Animal The Definitive Visual Guide

PASSERINES 349

Family Meliphagidae plumage, and the sexes among TUI
scarlet honeyeaters differ—males are Endemic to New Zealand, where it is found
Honeyeaters red and females are brown. Members in native forest and scrub, Prosthemadera
of this family vary greatly in size. Some novaeseelandiae has glossy black plumage
Length 33⁄4 – 121⁄2 in (9.5 – 32 cm) resemble warblers or thrushes, others with a purple-green iridescent color and 2
look like hummingbirds, and the larger white throat tufts. An energetic bird with a
Species 187 honeyeaters could almost be mistaken rich, melodic song, it feeds on nectar, fruit,
for magpies. Some of these birds do not and insects. The male—12 in (30 cm)
Found mainly in Papua New Guinea, have feathers on their face and develop long—is larger than the female.
Australia, Asia, and the Pacific Islands, wattles. All are found in wooded habitats, LITTLE FRIARBIRD
honeyeaters are mostly nectar- and with only a few descending to the ground Philemon citreogularis
fruit-eating birds with a characteristic to feed. Outside the breeding season, is found in Australia,
brush tongue adapted to nectar-feeding. these birds often migrate in search Papua New Guinea, and
This tongue can be extended into nectar of flowering trees. the Lesser Sundas in
about 10 times per second. They are Indonesia. At 101⁄2 in
generally dull-colored birds, and the blue facial skin white (27cm) long, it is
sexes are similar. However, there are olive-green breast the smallest of
exceptions: the regent honeyeater back and and belly the friarbirds—
is brighter, with its yellow and black tail a group of 16
species within the
BLUE-FACED HONEYEATER honeyeater family.
Distributed across the northern and
eastern sides of Australia and Papua NOISY MINER
New Guinea, Entomyzon Found only in eastern Australia, including
cyanotis is 12 in Tasmania, the noisy, gregarious Manorina
(30 cm) long and is melanocephala is locally called the soldierbird.
found in open forest It is 10in (26cm) long and both the sexes look
and farmland. Both sexes are alike and alike. It breeds in colonies from June to December.
have a black head, with a white patch on
the nape, and distinctive, 2-toned, blue
facial skin surrounding a yellow eye.

Family Acanthizidae Family Maluridae BIRDS

Australasian dark facial Australasian wrens SOUTHERN EMU-WREN
warblers mask between Notable for its very long tail, formed of 6 delicate
white stripes Length 43⁄4 – 71⁄2 in (12 – 19 cm) feathers, Stipiturus malachurus is 6 – 71⁄2 in
Length 31⁄2 – 5 in (9 – 13 cm) (15 – 19 cm) long. It occurs along the coastal
WHITE BROWED SCRUBWREN Species 29 strip of southern Australia and in Tasmania.
Species 65 A widespread Australian species, Sericornis
frontalis is a dozen or so noisy scrubwrens of Found in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and is made of grass, spiders’ webs,
This family is centered on New Guinea dense thickets. The white-browed scrubwren and eastern Indonesia, Australasian and a lining of feathers and plant down.
and Australia, but a few species occur has a rich and varied voice, and can also mimic. wrens are brightly colored birds that hold Fairy-wrens lay 2 – 4 whitish, speckled
westward in the Philippines and their tails upright or over their back in eggs, which are incubated for 12 – 15
Indonesia or eastward on Pacific pairs, in family parties, and sometimes the same way as wrens (see p.361). The days; the nestlings fledge in 10 – 12 days.
Islands and New Zealand. Many species in mixed-species flocks. Most species metallic colors of their plumage include
have very localized distribution ranges. do not migrate. The nest made by these blues, purples, reds, blacks, and whites.
This fact, however, helps in identification, birds is a dome of plant fibers, often Sexes generally differ. Many fairy-wrens
because similar species can occur in with a “porch.” Females lay 2 – 4 white,
geographically distinct areas. Usually sometimes spotted, eggs. Incubation and are good singers, some being
olive, brown, or yellow, the sexes among fledging each take 15 – 20 days. good mimics as well. They hunt
Australian warblers are similar. Many
species are insectivores, while some for insects and their larvae
feed on seeds. They are often seen in through the underbrush, and

are often found in flocks.
Their nest is usually domed,

streaked bright cocked tail
gray throat blue cap

BROWN THORNBILL BROWN-BREASTED GERYGONE SUPERB FAIRY-WREN orange-
Found in eastern and southeastern Australia About 31⁄2 in (9 cm) in size, Gerygone ruficollis Also known as the blue wren, Malurus scarlet back
and Tasmania, Acanthiza pusilla is 4in (10cm) is found in primary forest in the mountains of cyaneus is found in southeast Australia RED-BACKED FAIRY-WREN
long, and has narrow streaks on its gray throat. It New Guinea, at heights of 3,650 – 10,900 ft and Tasmania. It is 5–51⁄2 in (13–14cm) At 4–5in (10–13cm) long,
forages among the twigs of lower branches and (1,100 – 3,300 m). Its song is a distinctive and long, and has a tinny song. Malurus melanocephalus is
has a variety of calls, among them a scolding note. lengthy series of high-pitched whistles, and its nest the smallest fairy-wren. Found in northern and
The nest is built low down in the undergrowth. a pendant, globular structure with a side entrance. eastern Australia, it occupies habitats varying
from tall grass to plantations and gardens,
and breeds from November to March.

350 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued in 1907, was unique in that the Family Vangidae may also feed on treefrogs and small
sexes had different bill shapes: the reptiles. They often form loose feeding
Family Callaeatidae male had a straight, pointed bill, while Vangas flocks, sometimes with other species.
the female had a thin, downcurved Some species build a cup of twigs in
New Zealand wattlebirds one. The huia became extinct due Length 43⁄4 – 12 in (12 – 30 cm) a tree and lay 3 – 4 eggs; both parents
to habitat destruction and being Species 21 raise the young.
Length 10 – 15 in (25 – 38 cm) hunted for its feathers.
Species 5

hooked black and
bill white head

Wattlebirds, confined to New Zealand, Vangas are restricted to Madagascar white
are named for the orange or blue (with the blue vanga also found in underparts
wattles at the base of their bill. They the Comoro Islands), but it is possible
are short-winged, weak fliers but are SOUTH ISLAND SADDLEBACK that other African shrikes belong in
adept at clambering and hopping about AA weak flier, Philesturnus carunculatus—which is this family. All are tree-living birds,
branches. The kokako and saddleback 10in (25cm) long—runs and hops through trees, some being confined to the evergreen
are the only living species. Surveys in probing the bark for insects. It nests on remote forest in the humid east, while others
the 1970s revealed that only tiny islands and is seldom seen. A small population has extend into wooded areas in the western
colonies of kokako remained in the recently been introduced to an island in Auckland savanna, and some even occur in
North Island. Conservationists worked Harbour where visitor numbers are regulated. semidesert scrub. Many of them are
on plans to ensure its survival, which boldly patterned in black and white, and
involved preservation of podocarp have a heavy bill, often hooked at the tip.
forests and control over the predation Although they usually eat insects, some
of its eggs and chicks. There are
now around 30 separate populations HOOK-BILLED VANGA
of kokako, but it is still not out of A solitary bird, Vanga curvirostris is 10 – 111⁄2 in
danger. The other extant wattlebird is (25–29 cm) long, and has a heavy, hooked bill.
the saddleback (shown right). The huia, It lives in evergreen forest, brush, plantations,
Heterolocha acutirostris, last seen and mangroves across Madagascar.

BIRDS Family Malaconotidae previously classified. Some, such as rufous Family Artamidae
helmet-shrikes, travel in noisy wings
Bushshrikes groups, and all have distinctive BLACK-CROWNED TCHAGRA Woodswallows
and relatives loud calls that are often delivered Measuring 9in (22cm) in length,
from a prominent perch. Tchagras Tchagra senegalus is found in Length 12 – 20 cm (43⁄4 – 8 in)
Length 6 – 12 in (15 – 30 cm) are more somberly colored thicket- northwest Africa, south of the Sahara, Species 24
dwellers, but have distinctive darker and in southwest Asia. A bird of open
Species 49 head patterns. Puffbacks are so-called savanna woodland and the edges of Woodswallows occur in parts of Asia,
because of the fact they puff out cultivation, it forages on the ground the Pacific Islands, New Guinea, and
Confined to Africa, bush shrikes loose feathers on their back during for insects and their larvae, rather like Australia. Despite the family name, these
are closely allied to the vangas of display: displaying males look like a thrush (see p.361). birds are not closely related to the
Madagascar, and some—such as fluffy balls. Members of the family swallow family, although their flight
the crested helmet-shrikes—may occur in forest or dry thorny scrub, silhouette is similar to that of martins.
be genetically closer to vangas. where they prey on insects; larger Unusually for passerines, they often soar
Although many are shy, retiring species can also tackle frogs and on the wing. They are 12 – 20 cm
birds—they are generally more brightly snakes. They lack the true shrike’s habit (43⁄4 – 8 in) long, and have strong bills and
colored than birds of the true shrike of impaling victims on thorns and short legs and feet, while the wings are
family—Laniidae—in which they were spikes, and tend to be more active in quite short and pointed. A characteristic
pursuit of prey. Nests are cup-shaped family trait is the birds’ habit of huddling
affairs in bushes or trees. together on branches, particularly when
roosting. These insectivorous birds catch
CRIMSON-BREASTED SHRIKE black throat much of their prey on the wing. They
Laniarius atrococcineus is a are gregarious and build their grassy,
common bird of thorny scrub and yellow cup-like nests on stumps, in holes or in
acacia thickets in the Kalahari underparts bushes. All members of the family are
region of southern Africa. It BOKMAKIERIE colonial nesters. Females lay 2 – 4 white
is frequently heard making Found in southern Africa, Telephorus or cream eggs, with
loud, hollow, whistling calls. zeylonus occurs in the bush, open red-brown spots.
While not shy, it keeps well savanna, plantations, and gardens.
hidden in thick foliage, It is 9in (22cm) long and, like a thrush, black mask
jerking its tail as it forages spends much of its time on the ground.
for large insects around loose This bird performs a beautiful courtship BLACK-FACED WOODSWALLOW
bark. It is more easily seen dance in spring. Its name is a transcription Distributed across Australia, New Guinea, the
when taking ants from open of one of its loud, ringing calls. Lesser Sundas, and Timor, Artamus cinereus –
measuring 19 cm (71⁄2 in) in length – is the
spaces on the ground. commonest bird in the family. Unlike other
woodswallows, it is not very nomadic.

PASSERINES 351

Family Campephagidae birds, the size of wagtails; the male Family Platysteiridae confused. However, they can
tends to be red and black, whereas the usually be separated on the basis
Cuckooshrikes female is yellow or orange and black Wattle-eyes of geographical distribution.
or gray. The remaining cuckooshrikes and batises
Length 51⁄2 – 16 in (14 – 40 cm) resemble cuckoos in flight and are white
Species 92 often dull gray, ranging from the size Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 in (8 – 16 cm) underparts
of sparrows to that of pigeons. The CHINSPOT BATIS
Cuckooshrikes have no connection females of the latter group are often Species 33 Found in Sudan, Kenya, southwest Africa,
with either cuckoos or shrikes. This paler, and many species have bristles and Mozambique, Batis molitor frequents
is mainly a tropical family consisting growing from the base of the bill. The All of these birds are found in Africa, open woodland, darting out after insects like
of 2 groups of birds ranging from Africa nest is built high in a tree and the mostly in forest or forest edges. a flycatcher; it also hovers to search leaves.
across southern and Southeast Asia female lays 2 – 5 eggs, usually Wattle-eyes have colorful wattles It is 4 in (10 cm) long, and has a gray crown.
to Australia and the islands in the incubating them alone. around their eyes. Batises are small,
western Pacific; the minivets occur flycatcher-like birds. Males generally
only in Asia. Except for the ground gray have contrasting black and white
cuckoo-shrike, found on the treeless back plumage—often with a breastband;
Australian plains, these are usually females are brownish below. They are
tree-living birds. Minivets are colorful orange insectivorous and can catch their prey
rump on the wing. They build cup-shaped
dull, grayish nests and lay 2 – 5 eggs. Various
coloration species of wattle-eyes and batises
look very similar and are easily

COMMON CICADABIRD GRAY-CHINNED MINIVET Family Pachycephalidae (Pachycephalus means “thick-head”) BIRDS
Found in Australia, Papua Found from the Himalayas and females are usually drabber than
New Guinea, and eastern through southern China and Whistlers males. Plumage varies from plain to
Indonesia, Coracina Southeast Asia to Borneo, colorful plumage: males of many
tenuirostris lives in the Pericrocotus solaris lives in Length 43⁄4 – 11 in (12 – 28 cm) have a blackbreast band so making
canopy of rain forest and open forest. It measures 71⁄2 in species identification difficult. They
other woodland. The female (19cm) in length. The male has Species 57 feed on insects, which they glean from
is browner with barred a gray throat and an orange foliage—larger species take small
underparts. The name is belly, but the female is duller The whistlers make up an Indo-Pacific vertebrate prey, too. They forage in
derived from the male’s harsh, with yellow rather than family of birds, ranging from Indochina the mid- to upper levels in forests,
descending, cicada-like buzz, orange underparts. to the southwest Pacific. As their name and at least one species is a specialist
which it repeats often. This bird suggests, they are known for their inhabitant of mangrove swamps. Others
is 9 1⁄2 – 10 in (24 – 26 cm) long. impressively strong calls and songs. occur in drier eucalyptus woodland.
They reach their maximum diversity in Information on breeding is limited, but
Family Neosittidae These birds rely on their strong toes rain forests on mountains of New both sexes usually incubate the eggs.
for climbing, not using their tails for Guinea and on tropical islands around Recent evidence suggests that some
Sittellas support. Social birds, they often the region, where they have evolved into big-beaked birds from other families—
preen one another and roost in tight many local species and subspecies— such as shrike-tits (below) and
Length 10 – 14 cm (4 – 5 in) groups side by side on a branch, most in the genus Pachycephalus. shrike-thrushes—may be closely related
Species 3 the older males taking the outermost Whistlers are big-headed birds to whistlers and should perhaps be
positions. They eat insects and placed in the family Pachycephalidae.
Found in Australia and New Guinea, spiders, especially beetle larvae,
sittellas superficially resemble northern taken from bark with the bill and AUSTRALIAN GOLDEN WHISTLER
nuthatches, with wedge-shaped heads then held down with the feet to be Found in Indonesia, southern and
and bills, short tails, and strong feet. broken up and eaten. Nests are eastern Australia, Tasmania, and Fiji,
typically high in eucalyptus trees, Pachycephala pectoralis shows wide
They also move around tree built in a tight fork and well geographical variation: about 73
branches in much the same camouflaged with strips of bark. subspecies have been described.
way, with a series of The incubating female is fed It is 61⁄2 – 7 in (16 – 18 cm) long; the
short hops. both by the male and associated gray-brown female lacks the male’s
“helpers” and a group may assist black and white and much of the
in raising broods from two nests yellow coloring. It may be found in
at once. mixed-species flocks.

