 250 1 612.9 ft2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m2 0 0.09 0.19 0.28 0.37 0.46 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.84 10 0.93 1.02 1.11 1.21 1.3 1.39 1.49 1.58 1.67 1.77 20 1.86 1.95 2.04 2.14 2.23 2.32 2.42 2.51 2.6 2.69 30 2.79 2.88 2.97 3.07 3.16 3.25 3.34 3.44 3.53 3.62 40 3.72 3.81 3.9 3.99 4.09 4.18 4.27 4.37 4.46 4.55 50 4.65 4.74 4.83 4.92 5.02 5.11 5.2 5.3 5.39 5.48 60 5.57 5.67 5.76 5.85 5.95 6.04 6.13 6.22 6.32 6.41 70 6.5 6.6 6.69 6.78 6.87 6.97 7.06 7.15 7.25 7.34 80 7.43 7.53 7.62 7.71 7.8 7.9 7.99 8.08 8.18 8.27 90 8.36 8.45 8.55 8.64 8.73 8.83 8.92 9.01 9.1 9.2 100 9.29 9.38 9.48 9.57 9.66 9.75 9.85 9.94 10.03 10.13 110 10.22 10.31 10.41 10.5 10.59 10.68 10.78 10.87 10.96 11.06 120 11.15 11.24 11.33 11.43 11.52 11.61 11.71 11.8 11,89 11.98 130 12.08 12.17 12.26 12.36 12.45 12.54 12.63 12.73 12.82 12.91 140 13.01 13.1 13.19 13.29 13.38 13.47 13.56 13.66 13.75 13.84 150 13.94 14.03 14.12 14.21 14.31 14.4 14.49 14.59 14.68 14.77 160 14.86 14.96 15.05 15.14 15.24 15.33 15.42 15.51 15.61 15.7 170 15.79 15.89 15.98 16.07 16.17 16.26 16.35 16.44 16.54 16.63 180 16.72 16.82 16.91 17.0 17.09 17.19 17.28 17.37 17.47 17.56 190 17.65 17.74 17.84 17.93 18.02 18.12 18.21 18.3 18.39 18.49 200 18.58 18.67 18.77 18.86 18.95 19.05 19.14 19.23 19.32 19.42 210 19.51 19.6 19.7 19.79 19.88 19.97 20.07 20.16 20.25 20.35 220 20.44 20.53 20.62 20.72 20.81 20.9 21.0 21.09 21.18 21.27 230 21.37 21.46 21.55 21.65 21.74 21.83 21.93 22.02 22.11 22.2 240 22.3 22.39 22.48 22.58 22.67 22.76 22.85 22.95 23.04 23.13 250 23.23 23.32 23.41 23.5 23.6 23.69 23.78 23.88 23.97 24.06 260 24.15 24.25 24.34 24.43 24.53 24.62 24.71 24.81 24.9 24.99 270 25.08 25.18 25.27 25.36 25.46 25.55 25.64 25.73 25.83 25.92 280 26.01 26.11 26.2 26.29 26.38 26.48 26.57 26.66 26.76 26.85 290 26.94 27.03 27.13 27.22 27.31 27.41 27.5 27.59 27.69 27.78 300 27.87 27.96 28.06 28.15 28.24 28.34 28.43 28.52 28.61 28.71 310 28.8 28.89 28.99 29.08 29.17 29.26 29.36 29.45 29.54 29.64 320 29.73 29.82 29.91 30.01 30.1 30.19 30.29 30.38 30.47 30.57 330 30.66 30.75 30.84 30.94 31.03 31.12 31.22 31.31 31.4 31.49 340 31.59 31.68 31.77 31.87 31.96 32.05 32.14 32.24 32.33 32.42 350 32.52 32.61 32.7 32.79 32.89 32.98 33.07 33.17 33.26 33.35 360 33.45 33.54 33.63 33.72 33.82 33.91 34.0 34.1 34.19 34.28 370 34.37 34.47 34.56 34.65 34.75 34.84 34.93 35.02 35.12 35.21 380 35.3 35.4 35.49 35.58 35.67 35.77 35.86 35.95 36.05 36.14 390 36.23 36.33 36.42 36.51 36.6 36.7 36.79 36.88 36.98 37.07 400 37.16 37.25 37.35 37.44 37.53 37.63 37.72 37.81 37.9 38.0 410 38.09 38.18 38.28 38.37 38.46 38.55 38.65 38.74 38.83 38.93 420 39.02 39.11 39.21 39.3 39.39 39.48 39.58 39.67 39.76 39.86 430 39.95 40.04 40.13 40.23 40.32 40.41 40.51 40.6 40.69 40.78 440 40.88 40.97 41.06 41.16 41.25 41.34 41.43 41.53 41.62 41.71 450 41.81 41.9 41.99 42.09 42.18 42.27 42.36 42.46 42.55 42.64 460 42.74 42.83 42.92 43.01 43.11 43.2 43.29 43.39 43.48 43.57 470 43.66 43.76 43.85 43.94 44.04 44.13 44.22 44.31 44.41 44.5 480 44.59 44.69 44.78 44.87 44.97 45.06 45.15 45.24 45.34 45.43 490 45.52 45.62 45.71 45.8 45.89 45.99 46.08 46.17 46.27 46.36 500 46.45 371 Con versions 12 square inches to square centimetres 14 square feet to square metres

372 Con versions 17 hectares to acres ha 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 acre 2.47 4.94 7.41 9.88 12.36 14.83 17.3 19.77 22.24 ha 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 acre 0 100 200 300 400 247.11 494.21 741.32 988.42 24.71 271.82 518.92 766.03 1 013.13 49.42 296.53 543.63 790.74 1 037.84 74.13 321.24 568.34 815.45 1 062.55 98.84 345.95 593.05 840.16 1 087.26 123.55 370.66 617.76 864.87 1111.97 148.26 395.37 642.47 889.58 1136.68 172.97 420.08 667.19 914.29 1161.4 197.68 444.8 691.9 939.0 1186.11 222.4 469.5 716.61 963.71 1 210.82 500 600 700 800 900 1 235.53 1 482.63 1 729.74 1976.84 2223.95 1 260.24 1 507.34 1 754.45 2 001.55 2 248.66 1 284.95 1 532.05 1 779.16 2026.26 2273.37 1 309.66 1 556.76 1 803.87 2050.97 2 298.08 1 334.37 1 581.47 1 828.58 2075.69 2322.79 1 359.08 1 606.18 1 853.29 2100.4 2347.5 1 383.79 1 630.9 1 878.0 2125.11 2 372.21 1 408.5 1 655.61 1 902.71 2149.82 2 396.92 1 433.21 1 680.32 1 927.42 2174.53 2421.63 1 457.92 1 705.03 1 952.13 2199.24 2446.34 1000 2471.05 15 square metres to square yards m2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 yd2 0 10 20 30 40 11.96 23.92 35.88 47.84 1.2 13.16 25.12 37.08 49.04 2.39 14.35 26.31 38.27 50.23 3.58 15.55 27.51 39.47 51.43 4.78 5.98 16.74 17.94 28.7 29.9 40.66 . 41.86 52.62 53.82 7.18 19.14 31.1 43.06 55.02 8.37 20.33 32.29 44.25 56.21 9.57 21.53 33.49 45.45 57.41 10.76 22.72 34.68 46.64 58.6 50 60 70 80 90 59.8 71.76 83.72 95.68 107.64 61.0 72.96 84.92 96.88 108.84 62.19 74.15 86.11 98.07 110.03 63.39 75.35 87.31 99.27 111.23 64.58 65.78 76.54 77.74 88.5 89.7 100.46 101.66 112.42 113.62 66.98 78.94 90.9 102.86 114.82 68.17 80.13 92.09 104.05 116.01 69.37 81.33 93.29 105.25 117.21 70.56 82.52 94.48 106.44 118.4 100 110 120 130 140 119.6 131.56 143.52 155.48 167.44 120.8 132.76 144.72 156.68 168.64 121.99 133.95 145.91 157.87 169.83 123.19 135.15 147.11 159.07 171.03 124.38 125.58 136.34 137.54 148.31 149.5 160.26 161.46 172.22 173.41 126.78 138.74 150.7 162.66 174.62 127.97 139.93 151.89 163.85 175.81 129.17 141.13 153.09 165.05 177.01 130.36 142.32 154.28 166.24 178.2 150 160 170 180 190 179.34 191.36 203.32 215.28 227.24 180.59 192.55 204.51 216.47 228.43 181.79 193.75 205.71 217.67 229.63 182.99 194.95 206.91 218.87 230.83 184.18 185.38 196.14 197.34 208.1 209.3 220.06 221.26 232.02 233.22 186.57 198.53 210.49 222.45 234.41 187.77 199.73 211.69 223.65 235.61 188.97 200.93 212.89 224.85 236.81 190.16 202.12 214.08 226.04 238.0 200 210 220 230 240 239.2 251.16 263.12 275.08 287.04 240.39 252.35 264.31 276.27 288.23 241.59 253.55 265.51 277.47 289.43 242.79 254.75 266.71 278.67 290.63 243.98 245.18 255.94 257.14 267.9 269.1 279.86 281.06 291.82 293.02 246.37 258.33 270.29 282.25 294.21 247.57 259.53 271.49 283.45 295.41 248.77 260.73 272.69 284.65 296.61 249.96 261.92 273.88 285.84 297.8 250 260 270 280 290 299.0 310.96 322.92 334.88 346.84 300.19 312.15 324.11 336.07 348.03 301.39 313.35 325.31 337.27 349.23 302.59 314.55 326.51 338.47 350.43 303.78 304.98 315.74 316.94 327.7 328.9 339.66 340.86 351.62 352.82 306.17 318.13 330.09 342.05 354.02 307.37 319.33 331.29 343.25 355.21 308.57 320.53 332.49 344.45 356.41 309.76 321.72 333.68 345.64 357.6 300 310 320 330 340 358.78 370.76 382.72 394.68 406.64 359.99 371.95 383.91 395.87 407.83 361.19 373.15 385.11 397.07 409.03 362.39 374.35 386.31 398.27 410.23 363.58 364.78 375.54 376.74 387.5 388.7 399.46 400.66 411.42 412.62 365.97 377.94 389.89 401.85 413.81 367.17 379.13 391.09 403.05 415.01 368.37 380.33 392.29 404.25 416.21 369.56 381.52 393.48 405.44 417.4 350 360 370 380 390 418.6 430.56 442.52 454.48 466.44 419.79 431.75 443.71 455.67 467.63 420.99 432.95 444.91 456.87 468.83 422.18 434.14 446.11 458.06 470.02 423.38 424.58 435.34 436.54 447.3 448.5 459.26 460.46 471.22 472.42 425.77 437.73 449.69 461.65 473.61 426.97 438.93 450.89 462.84 474.81 428.16 440.12 452.08 464.04 476.0 429.36 441.32 453.28 465.24 477.2 400 410 420 430 440 478.4 490.36 502.32 514.28 526.24 479.59 491.55 503.51 515.47 527.43 480.79 492.75 504.71 516.67 528.63 481.98 493.94 505.9 517.86 529.82 483.18 484.38 495.14 496.34 507.1 508.3 519.06 520.26 531.02 532.22 485.57 497.53 509.49 521.45 533.41 486.77 498.73 510.69 522.65 534.61 487.96 499.92 511.88 523.84 535.8 489.16 501.12 513.08 525.04 537.0 450 460 470 480 490 538.2 550.16 562.12 574.08 586.04 539.39 551.35 563.31 575.27 587.23 540.59 552.55 564.5 576.47 588.43 541.78 553.74 565.71 577.66 589.62 542.98 544.18 554.94 556.14 566.9 568.1 578.86 580.06 590.82 592.02 545.37 557.33 569.29 581.25 593.21 546.57 558.53 570.49 582.45 594.41 547.76 559.72 571.68 583.64 595.6 548.96 560.92 572.88 584.84 596.8 500 598.0

