Li-1

LJQCUMENT Reconnaissance

I 19.42/4: IInvestigation
of Water Quality,
90-4203 Vel Bottom Sediment, and Biota
Associated with Irrigation
,..:- 7--.Q Drainage inthe Klamath Basin,
- "A California and Oregon, 1988-89

__ZT7__ - U.S. Geological Survey
.- _ `Mt Water-Resources Investigations Report 90-4203

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U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

RECONNAISSANCE INVESTIGATION OF WATER QUALITY,
BOTTOM SEDIMENT, AND BIOTA ASSOCIATED WITH
IRRIGATION DRAINAGE IN THE KLAMATH BASIN,
CALIFORNIA AND OREGON, 1988-89

By Stephen K. Sorenson
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY and
S.E. Schwarzbach
U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Water-Resources Investigations Report 90-4203

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION

I')

60

c0Ni

Sacramento, California
1991

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR N3
MANUEL LUJAN, JR., Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Dallas L.Peck, Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication
is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply
endorsement by the U.S. Government.

For sale by the Books and
Open-File Reports Section,
U.S. Geological Survey
Federal Center, Box 25425
Denver, CO 80225

For additional information write to:
District Chief
U.S. Geological Survey
Federal Building, Room W-2234
2800 Cottage Way
Sacramento, CA 95825

CONTENTS

Abstract 1 8
Introduction 2

Purpose and scope 2
Acknowledgments 3
Description of study area 3
History 3
Climate 3
Geology 7

Soils 7
Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuges
Past and present environmental concerns 8
Hydrologic setting 12
Previous studies 15
Contaminants 17
Organochlorines 18
Bald eagles and their prey 18
Acrolein 19
Sample collection and analysis 19
Sampling media 19
Sampling sites 20
Sampling methods 23

Water and bottom sediment 23

Biota 24
Analytical support and methods 24
Discussion of results 25
Major chemical constituents and physical properties 25

Water 25
Trace elements 26

Arsenic 26

Mercury 31
Selenium 34
Organochlorine compounds 36
Bottom sediment 36

Fish 36
Birds 37

Organophosphates and carbamates 39
Birds 40

Summary and conclusions 41
References cited 43
Supplemental data 47

FIGURES

1. Maps showing location of study area and sampling sites 4 8

2. Graph showing annual precipitation at Klamath Falls Airport from 1966 to 1988 7
3. Photographs showing aerial views of Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuges
4. Schematic map of Klamath Basin Irrigation Project 13

Contents III

FIGURES--Continued

5. Photograph showing aerial view of Upper Klamath Lake and Link River looking north 14
6-8. Graphs showing:

6. Annual discharge at Link River below Link River Dam (site 1) and Klamath River at Keno
Bridge (site 15) from 1964 to 1988 14

7. Monthly discharge at Link River below Link River Dam (site 1) and Klamath River at Keno
Bridge (site 15) in August from 1964 to 1988 15

8. Dissolved oxygen at Link River below Link River Dam (site 1) and Klamath River at Keno
Bridge (site 15) from 1984 to 1988 16

9-11. Photographs showing:
9. Aerial view of Lake Ewauna and Klamath River looking south 22
10. Pumping station that transfers irrigation return water into Tule Lake (A) and the outlet point of
pumps into Tule Lake at site 5 (B) 23
11. Lower Klamath Lake at unit 12C 23

12. Graph showing specific conductance at reconnaissance sites 25
13. Trilinear diagram showing ionic composition of water at reconnaissance sites 27
14-16. Graphs showing:

14. Arsenic concentrations in water and pond weed at reconnaissance sites 30
15. Mercury concentrations in eggs from Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes 33
16. Organochlorine concentrations in three western grebe eggs 39

TABLES

1. Pesticides used in Klamath Basin and toxicity category and the relative amount of use 9
2. Location of all sampling sites and the types of samples collected at each site 21
3. Baseline data collected from National Stream Quality Accounting Network and water quality

at reconnaissance sites 28
4. Baseline concentrations of trace elements in soils for the Western United States and bottom sediment at

reconnaissance sites 29
5. Mercury residues in biota in Lower Klamath Lake and Tule Lake areas 33
6. Detection frequency of organochlorine compounds in mallard eggs 37
7. Organochlorine compounds not detected in mallard and western grebe eggs 38
8. Organophosphate and carbamate pesticides that were analyzed for, but not detected in mallard, western

grebe, or coot gastrointestinal tracts 40

SUPPLEMENTAL DATA

A. Water-quality properties and dissolved major constituents and trace elements 48
B. Trace elements and carbon concentrations in bottom sediment analyzed by methods other than

inductively coupled plasma method 49
C. Trace elements in bottom sediment analyzed using inductively coupled plasma method 50
D. Trace elements in biological tissue analyzed by methods other than inductively coupled plasma

method 53
E. Trace elements in biological tissue analyzed using inductively coupled plasma method 56
F. Organochlorine compounds in bottom sediment 62
G. Organochlorine compounds in biological tissue 63

IV Contents

Conversion Factors, Vertical Datum, and Water-Quality Information

Multiply By To obtain

acre 0.4047 hectare
acre-foot (acre-ft) 1,233 cubic meter
meter
foot jft) 0.3048 cubic meter per second
cubic foot per second (ft /s) 0.02832 millimeter
25.4 kilometer
inch (in.) 1.609 kilogram
mile (mi) 0.4536
pound, avoirdupois (lb)

Temperature is given in degrees Fahrenheit (0F), which can be converted to degrees Celsius (0C) by the following

equation: °C = 5/9( 0F)-32.

Vertical datum

Sea level: In this report "sea level" refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929--a geodetic datum derived
from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of the United States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of
1929.

Water-quality information

Particle sizes of bottom sediment and concentration of chemical constituents are given in metric units. To convert
metric units to inch-pound units, multiply the metric unit by the reciprocal of the appropriate conversion factor given above.

Electrical conductivity is expressed as specific conductance, in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 0C (I.tS/cm).

Trace-element and pesticide concentrations in water samples are given in micrograms per liter (gg/L). One thousand
micrograms per liter is equivalent to 1 milligram per liter (mg/L). Micrograms per liter is equivalent to "parts per billion."
Trace-element concentrations in bottom sediment are given in micrograms per gram (.tg/g). Micrograms per gram is
equivalent to "parts per million."

Pesticide concentrations in bottom sediment are given in micrograms per kilogram (jg/kg). One thousand micrograms
per kilogram is equivalent to 1 microgram per gram (glg/g). Micrograms per kilogram is equivalent to "parts per billion."

Conversion Factors, Vertical Datum, and Water-Quality Information V

RECONNAISSANCE INVESTIGATION OF WATER QUALITY,
BOTTOM SEDIMENT, AND BIOTA ASSOCIATED WITH
IRRIGATION DRAINAGE IN THE KLAMATH BASIN,
CALIFORNIA AND OREGON, 1988-89

By Stephen K. Sorenson, U.S. Geological Survey, and
S.E. Schwarzbach, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Abstract Analytical data show that water is enriched with sodium
and sulfate ions as it travels through the streams, irrigated
The Klamath Basin is a key area on the Pacific flyway fields, and canals in the basin. The probable source of
and a major resting place for migratory waterfowl as well these salts is evaporation of irrigation water that has
as a residence for a large variety of wildlife. The basin leached them from soils. Concentrations of trace elements
also is an important agricultural area with extensive areas in water generally were low throughout the basin, with the
irrigated by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation water projects. exception of arsenic, which was 62 micrograms per liter in
Contamination of wildlife areas with toxic substances one flooded pond in the Lower Klamath refuge. Arsenic
associated with irrigation water has been a problem in enrichment of water, bottom sediment, and certain bio-
some areas of the Western United States. The size and logical tissues in comparison with other sampling locations
significance of the Klamath Basin as a resource to both was associated with the Lower Klamath Lake area and may
humans and wildlife, along with past and present use of be due to naturally occurring volcanic deposits or springs
pesticides, was the reason for this reconnaissance investi- in that area. Arsenic was bioconcentrated by aquatic
gation of existing or potential contamination associated plants, and concentrations were highly correlated with
with federally operated irrigation projects. arsenic in water. Mercury concentrations also were higher
in all media sampled in the Lower Klamath Lake area than
Previous studies as well as observations made during in other areas of the basin. The one exception was 0.22
this project indicated that existing and potential environ- microgram per gram of mercury in bottom sediment at
mental concerns included eutrophication of the basin water- Link River below Link River Dam. Concentrations of
ways, past and present pesticide usage, and waterfowl selenium were near or less than reporting levels and much
diseases. The first two of these concerns are directly less than levels of toxicological significance in all samples
related to irrigated agriculture. Waterfowl diseases may be with the exception of western grebe livers. Selenium in
directly or indirectly associated with irrigation. these tissues may have accumulated from sources outside
of the Klamath Basin.
Samples of water were analyzed for major chemical
constituents and trace elements. Bottom sediment and Organochlorine compounds were detected in most sam-
various biological tissues representing several trophic levels ples and in all media sampled. Concentrations of DDE
were analyzed for trace elements and organochlorine were the highest and most widespread. DDD was unusu-
compounds. A small number of waterfowl samples were ally high in eggs of western grebes from Tule Lake.
analyzed for organophosphate pesticides. Samples were Concentrations of PCBs and the sum of DDT and its
collected at various locations around the basin that metabolites approached the lower confidence limit of the
represented areas upstream and downstream and within interim U.S. Environmental Protection Agency guidelines
irrigated areas. for nonpolar organic compounds in sediment. Concentra-
tions of organochlorine compounds in waterfowl tissues
and bottom sediment were highest in the Tule Lake area.

Abstract 1

INTRODUCTION Texas: Lower Rio Grande-Laguna Atascosa
National Wildlife Refuge area
During the last several years, concern has increased Utah:
Wyoming: Middle Green River basin area
about the quality of irrigation drainage and its Kendrick Reclamation Project area
potential harmful effects on human health, fish, and
wildlife. Concentrations of selenium greater than In 1988, reports for seven of the reconnaissance
water-quality criteria for protection of aquatic life investigations were published. Reports for the
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987) have remaining two areas were published in 1990. On the
been detected in subsurface drainage from irrigated basis of results of the first nine reconnaissance
land in the western part of the San Joaquin Valley in investigations, four detailed studies were initiated in
1988: Salton Sea area, Stillwater Wildlife Manage-
California. In 1983, incidences of mortality, birth ment area, Middle Green River basin area, and the
defects, and reproductive failures in waterfowl were Kendrick Reclamation Project area. Eleven more
discovered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at reconnaissance investigations were initiated in 1988:
the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in the western
San Joaquin Valley, where irrigation drainage was California: Sacramento Refuge complex
impounded. In addition, potentially toxic trace California-Oregon: Klamath Refuge complex
elements and pesticide residues have been detected in Colorado: Gunnison and Uncompahgre River
other areas in Western States that receive irrigation
Colorado-Kansas: Basins and Sweitzer Lake
drainage. Idaho: Pine River Project
New Mexico: Middle Arkansas River basin
Because of concerns expressed by the U.S. Con- American Falls Reservoir
gress, the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) Oregon: Middle Rio Grande Project and
started a program in late 1985 to identify the nature South Dakota:
and extent of irrigation-induced water-quality prob- Bosque del Apache National
lems that might exist in the Western States. In Octo- Wyoming: Wildlife Refuge
ber 1985, an interbureau group known as the "Task Malheur National Wildlife Refuge
Group on Irrigation Drainage" was formed within the Angostura Reclamation Unit
Department. The Task Group subsequently prepared Belle Fourche Reclamation Project
Riverton Reclamation Project
a comprehensive plan for reviewing irrigation-
drainage concerns for which the Department of the All studies are done by interbureau field teams