VARIED SITTELLA CRESTED SHRIKE TIT
Small groups of Daphoenositta Falcunculus frontatus is found
chrysoptera forage in gum trees in various parts of Australia, in
and acacias, taking insects, habitats ranging from rain forests
beetle larvae, and spiders from to gardens. It uses its strong bill
loose bark and crevices, often to tear off loose bark in its search
working downward0 through a for insects. About 6 – 7 1⁄2 in
tree. Their head patterns vary (15 – 19 cm) long, it has a black
across the range; in flight, a crest. The female’s throat is olive,
bold white rump and orange the male’s is black.
wingbars catch the eye.

352 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued

Family Corvidae black plumage, although some of the iridescent BLACK-BILLED MAGPIE
jays and magpies are highly colored. plumage Similar in appearance to
Crows and jays Found in open countryside and the common magpie, Pica
woodland, in both lowland and upland distinctive tail, hudsonia is found in central
Length 8 –26 in (20 –66 cm) areas, crows are not migratory birds, about 10 in and western North America.
although they may move locally (25 cm) long This is a common bird,
Species 130 between seasons. They usually nest as 181⁄2 in (47 cm) in length,
separate pairs but a notable exception which lives well alongside
Habitat All terrestrial in this regard is the rook, which nests humans. Gregarious outside
in colonies. A typical crow nest holds of the breeding season,
Crows and their relatives are distributed 2 – 8 eggs and is built of twigs, in trees over 100 birds may gather at a winter
across almost every part of the world, or bushes, or sometimes in holes. roost. Its nest is a domed pile of sticks,
except the Arctic and Antarctic. They high up in a tree.
are the most highly developed of all downcurved, iridescent
birds—intelligent, sociable, and very red bill green-blue
adaptable, with most of them feeding plumage
on a wide range of foods. Many
members of this family have mainly

blue wing EURASIAN JAY RED-BILLED CHOUGH
feathers The many subspecies Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax is a gregarious bird,
of Garrulus glandarius particularly outside the breeding season. It
have slightly different red forages for insects, especially ants, and also CLARK’S NUTCRACKER
head markings; all are 13 in legs eats berries. During courtship, it performs Found only in the mountains of
(33 cm) long. Distributed spectacular aerobatics. The nest western North America, Nucifraga
across Europe and Asia, this bird is built either on a cliff ledge or columbiana inhabits juniper and
is a fairly common inhabitant of in a cave. Measuring 6 in pine woodland. Agile when
woodland, but is also found in (140 cm) in length, this bird swooping through canyons, it
many other habitats, such as is found in mountain and does not fly long distances and
rain forests and taiga. Across rocky coastal areas in is usually found on treetops.
much of its range, the Eurasian Europe, North Africa, It is 12 in (30 cm) long.
jay collects and stores acorns and South Asia.
as winter food.
red bill
BIRDS black cap black head

gray nape

thin, black BLUE JAY
collar Common in woodland
and parkland across
central and eastern North WESTERN JACKDAW RED-BILLED BLUE MAGPIE
America, Cyanocitta cristata Widespread across Europe, West Asia, and parts of This striking species, 27in (68cm) long, has a
is about 12 in (30 cm) North Africa, this is a familiar crow that often flies and feeds tail that itself measures 181⁄2 in (47cm). Found
long. This bird with rooks. A farmland bird in much of its range, Coloeus monedula up to a height of 4,900 ft (1,500 m) in the
is found in pairs or also inhabits gorges and sea cliffs, nesting there as well as in deciduous forests of South and Southeast Asia,
small groups, and buildings and holes in trees. It roosts in flocks of several thousands Urocissa erythrorhyncha hunts in flocks at lower
is always noisy, with outside the breeding season. It is about 131⁄2 in (34cm) long. levels. Its nest is a rough, flimsy cup in a tree.
a distinctive “peeah
peeah” call. It uses
mud to build

its nest.

NORTHERN RAVEN stout, black bill CARRION CROW
Regarded as the archetypal crow by many people in
At 26in (65cm), Corvus corax is the Europe, the all-black Corvus corone lives in many habitats,
largest crow in the Northern including woodland, moorland, farmland, and towns.
Hemisphere, and is found in North About 20 in (50 cm) long, it is also found (but with
and Central America, Europe, gray in its plumage) through West Asia and in
Asia, and North Africa. It lives eastern Asia, including Vietnam and Korea.
large bill in open habitats as well as in It is a solitary nester, usually making
its home in a tree, although in
urban areas in some parts mountainous areas, cliff
of its range, and up to ledges are often used.
20,900ft (6,350m) on
Mount Everest, often
nesting when snow all-black
is still on the plumage

ground.

wedge-shaped tail

PASSERINES 353

Family Paradisaeidae mainly on fruit. Their nests KING BIRD OF PARADISE WILSON’S BIRD OF PARADISE
are typically bulky, made of In a spectacular courtship Diphyllodes respublica, 61⁄2 in
Birds of paradise leaves, ferns, and twigs, and are display, the male bird expands (16cm) long, is found in Irian
generally placed in tree forks. Their his feathers and appears almost Jaya but not Papua New
Length 43⁄4 – 39 in (12 – 100 cm) voices vary from soft, drawn-out spherical, waving his green rackets Guinea. Both sexes have
Species 41 calls to loud, explosive sounds above his head. Cicinnurus regius areas of bare blue skin
like a gun being fired. is 61⁄2 in (16 – 17 cm) long, and its on the hind crown, but
2 thin tail feathers add another the male is distinguished
51⁄2 in (14 cm). by red wings and
spiral tail-wires.
Birds of paradise are renowned for
the spectacularly beautiful and ornate spiral
plumage of the males, which is used in tail-wires
display, although in a few species the
sexes are alike. Birds in this family differ scarlet-pink 2 long tail GREATER BIRD
in size, and have extremely variable plumes emerge feathers with OF PARADISE
tail lengths. Some species have short, from under the wings rackets Found on the
straight bills, whereas others have Aru Islands and
long, curved ones. Most, however, have RAGGIANA flank in southern New
rounded wings and strong legs and feet, BIRD OF PARADISE feathers Guinea, Paradisaea
and use loud calls to attract mates. The Found only in New Guinea, tail streamer apoda is 161⁄2 –18in
majority of birds of paradise are found Paradisaea raggiana, (42–45cm) long.
in New Guinea, mostly in wet montane 14 in (35 cm) long, is During courtship,
forests. It is possible that the scarcity the best-known bird of 12–20 males
of natural mammalian predators on this paradise. Adult males gather in a tree to
island enabled these birds to evolve display communally dance, spreading
their flamboyant displays; males of some in traditional lek sites, their wings, while
species court females on or close to the where up to 20 birds the dominant male
ground. The members of this family feed will congregate. stays at the center.

Family Oriolidae Eurasia. Most have predominantly Family Monarchidae BIRDS
yellow plumage, often with black either
Orioles on the head or the wings; the females Monarchs
are generally dull and more streaked
Length 8 – 12 in (20 – 30 cm) than the males. All of them feed on Length 43⁄4 – 12 in (12 – 30 cm)
Species 38 insects and fruit, and one species, the Species 101
black-headed oriole, also takes nectar.
The robust Old World orioles have The distinctive, fluty songs of orioles Found in Africa, Asia, and Australia, AFRICAN PARADISE FLYCATCHER
downcurved bills and long, pointed can be heard over considerable these are mostly nonmigratory birds Terpsiphone viridis is 16 in (40 cm) in length,
wings. They inhabit woodland of rain forest, open woodland, and shrub with the male’s tail up to 8 in (20 cm) long. The
throughout Africa, distances. Most of them savannah. Most monarchs have the tails of both sexes trail over the side of the small
Asia, New Guinea, build a deep cup nest, broad bill typical of a true flycatcher nest cup. This flycatcher is found in forests and
and Australia; slung in a horizontal (Family Muscicapidae) but they are not riverside woodland, in sub-Saharan Africa.
one species fork on a branch. A related to them. They have instead
occurs in number of Old World evolved from crowlike ancestors They longer streamerlike tails and in certain
orioles are migratory. have evolved this way because of similar species have variable color morphs.
Family Dicruridae foraging habits: catching insects, such Most monarchs build their cuplike nests
EASTERN BLACK-HEADED ORIOLE as moths, bees, and dragonflies, by in tree forks or between twigs, but the
Drongos Found in central, eastern, and making sallies into the air. Other magpie-lark is notable for plastering its
southern Africa, Oriolus larvatus members of the family have chunkier bills nest with mud. This behavior led it to be
Length 7 – 28 in (18 – 72 cm) is a noisy and conspicuous for tackling fruit, probing rotten wood—or
Species 25 species (although it often sits for exploiting a more opportunistic diet. classified with two other Australian
motionless in the canopy), with Their songs are typically weak, but some mud-nesters (the apostlebird and
The drongos, which occur in Africa, a loud, fluty call. It is 83⁄4 in (22 cm) species have a loud, forceful song. white-winged chough), before studies
Asia, and Australia, have long, forked in length, and feeds on seeds, Sexes are alike or strikingly different:
tails, and in all but 2 cases, are glossy crops, fruit, and caterpillars. males of paradise of its DNA revealed
black. Their stout bills are arched and flycatchers have its true affinities with monarchs.
slightly hooked, with a small notch, to a height of 10,900 ft (3,300 m). Fantails (Rhipiduridae) were formerly
and the nostrils are often concealed These insectivorous birds also feed on male has classified with monarchs, before
by dense feathers. Drongos are mainly lizards and small birds. They feed like black throat being allocated their own family.
woodland birds, but are also found in flycatchers—flying out from a branch
open country with scattered trees, up long MAGPIE-LARK
to snatch prey and returning to devour legs Common in Australia near surface water,
it—and are well known for chasing Grallina cyanoleuca is 111⁄2 in (29 cm) long
with a loud, piping, 5-note call. It has
birds of prey, which may be several adapted to urban spaces and can be seen
times their own size. feeding at roadsides.

CRESTED DRONGO
Confined to the Comoro Islands
and Madagascar, Dicrurus
forficatus is the only drongo
in these countries. It is
10 in (25 cm) long, and
has a striking crest
which sticks up
from the base
of the bird’s bill.

354 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued Family Laniidae of them create larders, impaling their
prey on thorns or barbed wire, which
Family Rhipiduridae True shrikes has given rise to the name “butcher
birds” for these shrikes. They are birds of
Fantails Length 6 – 14 in (15 – 35 cm) open scrub, and some species are very
Species 33 territorial, even in their winter quarters.
Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in (14 – 19 cm) They frequently perch on top of a bush,
Species 50 NEW ZEALAND FANTAIL These small- to medium-sized birds are scanning the countryside for prey, and
Found in New Zealand and satellite islands— the most predatory of all passerines. All flicking their tail up and down and from
Named for their habit of fanning their such as Chatham Island and Lord Howe have a hooked bill with a toothlike point side to side. True shrikes are widespread
long tails, these birds belong to the Island—Rhipidura fuliginosa measures in the upper part, and strong legs and throughout Africa, Europe, and Asia, with
genus Rhipidura. They range from 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in (14 – 17 cm) long. It builds a sharp claws for holding prey. True 2 species occurring in North America.
the Himalayas in the west to Australasia neat cuplike nest in a tree fork. shrikes feed on insects, but some are Bush shrikes and helmet shrikes used
and the southwest Pacific Islands in the to be included, but are now classified
east, and are fiercely territorial. Fantails to 7⁄8 oz (25 g). Their characteristically known to augment their diet in a separate family (Malaconotidae).
snatch flying insects with their small, notched bills are larger than those with lizards, small birds, Northern species migrate south in
but broad, bills and are very agile of the New World warblers (see p.369), and rodents. Several autumn. Shrikes nest in trees or bushes,
when on the wing. the eye-stripes bolder, and the green and the females lay about 2 – 7 eggs.
plumage duller. These birds inhabit black white “V”
Family Vireonidae broadleaved or mixed forests, and crown on back SOUTHERN FISCAL
species coexist by foraging in separate Widespread in Africa, south of the Sahara
Vireos and relatives areas. Although mainly insectivorous, long tail down to the Cape, in open woodland, parks,
they also eat fruit, depending on the and gardens, Lanius collaris raids other birds’
Length 61⁄2 – 8 in (17 – 20 cm) season. They are migratory birds that Family Picathartidae nests and eats the nestlings. About 9 in (22 cm)
Species 63 breed in the USA and up to northern long, it perches on poles and wires, scanning
Canada, but move south in winter to Rockfowl the ground for insects, mice, and small birds.
The unusual name “vireo” is derived Central or South America. Some vireos It will attack birds that enter its territory.
from a Latin word that translates as are also found in the Caribbean during Length 151⁄2 – 20 in (39 – 50 cm)
“to be green.” Birds in this family, which the breeding season and in winter. Species 2 black and yellow
includes greenlets, shrike-vireos, and skin on head
pepper shrikes, weigh from ⁄11 32 oz (9 g)
BIRDS

RED-EYED VIREO TAWNY-CROWNED GREENLET Rockfowl are unusual in having bare WHITE-NECKED PICATHARTES
About 6 in (15 cm) in length, Vireo olivaceus Found in the forests of skin on the head. They are found in A social bird, Picathartes gymnocephalus is
lives in deciduous forest in North America, and northern South America, damp, upland rain forest in West Africa found from Guinea and Sierra Leone eastward
migrates to South America in winter. Hylophilus ochraceiceps up to 6,950 ft (2,100 m). They nest in to Togo. It is 16in (40cm) long, and has a low,
is 41⁄2 in (11.5cm) long a rock cave in their territory, sticking a croaking call. This bird forages on the ground for
Family Bombycillidae and has a rusty- mud nest to a rock face, at a height insects, frogs, and snails, moving in springy hops.
orange crown. of 61⁄2 – 13 ft (2 – 4 m). Here, the female
Waxwings lays 2 blotched, brown and gray eggs. Dominican Republic. Common and
pale brown conspicuous in these areas, palmchats
Length 6 – 9 in (15 – 23 cm) underparts Family Dulidae are often aggressive and very noisy,
Species 3 chattering loudly in chorus. Like
This group consists of 3 waxwings. Palmchat waxwings (see left), with which it
distinctive crest The 3 waxwings breed across was formerly grouped, the palmchat
typical of family northern Europe, northern Asia, Length 7 in (18 cm) is a fruit-eater, often seen in flocks. It
and much of North America, Species 1 never comes to the ground, spending all
black bib wintering in the south. They are its time in trees, feeding on berries and
red tips plump, fawn-brown birds with The single species in this family, flowers with its strong, heavy bill. The
on feathers distinctive crests and silky feathers. Dulus dominicus, is found only in Haiti palmchat differs from waxwings in its
Two species have the waxy tips (including the islet of Gonave) and the nesting habits: it is known to weave
to the secondary wing feathers
that give the family its name. Sociable boldly a large communal nest
birds, waxwings nest in loose colonies, streaked around the trunk
building their home from twigs and underparts and lower fronds
grasses in branches. They feed of palm trees.
mainly on berries, flocks turning dark olive Woven from
up even in areas where they are tail twigs and
not normally seen and rapidly lined with
stripping berry bushes. soft bark
and grass,
JAPANESE WAXWING
Bombycilla japonica breeds in the taiga forest this nest sometimes has compartments
of eastern Siberia and winters farther south for 2 to as many as 30 pairs of birds,
in Japan and Korea. Unlike the other each pair having a private entrance from
2 waxwings, its secondary feathers lack the outside. The female lays 2 – 4 white
the waxy drops at their tip. This bird is eggs, which are heavily spotted with
6 1⁄2 in (16 cm) long and is a strong flier.
gray. Outside the breeding season,
palmchats use the communal
nest as a nighttime roost.