373 Con versions 18 acres to hectares yd2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m2 16 square yards to square metres 0 10 20 30 40 8.36 16.72 25.08 33.45 0.84 9.2 17.56 25.92 34.28 1.67 10.03 18.39 26.76 35.12 2.51 10.87 19.23 27.59 35.95 3.34 11.71 20.07 28.43 36.79 4.18 12.54 20.9 29.26 37.63 5.02 13.38 21.74 30.1 38.46 5.85 14.21 22.58 30.94 39.3 6.69 15.05 23.41 31.77 40.13 7.53 15.89 24.25 32.61 40.97 50 60 70 80 90 41.81 50.17 58.53 66.89 75.25 42.64 51.0 59.37 67.7 76.09 43.48 51.84 60.2 68.56 76.92 44.31 52.68 61.04 69.3 77.76 45.15 53.51 61.87 70.23 78.6 45.99 54.35 62.71 71.07 79.43 46.82 55.18 63.55 71.9 80.27 47.66 56.02 64.38 72.74 81.10 48.5 56.86 65.22 73.5 81.94 49.33 57.69 66.05 74.4 82.78 100 110 120 130 140 83.61 91.97 100.34 108.7 117.06 84.45 92.81 101.17 109.53 117.89 85.29 93.65 102.0 110.37 118.73 86.12 94.48 102.84 111.21 119.57 86.96 95.32 103.68 112.04 120.41 87.79 96.15 104.52 112.88 121.24 88.62 96.99 105.35 113.71 122.08 89.47 97.83 106.19 114.55 122.91 90.3 98.66 107.02 115.39 123.75 91.14 99.5 107.86 116.22 124.58 150 160 170 180 190 125.42 133.78 142.14 150.5 158.86 126.26 134.62 142.98 151.34 159.7 127.09 135.45 143.81 152.18 160.54 127.93 136.29 144.65 153.01 161.37 128.76 137.13 145.49 153.85 162.21 129.6 137.96 146.32 154.68 163.05 130.44 138.8 147.16 155.52 163.88 131.27 139.63 148.0 156.36 164.72 132.11 140.47 148.83 157.19 165.55 132.94 141.31 149.67 158.03 166.39 200 210 220 230 240 167.23 175.59 183.95 192.31 200.67 168.06 176.42 184.78 193.15 201.51 168.9 177.26 185.62 193.98 202.34 169.73 178.1 186.46 194.82 203.18 170.57 178.93 187.29 195.65 204.02 171.41 179.77 188.13 196.49 204.85 172.24 180.61 188.97 197.33 205.69 173.08 181.44 189.80 198.16 206.52 173.91 182.28 190.64 199.0 207.36 174.75 183.11 191.47 199.83 208.2 250 260 270 280 290 209.03 217.39 225.75 234.12 242.48 209.87 218.3 226.59 234.95 243.31 210.7 219.07 227.43 235.79 244.15 211.54 219.9 228.26 236.62 244.99 212.38 220.74 229.1 237.46 245.82 213.21 221.57 229.94 238.3 246.66 214.1 222.41 230.77 239.13 247.49 214.89 223.25 231.61 239.97 248.33 215.72 224.08 232.44 240.81 249.17 216.56 224.92 233.28 241.64 250.0 300 310 320 330 340 250.84 259.2 267.56 275.92 284.28 251.67 260.04 268.4 276.76 285.12 252.51 260.87 269.23 277.59 285.96 253.35 261.71 270.07 278.43 286.79 254.18 262.54 270.91 279.27 287.63 255.02 263.38 271.74 280.11 288.46 255.86 264.22 272.58 280.94 289.3 256.69 265.05 273.41 281.78 290.14 257.53 265.89 274.25 282.61 290.97 258.36 266.73 275.09 283.45 291.81 350 360 370 380 390 292.65 301.0 309.37 317.73 326.09 293.48 301.84 310.2 318.57 326.93 294.32 302.68 311.04 319.4 327.76 295.15 303.51 311.88 320.24 328.6 295.99 304.35 312.71 321.07 329.43 296.83 305.19 313.55 321.91 330.27 297.66 306.02 314.38 322.75 331.11 298.5 306.86 315.22 323.58 331.94 299.33 307.7 316.06 324.42 332.78 300.17 308.53 316.89 325.25 333.62 400 410 420 430 440 334.45 342.81 351.17 359.54 367.9 335.29 343.65 352.01 360.37 368.73 336.12 344.48 352.85 361.21 369.57 336.96 345.32 353.68 362.04 370.41 337.8 346.16 354.52 362.88 371.24 338.63 346.99 355.35 363.72 372.08 339.47 347.83 356.19 364.55 372.91 340.31 348.67 357.03 365.39 373.75 341.14 349.51 357.86 366.22 374.59 341.98 350.34 358.7 367.06 375.42 450 460 470 480 490 376.26 384.62 392.98 401.34 409.7 377.09 385.46 393.82 402.18 410.54 377.93 386.29 394.65 403.01 411.38 378.77 387.13 395.49 403.85 412.21 379.6 387.96 396.32 404.69 413.05 380.44 388.8 397.16 405.52 413.88 381.27 389.64 398.0 406.36 414.72 382.11 390.47 398.83 407.19 415.56 382.95 391.31 399.67 408.03 416.39 383.78 392.14 400.51 408.87 417.23 500 418.0 acre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ha 0.4 0.81 1.21 1.62 2.02 2.42 2.83 3.23 3.64 acre 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ha 0 100 200 300 400 40.47 80.94 121.41 161.87 4.05 44.52 84.98 125.46 165.92 8.09 48.56 89.03 129.5 169.97 12.14 52.6 93.08 133.55 174.02 16.19 56.66 97.12 137.59 178.06 20.23 60.71 101.17 141.64 182.11 24.28 64.75 105.22 145.69 186.16 28.33 68.8 109.26 149.73 190.20 32.37 72.84 113.31 153.78 194.25 36.42 76.89 117.36 157.83 198.3 500 600 700 800 900 202.34 242.81 283.28 323.75 364.22 206.39 246.86 287.33 327.8 368.26 210.44 250.91 291.37 331.84 372.31 214.48 254.95 295.42 335.84 376.36 218.53 259.0 299.47 339.94 380.41 222.58 263.05 303.51 343.98 384.45 226.62 267.09 307.56 348.03 388.5 230.67 271.14 311.61 352.07 392.55 234.71 275.19 315.66 356.12 396.59 238.77 279.23 319.7 360.17 400.64 1 000 404.69

374 Con versions Volume 19 cubic centimetres to cubic inches 21 cubic metres to cubic feet 23 litres to cubic feet in3 5 6 7 8 9 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.31 0.37 0.43 0.49 0.55 cm3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 j3 0 100 200 300 400 6.1 12.2 18.31 24.41 0.61 6.71 12.82 18.92 25.02 1.22 7.32 13.43 19.53 25.63 1.83 7.93 14.04 20.14 26.24 2.44 8.54 14.65 20.75 26.85 3.05 9.15 15.26 21.36 27.46 3.66 9.76 15.87 21.97 28.07 4.27 10.37 16.48 22.58 28.68 4.88 10.98 17.09 23.19 29.29 5.49 11.59 17.7 23.8 29.9 500 600 700 800 900 30.51 36.61 42.72 48.82 54.92 31.12 37.22 43.38 49.43 55.53 31.73 37.83 43.94 50.04 56.14 32.34 38.45 44.55 50.65 56.75 32.95 39.06 45.16 51.26 57.36 33.56 39.67 45.77 51.87 57.97 34.17 40.28 46.38 52.48 58.58 34.78 40.89 46.99 53.09 59.19 35.39 41.5 47.6 53.7 59.8 36.0 42.11 48.21 54.31 60.41 1000 61.02 m3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ft3 0 10 20 30 40 353.15 706.29 1 059.44 1 412.59 35.31 388.46 741.61 1 094.75 1 447.9 70.63 423.78 776.92 1130.07 1 483.22 105.94 459.09 812.24 1165.38 1 518.53 141.26 494.41 847.55 1 200.7 1 553.85 176.57 592.72 882.87 1 236.01 1 589.16 211.89 565.04 918.18 1 271.33 1 624.47 247.2 600.35 953.5 1 306.64 1 659.79 282.52 635.67 988.81 1 341.96 1 695.1 317.83 670.98 1 024.13 1 377.27 1 730.42 50 60 70 80 90 1765.73 2 118.88 2472.03 2825.17 3178.32 1801.05 2154.19 2 507.34 2860.49 3213.63 1836.36 2189.51 2542.66 2895.8 3248.95 1871.68 2224.82 2577.97 2931.12 3284.26 1 906.99 2260.14 2613.29 2966.43 3319.58 1942.31 2295.45 2 648.6 3001.75 3354.89 1977.62 2330.77 2 683.91 3037.06 3390.21 2012.94 2366.08 2 719.23 3072.38 3425.52 2048.25 2401.4 2754.54 3107.69 3460.84 2083.57 2436.71 2789.86 3143.01 3496.15 100 110 120 130 140 3 531.47 3884.61 4237.76 4590.91 4 944.05 3 566.78 3919.93 4 273.07 4626.22 4 979.37 3602.1 3955.24 4308.39 4661.54 5 014.68 3 637.41 3990.56 4343.7 4696.85 5050.0 3672.73 4025.87 4 379.02 4732.17 5 085.31 3708.04 4061.19 4414.33 4767.48 5 120.63 3743.35 4096.5 4449.65 4802.79 5 155.94 3 778.67 4131.82 4 484.96 4838.11 5 191.26 3 813.98 4167.13 4 520.28 4873.42 5 226.57 3 849.3 4202.45 4 555.59 4908.74 5 261.89 150 160 170 180 190 5297.2 5650.35 6 003.49 6356.64 6709.79 5332.51 5685.66 6038.81 6391.95 6745.1 5367.83 5720.98 6074.12 6427.27 6780.42 5403.14 5756.29 6 109.44 6462.58 6815.73 5438.46 5791.61 6 144.75 6497.9 6851.05 5473.77 5826.92 6180.07 6533.21 6886.36 5509.09 5862.23 6215.38 6568.53 6921.67 5544.4 5897.55 6250.7 6603.84 6956.99 5579.72 5932.86 6286.01 6639.16 6992.3 5615.03 5968.18 6321.33 6674.47 7027.62 200 210 220 230 240 7062.93 7416.08 7 769.23 8 122.37 8475.52 7098.25 7451.39 7 804.54 8 157.69 8510.83 7133.56 7 486.71 7839.86 8 193.0 8546.15 7168.88 7522.02 7 875.17 8228.32 8581.46 7204.19 7557.34 7910.49 8263.63 8616.78 7239.51 7592.65 7945.8 8298.95 8652.09 7274.82 7627.97 7981.11 8334.26 8687.41 7310.14 7 663.28 8 016.43 8369.58 8722.72 7345.45 7 698.6 8051.74 8404.89 8758.04 7380.77 7 733.91 8087.06 8440.21 8793.35 250 8828.67 litre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ft3 0 10 20 30 40 0.35 0.71 1.06 1.41 0.04 0.39 0.74 1.09 1.45 0.07 0.42 0.78 1.13 1.48 0.11 0.46 0.81 1.17 1.52 0.14 0.49 0.85 1.2 1.55 0.18 0.53 0.88 1.24 1.59 0.21 0.57 0.92 1.27 1.62 0.25 0.60 0.95 1.31 1.66 0.28 0.64 0.99 1.34 1.7 0.32 0.67 1.02 1.38 1.73 50 60 70 80 90 1.77 2.12 2.47 2.83 3.18 1.8 2.15 2.51 2.86 3.21 1.84 2.19 2.54 2.9 3.25 1.87 2.22 2.58 2.93 3.28 1.91 2.26 2.61 2.97 3.32 1.94 2.3 2.65 3.0 3.35 1.98 2.33 2.68 3.04 3.39 2.01 2.37 2.72 3.07 3.42 2.05 2.4 2.75 3.11 3.46 2.08 2.44 2.79 3.14 3.5 100 3.53