Interior may have responsibility. composed of a scientist from the U.S. Geological
Survey as team leader, with additional U.S. Geolog-
The DOI developed a management strategy and the ical Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S.
Task Group prepared a comprehensive plan for Bureau of Reclamation scientists representing several
reviewing concerns about irrigation drainage. Initi-
ally, the Task Group identified 19 locations in 13 different disciplines. The reconnaissance investiga-
states that warranted reconnaissance-level field inves- tions are directed toward determining whether irri-
tigations. These locations relate to three specific gation drainage: (1) has caused or has the potential
areas of DOI responsibilities: (1) irrigation or drain- to cause significant harmful effects on human health,
age facilities constructed or managed by the DOI, fish, and wildlife, or (2) may adversely affect the
(2) national wildlife refuges managed by the DOI, and suitability of water for other beneficial uses.
(3) other migratory-bird or endangered-species man-
agement areas that receive water from DOI-funded PURPOSE AND SCOPE

projects. This report describes results of a reconnaissance-
level field investigation of the quality of irrigation
Nine of the 19 locations were selected for recon- drain water and the effects of its use on federally
naissance investigations in 1986-87. The nine areas managed wildlife refuges in the Klamath Basin, Cal-
are: ifornia and Oregon. The investigation was designed
to indicate the magnitude and extent of any
Arizona-California: Lower Colorado-Gila River Valley area water-quality problems that could threaten wildlife
and human health. The investigation also was
California: Salton Sea area designed to use similar sampling strategies and
sampling media as was used in all Department of the
Tulare Lake Bed area

Montana: Sun River Reclamation Project area

Milk River Reclamation Project area

Nevada: Stillwater Wildlife Management area

2 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Blota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

-- -

Interior reconnaissance studies throughout the Western Homesteading of lands was discontinued in 1964 with
United States, thus providing a consistency that would the passage of P.L. 88-567, commonly known as the
allow comparison between studies. Information pro- Kuchel Act. This legislation was based on a 1956
vided by this investigation will be used by the DOI document prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Task Group on Irrigation Drainage to evaluate the Service called "Plan for Wildlife Use of Federal
need for more detailed study. Lands in the Upper Klamath Basin." The Kuchel Act
states that all Federal land lying within the boundaries
Samples of water, bottom sediment, and biological of Tule Lake and Lower Klamath refuges is dedicated
tissues were collected in 1988 at various locations on to wildlife conservation and that it "shall be
or near the refuges and analyzed for selected chemical administered by the Department of the Interior for the
constituents. The results of the chemical analysis major purpose of waterfowl management but with full
were compared to various standards and criteria, base- consideration to optimum agricultural use that is con-
line data, and toxicological studies. These compari- sistent therewith." This act also specified a minimum
sons are discussed in the context of the geological, surface acreage of the remaining Tule Lake and
hydrological, and biological systems in the study area. Lower Klamath Lake, thus assuring that they would
remain a part of the wildlife refuge. Although the
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Kuchel Act terminated homesteading on the land, the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation continued leasing to
The authors thank Roger Johnson, Manager of the obtain maximum lease revenues of the remaining
Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuges, and refuge public lands. At the same time, the U.S. Fish and
biologists, James Hainline and Ronald Cole for help Wildlife Service administered wildlife management of
in collecting biological samples and for providing the leased and other refuge land.
logistical support for other sampling activities. We
also thank Kirk Rogers and William Wood from the In 1976, Congress amended the National Wildlife
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Klamath Project Office Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, trans-
for their logistical support and for supplying much of ferring primary management authority of the leased
the background material on the Klamath Basin. land to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. As a result of
this act, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and U.S.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA Fish and Wildlife Service entered into a cooperative
agreement for the management of the lease land delin-
HISTORY eating the land that each agency would manage on a
daily basis. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
The Klamath Basin Irrigation Project administered continues to maintain final management authority
by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is in the Klamath over the refuge and the lease land in these refuges.
Basin (fig. 1). The Klamath Project was started under
the authority of the Reclamation Act of 1902. The CLIMATE
purpose of the project was to drain the large wetland
areas of Tule and Lower Klamath Lakes and reclaim The semiarid continental climate in the Klamath
the lake bottom lands for agricultural use. In con- Basin is characterized by hot, dry summers and mod-
junction with the authorization of the act, the States erately wet winters with moderate to low tempera-
of California and Oregon ceded the lake bottom land tures. Annual precipitation in the area averages about
to the Federal Government in 1905. The Federal 13 in. Precipitation is variable throughout the basin
Government first leased and eventually released these due to the diverse topography of the area. Seventy
newly reclaimed lands for homesteading. Construc- percent of the precipitation each year is from snow
tion of the project began in 1906 with the con- between October and March. Much of the remainder
struction of the Lost River Diversion Channel, and the of the precipitation is from thundershowers during the
first irrigation water was delivered on May 16, 1907. summer months.
Lower Klamath Lake was designated as the first
Federal Wildlife Refuge by an Executive Order signed From 1966 to 1988, mean annual precipitation at
by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1908. the Klamath Falls Airport averaged 11.9 in. (fig. 2).
With the exception of 1986, precipitation was consid-
The first public lands were opened for homestead- erably less than average for 1985-88 in the Klamath
ing in March 1917. Subsequent openings in the Tule Basin. With the exception of 1980, precipitation was
Lake unit, the last in 1948, totaled 44,000 acres. greater than average for 1979-84.

Description of Study Area 3

121 o45

EXPLANATION

SAMPLE TYPE - Number
is site number

20v Water

1 9A Water and bottom
sediment
16 A
Biological

4V Water, bottom sediment,

and biological

.r PUMPS
IRRIGATION CANALS
DRAINAGE CANALS

WILDLIFE UNITS -
Shaded units were
flooded during sampling
period

Figure 1. Location of study area and sampling sites. A, Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National

4 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

I1211°I13a0' 121 °15'
121015

F-.4
T 37 S

.-- _I

rI r*

)Yonna FREMONT NATIONAL FOREST

r- -- 38 142°15'

Daory 0

i onanz GERBER.!YSERyu 39_
Z GERBER A
HARPOLD DA
2- YtHONSEFfL II Li 4

I 0 1- 18 1 14 E
I it 0
MILLER DIVERSION 1t 14Y2E
(I. 12 ~ I LorI- AM

-1ION DAM RyiAt=s-

19

01 40

0 C,
IT

l

D A MAIN PUMP (SVID)I

E ULE L ~~~~~~~~Ma 16AONE U ft SUND

2 .. , MALONE DIVERSION DA K1LMANH 42°00'

,, ODOC CO

I C2 1ODOC .tNWTAIONAL FOREST 4fF 4

1021 TNUI-bME I

CLEARLE j
EIJ
MODOC NATIONALINLWLLF

LI AVA BEDS I 5 C1; 39 9L E

INATIONAL ONUMET IC|7I

121 °30' 121°15'

Wildlife Refuges. B. Upper Klamath Lake.

Description of Study Area 5

42030'~ (

A t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o

a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~al

6 / tt4~~~~.i~f7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A/Ai

/ Jll~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A~1ff,1fl

i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

0 2 4 6 KILOMETERS K'-~ -

CONTOUR INTERVAL 200 FEET

DATUM IS SEA LEVEL

I -t. *~~4'--'a

Figure 1. Location of study area and sampling sites-Continued
6 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Blota Associated with irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, Caifomnia, Oregon

20

18

U) 16 MEAN ANNUAL
Z" PRECI PITATION,
LJ
1966-88
14

:z

12

CD

0L 10

LUJ
0y

8

6

4

1966 67 68 6970 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 871988
YEAR

Figure 2. Annual precipitation at Klamath Falls Airport from 1966 to 1988.

GEOLOGY SOILS

Terrain in the Klamath Basin varies from rugged, Most of the Klamath Basin is underlain by volcanic
heavily timbered mountain slopes to rolling sagebrush rock, consisting mostly of basaltic lava flows. Soils
benches and broad flat valleys. The valley floors are are formed from these rocks and associated beds of
about 4,000 ft above sea level in the Klamath Falls- volcanic ash and other volcanic debris.
Tule Lake area.
There are two series of soils, upland and lake
The basin was formed by Quaternary lava flows bottom. The upland soils are in large areas of Poe,
which blocked the drainage of the Lost River into the Langell, and Yonna Valleys and the upper slopes of
Klamath River. During Pleistocene time, these lava Lower Klamath Lake and Lost River Valleys. The
flows were cut by numerous north to northwest- soils in these areas usually are fine-grained sandy and
trending faults which are seen today as the straight, silt loams, composed of lava rock and volcanic ash.
abrupt ridges rising from the ancient lake floors. The lake bottom soils are different from the upland
Pleistocene and Holocene sedimentary deposits in the soils. The top soil layer is composed primarily of
lakes fill the lowlands. The lowland sediment is organic material which developed over thousands of
derived from the upland lava flows and from organic years from the annual growth, death, and decom-
matter deposited in the ancient lake floors. position of marsh and wetland vegetation. Layers of
volcanic ash, sedimentary materials, and diatomaceous
material are layered with the organic soil.

Description of Study Area 7

TULE LAKE AND LOWER KLAMATH NATIONAL A
WILDLIFE REFUGES
B
Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge, estab- Figure 3. Aerial views of Tule Lake (A) and Lower
lished in 1908, was the first national wildlife refuge
for waterfowl (fig. 3). Both the Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuges (B). A, The
Klamath National Wildlife Refuges are well known north sump isin the foreground with the extensive
for the great diversity of bird species found on refuge marsh area inthe center of the photograph. Tule
lands and the remarkably large numbers of individual Lake south sump isin the right background of the
birds. Together these refuges combine to provide a photograph. B, Several of the wetland units in
critical link in the Pacific flyway. the Lower Klamath Lake are managed for wildlife
protection and production. The flooded unit on
At least 411 wildlife species have been observed or the left is unit 12C, which was site 8 in the
are considered present on the refuges. Combined reconnaissance study.
duck and goose maintenance in 1988 was 52 million of eutrophication, and waterfowl diseases. Pesticide
use days on Lower Klamath refuge and 37.3 million usage in the basin is heavy because of the types of
on Tule Lake refuge. Annual waterfowl production crops raised and local agricultural practices. Table 1
is near 40,000. Peak numbers of more than 1 million is a list of pesticides presently used in the basin and
ducks and geese are not uncommon in late autumn. shows their toxicity category and the relative amount
A significant proportion of the Pacific flyway's
population of migratory pintails, mallards, canvas-
backs, and other ducks as well as white-fronted geese,
cackling Canada geese, snow and Ross' geese stop
over at the Klamath Basin refuges annually.

From December through February, the Klamath
Basin hosts as many as 1,000 bald eagles, the largest
number in the lower 48 States. The number of eagles
using the refuge in winter has increased in recent
years. In addition, large numbers of other raptors use
the refuge lands to feed and rest in winter, including
red-tailed hawks, northern harriers, rough-legged
hawks, and golden eagles. Other wildlife using the
refuge lands in large numbers include pronghorned
antelope, western grebes, eared grebes, American
coots, white pelicans, great egrets, snowy egrets,
black-crowned night herons, ring-necked pheasants,
great blue herons, and double-crested cormorants.
Peregrine falcons also were recently reintroduced to
the basin.

Two species of endangered fish inhabit the
Klamath Basin. These are the shortnose sucker
(Chasmistes brevirostris) and the Lost River sucker
(Deltistes luxatus). Both species were listed as
endangered species on July 18, 1988.

PAST AND PRESENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Environmental concerns in the Klamath Basin fall
into three main categories: pesticide usage, effects

8 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

- __

Table 1. Pesticides used in Klamath Basin and toxicity category and the relative amount of use

Toxicity category:

Category Signal word required on label

1, highly toxic DANGER --POISON skull and crossbones
2, moderately toxic
3, slightly toxic WARNING
4, relatively nontoxic CAUTION
CAUTION

Pesticide: ®, copyrighted trade names.
Formulation: B, bait; G, granules; L, liquid; LG, liquified gas; and WP, wettable powder.
Amount of use: H, heavy; L, light; M, medium; and T, trace amounts.
Time of year used: These are approximate and may have slight variations year to year due to growth and climatic

conditions.