PASSERINES 355

Family Petroicidae scarlet Family Pycnonotidae or gray plumage, sometimes with
breast yellow underparts. Some species have
Australasian robins Bulbuls a crest and most have bristles around
NORFOLK ROBIN the base of the bill, which may curve
Length 41⁄4 – 7 in (11 – 18 cm) Found in southeast and southwest Australia, Length 6 – 10 1⁄2 in (15 – 27 cm) downward toward the tip. Many bulbuls
Species 49 and eastern Tasmania, Petroica multicolor feed on fruit and berries or buds and
occurs in eucalyptus, but moves to a more Species 152 nectar, some eat only insects, whereas
One group of these birds has red open habitat in autumn. It is 43⁄4 – 51⁄2 in others are omnivorous. The female
breasts that may have reminded settlers (12 – 14 cm) long, and darts from a stump Nearly half the bulbul species occurs usually lays 2 eggs per clutch,
of the European robin, hence their or low branch to seize prey, such as in Africa—most making up a group of in a nest that tends to be open in
common name. Like the robin, these caterpillars, on the ground. similar greenish-colored “greenbulls” structure to allow the tropical rain
small birds have an upright stance, of the genera Andropadus and to drain through.
and occasionally flick their drooping after flying insects. The nest, a tiny Phyllastrephus—but the majority of
tail. The 2 sexes are often different, the cup of moss bound by spiders’ webs, the family is found in Asia. These birds
female being drabber. This tree-living is placed on a branch. The female lays primarily inhabit forests, although some
family generally feeds on the ground on 2 – 4 pale blue or green eggs with have adapted to more open, man-made
insects and their larvae, or sallies forth red-brown to violet spots, and is known habitats. The garden species are
to incubate them herself for 12 – 14 days. more gregarious and noisy than forest
upright Many species of Australasian robins are species. Often located and identified
stance partial migrants. by their calls, few bulbuls have musical
songs. Small- to medium-sized birds,
Family Paridae BLACK ROBIN many species have dull olive, brown,
Petroica traversi has come back from the brink
Tits, Chickadees of extinction on the Chatham Islands, east of New BARE-FACED BULBUL AFRICAN RED-EYED BULBUL BIRDS
Distinctive among bulbuls—and Found in Namibia, Botswana, and western
Length 41⁄4 – 9 in (11 – 22 cm) Zealand. Once common on 4 islands, it was unusual among passerines— South Africa, in forests near rivers and in dry
Species 64 nearly wiped out by introduced cats. By 1976, this bulbul, Pycnonotus bush near water, Pycnonotus nigricans is a noisy
there were only 7 birds left. Their population hualon, has bare skin on its bird. About 8 in (20 cm) long, it nests from
Many species in this family have was boosted by captive-breeding methods. face. It was described in November to March, the female laying
adapted to life with humans—they 2009 after its 3 pinkish eggs with dark markings.
come readily to bird feeders and often BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE discovery in sparse,
use nestboxes for breeding. Found The most widespread North American tit, Poecile shrubby vegetation RED-WHISKERED BULBUL
across North and Central America, atricapillus is one of 6 species named after their on rugged limestone TThe red patch behind the eye in both
Europe, Africa, and Asia, these small, “chick-a-dee-dee-dee” call. This bird is 5 in hills of Laos. The pink
acrobatic birds can pluck insects from (13 cm) long. In spring, it finds a mate and digs a bare skin extends far sexes gives Pycnonotus jocosus its
foliage, or peck at peanuts inside nest hole in a dead stump, where the female lays behind its eyes, common name. Its other trademark
hanging feeders. In autumn and winter, 6– 8 eggs in a cup of grass, moss, and feathers. which are ringed feature is a black, forward-pointing
a number of species form mixed- GREAT TIT with a tinge
foraging flocks and move along Parus major, 51⁄2 in (14cm) long, is a dominant of blue. crest. A common garden bird,
hedgerows, uttering frequent calls, tit at feeding stations in Europe. It flocks with other coral about 8in (20cm) in length,
as they search for insects. True tits red bill it occurs from India
generally nest in tree holes or tits in winter, searching for insects, and to Hong Kong.
nestboxes, lining these with moss also eats seeds and fruit. It has a red patch
before laying a large clutch. The large variety of calls and its song behind eye
eggs are incubated for 13 – 14 days is a sequence of “tee-tee-tu”
and the nestlings fledge in 17 – 20 days. whistles. The female lays white throat
5–11 white eggs that
have reddish spots. BLACK BULBUL white-
brown Found in South and Southeast Asia, tipped tail
eyes Hypsipetes leucocephalus is 9 in
(23 cm) long. One subspecies from
China and northern Vietnam has a white head
and throat. This bird feeds on berries and insects
in noisy flocks of up to 100. Its call resembles the
cry of a kitten.

EURASIAN BLUE TIT ASHY TIT YELLOW-STREAKED
Highly acrobatic, Found in southwest Africa, Melanieparus cinerascens GREENBUL
Cyanistes caeruleus is a bird of dry thorn savanna and Kalahari scrub. Found in isolated locations,
scours vegetation It often hangs upside-down when feeding. It is a in mountain rain forests in
for insects and hangs upside-down restless bird, hopping from one branch to the next, central and southeast Africa,
to feed on seed hoppers. It nests in and can tear acacia pods in search of insects. Phyllastrephus flavostriatus
holes and nestboxes, laying 6 – 12 forages for insects, mainly
reddish-speckled white eggs. It is in trees. Working its way round
41⁄2 in (11.5 cm) long. tree trunks like a woodpecker,
it repeatedly flicks one
wing at a time, revealing its
yellow underwing. This bird is
6 – 101⁄2 in (15 – 27 cm) long.

356 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued Family Remizidae Family Cisticolidae variety of open habitats—including
grasslands and wetlands. Apalis and
Family Aegithalidae Penduline tits Cisticolas Prinia are longer-tailed, most Apalis are
and allies found in woodland and Prinia in scrub.
Bushtits Length 31⁄4 – 51⁄2 in (8 – 14 cm) Their nests are grassy cups, sometimes
Length 10 – 15 cm (4 – 6 in) supported by large leaves. This behavior
Length 41⁄4 – 51⁄2 in (11 – 14 cm) Species 11 Species 158 is taken to a remarkable extent in
Species 13 tailorbirds from Southeast Asia. They are
These birds, found in North America, This family of birds is dominated by 3 well known for building their nests within
In a separate family from the true tits, Europe, Asia, and Africa, are even large genera: the mostly African Cisticola a cradle made by sewing the edges of a
this group includes long-tailed tits as more acrobatic than true tits (see p.355), and Apalis, and the Afro-Asian Prinia. leaf together with fibers.
well as the North American bush tit. and can climb along the underside of These birds lack bright colors, but have
They have short, conical bills and may branches. They pick invertebrates distinctive calls and were previously TAWNY-FLANKED PRINIA white
be more closely related to Old World off branches and foliage, and also eat classified with Old World warblers— Found in Asia and southern and eyebrows
warblers. They are found in North and seeds and fruit. Small birds with fine, though they are still considered closely eastern Africa, Prinia subflava
Central America, Europe, and Asia. A pointed bills, penduline tits forage in related to them. Cisticolas habitually flick has a monotonous “chip, chip”
Himalayan subspecies of the Eurasian groups and nest colonially. Their nest and fan their tails and are found in a song and a harsh, scolding
long-tailed tit occurs up to 11,200 ft is an unusual pouchlike structure, “sbeee” call. A restless,
(3,400 m), but descends lower in with a spoutlike entrance tunnel, heavily sprightly bird, it is
winter. Groups of long-tailed tits roost woven from grass and roots, and streaked 43⁄4 in (12 cm)
together, huddled along a branch. hung at the end of a back long, and forages
Breeding pairs sometimes have a branch. Females in pairs or small
“helper,” a bird that does not mate but incubate 5 – 10 white flocks in scrub
helps feed the young. The domed nest eggs for 12 days, or vegetation.
is lined with feathers and can take up and the young fly
to 20 days to build. Clutch sizes range in 16 – 18 days.
from 4 to 12.

long, black pinkish EURASIAN
and white tail brown feathers PENDULINE TIT
Remiz
BIRDS LONG- pendulinus, long tail
TAILED TIT 41⁄4 in (11 cm) ZITTING CISTICOLA
About 51⁄2 in long, uses the Found in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia, Cisticola
(14 cm) long, down from juncidis is only 4 in (10 cm) long, but is disproportionately
the tiny Aegithalos bulrushes that active and noisy. It has a bouncy, circular song-flight:
caudatus is found grow in its marshy it beats its wings rapidly to rise, utters a “tzet” call,
in Europe and Asia, habitat to build then drops before rising again. Its fan-shaped tail
often traveling along its nest. Its song has black and white markings on the underside.
hedges in large flocks. is unobtrusive.

Family Panuridae above water for protection, but Family Bernieridae Family Phylloscopidae
also drier places with dead leaf litter
Bearded reedling in which it can find accumulated Malagasy warblers Leaf warblers and allies
insects and seeds. Reedbeds are
Length 61⁄4 in (16 cm) often far apart, but in “good” years, Length 7 in (15 cm) Length 4 – 7 in (9 – 15 cm)
Species 1 when reedling populations reach Species 11 Species 77
a maximum, birds will “erupt” from
Some birds are opportunistic and them and disperse over wide areas Most of these warblers live in the These insectivorous, woodland birds
flexible while others are restricted to in search of new sites; sometimes, dwindling forests of eastern Madagascar; include familiar species in Europe and
narrowly defined habitats; this bird they will then appear in less pure some have only recently been discovered Asia, and others that breed in remote
is confined to standing beds of tall stands of fen and marsh vegetation. and described. They were previously areas of Asia but sometimes appear
reeds in fresh water. It requires areas The birds can be detected by loud, split among other bird families, such as rare waifs in the west. Greenish or
of wet reedbed, nesting in rigid stems ringing calls, but may be elusive, as bulbuls, babblers, and Old World olive, paler beneath, they have varied
their progress indicated only by warblers, but are now grouped together head stripes and wing bars, different
rustling stems. in a somewhat mixed group. They leg colors, or minute structural
are all insect-eaters, and inconspicuous differences, and some are best
white wing black, birds of dense or low growth. Four or identified by their songs and calls.
patch drooping five species can sometimes be seen
long moustache feeding together. pale eyebrows
tapered tail on male
LONG-BILLED BERNIERIA WILLOW WARBLER
cinnamon- BEARDED REEDLING A bird of moist, lowland forests in Madagascar, A summer visitor
brown Found in Europe and Asia, Panurus resembling a small, green bulbul with a long bill, to northern Europe
plumage biarmicus lacks the unusual bill of this bird often joins mixed flocks when feeding. and an inhabitant of
the bushtits, with which it was previously Africa during winter,
grouped. A bird of reedbeds, the only species in Phylloscopus
this family, which prefer thick vegetation, the trochilus has no
bearded tit flies through or above the reeds, eating particular association
insects, spiders, and reed seeds. It is 61⁄2 in with willows. It can best
(16.5 cm) long and raises 3 or 4 broods a year. be separated from the
very similar chiffchaff,
Phylloscopus collybita,
by its melancholic song.

PASSERINES 357

Family Acrocephalidae insects. Some have fluttering, undulating Family Locustellidae or buzzing note, creating insectlike
songflights. Their songs have a distinct or mechanical songs that distinguish
Reed warblers rhythmic pattern of various guttural, Grassbirds the species. They prefer low growth,
and allies squeaking or chattering notes, but the and allies including thick bushes and scrub,
marsh warbler is a particularly expert taller grasses, a mix of grasses growing
Length 6 – 8 in (12 – 20 cm) up through low bushes, or more pure
mimic, incorporating songs and calls Species 62 stands of reed. Some are plain and
brown, looking much like the reed
Length 5 – 9 in (12 – 21 cm) from birds in its African wintering This Old World group includes birds warblers but with rounder wings
that have a distinctive song pattern, and tails, while others are more
Species 61 grounds as well as European species in based on a repetitive ticking, trilling, or less streaked, often difficult to
its song. Nests are built around upright identify, and they are also extremely
inconspicuous, crouching in dense
stems, tightly woven or slung between cover, even if approached closely.
All are long-distance migrants.
“basket handles.” Some species are

This group of Old World warblers regularly parasitized by cuckoos. The

includes species that are restricted to majority are long-distance migrants,

wet reeds or fen vegetation and others European species typically moving

that also breed in riverside bushes to Africa in autumn.

and ditches. These habitats are often

threatened, but also easily recreated, COMMON GRASSHOPPER WARBLER
ncreasingly scarce, Locustella naevia is found in
so some species are common, others Europe and western Asia and winters in Africa and
India. It is 5in (12.5cm) long, and favors meadows,
endangered, others recovering with ditches, and marshland edges, creeping among weeds

habitat restoration projects. There are long bill fawn and grass, and climbing up stems. Its song is a
two main groups: one small and sleek, eyebrows very long-lasting, insectlike reeling, with only
short pauses.
the other larger, like “twice-size” reed

warblers, often associated with taller

and sturdier stands of reeds in warmer

countries. All have similar lifestyles and

general appearance and several groups inconspicuous Family Sylviidae red eyes
of species can be difficult to separate. buff coloration
Most are plain brown above and paler Sylviid babblers

below, with little distinct pattern, but Length 11 – 17 cm (5 – 7 in)
Species 70
others are more or less streaked above

and striped on the head. They are

adapted to sidling upward on vertical

stems, tail down, head up, from which BIRDS

they sing. Occasionally one will fly low

and fast across a gap in a reedbed,

or move into nearby trees to forage for A varied group of Old World bush, heath,
or woodland warblers, are rather robust
CLAMOROUS REEDWARBLER and thick-billed compared with the leaf DARTFORD WARBLER
A marshland warbler found in northeast Africa warblers. Some have dark caps or Found in western Europe and northwest Africa,
and Asia, Acrocephalus stentoreus nests in reeds hoods, or contrasting whiter throats, or Sylvia undata is one of the nonmigratory warblers
and other wetland plants, usually over the water. colored rings around the eyes; others in this region. Winter is a critical time for this
About 7 – 8 in (18 – 20 cm) long, it feeds on are plainer; many have white tail sides. species, particularly in the UK, which lies at
butterflies, dragonflies, flies, other insects, and Their songs are varied, often unmusical, the northern limit of its range. It is 5in (13cm)
small frogs. The female lays 3 – 6 dark-speckled but some are excellent songsters. Most long, with a long tail, which is often cocked,
white eggs. When singing, the male repeats are long-distance migrants. and short wings.
phrases 3 or 4 times.