375 Con versions in3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 cm3 16.39 32.77 49.16 65.55 81.94 98.32 114.71 131.1 147.48 jfl3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 cm3 0 163.87 327.74 491.61 655.48 819.35 983.22 1147.09 1 310.97 1 474.84 100 1638.71 1802.58 1966.45 2130.32 2294.19 2458.06 2621.93 2785.8 2949.67 3113.54 200 3277.41 3441.28 3605.15 3769.02 3932.9 4096.77 4260.64 4424.51 4588.38 4752.25 300 4916.12 5079.99 5243.86 5407.73 5571.6 5735.47 5899.34 6063.21 6227.08 6390.95 400 6554.83 6718.7 6882.57 7046.44 7210.31 7374.18 7538.05 7701.92 7865.79 8029.66 500 8193.53 8357.4 8521.27 8685.14 8849.01 9012.89 9176.76 9340.63 9504.5 9668.37 600 9832.24 9996.11 10160.0 10323.9 10487.7 10651.6 10815.5 10979.3 11143.2 11307.1 700 11470.9 11634.8 11798.7 11962.6 12126.4 12290.3 12454.2 12618.0 12781.9 12945.8 800 13 109.7 13273.5 13437.4 13601.3 13765.1 13929.0 14092.9 14256.7 14420.6 14584.5 900 14748.4 14912.2 15076.1 15240.0 15403.8 15567.7 15731.6 15895.5 16059.3 16223.2 1000 16387.1 20 cubic inches to cubic centimetres ft3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m3 0 10 20 30 40 0.28 0.57 0.85 1.13 0.03 0.31 0.59 0.88 1.16 0.06 0.34 0.62 0.91 1.19 0.08 0.37 0.65 0.93 1.22 0.11 0.4 0.68 0.96 1.25 0.14 0.42 0.71 0.99 1.27 0.17 0.45 0.74 1.02 1.3 0.2 0.48 0.77 1.05 1.33 0.23 0.51 0.79 1.08 1.36 0.25 0.54 0.82 1.1 1.39 50 60 70 80 90 1.42 1.7 1.98 2.27 2.55 1.44 1.73 2.01 2.29 2.58 1.47 1.76 2.04 2.32 2.61 1.5 1.78 2.07 2.35 2.63 1.53 1.81 2.1 2.38 2.66 1.56 1.84 2.12 2.41 2.69 1.59 1.87 2.15 2.44 2.71 1.61 1.9 2.18 2.46 2.75 1.64 1.93 2.21 2.49 2.78 1.67 1.95 2.24 2.52 2.8 100 110 120 130 140 2.83 3.11 3.4 3.68 3.96 2.86 3.14 3.43 3.71 4.0 2.89 3.17 3.46 3.74 4.02 2.92 3.2 3.48 3.77 4.05 2.94 3.23 3.51 3.79 4.08 2.97 3.26 3.54 3.82 4.11 3.01 3.28 3.57 3.85 4.13 3.03 3.31 3.6 3.88 4.16 3.06 3.34 3.62 3.91 4.19 3.09 3.37 3.65 3.94 4.22 150 160 170 180 190 4.26 4.53 4.81 5.1 5.38 4.28 4.56 4.84 5.13 5.41 4.3 4.59 4.87 5.15 5.44 4.33 4.62 4.9 5.18 5.47 4.36 4.64 4.93 5.21 5.49 4.39 4.67 4.96 5.24 5.52 4.42 4.7 4.99 5.27 5.55 4.45 4.73 5.01 5.3 5.58 4.47 4.76 5.04 5.32 5.61 4.51 4.79 5.07 5.35 5.64 200 210 220 230 240 5.66 5.95 6.23 6.51 6.8 5.69 5.98 6.26 6.54 6.82 5.72 6.0 6.29 6.57 6.85 5.75 6.03 6.31 6.6 6.88 5.78 6.06 6.34 6.63 6.91 5.8 6.09 6.37 6.65 6.94 5.83 6.12 6.4 6.69 6.97 5.86 6.14 6.43 6.71 6.99 5.89 6.17 6.46 6.74 7.02 5.92 6.2 6.48 6.77 7.05 250 7.08 ft3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 litre 0 28.32 56.63 84.95 113.26 141.58 169.9 198.21 226.53 254.84 10 283.16 311.48 339.79 368.11 396.42 424.74 453.06 481.37 509.69 538.01 20 566.32 594.64 622.95 651.27 679.59 707.9 736.22 764.53 792.85 821.17 30 849.48 877.8 906.11 934.43 962.75 991.06 1 019.38 1 047.69 1 076.01 1104.33 40 1132.64 1160.96 1189.27 1 217.59 1 245.91 1 274.22 1 302.54 1 330.85 1 359.17 1 387.49 50 1 415.8 1 444.12 1 472.43 1 500.75 1 529.07 1 557.38 1 585.7 1 614.02 1 642.33 1 670.65 60 1 698.96 1 727.28 1 755.6 1 783.91 1 812.23 1 840.54 1 868.86 1 897.18 1 925.49 1 953.81 70 1 982.12 2 010.44 2 038.76 2067.07 2 095.39 2 123.7 2 152.02 2 180.34 2208.65 2 236.97 80 2265.28 2293.6 2321.92 2350.23 2378.55 2406.86 2435.18 2463.5 2491.81 2520.13 90 2548.44 2576.76 2605.08 2633.39 2661.71 2690.03 2718.34 2746.66 2774.97 2803.29 100 2831.61 22 cubic feet to cubic metres 24 cubic feet to litres