Pesticide Typie Tcaotxegicoirtyy Floartmioun- Aomf ouusnet yTeiamr eusoefd

2,4-D1 Herbicide Grain LH May-July
® Hoelon1 Herbicide LL May-June
® Banvell Herbicide 3 LH May-July
® MCP1 Herbicide 1 LT May-July
Herbicide 3 LL May-July
MCPA1 Herbicide 3 LH May-June
Herbicide 3 LM May-June
® Avengel Herbicide 1 LT May-June
3 July-August
Carbyne Insecticide 2 LH July-August
® Brominal Insecticide 1 LH August
1 LT August
Parathion Insecticide 3 LT
Methyl parathion Insecticide 3 May
June-August
® Sevin Onions June-August
Malathion June-August
2 April-May
® Roundup Herbicide 1 LH June-August
Herbicide 2 LH June-August
Sulfuric acid Herbicide 1 G,L H June-August
Insecticide 2 LH June-August
® Goal Insecticide 1 GH June-August
Parathion 2 Fungicide 3 LH
Fungicide 3 WP M May
Ethion Fungicide 3 WP M June-July
Fungicide 2 WP M June-September
® Bravo Herbicide LM June
Maneb3 Potatoes

® Manzate3 3
® Dithane3 3
1
® Fusilade 3

® Eptam Herbicide L H
® Sencor Herbicide L,WP
® Monitor2 Insecticide L H
® Pounce Insecticide L,WP
H
T

See footnotes at end of table.

Description of Study Area 9

r__

Table 1. Pesticides used in Klamath Basin and toxicity category and the relative amount of use--
Continued

Pesticide Typ~e cTaotexgicoirtyy Formu- Amount yTeiamr eusoefd
lation of use
June-August
Potatoes--Continued T May
T May
Parathion Insecticide 1 L L September-May
® Disyston Insecticide 1 G,L H June-August
Insecticide and nematicide 1 G H June-August
® Temik H April-August
Nematicide 1 L M May
® Telone Fungicide 3 WP L-M April-August
Maneb3 Fungicide 3 WP H April-August
Fungicide 3 WP M June-August
® Manzate3 Nematicide 1 G L August-September
® Dithane3 Fungicide 3 WP T June-August
Fungicide 3 WP L July-August
® Mocap Fungicide 1 L,WP H April-May
® Polyram3 Defoliant 1 L L June-August
Fungicide 1 L H
Captan Growth inhibitor 3 L October-March
T October-March
® Ridomil Insecticide 1 G,L M October-March
Fertilizer G,L T January-March
Paraquat -- M October-March
® Bravo3 T June-August
H June-August
® MH 30 M June-August
L June-September
® Dyfonate M June-September
Micronutrients2 3 L May-September
M June-September
Alfalfa T June-September
M June-September
Kerb Herbicide 3 WP L All year
Simazine Herbicide 2L M-H July-August
® Velpar Herbicide 2 LWP L October-May
Paraquat Herbicide 1L H October-May
® Sencor Herbicide 3 LWP H
Parathion Insecticide 1L October-May
Methyl parathion Insecticide 1L H May-August
® Dylox Insecticide 2L H
® Systox Insecticide 1L
® Diazinon Insecticide 2L
® Cygon Insecticide 3L
Malathion/methoxychlor Insecticide 3L
® Lorsban Insecticide 2L
Malathion Insecticide 3L
Chlorophacinone Rodenticide 3B
® Ridomil Fungicide 1 L,WP
Methyl bromide Nematicide 1 LG
Chloropicrin Nematicide 1L

Irrigation, Ditches, and Banks

Acrolein Herbicide 1 G
2,4-D Herbicide 3 L

1 May be used in combination with another herbicide.
2 May be used in combination with a fungicide.
3May be used in combination with an insecticide.

10 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Blota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

of pesticide usage. Twelve compounds listed as Because of this large algal population in the water-
heavy use are in the highly toxic category. Most of ways of the Klamath Basin, low dissolved oxygen is
the compounds are used only during the summer irri- a potential problem to all aquatic organisms. During
gation season but some pesticide usage is year round. this study, dissolved oxygen was measured during the
In the 1960's, DDT and other organochlorine insect- middle of the day when most water was supersatu-
icides were used heavily in the basin. Since DDT rated. Monitoring data collected by the U.S. Bureau
was banned, the newer pesticides that have taken its of Reclamation at Klamath River at State Highway 97
place generally degrade much more rapidly but are bridge, Klamath Straits drain, and Lost River below
acutely toxic to many organisms other than the ones Anderson Rose Dam showed that dissolved-oxygen
they were designed to kill. Because of this rapid concentrations approaching 20 percent of saturation
degradation, the presence of many of the modem were common during July, August, and September
pesticides is difficult to detect in water, bottom since 1972. These low dissolved-oxygen concentra-
sediment, or biological tissues. Despite regulation of tions were accompanied by some supersaturated
the application of pesticides in the Klamath Basin, the (greater than 150 percent) dissolved oxygen usually
potential for widespread contamination of water and measured in the late afternoon at a time of peak algal
other wildlife habitats is great. photosynthesis. Dissolved oxygen was not measured
at night, but it can be postulated that respiration of
Pesticides used in irrigated agriculture may enter the large algal community would cause significantly
refuge wetlands in a number of ways: through trans- lower dissolved-oxygen concentrations during the
port of residual pesticides in irrigation-return flows, night. The Bureau of Reclamation reported seeing
either dissolved in water or sorbed to suspended inor- fish apparently gasping for air at the water surface
ganic or organic material, through inadvertent drift in one project canal during the summer of 1989.
from aerial applications, and by the direct application Dissolved-oxygen concentrations were not measured
of aquatic herbicides to canals. Research in the at the time of this sighting, but low dissolved oxygen
1960's indicated that irrigation-return flows were the was the suspected cause (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
primary source of organochlorine pesticides in the 1989).
Tule Lake sumps (Godsil and Johnson, 1968).
Avian cholera was not reported in free-living
Eutrophication has been an environmental problem migratory birds in the United States before 1944
in the Klamath Basin for many years. Upper Klamath (Friend, 1988). Avian cholera was first observed in
Lake is a large shallow lake that is subject to massive the Klamath Basin in 1955 and is now one of four
algal blooms each summer. The primary organism of major focal points for avian cholera in waterfowl in
concern is the blue-green alga Aphanezomenon flos- the United States (Friend, 1988). Deaths due to
aquae. The large blooms cause water-quality degra- cholera are primarily in the winter and are frequently
dation including decreased light penetration, odor, and in the thousands. In 1988, deaths were estimated at
low dissolved oxygen in the lake and to the Klamath 14,000 birds with most of those occurring in January
River downstream from the lake. Eutrophication is a and February in flooded agricultural fields. Peak
natural process, but in the case of Upper Klamath counts of bald eagles coincide with cholera outbreaks
Lake, the process is believed to be accelerated by on refuge lands and the eagles forage on waterfowl
agricultural drainage. Agricultural drainage from carcasses; however, cholera epidemics have yet to
irrigation drains and canals draining directly to the affect eagles.
lake is estimated to account for 20 percent of nitrogen
loading and 26 percent of phosphorus loading to the Avian botulism is a paralytic and often fatal
lake (Miller and Tash, 1967). The input of nutrients disease that occurs as a result of ingestion of a toxin
from the Wood and Williamson Rivers is uncertain produced by the bacterium, Clostridium botulinum.
but likely to be substantial. Additional nutrient This bacterium persists in wetlands in a spore form
loading occurs in the Klamath Basin Irrigation Project that is resistant to heat and drying and can remain
area downstream from Upper Klamath Lake providing viable for years. This avian disease is common
an abundant source of nutrients to sustain algal during the summer months on both the Lower
blooms throughout the irrigation distribution system. Klamath and Tule Lake refuges and is a major cause
Water-quality conditions caused by eutrophication of waterfowl mortality. Botulism caused the deaths
have had detrimental effects on reproductive success of an estimated 37,000 waterfowl on the Tule Lake
and recruitment of native suckers in Upper Klamath and Lower Klamath Wildlife Refuges from 1984 to
Lake (Jacob Kann, Klamath Tribe, oral commun., 1987 (Klamath National Wildlife Refuge, annual
1989). narrative report, written commun., 1988). Botulism

Description of Study Area 11

outbreaks are related to die-offs of aquatic inverte- Channel and the Lost River Diversion Dam is
brates which may result from water-level fluctuations, diverted into the Lost River), there is little practical
poor water quality, or pesticides (U.S. Fish and difference between supply canals and irrigation drains
Wildlife Service, 1989a). because all water conveyances contain a mixture of
source water and irrigation return water.
Some contaminants and reduced disease resistance
are linked through immunological suppression, The water supply for the Klamath Irrigation Project
anemia, and other mechanisms. For example, crude is stored in Upper Klamath Lake (fig. 5), Clear Lake,
oil exposure increases the susceptibility to cholera in and Gerber Reservoir (figs. 1 and 4). These reser-
birds; mercury, arsenic, and selenium have been voirs and associated rivers form two drainage basins.
implicated as immunosuppressive. Contaminants also One basin consists of the Klamath River, including
may affect the survival of the disease organism itself. Upper Klamath Lake, and its tributaries--the Wood,
High magnesium concentrations in water increase the Williamson, and Sprague Rivers. The other basin
survival of Pasturellamultocida, the bacterium that consists of the Lost River, Clear Lake, and Gerber
causes avian cholera (Christopher Brand, U.S. Fish Reservoir, and the streams that drain into them. The
and Wildlife Service, Madison Health Laboratory, oral drainage area, including the Lost River and the
commun., 1989). Poor water quality in natural and Klamath River dr~inage basins above Keno, Oregon,
disturbed wetlands, as indicated by low dissolved is about 5,700 mi .
oxygen and redox potential, and high conductivity are
strongly correlated with occurrences of botulism, The project includes 18 canals with a total length
however, all the factors leading to an outbreak are not of 185 mi, and numerous laterals with a total length
known (Toni Rocke, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, of 490 mi. About 545 mi of open drains carry drain
Madison Health Laboratory, oral commun., 1989). water from project lands. The structures on the
Die-offs of invertebrate prey populations precede project have modified the natural flow of water in the
avian mortality caused by botulism (U.S. Fish and basin. The Link River Dam and Clear Lake Dam
Wildlife Service, 1989a). have increased the storage capacity of these naturally
occurring lakes. Gerber Dam stores water in Gerber
During this study, field crews noted the near Reservoir for irrigation use primarily in Langell
absence of benthic organisms at several sampling sites Valley. Three additional structures also caused
including Tule Lake. This was at a time when changes in the natural pattern of water movement on
benthic organisms were abundant at other locations. the project. These structures are the Lost River
Water-quality conditions such as high pH, low Diversion Channel, the Tule Lake Tunnel, and the
dissolved oxygen, toxic pesticide residues in sedi- Southern Pacific railroad embankment across the
ments, and periodic toxic concentration of newly Klamath Straits area.
applied pesticides are potential causes of these
conditions. The Lost River Diversion Channel runs from the
Lost River Diversion Dam at Wilson Reservoir to the
Other field observations confirmed by conversa- Klamath River just southwest of Klamath Falls. The
tions with long-time residents indicated a near total diversion dam and channel were originally built to
absence of aquatic reptiles and amphibians that were divert water from the Lost River to the Klamath River
once abundant in the study area. Conditions that when Tule Lake was being drained and reclaimed.
caused the absence or diminished numbers of benthic Water can flow in either direction in the diversion
organisms also could contribute to the lack of reptiles channel depending on the water-surface altitudes in
and amphibians. the Klamath and Lost Rivers. During the winter and
spring, when runoff is high, the flow is normally from
HYDROLOGIC SETTING the Lost River to the Klamath River. During the
irrigation season, water from the Tule Lake area is
A schematic representation of the surface drainage released to the Lost River at station 48 (fig. 4) on the
system of the Klamath Basin is shown in figure 4. In diversion channel. The water released can be either
much of the system downstream of station 48 (the Lost River water, Klamath River water, or a
point at which water from the Lost River Diversion combination of both.