Family Alaudidae song-flight is a vertical ascent, high EURASIAN SKYLARK
into the sky. Many other species have Alauda arvensis, 7 – 71⁄2 in (18 – 19 cm) long,
Larks a climbing or circling song-flight. Larks is a streaked, brown lark of farmland and
feed on invertebrates, plant matter, and open spaces known for its continuous song
Length 5 – 8 in (13 – 20 cm) seeds. Many species flock in autumn when in hovering flight. It is common in
and winter and only a few species North Africa, Europe, and parts of Asia,
Species 97 migrate. The females lay 2 – 6 eggs, and has been introduced in Australia and
which are generally speckled, in nests New Zealand. Northern populations migrate
Larks are found in virtually all parts of the made on the ground; the young chicks south in winter.
world—North and South America, Africa, often leave the nest before they can fly. GREATER HOOPOE-LARK
Europe, Asia, and Australia. The skylark, Measuring 7–8in (18–20cm) in length,
famous for its far-reaching song during rufous Alaemon alaudipes inhabits desert and distinctive yellow and
flight, is the most well-known member wings semidesert areas of North Africa (including black face markings
of this family. Larks are ground-dwelling HORNED LARK
birds, mostly with streaked brown, RUFOUS- the Sahara) and West Asia. Also known as the
cryptic plumage that provides good NAPED LARK It often runs away instead shore lark, Eremophila
camouflage on the fields and deserts A stocky, short- of flying. Its striking alpestris inhabits
they inhabit; some species, however, tailed lark, Mirafra black and white tundra and steppe in
have black and white markings. Males africana inhabits wing pattern is Europe, and prairie, farmland, and desert in
and females usually appear similar. the open and scrubby partly revealed North America. It is also found in North Africa
Some species, such as the skylark grassland of southern Africa. in flight. and Asia. About 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in (14 – 17 cm) long,
and crested lark, have a crest of Measuring 6 – 7 in (15 – 18 cm) pale body it has little “horns” of feathers.
feathers that they raise in territorial in length, this bird walks with
and courtship displays and when an upright stance, and has
singing. Larks usually have a a mournful whistle.
strong and undulating flight,
although they tend to flutter over
short distances. The skylark’s

358 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued trap for catching insects on the wing.

Family Hirundinidae Their dependence on aerial insects

Swallows and martins makes many species migrants—they

Length 43⁄4 – 9 in (12 – 23 cm) breed in temperate areas but fly to the CLIFF SWALLOW
Species 88 tropics and south temperate areas when Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
the weather gets colder and insect prey breeds from Alaska to Mexico
Found all around the world, except in disappears. However, many species and winters in South America.
the frozen Arctic and Antarctic regions, live in the tropics throughout the year. About 13 – 15 cm (5 – 6 in)
swallows and martins are often dark Swallows and martins have 3 types of long, it nests colonially,
blue or green above and paler below. nests: natural holes in trees, cliffs, or building gourd-shaped mud
Most have a forked tail, and some have buildings; tunnels excavated in river nests under the eaves of a
long tail streamers. The bill is short building or on a cliff. The
but has a wide gape that is an effective banks or sand quarries; and mud cups female lays 4 – 6 white eggs.

attached to cliffs or buildings. Some

species raise 2 or 3 broods, the

clutch size ranging from one to distinctive
8 eggs. white rump

blue-black forked tail white BROWN-THROATED MARTIN
male COMMON HOUSE MARTIN throat This martin is resident in Morocco and
A summer visitor to North Africa, short, broad wings widespread south of the Sahara in Africa,
PURPLE MARTIN Europe, and northern Asia, ideal for gliding usually near inland wetlands. Riparia
Progne subis nests in man- Delichon urbicum winters in paludicola is about 5 in (13 cm) long,
made martin houses and Africa (south of the Sahara) and most have a
and Southeast Asia. It builds white belly but
in old woodpecker holes in mud half-cup nests on walls some are
trees. Colonies can number under eaves of buildings, entirely brown.
up to 200 pairs. About 7 in where it nests in groups. It forms very
(18 cm) long, it breeds This bird is 5 in (12.5 cm) large flocks.
in North America and winters in length.
in the Amazon Basin. The male BARN SWALLOW
is blue-black all over, but the A summer visitor to North
female is duller above and America, North Africa,
pale gray below. Europe, and Asia, Hirundo
rustica winters in Africa
BIRDS 2 long tail south of the Sahara, and in
streamers southern Asia, Australia, and
South America. It is 7 in (18 cm)
long. A lively singer, its nest is a

mud half-cup, often on a beam in
farm outbuildings. It lays 4 – 6 red-

spotted, white eggs.

Family Macrosphenidae bills, also feed in the canopy or bushes, Family Cettiidae CETTI’S WARBLER
while others, such as the Cape grassbird, This species spread
Crombecs and African have different, more specialized habitat Cettia bush warblers northward in Europe a
warblers requirements. The distinctive reddish few decades before climate
brown, black, and white rockrunner is Length 5 – 6 in (13 – 14 cm) change. The impact was
Length 3 – 9 in (8 – 23 cm) most unlike the others in its preference Species 32 expected, but it has
for rocks and arid scree slopes. proven sensitive
Species 19 to cold winters.

This is a varied group of insectivorous LONG-BILLED CROMBEC A small group of warblers, these
warblers and allies, some resembling Both sexes and juveniles of this typical are characterized by rather dark
Eurasian counterparts, others unique gray-and-orange species of crombec coloration; rounded wings; and
to Africa. Crombecs, for example, all look much alike. broad, rounded tails. They live
are small, rounded, almost close to the ground, sometimes
tailless bush warblers with going higher in dense
slim, downcurved bills, and shrubbery from which
are variably greenish or they may sing, but
more patterned with usually remaining
gray and orange. Mixed in more or less
groups can occur, often waterlogged or dense thickets.
one species feeding higher in the Their loud songs are easy to hear,
tree canopy than another, foraging but they are hard birds to see well;
methodically through foliage for insects the song may suddenly be repeated
and seeds. They make rather large, from another place entirely, the
pouchlike nests of grasses slung from bird having slipped through dense
a low twig. Longbills, with their short vegetation unobserved. The song
tails; stubby bodies; and long, slender helps defend a territory and attract
more than one female. Males have
little or no role in rearing the young.

PASSERINES 359

Family Timaliidae or more. Scimitar babblers, mostly
found in the Himalayas, have distinctive
Babblers curved bills and striking head
patterns and join mixed
Length 10 – 35 cm (4 – 14 in) feeding flocks.
Species 55

Found in Africa, Asia, and Australia, most long, downward-
babblers are heavy-bodied birds with a curving bill
stout bill. They are highly gregarious and
maintain contact mainly through quiet LARGE SCIMITAR BABBLER NONGGANG BABBLER
calls. Most species are sedentary; only Widespread in evergreen Discovered on limestone highlands straddling the China-Vietnam
a few migrate. Many babblers are forest and bamboo at heights border, and formally described in 2008, the Nonggang babbler
insectivores but some also eat fruit and of up to 7,600 ft (2,300 m), ( Stachyris nonggangensis), like many of its allies, flies only
many are omnivores. The ground feeders Pomatorhinus hypoleucos is short distances and prefers to walk—when it searches for
rummage in leaf litter, while the more found on the forest floor, often invertebrate prey among leaf litter. It forms flocks in winter,
arboreal species find invertebrates on digging into the soil with its long but associates in pairs when breeding.
leaves and bark. Nesting habits vary: a bill. It is 11 in (28 cm) long, has a
number of species build domed nests high-pitched, mellow hoot, and is
low down or at ground level; however, found from Pakistan to south
song-babblers build an open nest in a China and Southeast Asia.
bush or tree. Some species even have
a cooperative breeding system—birds
that are not breeding help the new
parents with incubating the eggs
and feeding the chicks. Both the
incubation and the nestling periods
take 13 – 16 days. Young birds may
remain with a group of adults for a year

Family Leiothrichidae wide crests that can be raised in a fan. COMMON BABBLER BIRDS
While some species are common and Turdoides caudata is a cooperative
Laughingthrushes familiar, others in remote areas are little breeder—a small flock of birds helps
known but appear to be endangered one pair incubate their eggs and feed
Length 4 – 14 in (10 – 35 cm) through habitat loss. the young. This bird, 9 in (23 cm) long,
Species 133 is found from Iraq eastward to
Bangladesh, and moves through the
undergrowth in forests and gardens foraging
for insects, seeds, and berries.

Most of these are jungle birds, difficult orange red bill
to see in dense rainforest but, as breast RED-BILLED LEIOTHRIX
their names imply, easier to locate A very popular caged bird, thanks to its melodious,
by their loud laughing or babbling warbling song and attractive plumage, Leiothrix lutea is
calls. Others live in more open habitats. found from the Himalayas to south China and Southeast
They have short wings and a weak Asia. The female’s throat and breast are paler than the
flight, but quite long tails and strong male’s and she lacks his red coloration in the wings.
legs, indicating a terrestrial lifestyle. This bird is 6 in (15 cm) long and forages in
A short, stout bill deals with a varied bamboo and scrub with other babblers.
diet of seeds, fruits, and often
substantial insects, such as large- black cap long tail
bodied moths. They have plain or rufous back
well-patterned plumages, including blackish bill
rich and varied colors, with distinct
patches on the wing. Laughingthrushes rufous crown
have a variety of head markings, and nape
including dark caps or masks and
bold eyerings. Some have short,

RED-TAILED LAUGHINGTHRUSH rufous
There are about 133 species of laughingthrush, of underparts
which Garrulax milnei is found in south China and
Southeast Asia, in scrub, grass, and second-growth reddish RUFOUS SIBIA
forest above 3,300 ft (1,000 m). It is 10 in wings Also called the
(25 cm) long and has red wings and a black-capped sibia,
red upper side to its tail; the Heterophasia capistrata is a Himalayan bird, found long tail
underside is black. from northern Pakistan eastward to southern China. with bands
It is 81⁄2 in (21 cm) long and favors deciduous forest,
red tail with especially oak woodland, but is also seen in coniferous
black forest. It drinks sweet sap oozing from holes in tree
underside bark, and is also known to feed on insects.

360 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued one, essentially pale gray-brown with rufous crown puffed-out
pale orange in the wings. Many fulvettas throat feathers
Family Pellorneidae are found in Southeast Asia. Ground PUFF-THROATED
babblers include more genera and BABBLER dark brown
Fulvettas and ground species and are much more diverse, A bird more often heard streaks on breast
babblers from warblerlike to jaylike birds, than seen, the whistled
many of them rather like thrushes. chattering and loud calls of
Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 in (8 – 11 cm) There are groups such as wren- Pellorneum ruficeps are familiar
babblers, spotted thrush-babblers, jungle sounds. This bird is found
Species 70 scimitar-babblers, illadopsis, and from India to Southeast Asia and lives
grassbirds. Some are Asian, others in brushwood and bamboo, from
This family links babblers and Old World African. They mostly have shortish, sea-level to 4,350 ft (1,300 m).
warblers, but the fulvettas look rather not particularly specialized bills, and The puff-throated babbler, 61⁄2 in
like tits, with their round heads, large short, strong legs, and have short (16 cm) in length, is known to
eyes, and stubby bills. Their pale eyes wings. The black-capped babbler travel in small flocks.
give them an unusual expression is a brown bird with pale orange and
among small birds, and plumages gray on the head and a neat black
are varied, with distinct head stripes or crown; illadopsis species are mostly
cheek patches. The golden-breasted dark warm brown and buff. Birds of
fulvetta is a particularly bright species, this family occupy habitats from open,
with patches of metallic gray, black, arid areas to swamps, many in more
white, yellow, and fiery orange, while or less dense wet forest, and are
the Taiwan fulvetta is a typical duller essentially insectivorous.

BIRDS Family Zosteropidae small, rounded wings. Their most
distinctive feature is a white ring
White-eyes around the eye, which varies in size JAPANESE WHITE-EYE ORANGE RIVER WHITE-EYE
and shape across the group and is Widespread throughout South and Southeast Asia Common from forests to gardens in Botswana,
Length 4 – 51⁄2 in (10 – 14 cm) the source of their name. Almost and introduced to Hawaii, Zosterops japonicus— Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
the entire family consists of pale about 41⁄4 in (10.5 cm) long—has a yellow throat and Swaziland, Zosterops pallidus is about
Species 130 green birds that resemble each other. and chin, and olive-green cap, back, and tail. 41⁄4 in (11 cm) long.
They have a similar “peeuu” call, and
White-eyes are generally found around the sexes are alike. Highly mobile
forest edges and canopy, from sea birds, most white-eyes migrate away
level up to 9,900 ft (3,000 m), in Africa from cold weather. However, some
and its islands, West Asia, South and nonmigratory populations are found
Southeast Asia up to Japan, the Indian on islands in the Indo-Pacific, where
and Pacific oceans, and Australasia. they are vulnerable to freak weather
They have slightly downward-curving, conditions. These birds form distinct
sharply pointed bills, brush-tipped subspecies, and they show a lack of
tongues for feeding on nectar, and genetic variation typical of animals that
live in remote places.