376 Conversions 25 litres to gallons imperial 27 litres to gallons US Mass 29 kilograms to pounds litre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 gal imp 0 0.22 0.44 0.66 0.88 1.1 1.32 1.54 1.76 1.98 10 2.2 2.42 2.64 2.86 3.08 3.3 3.52 3.74 3.96 4.18 20 4.4 4.62 4.84 5.06 5.28 5.5 5.72 5.94 6.16 6.38 30 6.6 6.82 7.04 7.26 7.48 7.7 7.92 8.14 8.36 8.58 40 8.8 9.02 9.24 9.46 9.68 9.9 10.12 10.34 10.56 10.78 50 11.0 11.22 11.44 11.66 11.88 12.1 12.32 12.54 12.76 12.98 60 13.2 13.42 13.64 13.86 14.08 14.3 14.52 14.74 14.96 15.18 70 15.4 15.62 15.84 16.06 16.28 16.5 16.72 16.94 17.16 17.38 80 17.6 17.82 18.04 18.26 18.48 18.7 18.92 19.14 19.36 19.58 90 19.8 20.02 20.24 20.46 20.68 20.9 21.12 21.34 21.56 21.78 100 22.0 litre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 gal US 10 2.64 0.26 2.91 0.53 3.17 0.79 3.43 1.06 3.7 1.32 3.96 1.59 4.23 1.85 4.49 2.11 4.76 2.38 5.02 20 5.28 5.55 5.81 6.08 6.34 6.61 6.87 7.13 7.4 7.66 30 7.93 8.19 8.45 8.72 8.98 9.25 9.51 9.78 10.04 10.3 40 10.57 10.83 11.1 11.36 11.62 11.89 12.15 12.42 12.68 12.95 50 13.21 13.47 13.74 14.0 14.27 14.53 14.8 15.06 15.32 15.59 60 15.85 16.12 16.38 16.64 16.91 17.17 17.44 17.7 17.97 18.23 70 18.49 18.76 19.02 19.29 19.55 19.82 20.08 20.34 20.61 20.87 80 21.14 21.4 21.66 21.93 22.19 22.46 22.72 22.96 23.25 23.51 90 23.78 24.04 24.31 24.57 24.83 25.1 25.36 25.63 25.89 26.16 100 26.42 kg 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lb 0 10 20 30 40 22.05 44.09 66.14 88.18 2.21 24.25 46.3 68.34 90.39 4.41 26.46 48.5 70.55 92.59 6.61 28.66 50.71 72.75 94.8 8.82 30.86 52.91 74.96 97.0 11.02 33.07 55.12 77.16 99.2 13.23 35.27 57.32 79.37 101.41 15.43 37.47 59.52 81.57 103.61 17.64 39.68 61.73 83.78 105.82 19.84 41.89 63.93 85.98 108.03 50 60 70 80 90 110.23 132.28 154.32 176.37 198.42 112.44 134.48 156.53 178.57 200.62 114.64 136.69 158.73 180.78 202.83 116.85 138.89 160.94 182.98 205.03 119.05 141.1 163.14 185.19 207.24 121.25 143.3 165.35 187.39 209.44 123.46 145.51 167.55 189.6 211.64 125.66 147.71 169.76 191.8 213.85 127.87 149.91 171.96 194.01 216.05 130.07 152.12 174.17 196.21 218.26 100 110 120 130 140 220.46 242.51 264.56 286.6 308.65 222.67 244.71 266.76 288.81 310.85 224.87 246.92 268.96 291.01 313.06 227.08 249.12 271.17 293.22 315.26 229.28 251.33 273.37 295.42 317.47 231.49 253.53 275.58 297.62 319.67 233.69 255.74 277.78 299.83 321.88 235.9 257.94 279.99 302.03 324.08 238.1 260.15 282.19 304.24 326.28 240.3 262.35 284.4 306.44 328.49 150 160 170 180 190 330.69 352.74 374.79 396.83 418.88 332.9 354.94 377.0 399.04 421.08 335.1 357.15 379.2 401.24 423.29 337.31 359.35 381.4 403.45 425.49 339.51 361.56 383.6 405.65 427.68 341.72 363.76 385.81 407.86 429.9 343.92 365.97 388.01 410.06 432.11 346.13 368.17 390.22 412.26 434.31 348.33 370.38 392.42 414.47 436.52 350.54 372.58 394.68 416.67 438.72 200 210 220 230 240 440.93 462.97 485.02 507.06 529.1 443.13 465.18 487.22 509.2 531.31 445.33 467.38 489.43 511.47 533.5 447.54 469.59 491.63 513.6 535.72 449.74 471.79 493.84 515.88 537.9 451.95 473.99 496.04 518.0 540.13 454.15 476.2 498.25 520.29 542.3 456.36 478.4 500.45 522.4 544.54 458.56 480.61 502.65 524.7 546.7 460.77 482.81 504.86 526.9 548.9 250 260 270 280 290 551.16 573.2 595.25 617.29 639.34 553.36 575.41 597.45 619.5 641.55 555.57 577.61 599.66 621.7 643.75 557.77 579.82 601.86 623.91 645.95 559.97 582.02 604.07 626.11 648.16 562.18 584.23 606.27 628.32 650.36 564.38 586.43 608.48 630.52 652.57 566.59 588.63 610.68 632.73 654.77 568.79 590.84 612.89 634.93 656.98 571.0 593.04 615.09 637.14 659.18 300 310 320 330 340 661.39 683.43 705.48 727.53 749.57 663.59 685.64 707.68 729.73 751.78 665.8 687.84 709.89 731.93 753.98 668.0 690.05 712.09 734.14 756.19 670.21 692.25 714.3 736.34 758.39 672.41 694.46 716.5 738.55 760.6 674.62 696.66 718.71 740.75 762.8 676.82 698.87 720.91 742.96 765.0 679.02 701.07 723.12 745.16 767.21 681.23 703.28 725.32 747.37 769.41 350 360 370 380 390 771.62 793.66 815.71 837.76 859.8 773.82 795.87 817.92 839.96 862.0 776.03 798.07 820.12 842.17 864.21 778.23 800.28 822.32 844.37 866.41 780.44 802.48 824.53 846.58 868.62 782.64 804.69 826.73 848.78 870.8 784.85 806.89 828.94 850.98 873.03 787.05 809.1 831.14 853.19 875.2 789.26 811.31 833.35 855.39 877.44 791.46 813.51 835.55 857.6 879.64 400 410 420 430 440 881.85 903.9 925.94 947.99 970.03 884.05 906.1 928.15 950.19 972.24 886.26 908.31 930.35 952.4 974.44 888.46 910.51 932.56 954.6 976.65 890.67 912.71 934.76 956.81 978.85 892.87 914.92 936.97 959.01 981.06 895.08 917.12 939.17 961.22 983.26 897.28 919.33 941.37 963.42 985.47 899.49 921.53 943.58 965.63 987.67 901.69 923.74 945.78 967.83 989.88 450 460 470 480 490 1 1 1 1 992.08 014.13 036.17 058.22 080.27 994.29 1 016.33 1 038.38 1 060.42 1 082.47 996.49 1 018.54 1 040.58 1 062.63 1 084.67 998.69 1 020.74 1 042.79 1 064.83 1 086.88 1 000.9 1 022.94 1 044.99 1 067.04 1 089.08 1 003.1 1 025.15 1 047.2 1 069.24 1 091.29 1 005.31 1 027.35 1 049.4 1 071.45 1 093.49 1 007.51 1 029.56 1 051.6 1 073.65 1 095.7 1 009.72 1 031.76 1 053.81 1 075.86 1 097.9 1 011.92 1 033.97 1 056.01 1 078.06 1100.11 500 1 102.31

377 Conversions gallmp 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Iftre 0 10 20 30 40 45.46 90.92 136.38 181.84 4.55 50.0 95.47 140.93 186.38 9.09 54.55 100.01 145.47 190.93 13.64 59.1 104.56 150.02 195.48 18.18 63.64 109.1 154.56 200.02 22.73 68.19 113.65 159.1 204.57 27.28 72.74 118.2 163.66 209.11 31.82 77.28 122.74 168.21 213.66 36.37 81.83 127.29 172.75 218.21 40.91 86.38 131.83 177.3 222.75 50 60 70 80 90 227.3 272.76 318.22 363.68 409.14 231.84 277.3 322.76 368.22 413.68 236.39 281.85 327.31 372.77 418.23 240.94 286.4 331.86 377.32 422.77 245.48 290.94 336.4 381.86 427.32 250.03 295.49 340.95 386.41 431.87 254.57 300.03 345.49 390.95 436.41 259.12 304.58 350.04 395.5 440.96 263.67 309.13 354.59 400.04 445.5 268.21 313.67 359.13 404.59 450.05 100 454.6 galUS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 litre 0 10 20 30 40 37.85 75.7 113.55 151.40 3.79 41.64 79.49 117.34 155.19 7.57 45.42 83.27 121.12 158.97 11.36 49.21 87.06 124.91 162.76 15.14 52.99 90.84 128.69 166.54 18.93 56.78 9463 132.48 170.33 22.71 60.56 98.41 136.26 174.11 26.5 64.35 102.2 140.05 177.9 30.28 68.13 105.98 143.83 181.68 34.07 71.92 109.77 147.62 185.47 50 60 70 80 90 189.25 227.1 264.95 302.81 340.65 193.04 230.89 268.74 306.59 344.44 196.82 234.67 272.52 310.37 348.22 200.61 238.46 276.31 314.16 352.01 204.39 242.24 280.09 317.94 355.79 208.18 246.03 283.88 321.73 359.58 211.96 249.81 287.66 325.51 363.36 215.75 253.6 291.45 329.3 367.14 219.53 257.38 295.23 333.08 370.93 223.32 261.17 299.02 336.87 374.72 100 378.51 lb 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 26 gallons imperial to litres 28 gallons US to litres 30 pounds to kilograms 0 0 10 20 30 40 4.54 9.07 13.61 18.14 0.45 4.99 9.53 14.06 18.6 0.91 5.44 9.98 14.52 19.05 1.36 5.9 10.43 14.97 19.5 1.81 6.35 10.89 15.42 19.96 2.27 6.8 11.34 15.88 20.41 2.72 7.26 11.79 16.33 20.87 3.18 7.71 12.25 16.78 21.32 3.63 8.16 12.7 17.24 21.77 4.08 8.62 13.15 17.69 22.23 50 60 70 80 90 22.68 27.22 31.75 36.29 40.82 23.13 27.67 32.21 36.74 41.28 23.59 28.12 32.66 37.19 41.73 24.04 28.58 33.11 37.65 42.18 24.49 29.03 33.57 38.1 42.64 24.95 29.48 34.02 38.56 43.09 25.4 29.94 34.47 39.01 43.54 25.85 30.39 34.93 39.46 44.0 26.31 30.84 35.38 39.92 44.45 26.76 31.3 35.83 40.37 44.91 100 110 120 130 140 45.36 49.9 54.43 58.97 63.5 45.81 50.35 54.88 59.42 63.96 46.27 50.8 55.34 59.87 64.41 46.72 51.26 55.79 60.33 64.86 47.17 51.71 56.25 60.78 65.32 47.63 52.16 56.7 61.24 65.77 48.08 52.62 57.15 61.69 66.22 48.53 53.07 57.61 62.14 66.68 48.99 53.52 58.06 62.6 67.13 49.44 53.98 58.51 63.05 67.59 150 160 170 180 190 68.04 72.57 77.11 81.65 86.18 68.49 73.03 77.56 82.1 86.64 68.95 73.48 78.02 82.55 87.09 69.4 73.94 78.47 83.01 87.54 69.85 74.39 78.93 83.46 88.0 70.31 74.84 79.38 83.91 88.45 70.76 75.3 79.83 84.37 88.9 71.21 75.75 80.29 84.82 89.36 71.67 76.2 80.74 85.28 89.81 72.12 76.66 81.19 85.73 90.26 200 210 220 230 240 90.72 95.25 99.79 104.33 108.86 91.17 95.71 100.24 104.78 109.32 91.63 96.16 100.7 105.23 109.77 92.08 96.62 101.15 105.69 110.22 92.53 9707 101.61 106.14 110.68 92.99 97.52 102.06 106.59 111.13 93.44 97.98 102.51 107.05 111.58 93.89 98.43 102.97 107.5 112.04 94.35 98.88 103.42 107.96 112.49 94.8 99.34 103.87 108.41 112.95 250 260 270 280 290 113.4 117.93 122.47 127.01 131.54 113.85 118.39 122.92 127.46 132.0 114.31 118.84 123.38 127.91 132.45 114.76 119.3 123.83 128.37 132.9 115.21 119.75 124.28 128.82 133.36 115.67 120.2 124.74 129.27 133.81 116.12 120.66 125.19 129.73 134.26 116.57 121.11 125.65 130.18 134.72 117.03 121.56 126.1 130.64 135.17 117.48 122.02 126.55 131.09 135.62 300 310 320 330 340 136.08 140.61 145.15 149.69 154.22 136.53 141.07 145.6 150.14 154.68 136.99 141.52 146.06 150.59 155.13 137.44 141.97 146.51 151.05 155.58 137.89 142.43 146.96 151.5 156.04 138.35 142.88 147.42 151.95 156.49 138.8 143.34 147.87 152.41 156.94 139.25 143.79 148.33 152.86 157.4 139.71 144.24 148.78 153.31 157.85 140.16 144.7 149.23 153.77 158.3 350 360 370 380 390 158.76 163.29 167.83 172.37 176.9 159.21 163.75 168.28 172.82 177.36 159.67 164.2 168.74 173.27 177.81 160.12 164.65 169.1 173.73 178.26 160.57 165.11 169.64 174.18 178.72 161.03 165.56 170.1 174.63 179.17 161.48 166.02 170.55 175.09 179.62 161.93 166.47 171.0 175.54 180.08 162.39 166.92 171.46 175.99 180.53 162.84 167.38 171.91 176.45 180.98 400 410 420 430 440 181.44 185.97 190.51 195.05 199.58 181.89 186.43 190.96 195.5 200.03 182.34 186.88 191.42 195.95 200.49 182.8 187.33 191.87 196.41 200.94 183.25 187.79 192.32 196.86 201.4 183.71 188.24 192.78 197.31 201.85 184.16 188.69 193.23 197.77 202.3 184.61 189.15 193.68 198.22 202.76 185.07 189.6 194.14 198.67 203.21 185.52 190.06 194.59 199.13 203.66 450 460 470 480 490 204.12 208.65 213.19 217.72 222.26 204.57 209.11 213.64 218.18 222.71 205.02 209.56 214.1 218.63 223.17 205.48 210.01 214.55 219.09 223.62 205.93 210.47 215.0 219.54 224.08 206.39 210.92 215.46 219.99 224.53 206.84 211.37 215.91 220.45 224.98 207.29 211.83 216.36 220.9 225.44 207.75 212.28 216.82 221.35 225.89 208.2 212.74 217.27 221.81 226.34 500 226.8