12 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

Ofi LAKE OR EXPLANATION

M IRRIGATED CROP LAND

\w7 RESERVOIR -_- RIVER

pa MAJOR _--s- CANAL
DIVERSION -- DRAIN
POINT

Figure 4. Klamath Basin Irrigation Project. Lower Klamath Lake that were flooded during the
reconnaissance study sampling period are shown in
The Tule Lake Tunnel moves water from Tule figure 1.
Lake sumps into Lower Klamath Lake through pump-
ing plant D (site 6). The pumping plant and tunnel The Southern Pacific railroad embankment across
are used to regulate the water-surface altitude of Tule the north end of Lower Klamath Lake prevents the
Lake sumps. The water is then discharged into natural flow of water from Klamath River through the
Lower Klamath Lake and used to irrigate private land Klamath Straits Drain to Lower Klamath Lake. This
and to provide water for fish and wildlife uses on the embankment was necessary for the successful drain-
Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge. The age and reclamation of most of Lower Klamath Lake.
remaining part of Lower Klamath Lake is divided into The North and Ady Canals still deliver water through
leveed areas called wildlife units. Each unit can be the embankment to the agricultural lands and Lower
flooded or drained seasonally on a long-term basis as
needed for management of the refuge. The units of

Hydrologic Soeting 13

Figure 5. Aerial view of Upper Klamath Lake and Klamath Lake. Excess water is drained from the
Lower Klamath Lake area by way of the Klamath
Link River looking north. Reconnaissance site 1 is Straits drain, which discharges in to the Klamath
at the bridge in the lower right of the photograph River upstream from Keno, Oregon (fig. 1).
just above Lake Ewauna.
The 1988 water year was a drought year in the
Klamath Basin and total annual discharge from Upper
Klamath Lake was only about 60 percent of the mean
annual discharge from 1964 to 1988 (fig. 6). The
1987 water year also was a low discharge year from
Upper Klamath Lake. With the exception of 1985,
discharges in the 5 years prior to 1987 were between
13 and 65 percent greater than the 25-year mean
discharge. Discharge from Upper Klamath Lake in
August was greater than average for 1986 and 1988
and just less than average for 1987 (fig. 7). The
greater than average discharges through Link River
Dam were needed to maintain the flow of water to the
irrigation system and are made possible by the large
storage capacity of Upper Klamath Lake.

2,400

2,200

Lwi 2,000

C-) 1,800
U- 1,600
wCID 1,400

U)

1,200

1,000

F-

800

C)

CD 600
U!) 400

200

0
1964 65 66 67 6869 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 1988
YEAR

Figure 6. Annual discharge at Link River below Link River Dam (site 1)and Klamath River at Keno Bridge
(site 15) from 1964 to 1988.

14 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Blota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

100

L 90

L-
I

80LLJ

U-
C-C

I - 70

(Vn) 60

C) 50

H-

40

Li

CD 30

UC)] 20

10
196465 66 67 6869 7071 727374 757677 7879 80 818283 848586871988
YEAR

Figure 7. Monthly discharge at Link River below Link River Dam (site 1) and Klamath River at Keno Bridge
(site 15) in August from 1964 to 1988.

Comparing discharges at Link River below Link North Canal, and Ady Canal. During this period of
River Dam (site 1) and Klamath River at Keno Bridge high irrigation demand, more water is diverted out of
(site 15) is useful to show the net effect of the the Klamath River than is returned in the form of
Klamath Irrigation Project on the Klamath River. In irrigation return or flows from Lost River.
most wetter than average years, the total annual
discharge at Klamath River at Keno Bridge is greater PREVIOUS STUDIES
than at Link River below Link River Dam (fig. 6).
This is due mostly to the diversion of water from the Two water-quality-monitoring programs are cur-
Lost River through the Lost River Diversion Channel rently ongoing in the Klamath Basin. The Oregon
during the winter months. During dryer years such as Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) collects
1977, 1979, and 1987, the total discharge at Link samples three to four times a year at Link River
River exceeded the discharge from Klamath River at below Link River Dam (site 1), Klamath River at
Keno Bridge, indicating that the Irrigation Project Keno Bridge (site 15), Klamath Straits drain at
caused a net loss of water to the Klamath River pumping plant FF (site 13), and Lost River below
downstream of Link River. Data from the two Anderson Rose Dam (water not diverted into J Canal,
Klamath River stations during August (fig. 7) show site 3) (fig. 1). This sampling program started in
1959 and the locations of some slfes wele changed
that discharge from Link River is almost always at least once during the course of the monitoring.
greater than at Keno Bridge because of diversion of
water through the Lost River Diversion Channel,

Previous Studies 15



on wildlife. These mortalities were mentioned in the several days before death sitting quietly in the marsh.
popular books "Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson Terminal symptoms observed in some white pelicans
(1962) and "Pesticides and the Living Landscape" by and great egrets included loss of coordination, tremors
Robert Rudd (1964). As a result of these mortalities, and convulsions.... between 1961 and 1964 numbers
several contaminant studies were initiated in the of dead birds were again found at the refuges ... From
Klamath Basin in the late 1950's to the late 1960's. 1961 to 1964, the bird mortality occurred throughout
These studies focused primarily on organochlorine the summer in contrast to the short period of the
pesticides, water quality, and the causes of extensive mortality in 1960."
avian wildlife mortality (Pillmore, 1961; Keith, 1966,
1968; Keith and others, 1967; and Godsil and Initially in 1960 and 1961, white pelicans were the
Johnson, 1968). These studies indicated that pesti- predominant species affected, but from 1962 through
cides were transported in irrigation-return flows, were 1964, western grebes became the dominant species
accumulated by biota including fish and birds, and experiencing mortality. Birds found dead from 1960
were responsible for some mortality in fish-eating to 1964 had accumulated considerable amounts of
birds. toxaphene and DDT (Pillmore, 1961; Keith, 1966).
Mortality in most species possibly was due to toxa-
Some additional monitoring work was done on a phene, although toxaphene was used only for 3 years
regional basis that included the Klamath Basin in the (1958-60). By 1962, toxaphene residues were no
late 1970's and early 1980's (Pacific Northwest, longer detected "in the marsh habitat" (Keith, 1966).
Pacific flyway). These studies focused on the occur- The direct application of toxaphene to the refuge
rence of organochlorines in waterfowl and great blue rather than drain water was the likely source of
herons. Additional monitoring of organochlorine contamination (Pillmore, 1961). Lower Klamath Lake
residues in white pelicans and western grebes in the at unit 12C was treated directly with toxaphene
Klamath Basin also was done during this time. (3,000 lb on 1,500 acres in 1958) and this is where
Mortalities and eggshell thickness were examined as toxaphene residues in fish and bird mortality were the
well as whether or not organochlorine exposure to highest.
these species was occurring at Tule Lake and Lower
Klamath National Wildlife Refuge (Stickel and others, The reason for the persistent high mortality in
1979; Boellstorff and others, 1985). A contaminant western grebes was never resolved. In contrast to
study (Frenzel and Anthony, 1984) done from 1979 other species, all grebes examined contained relatively
to 1983 focused on organochlorines and, for the first high proportions of DDD compared with DDT, DDE,
time in this area, heavy metals in bald eagles and and DDMU. Keith (1966) postulated that grebe
their prey. The study, limited to south-central Oregon mortality at Tule Lake was related to DDD exposure
including the Upper Klamath Basin, identified high at Clear Lake, California, where DDD contamination
mercury concentrations in the aquatic system as well was high in fish and grebes from 1954 to 1962.
as in eagle tissues. DDE concentrations were identi-
fied as affecting reproductive success in the eagles. Godsil and Johnson (1968) reported on results of a
water-quality monitoring program at Tule Lake and
CONTAMINANTS Lower Klamath Lake Wildlife Refuges in 1964 estab-
lished because of the pesticide poisoning of fish-
Between May 22 and June 2, 1960, an unusual eating birds. For a 2-year period, samples of water-
mortality occurred in fish-eating birds at the Tule suspended material, submerged aquatic plants, clams,
Lake and Lower Klamath refuges (Pillmore, 1961; and fish were collected and analyzed for chlorinated
Keith, 1966). This mortality is described by Keith hydrocarbon pesticides. DDE, DDD, DDT, chlor-
(1966): "A total of 307 dead, adult birds were found dane, and endrin were regularly detected in samples
including 156 white pelicans, 84 great egrets, 34 of water and biota. Water contained a maximum of
gulls, 12 black-crowned night herons, 12 western 0.100 gg/L of endrin in 1965 and tui chubs accum-
grebes, 3 great blue herons, 5 double-crested ulated a maximum of 198 jig/kg during the same
cormorants, and 1 snowy egret. In addition to the year. The detection of endrin was directly associated
adult birds found dead, 20 of 91 juvenile great blue with contaminated irrigation-return water supplying
herons died in a nesting colony on Lower Klamath the refuge lakes. Between growing seasons, con-
refuge. A few affected birds were observed to fall centrations in water and biota returned to or near
from flocks in flight, while others were often seen for analytical reporting limits (0.007 ,ug/L in water;
4 jg/kg in biota).

Previous Studies 17

ORGANOCHLORINES the same four heron eggs from Upper Klamath.
Dieldrin also was detected in all four eggs, with a
Boellstorff and others (1985) reported on organo- mean concentration of 0.28 gg/g and a range of 0.15
chlorine concentrations in white pelicans and western to 0.78 gg/g. Great blue herons are not a particularly
grebes collected in the Klamath Basin. Concentra- sensitive species to the effects of DDT and mean
tions of DDE and PCBs in white pelican eggs did not concentrations of XDDT (sum of DDD, DDE, and
significantly change from 1969 to 1981, although DDT) at Upper Klamath National Wildlife Refuge,
concentrations of DDT, DDD, and dieldrin decreased. although high, probably were less than harmful
White pelicans and western grebes differed in their thresholds for this species. Mean eggshell thickness
PCBs/DDE ratios, 0.13 and 1.58, respectively, for the four eggs was 0.374 mm and was not statisti-
suggesting different exposure patterns. Eggshell cally different from the pre-1947 mean of 0.389 mm
thickness in white pelicans increased between 1969 for great blue herons in the Pacific Northwest.
and 1981 but remained significantly less than
pre-1947 values. Eggshell thickness in western BALD EAGLES AND THEIR PREY
grebes did not differ from pre-1947 values. DDD
combined with DDT (Boellstorff and others, 1985) Mercury was a contaminant of concern in a study
was detected in 9 of 11 eggs and ranged from less of bald eagles and their prey (Frenzel and Anthony,
than the reporting level to 1.5 ,ug/g wet weight in 1984). Mercury concentrations ranging from 0.05 to
grebe eggs. The geometric mean concentration of 0.158 pug/g wet weight were detected in more than
DDD plus DDT in grebe eggs was 0.18 gg/g. DDT 90 percent of fish species collected from Upper
was a small component of this. Klamath Lake. Mercury also was detected in all
samples of lesser scaup (8), ruddy duck (2), American
Endrin caused many of the pelican mortalities in coot (10), eared grebe (13), western grebe (13), and
the Klamath Basin from 1975 to 1981 (Stickel and California gull (5). Eisler (1987) concluded that
others, 1979). Dieldrin and endrin detected in some concentrations in excess of 1.1 gg/g wet weight
pelican eggs were not detected in eggs of grebes should be considered presumptive evidence of an
collected in 1981 (Boellstorff and others, 1985). environmental mercury problem. A mean mercury
Boellstorff and others (1985) concluded the concentration of 1.167 glg/g wet weight was measured
organochlorine profile in fish-eating birds in Klamath in blood of nestling bald eagles at Upper Klamath
Basin had changed considerably since the days of Lake (Frenzel and Anthony, 1984). Adult bald eagles
mortalities caused by endrin and toxaphene. (8) contained concentrations of mercury as high as
4.80 ,g/g in blood with a mean of 2.33 pgg/g. Frenzel
In a study of organochlorines in pintail ducks by and Anthony (1984) concluded that the aquatic
Mora and others (1987), DDE residues from Lower system was the source of mercury contamination in
Klamath National Wildlife Refuge generally were low eagles in south-central Oregon.
but were higher for breeding adults than for post-
breeding adults and juveniles. The authors concluded The concentration of organochlorines in avian prey
that depuration was occurring in pintails at Lower of bald eagles in Frenzel and Anthony's study (1984)
Klamath Refuge. DDE and DDT concentrations in was comparable to concentrations in prey of osprey
pintails were significantly lower than concentrations populations that have had reproductive failures
in pintails at Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge. elsewhere. DDT ranged from 1.3 to 5.5 gg/g in fish
Dieldrin was detected in only two birds from Lower prey of a decreasing osprey population in Connecticut
KIamath National Wildlife Refuge and concentrations and 0.05 to 0.3 ,ug/g in fish prey of a more stable
were lower than from Salton Sea pintails. population. Dietary concentrations of 2.8 and
3.0 pg/g produced eggshell thinning in kestrels
In a study of organochlorine residues in great blue (Wiemeyer and Porter, 1970; Lincer, 1975). These
herons in the northwest by Fitzner and others (1988), concentrations were exceeded in western grebes
the mean for PCBs in heron eggs was highest in four collected by Frenzel and Anthony (1984) on Upper
eggs collected in 1977 from Upper Klamath National Klamath Lake. "Grebes and gulls contained
Wildlife Refuge (3.34 gug/g wet weight). DDE ranged the widest variety and highest concentrations of
from 0.82 to 8.90 ,ug/g wet weight, with a mean of
2.06 ,gg/g. PCBs ranged from 1.70 to 7.00 gg/g in