Family Irenidae ASIAN FAIRY-BLUEBIRD Family Certhiidae BROWN CREEPER
Despite the metallic-blue plumage, the male Irena Once thought to be a subspecies of the
Fairy bluebirds puella can be inconspicuous in the canopy—but Treecreepers treecreeper of Europe, Certhia americana
his repeated, sharp, double whistle often reveals breeds from Alaska to Newfoundland and south
Length 10 – 12 in (25 – 30 cm) his presence. Females are a duller blue. This Length 4 – 61⁄2 in (10 – 16.5 cm) to Nicaragua, wintering in the south of its range.
Species 2 bird is 101⁄2 in (27 cm) long, and gathers to feed Species 11 It is 5 – 51⁄2 in (13 – 14 cm) long and climbs up
on fig trees, often with other species. trees in a spiral. It flies from the top of a tree
to the base of another, searching for insects.

red eyes

These tree-living birds are found in the Treecreepers are arboreal birds
evergreen or semideciduous forests of of North and Central America,
Asia: the blue-backed fairy bluebird in Europe, Africa, and Asia, with thin,
wetter parts of India, the Himalayas, downcurved bills, brown plumage,
southwest China, and Southeast Asia and pale underparts. They use their
up to Borneo and Palawan in the stiffened tails for balance as they climb
Philippines; and the black-mantled fairy trees in search of insects in the bark,
bluebird in the rest of the Philippines. almost always climbing upward unlike
They are noted for their very long upper nuthatches (see opposite). Their calls
and lower tail coverts, extending almost and song are high-pitched, and their
to the tip of the tail. Moving by day nest, made of twigs, bark, and moss, is
through the canopy in search of fruit, shaped like a loose hammock. They lay
fairy bluebirds may also probe tree 2 – 9 eggs, which are incubated mostly
flowers for nectar. Several individuals by the female over 14 – 15 days. The
may gather in a fig tree in fruit. They young, which are fed by both parents,
have a range of loud calls, including fledge in 14 – 16 days.
a sharp flight call. The blue-backed
fairy bluebird nests in the forks of stiff tail
small trees, where the female builds feathers for
a platform of twigs and incubates support
her 2 or 3 eggs. The male helps
feed the young.

PASSERINES 361

Family Reguliidae claws and grooved feet for grasping Family Polioptilidae brown. Some have black markings on
needle-leaved twigs and branches the head. Most species spend much of
Kinglets and as they continually search for minute Gnatcatchers their time high in trees, where they
goldcrests insect food to fuel their tiny bodies. forage on insects gleaned from foliage;
They get their name from their fiery Length 4 – 5 in (10 – 13 cm) they often accompany other insect-
Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 in (8 – 11 cm) crown stripe—the feathers of which eaters in mixed flocks in order to drive
Species 6 are erected in display. Species 18 their prey from cover. Their calls and
songs are described as thin, but
These small warblerlike birds occur yellow crown Formerly classified with Old World musical. Gnatcatchers build a delicate
in the Northern Hemisphere, where in female warblers, but now known to be more nest of petals and plant down, bound
they are adapted for living and feeding closely related to wrens, the small with spiders’ webs, moss, and lichens,
in coniferous forests: they have long gnatcatchers are confined to the on a horizontal branch. Both sexes
Americas and reach their greatest incubate the 4 – 5 eggs.
diversity near the equator. They are
active birds with long tails—that blue-gray
are usually cocked and twitching, plumage
wren-fashion. However, gnatcatchers
GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET are more slender-bodied than wrens
The smallest North American kinglet at and are generally colored gray—not
31⁄4 – 41⁄4 in (8 – 11 cm) long, Regulus satrapa
can withstand the harsh northern winter in white-edged tail
the pine woods of New England. It breeds
in spruce trees, in a dainty, globelike nest
of moss and feathers under a branch.
The female lays 8 – 10 tiny whitish eggs.

Family Sittidae the 2 species of rock nuthatches are BLUE-GRAY GNATCATCHER Wrens are mostly short-winged, weak BIRDS
an exception—they live on rock faces A gray bird with a long black and white tail, fliers; they often have their tail (short in
Nuthatches or buildings. Nuthatches do not use Polioptila caerulea is 41⁄4 – 5 in (11 – 13 cm) some species, longer in others) cocked
their short, square-ended tail for long, and has a thin, nasal call. It is found over their back. Males build nests in
Length 10 – 20 cm (4 – 8 in) balance, as woodpeckers (see p.338) from southern Canada to Guatemala and Cuba. cavities or make domes—depending
Species 28 and treecreepers (see opposite) do. upon species. Several nests may be
They have long, sturdy toes and claws, Family Troglodytidae constructed, some purposefully used
Birds in this family, found in North and and climb by placing one foot higher for roosting. The female chooses a nest,
Central America, Europe, North Africa, than the other, balancing on the lower Wrens which she completes by lining before
and Asia, spend their whole life in one. They search the bark for insects laying 2 – 10 eggs. Chicks are either
trees, inching up or down trunks and and invertebrates but also eat seeds Length 31⁄4 – 9 in (8 – 22 cm) cared for by both parents, or by the
branches with equal facility. However, and nuts, cracking these with their bill. Species 88 female alone; older offspring may act
They nest in holes in trees or rocks, and as helpers in raising another brood.
black eye-stripe a few excavate their own holes in rotten Apart from one species encircling
wood. Females lay 4 – 10 red-spotted, the Northern Hemisphere—the Eurasian short,
white eggs. Many nuthatch species have wren—this is an exclusively American cocked tail
blue-gray upperparts, although the 3 family. Until recently, the Eurasian wren
South Asian species are blue-green. All was considered a subspecies of the
species, except for some red-breasted winter wren. Some are forest birds;
nuthatches, are nonmigratory. others live among cacti in deserts.
Wrens are generally brown with darker
white eyebrow barred or spotted markings; some
mark species have white patches, too.
They spend most of their time in dense
undergrowth—often close to the ground,
but have loud, harsh calls.

black pale rusty
eye-stripe underparts

EURASIAN NUTHATCH RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH CACTUS WREN EURASIAN WREN
Bright slate-blue and orange, Sitta europaea, is Sitta canadensis, 41⁄4 –43⁄4 in (11–12cm) long, One of the larger wrens, Campylorhynchus Troglodytes troglodytes is the only wren
41⁄4 –5in (11–13cm) long and has a carrying lives in North American coniferous forests as far brunneicapillus is 8 in (20 cm) long, and is found species that is found outside the Americas.
“peeu, peeu” song. It plasters its nest hole with north as Alaska and Newfoundland. In winter, in North America from Nevada to Mexico. It is 31⁄4 in (8 cm) long, and is known for its
mud to make the opening smaller. This bird feeds it feeds on conifer seeds and, when the harvest loud, rattling song. In winter, northern birds
on insects, seeds, and nuts, which it wedges in fails, moves south in large numbers. It smears migrate south.
bark and cracks open with its bill. pine resin around the nest hole, possibly to keep
ants out.

362 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued the mistle thrush, which nests SONG THRUSH EASTERN BLUEBIRD blue head reddish
very early in the year, may be Turdus philomelos is a fluent Found in North America, and back chest
Family Turdidae heard singing in the dead of night.
Thrushes build cuplike nests of singer—often at dusk—and repeats Sialia sialis is viewed as the
Thrushes grass and moss, usually in the its phrases 3 or 4 times. Native to harbinger of spring, arriving
fork of a bush or tree. Their Europe, North Africa, and northwest in northern areas in late
Length 5 – 12 in (12.5 – 30 cm) courtship displays often Asia, and introduced in Australia February or March. Males often
emphasize their distinctive and New Zealand, it is a bird of arrive first, launching into extravagant
Species 169 physical features—for instance, gardens and woodland. About 9 in song-flights from treetops and rising
the robin’s red breast or the (23 cm) long, it feeds on berries, 100 ft (30 m) or more into the air,
This family, which includes such song thrush’s speckled insects, and worms, and is noted for singing all the way. Nesting in hollow
familiar birds as the American robin breast. During courtship, its use of an anvil stone to branches or nestboxes, the female
and the Eastern bluebird, is widely males of some species, such crack snail shells.. lays 3 – 7 light blue eggs. This bird
distributed in Europe, Africa, Asia, as the robin, feed the female. is 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in (14 – 19 cm) long.
Australia, and North America. In However, the female is often blue tail
fact, thrushes are native to almost solely responsible for nest-building, clear speckles
all regions, excluding Antarctica incubation, and brooding the nestlings. on underparts
and New Zealand. Many, such as Some species of thrushes, such as the bright
the song thrush, are fine singers, the redwing and fieldfare of Scandinavia, orange orange eye-ring
most notable of them all being the are migratory and fly south in winter. bill on male
nightingale. Thrushes may form a Migratory species may form large COMMON BLACKBIRD
solid pair-bond, singing to proclaim flocks, but others stick in pairs. Native to Europe, North Africa, and Asia, and introduced in
ownership of territory. Species like all-black
Australia, New Zealand, and South America, Turdus merula plumage
is 91⁄2 – 10 in (24 – 25 cm) long. The male sings melodiously of male

from a prominent perch, particularly in the evenings.
Blackbirds are noted for their “chak-chak” calls as they
go to roost. They feed on berries, fruit, worms, and insects.
long tail

BIRDS Family Sturnidae starling, have long tails, which can be Family Cinclidae roots, under a bridge, or behind a
as much as 14 in (35 cm) in length. Some waterfall. The female incubates the 3 – 6
Starlings starlings have areas of bare skin on the Dippers white eggs for about 16 days, and both
face, particularly around the eyes, and parents feed the young. As soon as
Length 61⁄2 – 18 in (16 – 45 cm) the wattled starling has loose folds of Length 6 – 81⁄2 in (15 – 21 cm) they leave the nest, the young are able
skin, known as wattles, on its head. Species 5 to feed underwater. All 5 species of
Species 123 Most of these birds are very much at dippers live near fast-flowing hill or
home on the ground, and several These plump, short-tailed birds, found mountain streams, catching mayflies
An ability to imitate the sounds they species live among human habitation. in Europe, Asia, and North and South and other insects on the bank and
hear is a notable feature of this group Most starlings are residents but some America, are rather like aquatic versions shore, and wading into the water to
of birds, which includes the irrepressible are partial migrants, perhaps moving to of wrens (see p.361). Their tail is often pick insect larvae, snails, and fish eggs
mimics, mynahs. Starlings are found in find food in winter; the group is by and cocked in the same way, and they build from rocks and pebbles. Their enlarged
Africa, Europe, and Asia, but large omnivorous. Starlings lay 2 – 6 a similar domed nest of moss, usually preen gland—10 times bigger than
the common starling has been lined with grass and leaves, with an that of other passerines—gives them
introduced around the world pale blue-green, often brown- entrance hole at the side. The nest is extra waterproofing.
and is now found in 119 nations. spotted, eggs. hidden in a rock crevice, among tree
These birds have strong legs and bills, white throat
and mostly black plumage, often with yellow wattle WHITE-THROATED DIPPER plumage
an iridescent sheen that is particularly behind eye One of the few birds able to “walk” underwater, repels water
noticeable in the African species. the chubby, pot-bellied Cinclus cinclus is 7–81⁄2 in
Some, such as the long-tailed glossy (18 – 21cm) long and has a rasping “strits” call. Almost all species are known for their
Found in Europe, North Africa, and northern Asia, singing and, as the name suggests,
COMMON HILL MYNAH glossy black and it flies low over the water, its wings making a some are very good mimics. Many
Distributed across much of southern and Southeast purple plumage whirring sound as it flies, and nests in crevices sing at night during the breeding
Asia, Gracula religiosa is found in moist forest, where and on ledges under bridges. season. Generally long-tailed birds,
its diverse range of piercing calls are a distinctive most mockingbirds are white, gray, or
feature. It is 11 – 12 in (28 – 30 cm) long, and is the Family Mimidae brown; however, 2 species are blue and
typical mynah found in pet shops and aviaries. one is black. They are closely related to
Mockingbirds thrushes (see p.361), and build similar
violet throat SPLENDID STARLING
and breast Distributed across much of Africa, in Length 8 – 13 in (20 – 33 cm) cup-shaped nests in bushes
28 countries, Lamprotornis splendidus is a Species 34 or trees, where females lay
bright, blue-green woodland species. Measuring 101⁄2 in (27 cm), and incubate 2 – 5 eggs.
iridescent plumage this strikingly colored bird is quite shy, and Found in North, Central, and Mockingbirds are known for their
has declined in many places due to large-scale South America, the West Indies, vigorous defence of the nest, and
deforestation. Outside of the breeding and the Galapagos Islands, will fearlessly attack intruders.
season, it is known to form flocks. mockingbirds mostly live on
the ground or among
iridescent sheen of brush and thickets.
green, blue, or violet

white NORTHERN MOCKINGBIRD
patches Particularly associated with southern
EUROPEAN STARLING long on wings USA, Mimus polyglottos is the state bird
Occurring in 119 countries, Sturnus vulgaris is one tail of 5 states in the USA. It is 9 – 11in
of the world’s most familiar species, having adapted (23 – 28cm) long, famous for singing on
to living alongside humans. This bird—which is moonlit nights and incorporating other
81⁄2 in (21 cm) long—feeds and roosts in large birds’ voices in its song.
flocks, often perching on building ledges overnight.

PASSERINES 363

Family Muscicapidae some of these birds sing well, most white brow
have harsh call notes, and the group orange-red
Old World flycatchers as a whole is no match for warblers on throat
and thrushes. Most build an open cup
Length 10 – 21 cm (4 – 81⁄2 in) in the branches of a tree or bush, where
Species 301 females lay 1 – 11 mottled eggs.

Distributed across Europe, Africa, Asia, black in front RUFOUS-BELLIED NILTAVA
and Australia, Old World flycatchers of eyes Niltava sundara occurs from the Himalayas
sally out from a perch to catch flying VERDITER FLYCATCHER to southwest China and is resident in Myanmar
insects in their bill, hence their name. Eumyias thalassinus, measuring above 3,300 ft (1,000 m). About 7 in (18 cm)
They usually have a broad-based bill, 61⁄2 in (17cm) long, is found from long, it hunts for insects in low scrub and forest
which is surrounded by bristles that India to south China and south to undergrowth. The male has a black throat, the
help them catch their prey. Species Borneo. It often perches prominently female having a white throat patch.
that breed in the northern regions and delivers a loud, sweet warble.
migrate south in autumn when insects The male is greenish blue, with RUFOUS-GORGETTED FLYCATCHER
begin to get scarce. The plumage darker wings and tail; the female is Found from Kashmir in north India through the
of these agile fliers varies: some are duller and grayer than the male. Himalayas to southwest China, and in parts of
brown, others are brightly colored, COMMON NIGHTINGALE Southeast Asia, Ficedula strophiata occurs in forest
and the sexes frequently have Luscinia megarhynchos is renowned for its long and forest edges above 3,300 ft (1,000 m). This bird
different plumage. The male and varied song, heard most clearly at night. is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, the female having a smaller and
is often larger. Some species The song is delivered from within cover; in paler gorget, or throat patch. It has 2 calls: a low croak
have a crest, and a few have fact, the nightingale is notoriously difficult and a high-pitched “pink.”
bright facial wattles. Although to spot. Found in Europe, North Africa, white star
and Asia, it migrates south in autumn. over eye
NORTHERN WHEATEAR Females lay 4 or 5 olive-brown eggs
Oenanthe oenanthe is the wheatear of Europe, Canada, and Greenland, in a nest that is built in thick cover, bright yellow BIRDS
arriving for the summer from its winter quarters in Africa. Its white near the ground. The nightingale body
rump and black “T” at the tail tip catch the eye in flight. is 61⁄2 in (16.5 cm) long. WHITE-STARRED ROBIN
It is 6 in (15 cm) long and eats insects. A bird of Pogonocichla stellata has a yellow body and tail,
open uplands, it nests in crevices, old rusty-red a blue-gray head, and white patches or “stars”
rabbit burrows, or under rocks; the tail over both eyes. It is 6 in (15 cm) long, and
female lays 5 or 6 pale blue eggs. reveals a white spot on the throat when it sings
its creaking notes. It is found in highland forest
EUROPEAN ROBIN in eastern Africa, from the Cape to Malawi.
Perky and bold, with a distinctive red breast, Erithacus rubecula is
found in Europe, North Africa, and northwest Asia. Juveniles have gray edge to Scandinavian BLUETHROAT
a brown speckled breast and head. About 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, the red breast form with red There are 2 European subspecies of Luscinia
European robin has a rippling song and a sharp “tic” alarm call. It throat patch svecica: the Scandinavian form (pictured left)
feeds on insects and berries, and when on the ground, usually with a red throat patch, breeding in willow and
hops. The female lays 4 – 6 red-spotted, white eggs. rusty-red tail base birch forest; and the continental form with a
white throat patch, which nests on swampy
lakesides and scrubby ditches. There are other
subspecies such as Luscinia svecica magna
in Turkey, which has an all-blue throat. All
forms are 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long.