378 Con versions Density (mass/volume) 31 kilo9rams per cubic metre to pounds per cubic foot Velocity 33 metres per second to miles per hour PreSSUre, stress kgf I cm2 35 kilograms force per square centimetre to 0 pounds force per 1 square inch 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 37 kilonewlons per square metre to pounds force per square inch kg/rn3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lb/ft3 0 100 200 300 400 6.24 12.49 18.73 24.97 0.62 6.87 13.11 19.35 25.6 1.25 7.49 13.73 19.98 26.22 1.87 8.12 14.36 20.61 26.84 2.5 8.74 14.98 21.23 27.47 3.12 9.36 15.61 21.85 28.09 3.75 9.99 16.23 22.47 28.72 4.37 10.61 16.86 23.1 29.34 5.0 11.24 17.48 23.72 29.97 5.62 11.86 18.11 24.35 30.59 500 600 700 800 900 31.21 37.46 43.7 49.94 56.19 31.84 38.08 44.32 50.57 56.81 32.46 38.71 44.95 51.19 57.43 33.09 39.33 45.57 51.82 58.06 33.71 39.95 46.2 52.44 58.68 34.33 40.58 46.82 53.06 59.31 34.96 41.2 47.45 53.69 59.93 35.58 41.83 48.07 54.31 60.56 36.21 42.45 48.7 54.94 61.18 36.83 43.08 49.32 55.56 61.81 1 000 62.43 mIs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 mile/hr 0 10 20 30 40 22.37 44.74 67.11 89.48 2.24 24.61 46.96 69.35 91.71 4.47 26.84 49.21 71.58 93.95 6.71 29.08 51.45 73.82 96.19 8.95 31.32 53.69 76.06 98.43 11.18 33.55 55.92 78.29 100.66 13.42 35.79 58.16 80.53 102.9 15.66 38.03 60.4 82.77 105.13 17.9 40.26 62.63 85.0 107.37 20.13 42.51 64.87 87.24 109.61 50 60 70 80 90 111.85 134.22 156.59 178.96 201.32 114.08 136.45 158.82 181.19 203.56 116.32 138.69 161.06 183.43 205.8 118.56 140.93 163.3 185.67 208.04 120.8 143.16 165.53 187.9 210.27 123.03 145.4 167.77 190.14 212.51 125.27 147.64 170.0 192.38 214.75 127.5 149.88 172.24 194.61 216.98 129.74 152.11 174.48 196.85 219.22 131.98 154.34 176.72 199.09 221.46 100 223.69 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 lbf/in2 14.22 28.45 42.67 56.9 1.42 15.65 29.87 44.09 58.32 2.84 17.07 31.29 45.51 59.73 4.27 18.49 32.71 46.94 61.16 5.6 19.91 34.13 48.36 62.58 7.11 21.34 35.56 49.78 64.0 8.53 22.76 36.98 51.2 65.43 9.96 24.18 38.4 52.63 66.85 11.38 25.6 39.83 54.05 68.27 12.8 27.02 41.25 55.47 69.69 71.12 85.34 99.56 113.79 128.01 72.54 86.76 100.99 115.21 129.43 73.96 88.18 102.41 116.63 130.86 75.38 89.61 103.83 118.05 132.28 76.81 91.03 105.25 119.48 133.7 78.23 92.45 106.68 120.9 135.12 79.65 93.87 108.1 122.32 136.54 81.07 95.3 109.52 123.74 137.97 82.5 96.72 110.94 125.17 139.39 83.92 98.14 112.36 126.59 140.81 10 142.23 kN/m2 (kPa) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lbf/in2 0 1.45 2.9 4.35 5.8 7.25 8.7 10.15 11.6 13.05 100 14.50 15.95 17.40 18.85 20.30 21.75 23.21 24.66 26.11 27.56 200 29.01 30.46 31.91 33.36 34.81 36.26 37.71 39.16 40.61 42.06 300 43.51 44.96 46.41 4V.86 49.31 50.76 52.21 53.66 55.11 56.56 400 58.01 59.46 60.91 62.36 63.81 65.26 66.71 68.17 69.62 71.07 500 72.52 73.97 75.42 76.87 78.32 79.77 81.22 82.67 84.12 85.57 600 87.02 88.47 89.92 91.37 92.82 94.27 95.72 97.17 98.62 100.07 700 101.52 102.97 104.42 105.87 107.32 108.77 110.22 111.68 113.13 114.58 800 116.03 117.48 118.93 120.38 121.83 123.28 124.73 126.18 127.63 129.08 900 130.53 131.98 133.43 134.88 136.33 137.78 139.23 140.68 142.13 143.58 1 000 145.03

379 Con versions lb/ft3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 32 oot o iogramspercu IC meLre kg/rn3 0 10 20 30 40 16.02 160.19 176.2 320.37 336.39 480.55 496.57 640.74 656.76 32.04 192.22 352.41 512.59 672.78 48.06 208.24 368.43 528.61 688.79 64.07 224.26 384.44 544.63 704.81 80.09 240.28 400.46 560.65 720.83 96.11 256.3 416.48 576.67 736.85 112.13 272.31 432.5 592.68 752.87 128.15 288.33 448.52 608.7 768.89 144.17 304.35 464.54 624.72 784.91 50 60 70 80 90 800.92 816.94 961.11 977.13 1121.29 1137.31 1 281.48 1 297.5 1 441.66 1 457.68 832.96 993.15 1153.33 1 313.51 1 473.7 848.98 1 009.16 1 169.35 1 329.53 1 489.72 865.0 1 025.18 1 185.37 1 345.55 1 505.74 881.02 1 041.2 1 201.38 1 361.57 1 521.75 897.03 1 057.22 1 217.4 1 377.59 1 537.77 913.05 1 073.24 1 233.42 1 393.61 1 553.79 929.07 1 089.26 1 249.44 1 409.62 1 569.81 945.09 1105.27 1 265.46 1 425.64 1 585.83 100 1601.85 34 miles per hour to metres per second mile/hr 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g rn/s 0 10 20 30 40 0.45 4.47 4.92 8.94 9.39 13.41 13.86 17.88 18.33 0.89 5.36 9.83 14.31 18.78 1.34 5.81 10.28 14.75 19.22 1.79 6.26 10.73 15.2 19.67 2.24 6.71 11.18 15.65 20.12 2.68 7.15 11.62 16.09 20.56 3.13 7.6 12.07 16.54 21.01 3.58 8.05 12.52 16.99 21.46 4.02 8.49 12.96 17.43 21.91 50 60 70 80 90 22.35 22.8 26.82 27.27 31.29 31.74 35.76 36.21 40.23 40.68 23.25 27.72 32.19 36.66 41.13 23.69 28.16 32.63 37.1 41.57 24.14 28.61 33.08 37.55 42.02 24.59 29.06 33.53 38.0 42.47 25.03 29.5 33.98 38.45 42.92 25.48 29.95 34.42 38.89 43.36 25.93 30.4 34.87 39.34 43.81 26.38 30.85 35.32 39.79 44.26 100 44.7 36 pounds force per square inch to kilograms force per square centimetre lbf/ j2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g kgt/cm2 0 10 20 30 40 0.07 0.7 0.77 1.41 1.48 2.11 2.18 2.81 2.88 0.14 0.84 1.55 2.25 2.95 0.21 0.91 1.62 2.32 3.02 0.28 0.98 1.69 2.39 3.09 0.35 1.05 1.76 2.46 3.16 0.42 1.12 1.83 2.53 3.23 0.49 1.2 1.9 2.6 3.3 0.56 1.27 1.97 2.67 3.37 0.63 1.34 2.04 2.74 3.45 50 60 70 80 90 3.52 3.59 4.22 4.29 4.92 4.99 5.62 5.69 6.33 6.4 3.66 4.36 5.06 5.77 6.47 3.73 4.43 5.13 5.84 6.54 3.8 4.5 5.2 5.91 6.61 3.87 4.57 5.27 5.98 6.68 3.94 4.64 5.34 6.05 6.75 4.01 4.71 5.41 6.12 6.82 4.08 4.78 5.48 6.19 6.89 4.15 4.85 5.55 6.26 6.96 100 7.03 38 pounds force per square inch to kilonewtons per square metre lbf/ in2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 kN/m2 (k Pa) 0 10 20 30 40 6.9 68.95 75.84 137.9 144.8 206.85 213.74 275.8 282.7 13.79 82.74 151.69 220.64 289.59 20.68 89.64 158.58 227.54 296.48 27.58 96.53 165.48 234.43 303.38 34.48 103.42 172.38 241.32 310.28 41.37 110.32 179.27 248.22 317.17 48.26 117.22 186.16 255.12 324.06 55.16 124.11 193.06 262.01 330.96 62.06 131.0 199.96 268.9 337.86 50 60 70 80 90 344.75 351.64 413.7 420.6 482.65 489.54 551.6 558.5 620.55 627.44 358.54 427.49 496.44 565.39 634.34 365.44 434.38 503.34 572.28 641.24 372.33 441.28 510.23 579.18 648.13 379.22 448.18 517.12 586.08 655.02 386.12 455.07 524.02 592.97 661.92 393.02 461.96 530.92 599.86 668.82 399.91 468.86 537.81 606.76 675.71 406.8 475.76 544.7 613.66 682.6 100 689.5