18 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

environmental contaminants of the eagle prey species the Klamath Project produce concentrations in water
collected" (Frenzel and Anthony, 1984). Organo- of 4 or 5 mg/L (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1989)
chlorines detected included heptachlor epoxide, and typically result in fish kills.
nonachlor, chlordane, and BHC. DDE was the most
prevalent organochlorine. PCBs in carcasses of The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in a formal
western grebes were as high as 15.2 gg/g wet weight. consultation, stated that continued use of acrolein in
DDE in western grebes also was as high as 14.1 gg/g, the Klamath Project as traditionally applied, was
or 240 times the concentration in fish on Upper likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Klamath Lake. The DDT metabolites DDD and shortnose sucker and the Lost River sucker (U.S. Fish
DDMU were detected only in western grebe samples. and Wildlife Service, 1989b). Both fish species are
listed as endangered and inhabit the water-delivery
Eggshell thinning ranged from 3 to 20 percent in system of the Klamath Project. Suckers, primarily
six unhatched bald eagle eggs collected from Upper juveniles, apparently enter the irrigation conveyance
Klamath Lake (1979-81) (Frenzel and Anthony, system from Upper Klamath Lake through the A
1984). All the nests with eggshell thinning greater Canal.
than 20 percent were near Upper Klamath Lake.
The Bureau of Reclamation reported in September
On the basis of equations developed by Wiemeyer 1989 on results of a survey, salvage, and avoidance
and others (1980) relating DDE concentration in eagle program for the Lost River sucker and the shortnose
eggs to productivity, the mean DDE residue in the sucker conducted in the summer of 1989 in conjunc-
eggs from Upper Klamath Lake was associated with tion with their use of the herbicide acrolein. The
a mean annual production of 0.36 young for those Bureau of Reclamation estimated that 339 acrolein
sites where eggs were collected. Actual productivity treatments were made on 426 mi of irrigation drain-
for the 5-year period prior to collection was 0.20 age facilities. A hazing program using 0.5 mg/L of
young per year. Frenzel and Anthony (1984) con- acrolein prior to full strength applications was used to
cluded that DDE was "definitely having a direct minimize fish kills. In fish surveys conducted after
adverse effect on productivity of specific pairs of bald acrolein application, the Bureau of Reclamation found
eagles from Upper Klamath Lake and other areas only 5 fish of 137, which were confirmed as either
within the Klamath Basin, and along with other con- the short-nosed sucker or the Lost River sucker.
taminants may be indirectly increasing the impact of They concluded that the relative contribution of
other influences." DDE in California gulls collected acrolein applications to the decrease of the endan-
from Upper Klamath Lake in 1984 was 2.6 times gered sucker species could not be assessed in compar-
higher than DDE in gulls collected in 1985 from ison with the effects of water quality, irrigation
Santa Catalina Island where eagles have accumulated diversion, and system drawdown. When regularly
sufficient pesticide loads to preclude successful applied, acrolein clearly has the potential to greatly
reproduction (Frenzel and Anthony, 1984). modify the structure of aquatic communities. Down-
stream effects on refuge wetlands and the distribution
ACROLEIN and abundance of fish, amphibians, aquatic reptiles,
and insects have not been investigated.
The herbicide acrolein (2-propenyl) is used exten-
sively throughout the Klamath Basin Irrigation Project SAMPLE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
to limit aquatic vegetation growth in canals. Acrolein
is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that is an SAMPLING MEDIA
important component of tear gas. Inhalation of high
concentrations causes pulmonary edema in humans Water, sediment, and representative biota were
(Windholz and others, 1983). Acrolein is toxic to sampled from various locations in Klamath Basin that
fish at concentrations of 1 mg/L (Weed Science represented conditions upstream, within, and down-
Society of America, 1989) and remains in water for stream of irrigated areas. A complete list of
2 or 3 days after application depending on tempera- constituents analyzed in any medium at any site is
tures (Thomson, 1986). Applications of acrolein in given in the Supplemental Data section (at end of
report).

Sample Collection and Analysis 19

Water samples were analyzed for major ions and The three target bird species represent birds with
selected dissolved trace elements. Duplicate and split varying food habits and therefore, susceptibilities to
samples were collected at one site for quality- contaminants were different. The primary food of the
assurance purposes. American coot is vegetation (Kiel, 1955) with
Potamogeton sp. being one of the most common food
Bottom-sediment samples were analyzed for items in the Klamath Basin. Coots are opportunistic
selected trace elements, organochlorine pesticides, and feeders, however, and were observed eating small fish
polychlorinated biphenyls. Two size fractions were during the winter at Lower Klamath National Wildlife
analyzed separately. The first was all sediment that Refuge (Ronald Cole, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
would pass through a 0.062-mm mesh, and the second oral commun., 1989). Coots thus represent a primary
included all sediment that would pass through a avian consumer and would be expected to contain the
2.0-mm screen. The less than 2.0-mm size fraction lowest level of contaminants among avian species
includes all of the less than 0.062-mm size fraction. sampled.
Duplicate and split samples were collected at one site
and analyzed for quality-assurance purposes. Pederson and Pederson (1983) found that mallards
at Lower Klamath Lake ate large numbers of inverte-
Biological samples, including representative food brates (mostly chironomids) during the spring when
plants (pond weed), benthic and nektonic inverte- invertebrates were most abundant. Other invertebrates
brates, fish, and various waterfowl tissues were often consumed by mallards were Daphnia, snails,
analyzed for selected trace elements, organochlorine mayflies, leeches, and amphipods. Invertebrates are
pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls. The target essential sources of protein to reproducing females
organisms were selected to represent several trophic and young. Because mallards consume mostly plant
levels so that any bioaccumulation of contaminants material the remainder of the year, they represent a
could be detected. primary/secondary consumer and should be inter-
mediate in contamination between grebes and coots.
Aquatic invertebrates, an important source of
protein for waterfowl, were collected from flooded The western grebe is primarily a fish-eating bird,
wetlands and river systems and analyzed for inorganic but aquatic insects compose a small proportion of
constituents. Nektonic and benthic invertebrates were their diet. This proportion varies with the season and
collected at each site. An attempt was made to was highest in May (32 percent) and lowest in
collect chironomid larvae from every collection site. September (8 percent) in a study at Clear Lake,
Other invertebrate taxa collected included: mussels, California (Lawrence, 1950). The western grebe was
clams, Daphnia, crayfish, damselflys, water boatmen, selected to represent secondary/tertiary consumers and
and aquatic snails. generally would be expected to accumulate the high-
est concentration of contaminants among bird species.
Whole body homogenates of combined fish sam-
ples were analyzed for trace elements and organo- SAMPLING SITES
chlorines. The objective in fish collection was to
obtain a bottom, forage, and a predator species at The locations of all sampling sites are shown in
each site. Individual fish samples were combined for figure 1. Further details of site location and the types
analysis by species and location. The goal was to of samples collected at each site are in table 2. Sites
collect a minimum of five adults of each species from 17 and 19 on the Lost River and North Canal are
each sampling location. Tui chub, a forage fish, was upstream from any irrigation returns and are thus
collected at every location except the Lost River reference sites for the Lost River system. Site 17 is
above Malone Dam. Bullhead, the only bottom directly downstream from Malone Dam and receives
species analyzed for inorganics, was collected at two water from the surface of the reservoir through a
locations along the Lost River. Predatory fish regulated spillway. Site 19 is on North Canal below
collected for chemical analysis included yellow perch, Miller Creek Dam. During the summer months,
Sacramento perch, largemouth bass, rainbow trout, virtually the entire flow of Miller Creek, which is
and pumpkinseed. released from Gerber Reservoir, is diverted into North
Canal.

20 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Blota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon















Table 3. Baseline data collected from National Stream Quality Accounting Network and water quality
at reconnaissance sites

[Baseline data from Smith and others, 1987. mg/L, milligram per liter, jig/L, microgram per liter, <, actual value is less than
value shown; >, actual value is greater than value shown]

Baseline data Klamath Basin

Property or constituent Number of Mean concentration percentile
stations 25th 50th 75th
Median Range

Water-quality properties 7.3 7.8 8.1 8.6 7.8-9.8
pH (units) ......... ...... 290 8.7 9.8 10.5 6.8 0.4-14.5
Oxygen, dissolved (mg/L) .... 369

Major constituents (mg/L) 289 15.8 38.2 66.8 19 7.3-51
Calcium ................. 289 3.9 11.2 21.7 11.5 4.0-60
Magnesium ........ ......
Sodium ................. 289 6.8 18.3 68.9 24 6.1-190
Alkalinity as CaCO3 ........ 289 42 104.3 161.8 120 46-212
Sulfate .................. 289 10.5 39.9 116.9 17 4.5-480
Chloride ................ 289
6.7 14.9 53.3 4.6 0.9-31

Trace elements (gg/L) 293 <1 1 3 7 <1-62
Arsenic ................. 285 >1 <1-<1
Cadmium ................ 161 <2 <2 <2 >1 <1-<1
Chromium .........
...... 292 9 10 10 >1 <5<5
Lead ................... 199 >1 <1-<1
Mercury ................. 3 46
211 >1 <1-<1
Selenium ................ 288 .2 .2 .3
Zinc ................... 8 <3-30
<1 <1 1

12 15 21

generally is rapidly excreted by the kidneys of most Monitoring data for 1985-88 from the U.S. Bureau of
animals. Although arsenic is not accumulated to a Reclamation show a median total arsenic concen-
great extent by adult birds, high dietary concentrations tration of 19 ,.g/L at this site.
during periods of egg laying could pose a hazard to
embryos because of arsenic distribution to the egg. Bottom sedlment.--Arsenic concentrations ranged
from 0.6 to 16 jgg/g with a median of 6.3 g±g/g in
Water.--Water samples were analyzed for selected bottom sediment in the less than 0.062-mm size
trace elements in the dissolved form at 16 sites fraction (table 4). The median is slightly higher than
(table A). Arsenic concentrations were greater than the 5.5 jlg/g geometric mean for soils in the Westem
the baseline 75th percentile of 3 gg/L in all water United States. The maximum arsenic concentration
samples except the ones collected at sites 17, 19, was at Klamath Straits Drain at pumping plant FF
and 20. The concentration of arsenic (62 ,.g/L) was (site 13) (table B).
highest at Lower Klamath Lake at unit 12C (site 8).
This exceeded the Federal drinking-water standard of Aquatic plants.--Concentrations of arsenic were
50 gg/L but is much less than the 850 jig/L arsenic+5 higher in plants then in any matrix sampled. This
criterion for protection of freshwater aquatic life from finding is consistent with results of other drainwater
acute effects (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, reconnaissance studies (Knapton and others, 1988;
1986). The next highest concentration of dissolved Lambing and others, 1988). Concentrations of arsenic
arsenic was in the Klamath Straits drain (site 11), were detectable in all samples of pond weed
where duplicate samples were 22 and 20 gg/L. (Potamogeton sp.) collected at 11 locations (table D).