Family Passeridae human habitations—some species even Family Ploceidae Most weavers build roofed nests, some
entering cities. Most lack the weaving with long, downward-facing entrance
Old World sparrows skills of the related Ploceidae, but build Weavers, widowbirds tubes. In some, the males are brightly
and relatives bulky untidy nests of twigs or grass.
Some species are colonial when Length 5 – 9 in (13 – 20 cm) colored when breeding
Length 41⁄2 – 8 in (11 – 18 cm) breeding, others solitary. Species 109 and have a
courtship dance;
Species 51 HOUSE SPARROW This is a large, mainly African, females may also
One of the world’s most familiar urban species, group of finchlike birds, most
Patterned in browns and Passer domesticus, is 6in (15cm) long of which are known as weavers. choose their mate
grays—occasionally with yellow and lives easily with humans. It They have short, conical bills, on the quality of
or black patches—sparrows are originates from Asia, but is short, rounded wings, and their nests.
gregarious seed- and insect- now seen in many plumage that is usually
eating birds of open woodland countries, although yellow or brown, SOCIABLE WEAVER
and desert. They often spend population declines sometimes both. Restricted to Namibia,
much time feeding on the have been noted. Some species look Botswana, and South Africa,
ground and many live alongside confusingly similar. Philetairus socius nests in large
colonies of up to 300 birds, the

nests adjoining each other in
a huge mass on trees or poles.
This bird is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long.

BIRDS364

VILLAGE WEAVER
A downward-facing entrance tube built below an intricately
woven nest acts as a deterrent to predators, such as larger
birds or snakes. The striking black and yellow male of
Ploceus cuecullatus—and his fluttering display—entices
a female to inspect his handiwork. This African species
breeds in noisy colonies.

PASSERINES 365

Order Passeriformes continued nestlings have the same gape pattern as Family Estrildidae
host nestlings—an arrangement of white
Family Viduidae spots in the open mouth—to fool the Waxbills, munias,
attending parent. These birds occur in and allies
Indigo birds open woodland habitat—wherever their
and allies host species lives. Males of one group— Length 31⁄2 – 51⁄2 in (9 – 14 cm)
called whydahs—develop Species 141
Length 43⁄4 – 13 in (12 – 33 cm) extraordinarily long tail
Species 20 feathers when breeding. These estrildid finches, a subject of much GOULDIAN FINCH
debate with regard to taxonomy, include Restricted to savanna woodland, stony hills,
These African birds are brood parasites purple waxbills, grass finches, parrot finches, and and dense grass in northern Australia, Erythrura
of waxbills and munias: females lay their sheen mannikins, and are found in Africa, Asia, gouldiae is one of the country’s most endangered
eggs in nests of finches and the open grassland of Australia, and New birds, its populations depleted in recent years by
surrogate parents raise the young. Guinea. Largely sedentary, these birds infections caused by a mite. It is 51⁄2 in (14 cm)
Different species exploit move only to find food or water; they feed long. Most birds are black-headed, but rarer red-
particular species of mainly on grass seeds. Many of these or golden-headed ones also exist.
estrildids—and have birds pair for life. Most build domed grass
evolved a remarkable nests, while some nest in holes. They lay
degree of mimicry to avoid 4–8 white eggs, which are incubated for
detection. Their eggs 10 –21 days. After the breeding season,
are white (like those they generally become sociable, and
of estrildids) and their flock together for safety.

LONG-TAILED JAVA SPARROW
PARADISE WHYDAH Although mainly a bird of towns, large flocks of Java sparrows,
The female of this species is Lonchura oryzivora, congregate on agricultural land and can
4 3⁄4 in (12cm), while the male become pests. This species, 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, is endemic
(shown above) is 13in (33cm) to Indonesia from Java to Sulawesi, where it is now rare. It has also
long —in the breeding season, the been introduced in Asia, Australia, and Tanzania.
magnificent tail of the male adds
81⁄2 in (21cm) to his length. Vidua DUSKY INDIGOBIRD ZEBRA FINCH BIRDS
paradisaea does not build nests, Vidua funerea mimics the song of the African Taeniopygia guttata is 4 in (10 cm) long,
but lays its eggs in the nests of firefinch and lays its eggs in the firefinch’s nest. orange and has a black, teardroplike line below
the green-winged pytilia. It is a Found from Kenya to South Africa, and in parts cheek its eye. Found across mainland Australia,
gregarious bird, and common of West Africa, it is 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long. patches it gathers in flocks near water.
in eastern and central Africa.

extremely long
tail on male

Family Nectariniidae plumage. Sunbirds have long bills and territorial birds are not migratory,
for collecting nectar and insects, and although the pygmy long-tailed sunbird
Sunbirds some have a long tail that is almost moves annually from Sudan to Congo,
half their body length. The 13 species and at least 2 other sunbirds move
Length 31⁄4 – 9 in (8 – 22 cm) of spiderhunters, although similar to between seasons.
Species 143 sunbirds, have much longer bills and
stouter bodies, and are found only in blue-violet upper
Found throughout Africa, across Asia, Southeast Asia. Sunbirds and spider- body in male
and into Australia, almost all male hunters resemble hummingbirds (see
sunbirds have highly iridescent p.329) and feed in a similar fashion long bill
plumage, while females are usually but with slower wingbeats. Their
a dull green. After the breeding season, nests, made of fine moss and VARIABLE SUNBIRD STREAKED SPIDERHUNTER
the males molt into a dull, female-type cobwebs, are oval in shape and Widespread across open Arachnothera magna is found in dense forest
are usually suspended from twigs savanna woodland and and overgrown clearings from India to China,
and branches. These aggressive gardens of West, East, and south to Malaysia. It is about 61⁄2 in (17 cm)
and southern Africa, long, and has a long, downward-curving bill.
long, curved Cinnyris venustus is yellow or
bill also known as the white belly
yellow-bellied sunbird.
SCARLET-CHESTED It is 41⁄4 in (11 cm) long. black tail with yellow
SUNBIRD The male is iridescent trace of blue breast
A dark, sturdy bird blue above with a
with a long, curved bill, blue-violet upper
Chalcomitra senegalensis breast, while the
is about 6 in (15 cm) female is olive-
long. It is widespread brown above with
across open woodland a buff-white breast.
and gardens in West, East,
and southern Africa. The PALESTINE SUNBIRD COLLARED SUNBIRD
male has a brilliant scarlet A scarce bird, Cinnyris osea (female shown Found in forests and woodland
upper breast. above), is 4 – 41⁄4 in (10 – 11 cm) long. It is in sub-Saharan Africa, Hedydipna
found in West Asia and Central Africa. colleris collaris inhabits coastal
and riverine woodland. It
measures 4 in (10 cm) in length.
The male has brighter plumage
than the female.

366 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued

Family Dicaeidae Family Motacillidae camouflage; wagtails have contrastingly
colored plumage that is white, black,
Flowerpeckers Wagtails and pipits yellow, or blue-gray. Pipits usually nest
on the ground, while most wagtails nest
Length 23⁄4 – 71⁄2 in (7 – 19 cm) red blue-black Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in (14 – 19 cm) on ledges. Wagtails are generally found
Species 48 throat on plumage Species 66 near water; some, such as the gray
male wagtail, are associated with fast-
Wagtails and pipits are ground-dwelling running upland streams, but can also
Flowerpeckers are small, dumpy birds MISTLETOEBIRD birds, wagtails occurring in Europe, be found near weirs on lowland rivers.
of southern Asia, Australia and New Dicaeum hirundinaceum has coevolved with Asia, and Africa, while pipits are found Sexes are similar in pipits but there are
Guinea. They have short tails, long wings the mistletoe plant. It has a short gut so worldwide. They have long legs and more marked differences among
and small legs. Males are frequently mistletoe seeds pass through quickly. The long claws, except for the hind claw, wagtails. Two to 7 eggs are incubated
brightly colored, with bold splashes of sticky seeds then adhere to branches and which is the shortest in species that by both sexes or the female alone.
red or yellow; females are duller, often parasitize new trees. perch on trees. Most pipits have
with streaked plumage. Most species live streaked brown plumage that helps in pale
in rain forests—but some are frequent eye-stripe
visitors to gardens. They feed on insects ORANGE-
and fruit, but get their name from their BELLIED streaked brown,
tendency of stabbing into the base of FLOWERPECKER cryptic plumage
flowers to extract nectar—aided by a Found in Asia,
forked tongue with tubular tips. Some Dicaeum short WHITE WAGTAIL NEW ZEALAND PIPIT
feed almost exclusively on the fruit of trigonostigma tail The subspecies of the European white wagtail that Found in Africa (south of the Sahara), Asia, and
mistletoes. Flowerpeckers may be is 31⁄2 in (9 cm) is found in the British Isles, Motacilla alba is 7in Australia, Anthus novaeseelandiae is also an
closely related to sunbirds—and share long and lives in (18cm) long, and is common near water and on occasional autumn visitor to Europe. Its song has
their habit of building a pouchlike nest evergreen forests mown turf. When feeding on the ground, it pauses repeated chirping and trilling phrases and it has
suspended between twigs. Females lay and mangroves. The with tail wagging, then walks rapidly forward, a loud flight call that goes “prrreep.” This bird
1 to 3 eggs, which they incubate alone or male has a gray back, picking up insects in its bill. It nests on buildings nests on the ground, laying 4 – 6 spotted eggs.
assisted by the male. The insect-eating head, and upper breast, and and bridges near water, laying 5–6 pale gray eggs. It is about 7 in (18 cm) long.
pardalotes (p.348) were formerly an orange-yellow belly and rump,
classified with flowerpeckers, but are while the female has a gray tinge
now thought to be only distantly related. on its breast and a yellow rump.

BIRDS Family Emberizidae habitat preferences vary greatly. They DARK-EYED JUNCO Family Calcariidae
can be found from bleak Tierra del Fuego A highly variable species divided into 5 main
Buntings and allies at the southern tip of South America to subspecies, Junco hyemalis is distributed Longspurs and
the northern tip of Greenland where across North America except the central states. snow buntings
Length 10 – 20 cm (4 – 8 in) snow buntings breed, and from the About 16 cm (61⁄4 in) long, it breeds in forest
Species 181 seashore to the high, barren plateaux of areas, and winters in many habitats in the Length 6 – 7 in (15 – 18 cm)
the Andes, enduring extremes of climate USA and Mexico. Species 6
This large family is found the world over: from very humid to very arid and very hot
buntings in Europe, Africa, and Asia, and to very cold. Their nests are cup-shaped grey Similar to buntings, but perhaps closely
New World sparrows and seedeaters in and often domed, and are generally built back related to cardinals and tanagers,
North and South America. They are small low in a bush or tree or on the ground. these small, terrestrial seed-eaters
birds, with medium-sized legs but large The females lay 2 – 7 eggs, which usually SONG SPARROW inhabit open spaces, from rocky
feet that are equipped for scratching the have red, brown, or black markings on a Melospiza melodia
ground to locate food. Their plumage is pale background. Most sparrows and is found across most mountain peaks and tundra to open
extremely varied, although no bird in this buntings are migrants. They can, of North America, prairie grassland in summer, and more
family has particularly brilliant feathers. occasionally, occur well away from their except the tundra in the temperate coastal marshes, shingle
The tail is fairly long and sometimes expected wintering grounds, but birders north and some banks, and extensive fields in winter.
forked, and the wings are long and mostly have to be cautious with such records, southern states, and is Four are restricted to North America,
pointed. Buntings and sparrows have because this family is particularly while two are also found in Eurasia.
short bills, which are conical and popular with aviculturists, and some common to abundant
designed for peeling seeds. Most of the of the birds observed may have escaped in a wide range of white head
species live in open countryside but their from aviaries. nonforest habitats. It
is 61⁄2 in (17 cm) white
YELLOWHAMMER long tail long, has a relatively wing
Widespread across Europe (although its numbers long, rounded tail, a panel
are declining in western regions), mainland Asia, rufous brown crown with a SNOW BUNTING
and cultivated parts of west Asia, Emberiza sides gray central stripe, and Widespread across the tundra of Europe
citrinella was also introduced in New Zealand in gray cheeks with brown into northern Asia up to eastern Siberia, and
the 1860s. It measures 61⁄4 in (16 cm) in length EASTERN TOWHEE stripes. It also has a similarly across North America, Plectrophenax
and is common in farmland and open country. This species, Pipilo erythrophthalmus, and its grayish breast streaked nivalis breeds in the Arctic but migrates to
western counterpart, the spotted towhee, were with black, and a rufous lower latitudes in winter. It breeds from May
originally believed to be one North American back and tail. This bird to August. It is 61⁄4 in (17 cm) long, and the
species, the rufous-sided towhee. This bird breeds from April to July. male, with his white head and wing bar, is
(female shown) is 71⁄2 in (19 cm) long and is long, rounded tail brighter than the female.
found in eastern USA.

PASSERINES 367

Family Icteridae some of the members of this family the sounds made by the oropendolas
are extremely rare and local. In some are very impressive. Cowbirds are
Orioles, blackbirds, species, males and females differ in unusual in that they parasitize the
and allies size and plumage. Almost all of these nests of other species to rear their own
birds have conical, unnotched, pointed young. Generally, species in this family
Length 6 – 21 in (15 – 53 cm) bills, but in the oropendolas, the top are not migratory, although the bobolink
Species 109 ridge is expanded to form a frontal undertakes a major migration
shield, or casque. This is a noisy family from North America to
(although not especially musical), and Argentina every year.