380 Conversions Refrigeration 39 watts to British thermal units per hour Thermal conductance 41 watts per square 0.0 metre kelvin to i .0 British thermal units 2.0 per square foot hour 3.0 degree F 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 0.141 0.158 0.317 0.335 0.493 0.511 0.669 0.687 0.845 0.863 1.021 1.039 1.198 1.215 1.374 1.391 1.550 1.567 1.726 1.744 W 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Btulhr 0 3.41 6.82 10.24 13.65 17.06 20.47 23.89 27.3 30.71 10 34.12 37.53 40.95 44.36 47.77 51.18 5459 58.01 61.42 6483 20 68.24 71.66 75.07 78.5 81.89 85.3 88.72 92.13 95.54 98.95 30 102.36 105.78 109.12 112.6 116.01 119.43 122.76 126.25 129.66 133.07 40 136.49 139.91 143.31 146.72 150.13 153.55 156.96 160.37 163.78 167.2 50 170.61 174.02 177.43 180.84 184.26 187.67 191.08 194.49 197.9 201.31 60 204.73 208.14 211.55 214.97 218.38 221.79 225.2 228.61 232.03 235.44 70 238.85 242.26 245.68 249.09 252.5 255.91 259.32 262.74 266.15 269.56 80 272.97 276.38 279.8 283.21 286.62 290.03 293.45 296.86 300.27 303.68 90 307.09 310.51 313.92 317.33 320.74 324.15 327.57 330.98 334.39 337.8 100 341.22 W/ (m2K) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Btu/(ft2hr°F) 0.018 0.035 0.053 0.074 0.088 0.106 0.123 0.176 0.194 0.211 0.229 0.247 0.264 0.282 0.299 0.352 0.370 0.387 0.405 0.423 0.440 0.458 0.476 0.528 0.546 0.564 0.581 0.599 0.616 0.634 0.652 0.704 0.722 0.740 0.757 0.775 0.793 0.810 0.828 0.881 0.898 0.916 0.933 0.951 0.969 0.986 1.004 1.057 1.074 1.092 1.110 1.127 1.145 1.162 1.180 1.233 1.250 1.268 1.286 1.303 1.321 1.34 1.356 1.409 1.427 1.444 1.462 1.479 1.497 1.515 1.532 1.585 1.603 1.620 1.638 1.656 1.673 1.691 1.708 10.0 1.761

381 Con versions 40 British thermal 2.05 2.34 2.64 units per hour 4.98 5.28 5.57 owa 7.91 8.21 8.5 10.84 11.14 11.43 13.78 14.07 14.36 16.71 17.0 17.29 19.64 19.93 20.22 22.57 22.86 23.15 25.5 25.79 26.09 28.43 28.72 29.02 42 British thermal units per square foot hour 0.397 0.454 0.511 degreeFtowattsper 0.965 1.022 1.079 square metre 1.533 1.59 1.647 kelvin 2.101 2.158 2.214 2.669 2.725 2.782 3.236 3.293 3.35 3.804 3.861 3.918 4.372 4.429 4.486 4.94 4.997 5.053 5.508 5.564 5.621 Btu/hr 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 w 0 10 20 30 40 2.93 5.86 8.79 11.72 0.29 3.22 6.16 9.09 12.02 0.59 3.52 6.45 9.38 12.31 0.88 3.81 6.74 9.67 12.6 1.17 4.1 7.03 9.97 12.9 1.47 4.4 7.33 10.26 13.19 1.76 4.69 7.62 10.55 13.48 50 60 70 80 90 14.66 17.59 20.52 23.45 26.38 14.95 17.88 20.81 23.74 26.67 15.24 18.17 21.1 24.03 26.97 15.53 18.47 21.4 24.33 27.26 15.83 18.76 21.69 24.62 27.55 16.12 19.05 21.98 24.91 27.84 16.41 19.34 22.28 25.21 28.14 100 29.31 Btu/(ft2. hF) 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 W/(m2K) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.568 1.136 1.703 2.271 0.057 0.624 1.192 1.76 2.328 0.114 0.681 1.249 1.817 2.385 0.17 0.738 1.306 1.874 2.442 0.227 0.795 1.363 1.931 2.498 0.284 0.852 1.42 1.987 2.555 0.341 0.908 1.476 2.044 2.612 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 2.839 3.407 3.975 4.542 5.11 2.896 3.464 4.031 4.599 5.167 2.953 3.52 4.088 4.656 5.224 3.009 3.577 4.145 4.713 5.281 3.066 3.634 4.202 4.77 5.337 3.123 3.691 4.258 4.826 5.394 3.18 3.747 4.315 4.883 5.451 1.0 5.678

382 Components Materials PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS In selecting building materials architect needs take into account their significant physical characteristics. This knowledge helps him assess how manufactured products specified and constructions designed perform in use. Precise values influenced by such factors as temp, moisture content, surface condition, internal structure. These usually determined by means of standard tests, which may take into account conditions of use. Handbooks issued by professional and other independent organisations give precise values for many common materials, with details on conditions under which values were determined. Manufacturers' literature may also give values. —.( 1) brings together values from many sources: devised as aid for architects at early stages of design. In most instances range of values given. Designer must judge which appropriate to his need. However, in some instances contractual or regulatory reasons may impose standardised values, or values determined by standard tests. Manufactured products may be combinations of different materials, chosen and placed to give desired performance. Innumerable combinations available, some proprietary. Not possible give their values here. For many values may be calculated using recognised procedures. For others information must be sought from manufacturers or obtained experimentally. Characteristics Table gives following characteristics: Density (kg/rn3): enables mass of material be calculated; gives indication of many other properties, eg generally light weight material when dry gives good thermal insulation and sound absorption but poor sound insulation Modulus of elasticity (kN/mm2) and Tensile and impressive strength (MN/rn2) give indications of structural performance, modulus of elasticity indicating stiffness Moisture movements expressed as percentages. Generally lightweight and fibrous and some cement-based materials show dimen sional changes when wet or dry; such need be accommodated in design; movement may be reversible or only happen on first use Coefficient of thermal expansion (per 00 x 10-6): changes in temp cause materials expand or contract; such movement again may need be accommodated: expressed by coefficient Thermal conductivity —up393(2) expressed as Wm/rn2°C,conventionally W/rn°C. For some materials values greatly influenced by moisture content Sound apsorption coefficients —vp397(2) 1 Common building materials: values for physical characteristics notes: nitiai irreversibie shrinkage 2 initial irreversible expansion 3iow emissivity/high reflectivity of bnght surtace ot these metais against heat radiation material densi, E-modulus tensile moisture thermal thermal (kg/rn) (kN/mrn2) strength movement movement conduc- (MN/rn2) (%) (per"C x tivity 106) (W/mC) masonry: natural stone. clay bricks, terracoita blocks. caiciam silicate bricks, concrete (block, slab Or cast). rierise or hght weight (aerated, ceilular, or light weight aggregate), physical characteristics depend on density, shape, georiretrical arrangement, mortar, reinforcemeni; lighter weight rnateriais: better thermainsuiation, sound absorption, absorb moisture & show dimensional change on wetting & lower iherrnal resistioity, non -combushble natural stone granite 2600 20—60 slight 8—to 2.5 limestone 2000—2200 10—80 001 3—4 t.5 marble 2500 35 slight 4—6 2—2.5 sandstone 2000—2200 3—80 007 7—12 1.3 siate 2700 10—35 slight 9—11 1.9—2.0 dense concrete gravei aggregate 1 800—2500 15—36 0.02—0 06' 12—14 06—20 limestone aggregate 1 800—2500 20—36 0.02—0 03' 7—8 08—2.0 other rock aggregate 1800—2500 15—36 0.03—0 1' 10—13 08—20 no tines 1 750 lightweight concrete clinker aggregate 1400—1600 8—10 0.03_0,06i 8—12 05—07 sintered aggregate 1100—1400 8—10 003—0 06' 8—12 035—0 7 vermicuhte 400—500 0.1—0.2' 6—8 015—0 18 aerated (auto-ciaved) 400—900 1 4—3.2 0.02—0.03' 8 0 15—0.3 bfldra caicium siiicate 1500—1 800 14—18 00—005' 8—14 05—I load-bearing clay 1 500—1 800 4—26 0 022 5—8 0 5—1 engineering 1800—2200 siight 4—6 0.7—1.3 cementsci'seds 1400—1500 20—35 002—0.06 iO—t3 0.5—0.6 asbestoscement 1400—1600 14—26 01—025 8—12 025—0.4 gypsum: as plaster or siabs, biocks & paper-cooered boards; may be reinforced with librous materiais, be named or irlcorporaie light weight aggregate, iow strength when wet, noncombustible dense plaster 1100—1200 16 18—21 04—045 foamed piaster 850—900 0 25 plasterboard 950 16 18—21 0 16 metals & glass: dense mater,ais as sheets or thin seciions; physical characteristics depend on composition, shape S geometricai arrangement, SirOitg bat may be brittle; no signilicant oiled of change in moisiure conteni cast iron 7000 80—120 70—280 negligible 10 40 miidsteei 7800 210 400 negligible 12 50 aiuminiurri&atoys 2300—2800 70—75 70—550 negiigible 24—29 160—230° copper&alioyo 8400—8900 95—130 120—400 neghgible 17—21 130—200° lead 11 350 14 negligible 30 zinc 7000 140—220 negligible 23—33 113 glass 2500 70 30—170 negiigib)e 9—11 07—1 wood: natural material with considerable variat,ooris in physical characieristics according to species & condition, particularly moista,e content balsa 100—250 005—0 06 softwood 300—600 5 5—12.5 considerable 4.Swithgrain 01—013 hard wood 550—900 7—21 considerable 30—70 across 0 14—0.17 (very heavy woods over 1 000) grain plastics: synthetic organic polymers' thermosetting remain hard on hardening, iherrnoplastic sohened on reheating, physical characteristics depend on composition, modified by fillers & piasticisers; natural & synthetic rubbers similar; combustible, giving oil smoke & ionic combustion products; high coetttcient of expansion acrylic 1 440 2 5—3.3 negligrbie 50—90 0 2 polycarbonate 1150 22—25 negligible 50—70 023 polyethylene 920 01—0.28 negligible 160—200 035 (iow density) polyethylene 960 05—1 negligible t 10—140 05 (high density) polyproplylene 915 0.9—1.6 negligible 80—110 0.24 polystyrene 1050 1,7—3.1 negligible 60—80 017 nyion 1100 negligible 100—120 03 rubber 930 0007 negligible 0 16 asphalt 2300 negligible 30—80 1.2 thermal insulating materials: light weight, tibrous orcellular in compoutiongivingood thermal insulation 650usd absorbliorn but poor sound insulation, low resistance to crushing; readily absorb moisture, with increase in density & thermal condachnity; mont combustible except mineral based, improved by cl'rernical additives mineral baud expanded perlite 0.04—0 07 expanded vermiculite 0.7—01 glass tibre 0 0.4—0 07 mineral wool 0.04—007 asbestos or substitute o 16—0.25 2 5—72 0 12—0 16 insulating board cellular glass 01 wood-wool sfab chipboard tibreboard — corkboard polystyrene bead 14—45 0035 pvc 35—50 0035—0 045 tuenwd urea-formaldehyde 8—15 9 0 03—0.04 polyurethane 30 2—7 0.03—0.07 65 100 25— 100 50—150 750—900 2 6—3 6 175 5—8 0.6—0 7 2—28 400—700 500—800 250—350 130—160 15—25 40—70 015—0.4 0 35 04 85 0.06 008—013 015—0.2 0 05—0.07 004—0.05