28 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

Table 4. Baseline concentrations of trace elements in soils for the Western United States and bottom
sediment (less than 0.062-millimeter size fraction) at reconnaissance sites

[Baseline concentrations for soil in the Western United States: Data from R.C. Severson, 1987, written commun. using data
from Shacklette and Boerngen, 1984. Values in microgram per gram dry weight; --, no data; <, actual value is less than value
shown]

Baseline concentrations for soil Bottom sediment
in the Western United States
Trace element
Geometric mean Range Median Range
Arsenic .....................
Barium ..................... 5.5 1.2-22 6.3 0.6-16
Boron ...................... 580 200-1,700 240 67-520
Cadmium ................... 23 <0.4-2.7
Chromium ................... 5.8-91 .8 All <2
Copper ..................... -- <2 21-170
Lead ....................... -- 49
Mercury .................... 41 36 19-67
Molybdenum ................. 21 8.5-200 <4-46
Nickel ..................... 17 4.9-90 5 <0.02-0.22
Selenium ................... 5.2-55 .04 <24
Uranium .................... .046 0.0085-0.25 12-93
Vanadium ................... .85 0.18-4 <2 0.1-0.7
Zinc ....................... 15 3.4-66 29 0.25-1.10
.23 0.039-1.4 53-180
2.5 1.2-5.3 .6 23-77
70 18-270 .55
55 17-180 120
53

Dry weight concentrations of arsenic in pond weed LD 0 (lethal dose for 50 percent of test organisms) in
ranged from 0.063 g~g/g at Lost River below Malone malards for sodium arsenite was 500 pg/g in the diet
Dam (site 17) to 25.1 gg/g at Lower Klamath Lake at for 32 days and 1,000 glg/g for a 6-day period
unit 12C (site 8). Arsenic concentrations for all other (National Academy of Sciences, 1977). Mallard
sites were between 2.22 and 8.65 lag/g. duckling growth rates were decreased by much lower
dietary levels of 30 pg/g (Patuxent Wildlife Research
Dry weight concentrations of arsenic in pond weed Center, 1987). Concentrations of arsenic in aquatic
were highly correlated with concentrations of arsenic plants in this study generally were much less than
in water (fig. 14). A linear regression of data from 30 lag/g. Arsenic concentrations were higher in
nine sampling sites indicated an arsenic bioconcentra- samples of filamentous algae and phytoplankton than
tion factor of 388 from water to pond weed. Arsenic in pond weed in some other reconnaissance studies
in pond weed was not significantly correlated with (Knapton and others, 1988; Lambing and others,
arsenic in sediment. Bioconcentration factors for 1988). Because of these findings, the maximum
arsenic have been shown in other studies to be high arsenic concentration of 25.1 Rg/g in pond weed
only in plants and some bivalve mollusks (U.S. measured at unit 12C may not be the highest concen-
Environmental Protection Agency, 1980). tration of arsenic present in aquatic plants in the
Klamath Basin.
Pond weed is consumed by mallards and pintail as
well as other waterfowl at Klamath Basin (Pederson Aquatic Invertebrates.--Aquatic invertebrate orga-
and Pederson, 1983). Much higher concentrations of nisms with the highest concentrations of arsenic were
arsenic in the diet than the highest concentration of clams, mussels, snails, and chironomid larvae
arsenic measured in pond weed in the Klamath Basin (table D). Invertebrate arsenic concentrations among
are required to cause mortality in waterfowl. The the 11 sampling sites ranged from 1.70 gtg/g at site 4

Discussion of Results 29

30,000

25,000

20,000

U)j0C°;: 15,000
=: r? 10,000
C3)5 <-:

5,000 -

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
ARSENIC INWATER, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

Figure 14. Arsenic concentrations in water and in pond weed at reconnaissance sites.

to 8.73 igg/g dry weight at site 14. The lowest Arsenic concentrations in invertebrates were less
concentrations of arsenic among all sampling sites than the concentrations that would be considered
ranged from 0.276 tg/g at site 17 to 1.48 gig/g dry acutely toxic to fish and waterfowl. However,
weight at site 14. because arsenic acts as a cumulative poison, chronic
exposure levels for predators also should be of
Chironomids were collected at 9 of the 11 sites, concern. Pederson and Pederson (1983) found that
but arsenic concentrations were not obtained from during egg laying, two-thirds of the diet of mallards
some locations because of insufficient sample size. was chironomid and other insect larvae. Arsenic
Other invertebrate taxa available for sampling varied whole-body concentrations greater than 0.5 tg/g are
among sites. Between sites, comparisons were considered harmful to fish and predators (Walsh and
difficult to interpret for arsenic concentrations in others, 1977). Mean arsenic concentrations in
invertebrates because of the number of different invertebrate among all sampling sites in the Klamath
invertebrate matrices involved. Because bivalve Basin were greater than 0.5 itg/g.
mollusks may have high bioaccumulation potential of
arsenic relative to aquatic insect larvae (U.S. The toxicity of arsenic to aquatic invertebrates
Environmental Protection Agency, 1980), sites where decreases with increasing pH. The valence state of
primarily bivalves were sampled may be biased arsenic also is a significant factor in toxicity.
toward higher arsenic concentrations. The sites with Arsenite, prevalent in oxygen poor environments
the highest arsenic concentrations in invertebrates generally is more toxic than arsenate. Adverse effects
were Anderson Rose Dam (site 2), Lower Klamath of arsenicals on aquatic organisms have been reported
Lake (site 8), and Klamath Straits drain (site 14). at concentrations of 1.3 to 5 jig/g wet weight in

30 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Blota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

tissues and 19 to 48 jig/L in water. The most (0.425 glg/g), followed by mallard eggs (0.150 tg/g),
sensitive aquatic species tested have been the and grebes (0.098 jig/g). The geometric mean of
narrow-mouthed toad (Gastrophryne carolenensis), arsenic concentration on a fresh egg basis in coots
which had high frequency of deformities at 40 tg/L was 2.57 jig per egg, with a range of 1.99 to 3.14 jg
and a freshwater alga (Scenedesmus obliquus) in per egg. The threshold range of malformations in
which growth was inhibited at 48 jig/L (Eisler, 1988). chicken eggs is 0.3 to 3 gg of pentavalent inorganic
arsenic per embryo or 0.03 to 0.3 jg trivalent arsenic
Measured concentrations of arsenic in invertebrates per embryo (National Resources Council of Canada,
were less than the concentrations lethal to fish and 1978). The amount of arsenic in coot eggs may be
less than dietary levels for which sublethal effects greater than concentrations detrimental to normal
have been demonstrated. Oladimeji and others (1984) embryonic development, depending on differences in
found that an 8 week dietary exposure of 30 jig/g of avian species sensitivity, arsenic speciation, and
arsenic significantly reduced growth in rainbow trout arsenic distribution in the egg.
and as little as 10 gg/g significantly decreased
hemogloblin content in the blood. MERCURY

Fish.--Dry weight concentrations of arsenic in fish Volcanic eruptions and volatilization or solubili-
ranged from less than 0.20 to 0.67 jig/g. The maxi- zation of mercury from rocks, soils, and sediment are
mum concentration in fish was 0.11 gg/g wet weight the main forms of natural mercury emission. Vol-
in a pooled tui chub sample from Klamath Straits canic rocks and soils as well as hot springs are
drain (site 12). This concentration was less than the probable sources in the Klamath Basin. Mercurials
national 85th percentile concentration (0.27 gg/g wet also were incorporated as seed dressings used in
weight) for arsenic in fish as determined by the latest fungicides, pesticides, and as caustics in the process-
National Contaminant Biomonitoring Program survey ing of paper. Mercury treated seeds were used in the
for which data is available (Schmitt and Brumbaugh, Klamath Basin in the past (Roger Johnson, U.S. Fish
1990). Residues in fish were less than levels shown and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1989). Mercury
to adversely affect aquatic species (Eisler, 1988). released in this century through human activities is
almost 10 times the calculated amount released due to
Blrds.--Arsenic was detected in all adult and natural weathering (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984);
fledgling bird livers in all species collected. The however, the relative contributions of anthropogenic
maximum concentration of arsenic in a bird liver was and natural sources in the Klamath Basin are
1.00 gg/g in a coot from Lower Klamath Lake unknown.
(site 10). Geometric mean arsenic concentrations in
livers of adult birds collected from Lower Klamath Mercury is known to biomagnify in both aquatic
Lake were greatest in coots 0.699 jig/g (4), followed and terrestrial food chains. In birds, mercury
by mallards 0.345 jig/g (4), and western grebes concentrations generally are highest in species that eat
0.144 tg/g (2). These concentrations were much less fish and other birds (Eisler, 1987). Residues are
than liver concentrations associated with arsenic highest in liver and kidney tissue in vertebrate
induced death in birds [38 and 43 i.g/g in cowbirds organisms. The environmental persistence of mercury
(Wiemeyer and others, 1980)]. Arsenic in one coot is very high. A high concentration of mercury (for
liver from Tule Lake was 0.389 jig/g, less than in example, greater than 1.0 gg/g, wet weight) usually as
four coot livers from Lower Klamath Lake (0.571 to methylmercury in any biological sample commonly is
1.00 tg/g dry weight). The concentration of arsenic associated with proximity to human use of mercury
in liver from two juvenile mallards collected at Lower (Eisler, 1987). Mercury is listed by the U.S.
Klamath was about twice that of the two juvenile Environmental Protection Agency as 1 of 65 priority
mallards collected at Tule Lake. These arsenic con- pollutants. The target of elemental and short chain
centrations in liver tissue are not toxicologically alkylmercurials is the central nervous system (Magos,
significant. Residues in liver less than 2 glg/g should 1988). Sensory nerve fibers are selectively damaged
not be considered high (Goede, 1985). and motor fibers are less involved. Mercury also is
a potent embryo toxicant. A recommended criterion
Arsenic is known to be embryo toxic. Arsenic was for protection of wildlife ranges from less than 0.05
detected in all eggs collected from coots, mallards, to 0.1 jIg/g wet weight of mercury in the diet (Heinz,
and western grebes. Geometric mean dry weight 1979; March and others, 1983).
arsenic residues were greatest in coot eggs

Discussion of Results 31

Water.--The concentrations of mercury in all of the weight in a sucker in the 1986 sample. Mercury
water samples were less than the reporting level of concentrations were 1.1 and 0.34 jig/g wet weight in
0.1 gg/L. largemouth bass and tui chub, respectively in the
1985 samples. The concentration in largemouth bass
Bottom sedlment.--Mercury concentration in bottom exceeds the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
sediment was higher (0.22 gg/g in the less than action level for human consumption of 1.0 jgfg and
0.062-mm size fraction) at Link River below Link greatly exceeds the 0.37 gg/g wet weight maximum
River Dam (site 1) than at other sites sampled by a detected in the National Contaminant Biomonitoring
factor of at least 4 (table B). This concentration Program in 1984-85 (Schmitt and Brumbaugh, 1990).
approaches the 0.25 g.g/g baseline maximum
(expected 95-percent range) for soils in the Western In this study, mercury was detected in all samples
United States (table 4). Mercury concentrations in of fish. The highest mercury concentration of whole
sediment (less than 0.062-mm size) at other sites body fish was 0.57 gLg/g dry weight (0.16 gg/g wet
ranged from less than 0.02 to 0.06 gg/g. This range weight) in a combined largemouth bass sample col-
is similar to the geometric mean of 0.046 jig/g for lected from the Lost River above the Malone Dam
soils in the Western United States. The only other (site 16). Geometric mean mercury concentration in
analyses of mercury in bottom sediment for Link or 19 fish samples collected from 10 sampling sites was
Klamath Rivers below Link River Dam were two 0.25 gg/g dry weight, about 0.07 gg/g wet weight.
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality samples This is less than the geometric mean of 0.10 gg/g wet
collected at Keno Bridge in 1986. Mercury weight and 85th percentile of 0.17 gg/g wet weight
concentrations in these samples were 0.01 and for the 1984-85 National Contaminant Biomonitoring
0.02 ,ug/g. Program (Schmitt and Brumbaugh, 1990). Mercury
concentrations in fish collected from Upper Klamath
Aquatic plants.--Mercury concentrations were Lake in 1981 were 0.083 gg/g dry weight in tui chub,
greater than the reporting level (0.025 gg/g wet 0.132 gg/g dry weight in blue chub and 0.119 Lg/g
weight) in pond weed at only four sampling dry weight in sucker (Frenzel and Anthony, 1984).
locations--Lower Klamath Lake at unit 12C (site 8) Mean mercury concentration in tui chub and trout
(0.829 pgg/g dry weight), Klamath Straits drain collected in this study in Upper Klamath Lake was
(site 14) (0.625 gg/g dry weight), Tule Lake at pump 0.29 and 0.19 gg/g dry weight, respectively,
11 (site 5) (0.448 gg/g), and Miller Creek (site 18) exceeding any of Frenzel and Anthony's samples.
(0.382 gg/g dry weight) (table D). Because the
mercury concentration was not greater than the Birds.--Mercury in livers of adult birds was highest
reporting level in water, correlations could not be in western grebes (8.35 to 11.0 gg/g dry weight),
made between concentrations of mercury for water followed by female mallards (0.906 to 1.70 gg/g dry
and aquatic plants. weight), and coots (0.500 to 1.37 pg/g dry weight).
Mercury concentrations were considerably higher in
Aquatic Invertebrates.--Mercury was detected in liver from the two juvenile mallards collected at
four of six samples of invertebrates from Tule Lake Lower Klamath Lake than in liver from the two
(site 5) (table D). Concentrations of mercury were juvenile mallards collected from Tule Lake (1.12 and
highest in Daphnia at Lower Klamath Lake at unit 2 1.66 gg/g compared with 0.324 and 0.317 gg/g).
(site 9) (3.88 gg/g dry weight). This concentration Similar differences were not detected among the three
was six times greater than the 0.608 gig/g in the adult mallards collected (one from Tule Lake and two
sample of clams collected at Lost River below from Lower Klamath Lake).
Malone Dam (site 17), which was the second highest
sample collected. Mercury concentrations in these In experiments by Heinz (1979, 1980), mallards fed
invertebrates were greater than the range 0.25 to a diet equivalent to 0.1 1g/g wet weight of
0.5 gg/g dry weight of dietary concentrations methylmercury laid fewer eggs and produced fewer
associated with adverse impacts on avian reproduction young than control birds. Mercury concentration in
(Heinz, 1979; March and others, 1983). livers of experimental females ranged from 0.89 to
1.62 gg/g wet weight. Mercury concentration in male
Flsh.--The Oregon Department of Environmental mallards from laboratory feedings ranged from 2.75
Quality collected samples of fish and mussel tissue to 6.44 gg/g wet weight. Therefore, eggs seem to be
from Klamath River at Keno Bridge in 1985 and a significant route of mercury excretion in females
1986. Mercury concentrations were 0.22 jig/g wet (Heinz, 1980).