New World blackbirds, or troupials, pale buff neck
range from the highly colorful orioles, eyebrows BOBOLINK
blackbirds, and meadowlarks to the Dolichonyx oryzivorous,
somber-plumaged grackles. It is 7 in (18 cm) long, is found RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD
perhaps surprising that this family across northern USA and Agelaius phoeniceus inhabits marshland in
also includes the oropendolas, which southern Canada, and much of North America, and gathers in immense
in many ways appear to be closer to winters in Argentina. flocks in winter. It is 9 in (22 cm) long. The male,
crows (see p.352). All these species are The males are glossy black all over, has bright red shoulder
found exclusively in North and South mainly black, while patches that he puffs out when displaying from
America and the Caribbean. Many live the females are his song post.
close to human settlements, some yellowish brown
benefiting from agriculture and, like the and streaked. COMMON GRACKLE
red-winged blackbird, often becoming Found abundantly in
crop pests. Although highly adaptable, spotted farmland, parks, and
belly urban areas of North
America, except
EASTERN MEADOWLARK the western states, BIRDS
A resident of open fields and plains in south Quiscalus quiscula,
and eastern USA, Sturnella magna is about orange 121⁄2 in (32 cm) long, is
91⁄2 in (24 cm) in length and has a cheeks one of the most common
distinctive, black V-shaped band birds in its area. The male
on its bright yellow breast. Its has a glossy purple head
back is a mottled brown. and neck. Both sexes

large, white have an unusual
wing patches twisted tail, which
is obvious
brown in flight.
hood
on male BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD
glossy black Molothrus ater is about 71⁄2 in (19 cm)
plumage long, with the males distinguished
by a brown hood. This bird
inhabits coastal and southern
USA, and is a summer
visitor to the central
states and Canada.

CRESTED OROPENDOLA BULLOCK’S ORIOLE
Psarocolius decumanus is widely distributed Icterus bullocki, 81⁄2 in (21 cm) long,
across northern and central South America, and inhabits deciduous woodland in southwest
Trinidad and Tobago. About 181⁄2 in (47 cm) long, Canada, western USA, and northern Mexico,
it is conspicuous for its loud, rasping, gurgling but winters in Central America. In the Great
call, ivory bill, blue eyes, and glossy black Plains of the USA, it hybridizes with its
plumage. This bird nests in colonies. eastern relative, the Baltimore oriole.

Family Prunellidae the ground for food—mainly insects (a male with 2 or 3 females) and streaked back
in summer and seeds in winter. They polyandry (a female with 2 or 3 males). dull orange legs
Accentors are predominantly gray and brown, Females lay 3 – 6 bluish eggs that are
sometimes with contrasting orange incubated for up to 2 weeks. The
Length 51⁄2 – 7 in (14 – 18 cm) or black and white markings, and young fly in another 2 weeks.
Species 13 their upperparts are often streaked.
The adult males and females and the DUNNOCK
Found in Europe, North Africa, and juveniles all look similar. Accentors Native to Europe, Prunella
Asia, accentors are known for their have a straight, low flight, usually modularis measures 51⁄2 in (14 cm) in length, and
inconspicuous behavior, often shuffling covering short distances. Some species has a whistling call. It is often found under shrubs,
forward or hopping slowly near bushes have a song-flight, while others sing hunting for insects. When a dominant male mates
or rocks or other cover as they scour from a perch. In addition to simple with several females there is a subordinate male
pairs, some species of accentors— in attendance; if the subordinate succeeds in
notably the dunnock—exhibit polygyny mating, he helps feed the chicks.

368 PASSERINES

Order Passeriformes continued COMMON CHAFFINCH EVENING GROSBEAK
Common in Europe, North Africa, West This bulky bird, Hesperiphona
Family Fringillidae Asia, and Pakistan, Fringilla coelebs vespertina, is 8 in (20 cm) long,
is found in open country and woodland. and inhabits coniferous forest
Finches It measures 6 in (15 cm) in length.
across northern North America,
Length 41⁄4 – 71⁄2 in (11 – 19 cm) moving southward in winter.
Species 226 It is noisy and gregarious.

Found in the Americas, Africa, brown gray
Europe, and Asia, finches wings back
have bills that have evolved
for feeding on seeds; some EUROPEAN GOLDFINCH RED CROSSBILL pink
species have particularly strong The dainty Carduelis carduelis, A resident of North breast
skulls and large jaw muscles to 51⁄2 in (14cm) long, with its America, Europe, and Asia, in male
crack very hard seeds. When Loxia curvirostra is remarkable
feeding, they wedge the seeds distinctive red face and beige for its bill. The upper and lower
in a special groove at the side of body, is common in the mandibles cross over each other, a
their palate, then crush them by countryside of Europe feature that allows the bird to
raising the lower jaw. The husk is and Asia. extract seeds from ripe pinecones. This
peeled off by the tongue and the bird (female shown) is 61⁄2 in (17 cm) long.
kernel swallowed. One group—the yellow
Hawaiian honeycreepers—have wing bars ATLANTIC CANARY EURASIAN white
evolved a diversity of bill shapes for olive-green back The wild ancestor of the common cage bird, BULLFINCH undertail
different diets: long and slender Serinus canaria is 5in (13cm) long and The attractive coverts
for taking nectar, or woodpecker- has grayish yellow plumage. It is
like for probing bark. endemic to the Canary Islands, bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula, 61⁄4 in (16 cm)
the Azores, and Madeira, long, can quickly strip a pear tree of its
yellow off the west coast buds, making it an unpopular bird with fruit-
head of Africa. growers. The male’s pink breast combined
with its gray back and black and white wings
make it easy to identify. This bird is found
across Europe, and east into China.

BIRDS AKIAPOLAAU IIWI
Hemignathus munroi is a critically endangered A common and noisy species found in native
species restricted to the koa forest above 3,300 ft forests above 2,300 ft (700 m) on Hawaii’s
(1,000 m) on the slopes of volcanoes of the Big Big Island, Kauai, and Maui, Drepanis coccinea
Island of Hawaii. About 5 in (12.5 cm) long, the is rare on other Hawaiian islands. The adult,
male is olive-green above, and yellow below, with about 5 in (13 cm) long, is bright vermilion,
a yellow head. The female is smaller and duller. with a long, pink, downcurved bill and a
yellow ring around the eye.

Family Thraupidae canopy, particularly outside the tongues designed for sucking blue hood blue-black wings
breeding season. Most birds in this family nectar from flowers. A few and throat
Tanagers and relatives build open, cup-shaped nests, rarely on species follow columns of army
the ground. Some feed among low ants, catching insects and spiders black BLUE-NECKED
Length 4 – 11 in (10 – 28 cm) bushes, but few are ground-dwelling flushed by the ants. Many remain breast TANAGER
Species 375 birds. They feed on fruit and insects. mated throughout the year and therefore
The euphonias, included within this hardly sing at all, but a few species,
Confined to the Western Hemisphere, family, feed on mistletoe berries, while such as the scarlet tanager, do have
mostly to the tropics, this family contains the honeycreepers have bills and attractive songs.
some of the most colorful American birds.
Relatively few tanagers live in the densest SWALLOW TANAGER Resident in Bolivia, Brazil,
parts of tropical forests; they mostly A widespread bird in central and northern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
wander in mixed flocks among the South America, Tersina viridis has long, and Venezuela, Tangara
pointed wings and gets its name because cyanicollis is found between 1,000 and 7,900 ft
it snatches insects in flight—using a short (300 – 2,400 m) in open areas with isolated
flattened bill that is slightly hooked at the tip. trees. Both sexes are alike, with a blue hood and
The female (shown here) is green; the male throat, and measure 43⁄4 in (12 cm) in length. The
brilliant turquoise blue. Because of its unusual wings are blue and black, or
features, it used to be classified in a separate green and black, depending
family, outside the tanagers. upon the bird’s subspecies.

yellow bluish green
bill body

MAGPIE TANAGER COMMON CACTUS FINCH GREEN HONEYCREEPER
Widespread across Found on most of the Galapagos Islands, Geospiza Widespread and common in most countries of northern
South America, Cissopis scandens is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long. It specializes in South America, Chlorophanes spiza is also found
leverianus inhabits scrub feeding on seeds of Opuntia cacti, and has a in Trinidad and Tobago. About 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long,
in cloud and rain forests longer bill and a more pronounced split tongue it inhabits forest canopies below 4,900 ft (1,500 m).
and in cultivated and than other finches, adapted to this purpose. The male is bright bluish green all over, with a black
suburban areas. It is mask. Both sexes have a yellow bill and red eyes.
11 in (28 cm) long, with
a blue-black head, mantle,
throat, and breast. Its
long, black tail is edged
with white, the wings are
black and white, while
the belly is white.

PASSERINES 369

Family Cardinalidae upright, pointed DICKCISSEL Family Coerebidae
crest. Male summer Spiza americana breeds from
Cardinals, grosbeaks, tanagers are all-red, Bananaquit
and allies while scarlet tanagers March to July in central and southern
are red with black wings. North America and winters in South Length 41⁄4 in (11 cm)
Length 5 – 9 in (12.5 – 22 cm) The buntings include the America. It is 61⁄2 in (16 cm) long,
all-blue indigo bunting; and has a yellow breast, a Species 1
Species 69 the brightly blue, white and gray head with a pale eye-
orange lazuli bunting; and the stripe, yellowish eyebrow, Around 40 subspecies of Coereba
The defining feature of this group of multicoloured painted bunting. and grayish back. The flaveola have been identified. It is a
woodland and scrub birds is the short, male is distinguished familiar garden bird and ranges through
stoutly triangular bill, especially in the red bill by a black bib. northern and eastern South America
heavier-billed grosbeaks, used for and the Caribbean islands. The
manipulating and husking seeds. The NORTHERN CARDINAL purple- bananaquit is common in the northern
group includes cardinals, grosbeaks, Found along woodland blue hood part of its range, but relatively scarce
tanagers, seedeaters, saltators, the edges and in gardens green back deeper in the forest. It feeds mainly on
dickcissel, and North American in southern and eastern nectar but also eats fruit. Both sexes
buntings. Most have distinct North America and into have a black crown and mask, a white
male and female plumages. Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, eye-stripe, and a vivid yellow breast
The male pyrrhuloxia is and Bermuda, Cardinalis and belly. It builds a covered
like a brown cardinal, cardinalis measures 9 in domelike nest.
with a bold red (22 cm) in length. The male is bright
face and an crimson with a black throat and red bill, red breast
and the female is buff-olive. Both
long, sexes deliver a loud, liquid,
crimson tail whistling song.

brownish tail PAINTED BUNTING BIRDS
Limited in its breeding distribution to the extreme
southern states of the USA, Passerina ciris is one of the
most colorful birds in North America. The male has a purple-blue
hood and gaudy plumage; the female is bright green above and
paler yellow-green below. This bunting is 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long.

Family Parulidae range of woodland and scrub habitat; black hood black and
many head from North America to and cowl white stripes
New World warblers Central and South America to spend in male
the winter in tropical latitudes. The white tail
Length 4 – 61⁄2 in (10 – 16 cm) pressure of human habitation and patches black throat
Species 119 agriculture have shrunk these areas, HOODED WARBLER in male
leading to a substantial decline Setophaga citrina is an BLACK-AND-WHITE WARBLER
New World warblers, known in the USA in numbers of breeding birds. expert fly catcher that Breeding in Canada and eastern USA,
as wood warblers, include many brightly Although they are largely insectivorous, inhabits damp forest and Mniotilta varia winters in the south, as far as
colored birds, with frequent splashes these birds also feed on fruit during wooded swamp, always on, or a few metres northern South America. It forages along
of orange and yellow in their plumage. migration. The songs of different New above, the ground. It breeds in eastern branches, probing for insects with its long bill.
New World warblers inhabit a wide World warblers are generally well and central USA, and winters in Central Its call is a high-pitched whistle. This bird is
developed but are similar enough America and the West Indies. This bird is
to confuse birdwatchers. 51⁄2 in (14 cm) long, and both sexes flaunt 41⁄2 – 51⁄2 in (11.5 – 14 cm) long.
white tail patches as they move about.

black face mask

white throat in yellow rump
eastern race gray plumage

yellow breast

KIRTLAND’S WARBLER COMMON YELLOWTHROAT YELLOW-
Setophaga kirtlandii breeds only in jack pine woodland in Michigan, Distributed across North RUMPED
USA, and winters in the Bahamas. Habitat management has improved America, Geothlypis trichas— WARBLER
its nesting conditions. It is 6in (15cm) long, and both sexes (female which is 5 in (13 cm) long— Setophaga
pictured) have blue-gray upperparts and white eye-rings. winters in southern USA and South coronata is one of the
America, and prefers low most familiar birds in North
America, found across Canada
vegetation in fields and and Alaska, and throughout the
swamps. The male has a midwest in the breeding season. It is 51⁄2 in
black face mask bordered (14cm) long. There are 2 subspecies, both
with gray, and yellow throat, breast, with gray plumage and a yellow rump.
and undertail coverts. The female
is similar but lacks the face mask.



REPTILES

372 REPTILES

reptiles

PHYLUM Chordata Reptiles are egg-laying vertebrates that have
CLASS Reptilia a tough skin with a covering of scales. These

ORDERS 4 ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals cannot
FAMILIES 89 generate internal heat. There are 4 orders
SPECIES About 10,450 of reptiles: snakes, amphisbaenians, and

lizards (collectively known as squamates); crocodiles,

alligators, and caimans (crocodilians); tortoises SCALES

and turtles; and tuataras. Most reptiles, The Gila monster belongs
to the largest group of
including those that live mainly in water, reptiles, the lizards. Unlike
amphibians, from which
lay eggs on land. The young emerge
they are descended,
fully formed without a larval stage. all reptiles have
scales rather than
Evolution smooth, moist skin.