Components 383 Services: Distribution Distribution system for services needs careful planning ensure system economical in both builders and specialist work. System starts at point of entry of service to bldg or from boiler and plant rm to all spaces being served. Points of entry of services and plant rm location should be determined at early stage. DISTRIBUTION MEDIUM Heating distribution may be by hot water, steam, or warm air. Water may be at low pressure under boiling point or at high pressure above boiling point depending on quantity of heat to be distributed. Air inefficient means of distribution but required for ventilation or air conditioning. Example: in 100 tube transfer capacities are: low velocity air 072 kW high velocity air 2.16 kW low pressure hot water 525 kW high pressure hot water 2385 kW DISTRIBUTION LAYOUTS In multi-storey bldg distribution pattern may be: (a) primarily horizontal with secondary distribution up or down through floors; (b) primarily vertical with secondary distribution along floors. (a) more common especially for low bldg or those with dissimilar flow plans but system may occupy greater building volume by increasing floor to tloor height of all floors. (b) more suitable for high bldg with repetitive floor plans. PRIMARY HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION Whether primary distribution at ground level or root level will depend on location of boiler or plant rm At ground level may be in walkways or crawlways under ground slab provided these do not conflict with foundations. At roof level distribution may be in pitched root void or in extra deep ceiling void. Horizontal distribution above root level difficult protect from weather, complicates root drainage. PRIMARY VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION Primary vertical distribution is by vertical duct spaces through bldg. Direction of horizontal connexion at floor slab level should not be limited by adjacent stairwells, lift shafts, or flues. Trimming beams may also limit horizontal connexions. INTERCONNEXION VERTICAL & HORIZONTAL Interconnexion between vertical and horizontal duct critical: ducts should not be in same vertical plane and vertical duct should be long side onto horizontal duct to give greatest common interconnecting area. ACCESS TO DUCTS Access to ducts should be adequate for maintenance work and for renewal of pipes etc, which have shorter life than that of bldg. Access either through duct — walkways, crawlways and large vertical ducts — or through access panels in side or top of duct. FIRE PRECAUTIONS Either firestops at floor level or fr construction and access panels. SOUND TRANSMISSION Floor construction carried through at or near floor level. All pipe penetrations sealed airtight. Access panels of adequate sound reduction and sealed airtight. VENTILATION Some ducts may require ventilation to limit temp rise or because of service contained, eq natural gas. Where floor construction carried through, vent each floor top and bottom. If duct continuous, vent at ends (—. Bib 111). WALKWAYS —+(1 )(2) Retain clear working space 700 wide x 2000 high after all services installed. Large takeoffs and expansion loops may require additional width. Access from ends — boiler rm or plant rm. Intermediate access to changes of direction and lunctions by removable covers mm 450 x 600. Access openings should allow length of pipe (6000) be installed or removed. CRAWLWAYS —(3) Clear working space 700 wide x 1 000 high after all services installed. Access by covers mm 450 x 600 at intervals of 10—15 m. heat loss uptokW heating f&rsize A w B h 6 pipes 6 pipes on 1 on both side sides with hangers with rollers 35 64 153 255 423 956 1432 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 10€ 1140 1180 1235 1330 1425 1505 1430 1 580 1660 1770 1960 2150 2310 2010 2055 2130 2230 2370 2515 2665 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1 Walkways: dimensions (f & r = flow & return) -f -A2 Walkways & crawiways —.(1 )(3) heat loss heating 3 pipes on each side uptokW f&rsize 35 40 A w B h with hangers with rollers 1 430 1 070 1 000 64 50 1 580 1 095 1 000 153 65 1660 1140 1000 255 80 1 770 1 205 1 000 423 100 1960 1280 1000 956 125 2150 1360 1000 432 150 2310 1435 1020 3 Crawlways: dimensions

384 Components Services: distribution heat loss up to kW heating I & r size A w B h without crossover h with crossover 3 6 13 24 35 64 153 255 423 956 1432 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 1350 1360 1395 1430 1475 1 520 1600 1680 1780 1920 2070 230 235 240 250 255 265 285 295 320 345 375 320 345 375 410 445 520 560 615 710 805 885 heat capacity uptokW heating l&rsize A w B h 3 15 605 300 6 20 615 305 13 25 650 315 24 32 685 325 35 40 730 330 64 50 775 340 153 65 855 380 255 80 935 425 423 100 1035 475 956 125 1175 555 1432 150 1320 625 3 Space requirements for horizontal duct at ceiling level (containing heating flow & return, hot water flow & return, cold water service & cold water main) heatless up to kW pipesize A 1 pipe A B 2 pipes d C dia of hole required for connexion 1.5 10 100 150 54.5 46.5 3 15 100 150 59.0 51.0 6 20 100 150 64.5 56.5 13 25 100 150 71.5 64.0 24 32 100 150 80.0 73.5 5 Screed ducts: dimensions heat loss heating w d uptokW f&rsize A — withorwithout B B crossover without with crossover crossover 3 15 605 115 205 6 20 615 120 230 13 25 650 125 260 24 32 685 135 295 35 40 730 140 330 64 50 775 150 405 153 65 855 170 445 255 80 935 180 500 423 100 1035 205 595 956 125 1175 230 690 1432 150 1320 260 770 r Space requirements for vertical ducts (containing beating flow & return, hot water flow & return, cold water service & cold water main) TRENCH DUCTS—*(1)(2) Pipe supports should be below pipes or on sides to allow lengths of pipe be installed or removed. Allow space under pipe supports and slight fall for draining. Access through continuous covers or covers at junctions and changes of direction and break out screed cover when required. Pipes on rollers allow expansion movement. HORIZONTAL DUCTS AT CEILING LEVEL —*(3)(4) Pipe supports above pipes for pipework to be installed or removed from below. Crossovers may be above or below depending on venting of pipework. Continuous access from below through ceiling or panel. Add extra depth of ceiling support system, recessed light fittings etc. Drop rods allow expansion movement. SCREED DUCTS —*(5)(6) Chase formed by omitting floor screed. Useful for local hot and cold water connexions to sanitary fittings and local heating pipework. Floor finish carried over plywood cover nailed to battens. Access by cutting floor finish and prising up cover. Pipe size usually limited to 20—22, otherwise screed of uneconomic thickness. Oversized hole required for connexion for expansion of pipework. VERTICAL DUCTS —*(1 1 )(1 2) One row pipes to allow installation and removal from front without removing other pipework except crossovers. Access through removable panels or doors full floor height on long side. Crossovers and clearance for valves increase depth considerably. Diagonal takeoffs with 45° bend reduce depth but increase width by increasing spacing of vertical pipes. ESTIMATING VENTILATION! AIR-CONDITIONING SIZES For preliminary planning purposes ventilation! air-conditioning ducts may be calculated from: Low velocity: cross sectional ar of duct m2 = floor ar served m2 750 High velocity: cross sectional ar of duct m2 = floor ar served m2 2250 Ducts should not exceed 1:4 short to long side and best square. High velocity ducts should be circular. Allow space for insulation, flanges and supports: 100 on all sides. r 1 Trencn ducts: dimensions (I & r = flow & return) • A 2 Trench duct I LA r 4 Horizontal duct at ceiling level 6 Screed duct 9 Vertical duct with crossover heat loss upto kW heating f&r size A — w — — B d WtthOLit — crossover — — B d with crossover 75 soil pipe 100 soil pipe 150 soil pipe 75 soil pipe 100 soil pipe 150 soil pipe 75 — soil pipe 100 soil pipe 150 soil pipe pvc waste copper pvc waste waste copper waste pvc waste copper waste 3 6 13 24 35 64 153 255 423 956 1432 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 815 840 895 173 825 855 905 173 860 885 940 173 895 920 975 173 940 965 1020 173 985 1015 1065 173 1060 10901140 173 1145 1170 1225 180 1245 1270 1325 205 1385 14152875 230 1530 1555 1610 260 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 230 260 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 260 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 10 Space requirements for vertical duct including soiu pipe (containing heating flow & return, hot water flow & return, cold water service, cold water main & soil & waste pipes) I) socket external ) pipe — insulation pipe support channei ) ) —B-. 11 Vertical duct with soil pipe socket exiemai dia pipe nsuiation 5pe support A r channel 12 Verticalductwith soil pipe & crossover

size A mm 15 115 20 125 25 140 B C 115 120 25 135 straight valves, bottom connexions 130 150 160 130 140 155 1 Space for radiator vaIves—(2) 4 Order of thermal comfort & speed of response from heating emitters Components 385 Services: Methods of heating Decision on type of heating emission in individual spaces depends on requirements of thermal comfort in relation to thermal response of bldg. THERMAL COMFORT -+(4) —vpl 6 High standard of thermal comfort requires: surrounding surface temp higher than air temp air temp at head lower than at floor level: low temp gradient air movement just perceptible but variable and with no draughts hum not very important except at temp above 21°C: should not exceed 70% nor be less than 30% THERMAL RESPONSE OF BUILDING Thermal response of bldg depends on: area and orientation of glazing: large areas of glazing facing sun give quick response reflectivity of external surfaces where exposed to sun: high reflectivity reduces heat gain from sun and reduces response mass of bldg structure and position of thermal insulation: mass inside insulation gives long response time; lightweight bldg have short response time Quick response bldg will give economy in heating cost but be hotter in summer and more difficult heat comfortably. TYPES OF HEAT EMITTERS Low temperature radiant panels: heated by embedded el cables or heating water pipework. Surface preferably floor for low temp gradient but wall or ceiling surfaces can be used. Floor surface temp limited to 29°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection. Medium temp radiant panels: flat steel or cast iron plates with waterways cast in or welded to back of plate. Surface temp generally 75°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection. Radiators: generally made from sheet steel; may be 1, 2 or 3 panel or with fins on back to increase output for given face area. Surface temp 75°C. Radiant: convection emission depends on number of panels, fins etc; single panel approx 25% radiation 75% convection. If radiators in corner or recess allow space for valves and for air flow Natural convectors: may be continuous casing or individual casing of pressed steel containing finned tube heater. Heat output depends on size of finned tube and height of convector. Surface temp lower than radiator: about 35°C. Safer with young children or disabled people. Emission: 10% radiation 90% convection. Natural convector cases often made of builders work for better appearance and robustness —(3). Opening at bottom A should not be less than width of finned tube. Inside depth of casing B should only allow mm clearance (6) for finned tube. Grille at top should have at least 70% open area. Fan convectors: similar to natural convectors except that air circulation by fan. High output for small size and independent of height of casing. Heat output easily controlled by fan speed. May be positioned overhead if fan adequate to blow hot air down. Emission: 100% convection. Ducted warm air: for heating similar to fan convectors. Difference is in method of heat distribution and in space occupied in rm. Used in domestic installations but in large bldg only when mech ventilation required. Emission: 100% convection. angle vstves, side connexions, top & bottom 15 20 25 _____________________ If radiator under SI elf, clearance of twice ci from face of radiator to waft required above radiator: clearance of 1½ times d required under radiator 2 Space for radiator valves —°(1) *—c' A 3 Builders work natural convector—(1) type of heat emitter order of thermal approx order of comfort under response steady conditions floor heating 1 5 medium temp radiant panels 2 4 panel radiators 3 3 natural convectors 4 2 fan convectors or ducted warm air 5 1 For thermal comfort surface temp of surroundings better if higher than air temp; some radiant emission required, proportion depending on thermal insulation