32 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

The geometric mean for mercury concentrations in Mercury residues in the six mallard eggs from
Lower Klamath Lake ranged from 0.067 to 0.820
mallard eggs was different between Lower Klamath gg/g wet weight with a median of 0.400 pg/g. The
and Tule Lakes (fig. 15). When evaluated by a maximum mercury concentration found in mallard
Mann-Whitney statistical test, mercury was signifi- eggs from Lower Klamath approaches the 0.85 pg/g
cantly different (p=0.01) in mallard eggs at Tule Lake wet weight of mercury identified as being responsible
(n=5, 0.10 pg/g dry weight) from those at Lower for reduced reproductive success (Heinz, 1979). Eggs
Klamath Lake (n=6, 1.28 pg/g dry weight). These of fish-eating birds (western grebes) were not col-
calculations assume that mercury concentrations in lected at Lower Klamath Lake because of widespread
samples TL-M-04B and TL-M-05B are at one-half the reproductive failure in western grebes during the 1988
reporting level. On the basis of mercury in water season. These birds would be expected to have
boatmen, pond weed, and fish, the differences higher mercury concentrations than mallards because
between mallard fledglings and eggs from Lower western grebes feed mostly on fish, which tend to
Klamath and Tule Lakes probably reflect differences accumulate mercury, and mallards feed mostly on
in local mercury contamination of mallard diet. seeds and other plant parts, which usually have lesser
concentrations of mercury than fish.
2.5
A comparison between biological tissues from
c.n 2.0 - Lower Klamath Lake and Tule Lake areas can be
made within the same species for mercury concen-
cr_ 1.5 tration. With the exception of adult mallard liver,
mercury residues were always greater in the samples
- 1.0 collected from Lower Klamath Lake (table 5).
Comparisons included aquatic plants, aquatic inverte-
0.5E brates, fish, livers of mallard fledglings, mallard eggs,
and liver of adult western grebes. This suggests that
el the Lower Klamath Lake area is more likely to be a
source of mercury contamination than the Tule Lake
bJ MALLARD, MALLARD, WESTERN COOT, area.

LOWER TULE GREBE, LOWER

KLAMATH LAKE LAKE TULE LAKE KLAMATH LAKE Table 5. Mercury residues in biota in Lower
(3) (6) Klamath Lake and Tule Lake areas
(6) (5)
[lpg/g, microgram per gram; <, actual value is less than
EXPLANATION value shown]

o FAR OUT VALUE Mercury residues in biota
(jig/g dry weight)
| ~ VERTICAL LINE
Lower Klamath Tule Lake
75th PERCENTILE Lake

MEDIAN SEMIQUARTILE Sample type

25th PERCENTILE RANGE

VERTICAL LINE
o FAR OUT VALUE

Far out values are more than 3.0 times the semiuartile range from the Pond weed . <0.343-0.829 <0.338-0.448
top or bottom of the rectangle 0.178-0.264
Water boatmen 0.302 0.17-0.29
10.177
Vertical lines extend a distance equal to 1.5 times the semiquartile Tui chub ........... 0.38
range away from the top or bottom of the rectangle or to the limit of 0.317-0.324
the data, whichever is least Mallard eggs 10.934 0.989
8.35
Mallard fledgling

liver ............ 1.12-1.66

(6) Number of observations Mallard adult liver 0.906-1.7

Western grebe liver . . . 9.58-11.0

Figure 15. Mercury concentrations in eggs from lGeometric mean (number of samples is 6 at Lower
Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes. Klamath Lake and 5 at Tule Lake).

Discussion of Results 33

SELENIUM Under uncontaminated ambient conditions, most
plants contain selenium at concentrations less than
Selenium in the Earth's crust occurs most com- 1 .tg/g dry weight, freshwater fish average about
monly in association with sulfur-containing minerals. 2 gtg/g dry weight, and freshwater invertebrates
The primary source of envir6nmental selenium is the generally contain less than 4 gg/g dry weight (Eisler,
weathering of natural rock, particularly sedimentary 1985; Ohlendorf and Skorupa 1989). Field and
formations of marine origin. Inoranic selenium can laboratory data suggest that selenium at concentrations
occur in several oxidation states Se (elemental selen- greater than 2 to 5 gg/L in water can be biocon-
ium); S +6 (selenate, 2S5e0 4 ); (selenite, SeO2); centrated in food chains and cause toxicity and
and Se- (selenide, H Se and organic forms) (Presser reproductive failure in fish (Lemly and Smith, 1987).
and Ohlendorf, 1987). Selenium is chemically similar
to sulfur and may replace sulfur in environmental and Water.--Selenium concentrations were less than the
biological compounds. Organic forms of selenium reporting level of 1.0 gg/L in all water samples.
include methylated selenium, which is volatile, the
selenium-substituted sulfur containing amino acids Bottom seadment.--Selenium concentrations in the
selenomethionine and selenocystine, and the less than 0.062-mm size fraction ranged from 0.1 to
conjugated form of selenocysteine, selenocystine. 0.7 .g/g with a median of 0.6 pgg/g. This median is
Methylation is an important detoxicating mechanism higher than the geometric mean of 0.23 tg/g for
of selenium, although the amino acid organic forms selenium in soils from the Western United States
are incorporated into proteins and are the common (table 4), but the range is within the 95 percent range
form of selenium in biota. Elemental selenium is of this baseline.
insoluble in water. Selenite oxyanions are likely
bound to sediment and can be readily mobilized to The highest concentration of selenium in bottom
the selenate form in oxygenated alkaline environments sediment was 0.7 jgg/g at Tule Lake (site 4). Sele-
(Lemly and Smith, 1987). Selenium in the selenate nium concentration in bottom sediment in the Lower
form is soluble and easily transported by water Klamath Lake area was 0.6 gg/g (site 8). These
(Presser and Ohlendorf, 1987). selenium concentrations do not constitute a threat to
the local biota.
Selenium is an essential micronutrient and a highly
toxic trace element. Excessive selenium is associated Aquatic plants.--Selenium concentrations in all
with deleterious effects on growth, disease resistance, pond weed samples (table D) were less than the
reproduction, and embryo development in many reporting level.
species (Eisler, 1985). At Kesterson National
Wildlife Refuge in California, selenium accumulated Aquatic Invertebrates.--Concentration of selenium
in evaporation ponds that received subsurface in invertebrates was highest in clams (1.7 gg/g dry
drainage from irrigated seleniferous soils. High weight) collected from the Klamath Straits drain
selenium concentrations have been documented to be (site 14) (table D). The geometric mean selenium
responsible for severely impaired reproduction in concentration was 1.5 .tg/g dry weight from three
various aquatic birds at Kesterson National Wildlife samples of clams and mussels at this site. The
Refuge. Embryo mortality and developmental abnor- maximum concentration of selenium in invertebrates
malities occurred in most species (Ohlendorf and in Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge was 0.94 gg/g
others, 1986). Selenium has bioaccumulated to toxic in water boatmen collected at site 4. Selenium was
levels in wildlife and fish in many other areas of the not detected in aquatic invertebrates collected from
West that receive water supplies dominated by agri- Upper Klamath Lake or Link River. Selenium con-
cultural return flows (Ohlendorf and Skorupa, 1989). centrations in bivalves generally were higher than in
other invertebrate taxa.
Selenium toxicity relates to the form or species of
selenium (Presser and Ohlendorf, 1987; Maier and Selenium concentrations were less than the
others, 1988). Organic selenium provided to ducks in reporting levels in all samples of chironomid larvae.
the diet as selenomethionine is more readily absorbed Selenium concentrations in invertebrates collected in
and more readily deposited in the albumin of their this study are quite low when compared with inver-
eggs than are other forms of selenium (Hoffman and tebrate selenium concentrations in areas where sele-
Heinz, 1987; Heinz and others, 1989). Only total nosis occurred in aquatic birds and where selenium
selenium was quantified in this reconnaissance study. induced abnormal development of avian embryos.

34 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon









8

7

0 c, 6

:Z <

5

:zoNen 4
3
C~)
Iz n

CD

3L-ziCLnr

= BE

2
3:

1

o I V /V[/ harff I / P.,NA imM V $ \N mm I/ / \A1 I I

EGG 1 EGG 2 EGG 3 1981 EGGS

Figure 16. Organochlorine concentrations in three western grebe eggs. Eggs were from one nest at Tule
Lake and from an earlier study in 1981 by Boellstorff and others (1985).

collected in this study, the PCBs/DDE ratios (0.15, findings in other studies (Keith and Gruchy, 1972;
0.13, 0.63) were more similar to those in white peli- Frenzel and Anthony, 1984; Mora and others, 1987)
can eggs in 1981. This apparently is due to an that DDE is still the most persistent and widely
increase of DDE as well as a decrease of PCBs con- distributed pesticide residue in birds and occurs in
centrations in grebe eggs from the concentrations in wildlife at higher background concentrations than
1981. other chemicals.

Only p,p' DDE was detected in coot eggs. This ORGANOPHOSPHATES AND CARBAMATES
may have been an artifact of collection because coot
eggs were collected only at Lower Klamath Lake. Organophosphate and carbamate compounds essen-
Results from mallard eggs indicate that birds collected tially have replaced organochlorine pesticides as the
at Tule Lake may have higher organochlorine concen- dominant class of agricultural chemicals and are used
trations. The difference between organochlorine con- as insecticides, herbicides, nematicides, acaricides,
centrations in western grebe and coot eggs indicate fungicides, rodenticides, and bird repellents
the significance of trophic level on organochlorine throughout the world (Smith, 1987).
contamination in avian eggs.
Although organophosphate and carbamate com-
Organochlorine concentrations in mallard eggs pounds are not as persistent as organochlorines and
collected in this study reflect background concentra- are less likely to bioaccumulate in food chains, they
tions associated with historical use. Organochlorine generally are more acutely toxic both to applicators
results in mallard eggs were consistent with the

Discussion of Results 39

and to fish and wildlife. Acute effects of organophos- BIRDS
phates on birds and mammals include salivation, rapid
panting associated with shortness of breath, various Eighteen mallard digestive tracts were examined
forms of heart block, rapid heart beat, convulsions, for organophosphate and carbamate residues (table 8).
and death (McFarland and Lacy, 1968). Effects of Ducks were flushed from the marsh, shot, and diges-
chronic sublethal exposures include reduced appetites, tive tracts were removed for residue analyses of the
reproductive problems, susceptibility to environmental crop contents. None of the organophosphates or
stress, reductions in visual acuity, vigilance and carbamates in table 8 were detected. Conclusions that
food-seeking behavior, and an induced inability to can be drawn from such negative data are limited,
regulate core body temperatures resulting in particularly with regard to acutely toxic compounds
hypothermia (Smith, 1987). with comparatively short residence times of a few
days to a few months. Ducks exposed to organophos-
The lack of environmental persistence of organo- phates high enough to produce the usual symptoms of
phosphate pesticides has made it more difficult to organophosphate poisoning would not readily be
track their presence or impact through traditional flushed from the marsh.
means of residue chemistry. The only way to obtain
organophosphate or carbamate residues in wildlife Waterfowl kills due to pesticides that depress
suspected of contamination is to sacrifice an animal cholinesterase have occurred in the Klamath Basin.
and analyze digestive tract contents or, where it is Some, including a 1986 kill attributed to the car-
suspected that a bird has been sprayed directly, obtain bamate pesticide temik, have been confirmed by the
feather residues with solvent washes. These techni- National Wildlife Health Research Center in Madison,
ques have limited applicability. As a result, other Wisconsin using the techniques described above.
forensic and monitoring methods were developed to These die-offs are not comprehensively documented.
detect organophosphate and carbamate induced The extent of waterborne contamination from organo-
toxicity in wildlife. phosphate and carbamate insecticides is unknown.