386 Components Se,vices: Heating systems In choosing heating system 3 decisions to make: fuel to be used means of distributing heat from central source method of heat emission in individual spaces CAPACITY OF INSTALLATION Approx capacity of installation can be calculated —(1). Example: 4-storey bldg 13 x 70 x (shallow plan bldg) ventilation rate 2 air changes groundfloorl3x7Ox79 = 71890 intermediatefloors2 x 13 x 70 x 72= 131040 top floor 13 x 70 x 86 = 78260 total heat loss = 281190 = 280kW Bldg with intermittent heating need overload capacity: this depends on heat uptime. Normally 20% but may be 100% excess capacity. small bldg shallow plan bldg deep plan bldg number of air changes 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 ground floor intermediate floor topfloor 102 146 192 92 135 181 106 148 194 79 121 167 72 115 161 86 128 174 62 104 150 57 100 146 71 113 159 singlestorey 117 159 205 92 134 180 75 117 163 GAS SUPPLIES Distribution Gas distributed through high pressure national grid system to all regions. The main: provision and maintenance of main gas supply in UK responsiblity of British Gas Corporation. Service pipe: where laid in public ground, British Gas Corporation responsible for provision and maintenance of service pipe between main and inlet side of meter. Where part of service pipe laid in private land provision and maintenance usually responsibility of user. Internal installation pipes from meter to appliances responsibility of bldg owner. No service pipe may be installed in unventilated void space or duct. Protection of pipes: gas pipes must be protected against condensation, damp, freezing and corrosion. Flues and air supply for gas appliances (—÷Bibl 19). The meter Primary meters should be situated close as possible point of entry of service pipe and allow easy access without disturbing consumer. Meters should not be exposed to: possibility of physical damage continuous damp or wet excessive changes of temp possibility of contact with flame or el sparks. Gas meters must be separated from el meters by fr partition. Domestic meters require space 330 wide, 360 deep, 660 high. Gas meters in larger installations require separate rm —(2). meter w d h doorw doorh size kW 373 1980 1170 1530 1220 1450 560 2060 1220 1680 1370 1520 933 2290 1370 1830 1680 1680 1400 2590 1450 1830 1680 1830 1867 2750 1450 2220 1680 1830 2800 2900 1710 2360 1830 1830 3733 3050 1730 2520 1830 1830 ventilation required: up to 1 867 kW ventilation ar to be 4% of floor ar of meter rm divided between high & low level; over 2800kW ventilation ar to be 6% of floor ar ELECTRICITY TARIFFS 2 basic types of tariff for el heating: restricted hours tariff, with el available at night only at cheap rate; normal tariffs, with el available at any time but at 2—3 times restricted hours rate. With restricted hours tariff heat generated must be stored during night for use next day. Heat may be stored in structure of bldg, particularly concrete floors, in vessels containing water under pressure, or in wellinsulated high-density cores of thermal sto units. Storing heat in form of hot water most flexible arrangement. Direct el heating by radiant or convective emitters, often in form of individual portable appliances. Oil storage 4 main types of oil sto tanks for industrial and commercial oil fuels: mild steel welded mild steel sectional cast iron sectional reinforced concrete Most widely used: mild steel welded; usually horizontal, cylindrical or rectangular. If ground space limited vertical cylindrical tanks may be used. Capacities Mm net sf0 capacity (—Bib130) can be calculated in 2 ways (use largest): 3 weeks supply at max rate of consumption 2 weeks supply at max rate of consumption plus usual quantity ordered for 1 delivery. If max weekly offiake less than 9001, sto capacity still should not be less than 2950 Ito accept 22701 deliveries. Desirable provide more than 1 tank in many circumstances, each of capacity accept at least full delivery, each tank having separate filling pipe, unless situated next each other where common filling point can be used, with isolating valves. Different grades must be stored in separate tanks. Should if possible be installed above ground. Site should not be sublect extremes of temp and not be intrusive. Clearance should be allowed for withdrawal of fittings such as steam coils and immersion heaters. If underground installation unavoidable, should be in specially constructed brick or concrete chamber, with access to drain valve etc: dry ground and finished structure made watertight. Sump must be provided in floor at 1 end and floor must slope towards sump. Buried tanks should not be in direct contact with soil: almost impossible avoid corrosive attack. C) 0 2 -a 0 CD I-.. C') 2 Gas meter rm mm dimensions 1 Heat loss W/m2 SITING

Components 387 Services: Heating systems OIL STORAGE (cont) Supports Horizontal tanks on brick or reinforced concrete cradles. Downward slope of 1:50 from drawoff towards drain. Cradles should not be under joints or seams of tank plates; layer of bitumenised felt between cradle and tank. Height of tank supports should provide at least 400 space between drain valve and ground level to allow access for draining and painting. Vertical tanks Up to 2750 dia may be directly erected on BC foundation. Base of tank with bitumen-based seal between tank and concrete. Larger dia tanks to be assembled on site should be erected on self-draining foundation with base plated on bitumen and sand or bitumen-macadam base. Catchpit Where overfilling or leakage would be fire hazard or contaminate drains catchpit required. Made of brick or concrete with oil-tight lining and sealed to concrete base under tank supports. Capacity should be 10% greater than capacity of tank or tanks. Catchpit should have facility to remove water but no permanent drain. Manholes —vpl 3 Every sf0 tank should have manhole in accessible position, preferably at top. Circular: not less than 460 dia; oval or rectangular: not less than 460 long, 410 wide. Vertical tanks over 3650 high should have additional manhole at base for maintenance and cleaning. Storage temp oil class BS classification mm temp sto °C mm temp at outhow from sto & for handling °C lightfueloil medium fuel oil heavy fuel oil E F G 10 25 35 10 30 45 1 Oil sto temp SOLID FUEL Delivery About 7 to 8 t capacity. Delivery vehicle dimensions similar to 7 t long wheelbase tipping vehicle. Conveyor delivery vehicles can stack to 2500 above load level: ordinary delivery 1400. Factors: bulk delivery for economy sto capacity mm 11/2 x capacity of delivery vehicle good sf0 height saves space plan for mm manual handling eg gravity feed for delivery point to sto Where boiler fired from front fuel should be stored in front or gravitate to front from sto at higher level. Magazine type boilers should be fed from fuel sto above hopper at top of boiler. Calorific Value & Density 4 Cylindrical oil sto tank —.(3) BOILER ROOMS Space round eqp required for making pipe and el connexions and dismantling eqp for servicing. Good maintenance of all plant essential for proper performance, fuel economy and max life. Boilers and associated eqp heavy and noisy. Generally best position on ground slab. Boiler rm should not be next spaces that are to remain cool or quiet. Access from road to boiler house must be adequate for largest piece of eqp to be replaced. Boilers require air for combustion and boiler houses need good ventilation reduce internal temp. In large boiler houses separate flue desirable for each boiler, rising directly to highest part of bldg. For size of boiler rm, access and ventilation requirements —vp388(1)— (4). Dimensions allow all layouts. Solid fuel boilers may need larqer boiler house for fuel handling eqp. If pressurisation eqp or chillers to be included boiler rm must be larger. ioad kW I w ciear h access door ventilation Iouvres w h inlet (low level) m2 outlei (high ievei) m2 upto200 200—600 600—1800 1800—6000 6000—20000 7900 9800 16900 19100 26800 5300 7900 12200 18200 26000 3500 4300 5300 7300 9300 1500 1 700 3400 3400 4400 2000 2300 3000 4200 5800 048 1.44 4.32 144 48 0 0422 1.22 3.709 11.646 3668 5 Boilerrrndata fuel calorific value MJ/kg density kg/rn3 anthracite bituminous coal coke 35 30 28 330 800 400 2 Calorific value & density capacity I length A dia B 1140 1655 990 2275 1705 1375 2730 2010 1375 3410 2165 1375 4550 3150 1375 5455 3760 1375 6820 2900 1830 9095 3305 1985 11365 3940 1985 13640 3965 2135 15915 4880 2135 3 Oil sto: dimensions of cylindrical tanks —.(4) -A B mm 150 for steel cradles C) 0 9 -o 0 CD .3 C,) capacity length A dia B 18185 5260 2135 22730 5870 2290 27280 6175 2440 31825 5590 2745 36370 6505 2745 40915 7420 2745 45460 8030 2745 54555 9550 2745 68190 12195 2745 81230 12195 3050 90920 13720 3050

388 Components Services: heating systems CALORIFIER ROOMS Calorifier rm is heating substation where heat in water (or steam) at high pressure and temp changed to heat at low pressure and temp. Several calorifier rm may be fed from 1 boiler house in large installation. In district heating schemes with distribution at high pressure and temp, calorifier rm required at intake. Calorifier rm should not be next to spaces that are to remain cool. Access required from road through bldg to calorifier rm for largest piece of eqp to be replaced. Calorifier rm must be ventilated to reduce internal temp. Calorifier rm —(5) contain 2 hot water sto calorifiers, 2 water to water non-sto calorifiers, pumps and controls. ATMOSPHERIC GAS BOILERS Smaller gas boilers burn gas at low pressure, do not have forced draught; quieter than pressure let boilers but less efficient. Boilers up to about 35 kW capacity available with either balanced flue or conventional flue. Space must be allowed at front for withdrawal of burners and at side and back for connexions —(6)(7)p389(l )—(4). load WI I w clear h access door ventilation louvres up to 200 6900 4800 3500 w h inlet 110w level) m2 outlet (high level) m2 1100 1950 0.422 0422 200—600 10100 6500 4300 1500 1 950 1.22 1.22 600—1800 12000 7000 5300 1600 1950 3.709 3.709 5Calonfier mi data BOILER ROOMS (cont) emergency exit pumps 1 to 4 Boiler house layouts; technical data -.p387(5) rating A B c D E F 0 H weight flue h w d space space space space space lull l/D at at on left on above kg front back side right side upto 915 500 535 610 10 75 75 500 115 102 35 915 500 600 610 10 150 150 680 220 150 35— 1020 560 840 610 155 160 160 810 270 178 100 1320 845 1130 960 250 160 160 840 680 225 100— 1605 775 1525 960 510 200 510 900 980 254 300 1605 1 640 1525 1180 510 200 510 990 1750 2x 254 300— 1605 2230 1525 1180 510 200 510 990 2520 460 900 1765 2230 1885 1550 510 200 510 990 3350 2x356 6 Atmospheric gas boiler data: dimensions for top & bottom of range of each rating; I/O = internal dia front elevation side elevat ion F4HB+4 G4 —---E 7 Atmospheric gas boiler