Organophosphate and carbamate compounds exert Table 8. Organophosphate and carbamate
their toxic effect through depression ofcholinesterase, pesticides that were analyzed for, but not
an enzyme important in the normal function of the detected in mallard, western grebe, or coot
nervous system. Spectroflurometric measurement of gastrointestinal tracts
cholinesterase activity in the brain of birds suspected
to have died of organophosphate poisoning and Organophosphates
comparison of control values for a given species
commonly are used as forensic techniques to diagnose Acephate Famphur
organophosphate or carbamate poisoning. Biochemical Azinphos-methyl Fensulfothion
reactivation of the depressed enzyme using oximes Chlopyrifos-dursban Fenthion
also is used to confirm organophosphate or carbamate Malathion
depression. Carbamates typically reactivate more Coumaphos Methamidophos
spontaneously than do organophosphates. Cholines- Demeton Methyl parathion
terase activity and reactivation in blood also has been Diazinon Mevinphos
used to monitor exposure of red-tailed hawks in Dichlorvos Monocrotophos
orchards (Hooper and others, 1989). In this way, Dicrotophos Parathion
measurements can be made without sacrifice of the Phorate
animal. Methods also have been developed for moni- Dimethoate Terbofos
toring the presence of alkyl-phosphate metabolites in Disulfoton Trichlorfon
urine (Weisskopf and Seiber, 1987). This technique Epn
allows organophosphate exposure to be classified into Methiocarb
one of six varieties based on the alkyl-phosphate Ethoprop Oxamyl
groups. This technique has been applied to assess
exposure in farm laborers and hawks (Weisskopf and Carbamates
Seiber, 1987; Hooper, 1988).
Aldicarb
Carbaryl
Carbofuran

40 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Blota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

The suspected link between organophosphate and Most trace-element concentrations were near or less
carbamate pesticide use in the Klamath Basin (table than reporting levels in all media sampled with the
1), its distribution within the irrigation system, and its exception of arsenic and mercury. Arsenic concen-
effect on wildlife is largely unknown and could not tration in one water sample at Lower Klamath Lake
be adequately measured in this reconnaissance level was 62 gg/L, which is greater than the drinking-
study. water standard of 50 gg/L. Arsenic was detected in
bird livers in concentrations less than acute toxicity
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS levels and in coot eggs in concentrations approaching
levels that may be detrimental to normal embryonic
A reconnaissance investigation of irrigation development. Arsenic also was detected in pond
drainage related problems in the Klamath Basin in weed (a primary waterfowl food) in direct proportion
California and Oregon was done in 1988-89. Concen- to the concentrations in water. Maximum arsenic
trations of many trace elements and organochlorine concentration in pond weed was 25.1 pgg/g dry weight
pesticides were determined in bottom sediment and in one sample from Lower Klamath Lake. Studies at
biological tissue samples. Concentrations of trace Patuxent Wildlife Research Center showed that
elements and major dissolved inorganic constituents dietary concentrations of 30 gg/g dry weight inhibited
in water samples were determined, and analyses for mallard duckling growth. Concentrations of arsenic
selected organophosphate pesticides were done on in other media sampled (bottom sediment, aquatic
several mallard ducks. The values obtained were invertebrates, and fish) were low and are not an
compared with regulatory standards and criteria and environmental concern.
with baseline concentrations reported from other
areas. An extensive review of previous studies in the All mercury concentrations in water were less than
Klamath Basin, along with field observations made reporting levels and were very near reporting levels in
during the course of the study, were used to interpret all bottom sediment collected except for the sample
the results of the chemical analyses. from Link River below Link River Dam, which had
a concentration of 0.22 pug/g. Concentrations of
The study was done during a year with lower than mercury were greater than the reporting level in four
average precipitation. Including 1988, 3 of the last of nine samples of pond weed and in several inverte-
4 years were below average precipitation years. brate samples. The highest concentration of mercury
Because of the large storage capacity of the Klamath in invertebrates was in a Daphniasample from Lower
irrigation system, however, full deliveries of irrigation Klamath Lake (3.88 pug/g dry weight), which was
water were made during the study period. higher than the 0.25 to 0.5 pgg/g dry weight dietary
concentration associated with adverse effects on avian
Source water for the Klamath Irrigation Project is reproduction. The geometric mean for mercury
low in dissolved major ions. Specific conductance concentrations in fish was less than the geometric
was 112 gS/cm at Link River below Link River Dam, mean reported in the 1984-85 National Contaminant
95 ;IS/cm at North Canal below Miller Creek Dam, Biomonitoring Program. The highest mercury con-
and 203 gS/cm at Lost River below Malone Dam. centration (0.57 pgg/g dry weight) was in a largemouth
Dissolved salts accumulated in the water as it flowed bass. Previous studies by the Oregon Department of
through the natural and manmade conveyances of the Environmental Quality reported mercury concentration
Klamath Irrigation system. The ionic composition of in largemouth bass slightly exceeding the U.S. Food
the water changes from a mixed cation bicarbonate and Drug Administration action level of 1.0 gg/g for
type water at the source to a sodium sulfate type human consumption.
water after inputs of irrigation return water and
evaporative concentration. pH exceeded the national Mercury concentrations in bird livers were highest
baseline 75th percentile value of 8.1 at 13 of 16 sites in western grebes (8.35 to 11.0 jug/g dry weight).
sampled. Dissolved oxygen was less than the national Liver samples from mallards and coots were much
baseline 25th percentile value of 8.7 mg/L at 11 of 16 lower (0.500 to 1.70 pgg/g dry weight). Mercury
sites sampled. Eutrophic conditions in the basin concentrations were higher in mallard eggs collected
waterways during the sampling period probably in the Lower Klamath Lake area than in those
contributed greatly to the high pH and low dissolved- collected in the Tule Lake area. This also was true
oxygen measurements. for samples of pond weed, invertebrates, tui chub,
mallard fledgling liver, and western grebe liver,

Summary and Conclusions 41

suggesting that the Lower Klamath Lake area is more in bird eggs indicate that these are predominantly old
likely than the Tule Lake area to be a source of compounds transformed by metabolic processes, and
mercury contamination. likely reflect past usage of persistent pesticides in the
Klamath Basin.
Selenium concentrations were near or less than
reporting levels, and much less than levels of Samples of mallard digestive tracts from 18 birds
toxicological significance in all media sampled with were analyzed for organophosphate and carbamate
the exception of western grebe livers. The selenium pesticide residues. None of these compounds were
in these birds probably came from other locations on detected in any of the samples. Waterfowl kills in
their migratory routes. These results indicate that Klamath Basin have been attributed to carbamate pes-
selenium is not a contaminant of concern in the ticides. The most recent of these was in 1986 when
Klamath Basin. the pesticide temik was determined as the cause of a
waterfowl kill. The suspected link between organo-
Five different organochlorine compounds were phosphate and carbamate pesticide use in Klamath
detected in bottom sediment. The most widespread Basin, its distribution within the irrigation system, and
compound was DDE, which was detected in 11 of its effect on wildlife, is largely unknown and could
14 samples. DDE was highest (6.6 ,ug/kg) at Link not be adequately measured in this reconnaissance
River below Link River Dam (site 1). This site also level study.
had the highest concentration of DDD and was the
only site where chlordane was detected. PCBs were The overall effect of the irrigation-return flow to
detected at three sites, with the highest concentration the water in the Klamath Basin from the sources of
(180 gg/kg) at Tule Lake near pump C (site 4). The the Klamath River downstream of the project was to
highest detected concentrations of total DDT metabo- increase salt content and sodium and sulfate ions and
lites and PCBs approached the lower confidence limit to decrease dissolved oxygen. Accumulations of
of the interim Environmental Protection Agency some trace elements such as arsenic and mercury also
criteria for sediment. are localized. Although the presence of these
elements may not be related to irrigation practices,
Organochlorine compounds were detected in six of evaporation and leaching in soils due to irrigation use
nine fish samples with DDE being the most often probably are concentrating these elements in certain
detected compound. Concentrations of organochlorine areas. Organochlorine pesticides (particularly DDT
compounds that were low or less than the reporting derivatives) are still detected in bottom sediment at
levels in fish in the Tule Lake and Lower Klamath many locations due to past pesticide application
Lake areas make it difficult to explain the relatively practices.
large organochlorine concentrations in western grebe
eggs. Sampling was limited, however, and no Use of pesticides and the effects of eutrophication
grebe tissue except for eggs was analyzed for are major environmental concerns in the Klamath
organochlorine compounds. Basin and were not addressed by this reconnaissance
study. Both of these are water-quality concerns and
The largest diversity of organochlorine compounds probably relate directly to agricultural practices.
was detected in bird eggs. The highest concentrations Pesticide usage in the basin is very heavy, and
of organochlorine compounds in any biological although the application of most of these compounds
samples were in western grebe eggs (geometric mean is closely controlled, their use on and around the
4.48 gg/g wet weight). The geometric mean of total refuges suggests that an investigation of the potential
organochlorine concentrations in mallard eggs was effects of these compounds on wildlife and human
0.08 tg/g wet weight and 0.02 g±g/g wet weight in health would be an important research topic.
coot eggs. Twelve different compounds were
detected in western grebe eggs with DDD (0.11 to Pesticides can affect wildlife in several ways.
6.2 gg/g wet weight) and DDE (1.6 to 2.6 gg/g wet First, many pesticides have an acute toxicity that can
weight) being detected in the highest concentrations. directly cause mortality of organisms. This has
Organochlorine compounds were more diverse and happened in the Klamath Basin on several occasions.
were detected in higher concentrations in mallard eggs Second, pesticides can have chronic effects on
from the Tule Lake area than from the Lower organisms that can limit their survival by lowering
Klamath Lake area. The most commonly detected resistance to diseases, decreasing uptake of food, or
organochlorine compound in mallard eggs was p,p' affecting nervous system activity. Third, pesticides
DDE. The types of organochlorine isomers detected can cause widespread disruption of food chains

42 Water Quality, Bottom Sediment, and Biota Associated with Irrigation Drainage, Klamath Basin, California, Oregon

affecting aquatic habitats throughout the basin. Bitman, J., 1970, Hormonal and enzymatic activity of
Observations made during this reconnaissance study DDT: Agricultural Science Review, p. 377-536.
indicate very low numbers of benthic organisms in
several locations, including Tule Lake. These Blus, LJ., 1982, Further interpretations of the relation of
organisms are a very important source of food for a organochlorine residues in brown pelican eggs to repro-
variety of animals, and their absence could cause a duction success: Environmental Pollution (series A),
significant disruption to the food chain. Other v. 28, p. 15-33.
observations made during the reconnaissance study
and by others who have lived in the basin for a long Boellstorff, D.E., Ohlendorf, H.M., Anderson, D.W.,
time indicate that nearly all aquatic reptiles and O'Neil, E.J., Keith, J.O., and Prouty, R.M., 1985,
amphibians that used to be present are no longer Organochlorine chemical residues in white pelicans and
found. A possible explanation for these changes in western grebes from the Klamath Basin, California:
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between pesticides and disruptions of the food chain Toxicology, v. 14, p. 485-493.
has not been investigated and is one of the primary
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