Reptiles first appeared about 340 (230 – 65 million eventually the snakes. Of LIZARD SKELETON
million years ago, having evolved years ago), reptiles the 20 or so orders of reptiles known
from early amphibians. The first had diversified into an to have existed in the Mesozoic Era, Lizards are a highly diverse group
reptiles differed from their amphibian enormous variety of types, only 4 survive today.
ancestors in 2 significant respects: and were the dominant land animals. of animals. Most have a long tail
they developed a hard, scaly outer The turtles and tortoises branched off Anatomy
skin that protected them from abrasion at a relatively early stage, and by 200 and 4 well-developed legs shoulder
and moisture loss; and, more million years ago, species similar to The external anatomy of reptiles with long digits, as seen girdle
importantly, they evolved a shelled, those we would recognize today were shows immense variation, from the
REPTILES amniotic egg, in which the embryo already present. Some time after this, long, slender, limbless forms of snakes in this skeleton of
developed within a sac of water, reptiles began to diversify explosively. to the short, stout, shell-covered
protecting it from the environment. Among the orders that appeared at bodies of turtles. However, all reptiles a monitor lizard.
Together, these features allowed this time were the pterosaurs (flying are characterized by the presence
reptiles to move away from the reptiles) and the dinosaurs, along of scales (see panel, below), which However, some
margins of water bodies, to which with 2 orders that survive today, the form a barrier that protects them from
the amphibians were restricted, and crocodilians and the tuataras. Later, abrasion, attacks from predators and species closely
to colonize land. By the Mesozoic era another evolutionary line led to the parasites, and dehydration. Scales
appearance of the squamates— differ considerably between reptiles, resemble snakes,
the lizards, amphisbaenians, and and in some species, scales of
various shapes and sizes are found and do not have
TURTLE FOSSIL on different areas of the body.
These are the fossilized Pigment below the scales gives the any limbs at all. rib
remains of a turtle, animal its coloring and markings, limb attached
dating back about 200 which may be for camouflage or for attached to spinal
million years. Turtles and display. In some reptiles, especially to side of column
tortoises have changed male lizards, groups of scales have body
little since that time, and evolved into dramatic crests, horns,
are the oldest group of and other features used for display. pelvic long
living reptiles. girdle digits

SKIN STRUCTURE The internal skeleton of a reptile
is made up of bony elements and
A reptile’s skin consists of 2 main layers: the provides a stiff supporting system
that is considerably sturdier than that
epidermis (outer layer) and the dermis (lower layer). of an amphibian, making reptiles
more suited to life on land. Unlike
The scales, which are present only on the epidermis, are those of mammals and birds, a
reptile’s limbs support the body from
made of a horny substance, keratin, which is similar in the side, which gives them a
sprawling gait when they move.
composition to human hair and fingernails. The dermis SNAKE SCALES LIZARD SCALES CROCODILE SCALES Snakes, along with most
amphisbaenians and some lizards,
contains nerves, blood vessels, and cells that support SCALE TYPES are without functional legs.

and nourish the epidermis. Unlike a fish’s scales, those Reptiles’ scales differ greatly in size, shape, and texture. They may be Differences in the skull reflect the
evolutionary origins of the various
of a reptile cannot be removed individually. All reptiles smooth or rough, and may overlap, like roof tiles, butt up against each reptile groups and are a useful
feature for classification. Turtles
replace their scales by shedding their outer skin. This other, or have layers of stretchy skin in between. In crocodilians, the and tortoises have no openings
in their temples, while crocodilians
allows room for growth, and also replaces skin that is scales on the back are strengthened by bony plates. and tuataras have 2 on each side.
The squamates also have 2 per
worn out. Whereas snakes epidermis horny layer scale CROSS SECTION OF SNAKE SKIN side, but they are sometimes joined
slough their skin in one piece, pigment cells to form a single, large opening. In
The scales of a reptile are made from the many reptiles, bone growth does not
lizards, crocodilians, turtles thick, horny outer layer of skin. Each scale
is joined to its neighbors by flexible, hinged
and tortoises, and tuataras areas, so that the body can move and bend.
Pigment cells between the epidermis and the
shed it in chunks or flakes. dermis determine the animal’s coloration.

After a snake has shed its

outer skin, it often appears

much more brightly colored. dermis

REPTILES 373

VESTIGIAL LIMBS ACTIVITY PATTERNS AIR ºC ºF
In some snake families, such as dwarf boas and TEMPERATURE 45
some boas and pythons, the vestigial back limbs Maintaining an optimum body LIZARD’S BODY 110
are still evident, indicating an evolutionary link temperature is the key to a reptile’s TEMPERATURE 30
between snakes and lizards. survival and lifestyle, as this graph SHELTERING TO 90
depicting a diurnal lizard’s activity AVOID COLD 15
end when sexual maturity is reached, patterns shows. At night and in the early BASKING 70
which means that some long-lived morning, the animal shelters from the 0
adults can grow extremely large. cold in its burrow. Later, as the NORMAL 6AM 50
temperature rises, it has to bask in ACTIVITY 32
Senses the sun in order to obtain the energy SHELTERING TO 9AM 12 NOON 3PM 6PM 8PM
required to forage. The lizard must AVOID HEAT
Reptiles’ senses are better developed seek shelter around noon to prevent
than those of amphibians, and some overheating, but re-emerges later, as
have sense organs that are not found the air cools, to forage once more.
anywhere else in the animal kingdom.
The eyes are often large and well Jacobson’s below their preferred range (in most
developed, although many snakes organ species, 86 – 104° F/30 – 40° C), they
have poor sight, and in some sensory will slow down and may act to raise
burrowing squamates the eyes are cells their temperature, perhaps by basking.
reduced or absent. Turtles and nostril This involves flattening or angling their
tortoises, crocodilians, and most body toward the sun, or pressing their
lizards have mobile eyelids, while retracted mouth extended
in snakes and some lizards they tongue tongue underside against a warm rock.
are immovable. Lizards and tuataras At very low temperatures,
have a light-sensitive area on top of JACOBSON’S ORGAN their bodily functions operate REPTILES
their skull, known as the third eye,
which is thought to control diurnal Snakes and most lizards extend and flicker their at a much reduced rate, although
and seasonal patterns of activity by tongue to pick up scent molecules around them. normally this occurs only after the
measuring day length. Reptiles tend On retracting their tongue, they transfer the animal has sought shelter, in a burrow
molecules to the Jacobson’s organ, inside or under rocks. In temperate regions,
EYE COVERINGS the mouth, where the scents are analysed. reptiles may shelter for prolonged
periods, or hibernate, over winter.
Crocodilians, turtles, tortoises, to have poor hearing. Some have no Similarly, species from hot, arid GIVING BIRTH
and most lizards have 2 movable external ear opening or middle ear climates may shelter for the hottest The female viviparous, or common, lizard retains
eyelids (an upper and a lower) as structure at all, and transmit sounds part of the year, an activity known as her eggs inside her body until they are ready to
well as a nictitating membrane. This through the skull bones. Taste is not estivation. Reptiles that live in tropical hatch. The 2 – 12 young break out of their eggs
membrane consists of a transparent important to reptiles, but smell is regions rarely need to bask. as soon as they are outside their mother’s body
fold of skin that is drawn over the eye highly developed. Some snakes have and can survive without her care.
from the side, providing protection heat-detecting organs in their faces, Reproduction
while also allowing the animal to see. and can detect minute temperature a female reproduces without the
changes to help them to locate prey. Little is known about the courtship need for fertilization, occurs in
In snakes and some lizards, the behavior of reptiles, although several species of lizards and one
lower lid, which is transparent, is Temperature chemical communication probably species of snake.
fused with the upper one, forming a control plays a large role. Several reptiles
fixed, transparent protective covering vocalize during the breeding season, Most reptiles lay eggs on land,
over the eye known as the spectacle, Since reptiles cannot generate heat and males of many lizards and some although a significant number of
or brille. internally, they depend on external other groups indulge in visual lizards and snakes give birth to
factors to keep their temperature displays using bright colors, crests, live young. Reptile eggs may have
SHEDDING SPECTACLES within critical limits. At temperatures and flaps of skin (dewlaps) under a hard shell, like those of birds, but
A snake (here, a cross-marked sand snake) the chin. These displays serve to most have a leathery shell that allows
sheds the outer layer of its spectacles, establish territories as well as to water and oxygen to pass through
or brilles, at the same time as it sloughs attract females. In most cases, to the developing embryo. Reptiles
the rest of its skin. a female is fertilized by a male, hide their eggs in burrows, decaying
although parthenogenesis, in which vegetation, or other similar locations.
Incubation periods can last from a
EMERGING FROM HIBERNATION few days to several months, with the
A group of red-sided garter snakes young of some species overwintering
emerge from their communal in their nest and emerging nearly one
burrow, where they have been year later. Live-bearing species retain
in hibernation since the the eggs inside their body and in
onset of cold weather some cases nourish them through
in winter. a form of placenta. Hatchling and
newborn reptiles are very similar to
their parents, although their colors
and markings may differ. Parental
care is rare except in crocodilians,
where it may last for 2 years or
more. Some lizards also care for
their young after birth.

374 TORTOISES AND TURTLES

Tortoises and turtles

PHYLUM Chordata Tortoises and turtles are among the oldest of all living FINDING THE WATER
CLASS Reptilia reptiles. They first appeared about 200 million years ago
ORDER Testudines but have evolved little in the intervening time, so that the Upon hatching from their eggs, young sea turtles, such as
FAMILY 14 living species are remarkably similar to those that lived these green sea turtles, have to find their way to water. It
is thought that they either instinctively travel down the
SPECIES 346 side by side with such animals as dinosaurs. Their most slope of the beach or sense small differences in light levels
over the land compared with the water (the water being
distinctive feature is the hard shell that encloses the brighter by both day and night). On their way, they must
contend with predators such as gulls and crabs.
soft parts of the body, providing protection and camouflage from

predators and the elements. Tortoises and turtles have no teeth

and instead use sharp jaws to cut their food. They live on land

as well as in freshwater and marine habitats (although all

species lay their eggs on land). The terrestrial species

are commonly referred to as tortoises, while those

that live in fresh water are often called terrapins.

The term turtle was traditionally reserved for

marine species, but most zoologists now use

it to refer to all members of the order. Although

they are most common in tropical regions,

tortoises and turtles are also found in temperate

parts of the world. Some marine species undertake

long-distance migrations, either in search of food

REPTILES or to reach their nest sites.

Anatomy DOMED SHELL

All tortoises and turtles have a shell, 4 limbs, and a horny, toothless
beak in their jaw. The shell consists of upper and lower parts (known
as the carapace and plastron, respectively), joined between the
front and hind legs on each side by a bridge. All parts of the shell
have 2 layers: an underlying bony layer and an outer epidermal
layer. The outer layer is made of thin, horny plates (scutes), which
contain the pigment that gives each species its distinctive
coloration. Some species lack scutes and have soft, leathery
shells. The shape of the limbs differs between terrestrial
and aquatic species: most terrestrial species have short,
club-shaped legs, while in aquatic species, they are
either webbed or shaped like flippers. Since their ribs
are fused to the shell (see below), tortoises and turtles
cannot move their ribs to draw air into and out of their
lungs. Instead, they use muscles at the tops of their
legs to provide the necessary pumping action.

SKELETON STREAMLINED SHELL SIDE- AND STRAIGHT-NECKED TORTOISES AND TURTLES

Tortoises and turtles have an unusual skeleton. The ribs and some SHELL SHAPES Two major subdivisions of tortoises and turtles are recognized, based on
of the vertebrae are fused to the inner surface of the carapace, and the The shape of a tortoise’s or turtle’s the way they withdraw their head into their shell. Side-necked turtles bend
pelvic and shoulder girdles are in an unusual position inside the rib cage. shell reflects its way of life. Terrestrial their neck sideways, so that the head rests under the edge of the shell;
The skull is heavily built, with no openings behind the eye sockets, as there species, like the Indian starred tortoise all side-necked turtles are aquatic or semiaquatic, freshwater species.
are in other reptiles. The length of the neck varies greatly between species (above top), have a high, domed shell Straight-necked species (which include all terrestrial and some aquatic forms)
and determines how the head is withdrawn into the shell (see right). have a shorter neck, which they bend into a vertical S-shape inside the
that is difficult for predators to bite shell, so that their head appears to go straight back when it is withdrawn.
inner bony outer horny or crush. Aquatic species, like the
layer scutes red-eared slider (above), have a
pelvic low, streamlined carapace that helps
girdle rib them slip easily through water. A few
species, such as the pancake tortoise,
carapace have a flexible carapace. Others, such
as box turtles, have a hinged plastron
so that they can close up completely. head under head drawn
edge of shell inside shell

vertebra

plastron shoulder girdle SIDE- NECKED STRAIGHT- NECKED

TORTOISES AND TURTLES 375

Migration SWIMMING

Some sea turtles migrate long distances from When swimming, sea turtles (such as this hawksbill turtle)
their feeding grounds to the beaches where use their front limbs for propulsion and their back limbs for
they lay their eggs. For example, some green steering. The speed at which they swim varies between
sea turtles feed off the coast of Brazil and nest species, from 14⁄5 to about 18 mph (3 to 30 kph).
on Ascension Island, in the eastern Atlantic,
which involves a return journey of at least 2,800
miles (4,500 km). All the breeding adults arrive at the
nesting beaches within a few weeks of each other.
Exactly how they navigate is still poorly understood,
but they probably use a combination of the earth’s
magnetic field, the directions of ocean currents,
water chemistry, and memory. The greatest

distances are traveled by the leatherback turtle,
which ranges from tropical seas almost to
Arctic waters in pursuit of jellyfish, its
preferred food.

Reproduction REPTILES

All tortoises and turtles lay their eggs on land. Tropical
species may lay several clutches throughout the year, whereas
temperate species lay only once or twice during a breeding
season; females can store sperm so that they can continue
to lay fertile eggs long after mating. The size of the clutch
depends on the size of the species: small turtles lay 1 – 4 eggs,
while the largest species can lay over 100. The green sea
turtle is the most prolific species, laying up to 6 or 7 clutches
of more than 100 eggs spread over 2 weeks. Turtles do not care
for their young, although at least one species (the Burmese brown

tortoise) stays at its nest for a few days
after laying to protect the eggs
from predators.

EGGS NESTING

The eggs of large turtles Some female tortoises and turtles lay their eggs
and tortoises are almost under rotting vegetation or in the burrows of other
spherical, but those of animals. However, most species (such as this green
small species tend to sea turtle) use their back limbs to dig a special
be elongated. The shells flask-shaped chamber. Once the eggs have been
may be either hard and laid, the sand or soil is carefully replaced and
brittle or flexible. This smoothed over to conceal them from predators.
leopard tortoise hatchling
is breaking out of its shell
using an egg tooth that will
be shed shortly afterward.

FRESHWATER CARNIVORES VEGETARIANS
Snapping turtles live in shallow lakes, rivers,
and swamps. This common snapping turtle Tortoises such as this Galapagos tortoise (left) graze
(right) will prey on almost anything that comes on grass and other low plants, or browse on bushes
within range of its sharp jaws and cavernous and shrubs. They often eat almost continuously
mouth, and is small enough to be swallowed. when active and are quick to take advantage of
more nutritious fallen fruit and even animal
Feeding carcasses if they are available.

Turtles and tortoises are too slow-moving to pursue active prey, although a
few aquatic species—mostly those that live in murky, clouded water—hunt
by ambush, remaining motionless in the hope that a fish or crustacean will
inadvertently swim past. Tortoises are primarily herbivorous, grazing or
browsing on leaves and fruit. Many species also eat animals, such as
caterpillars, that appear incidentally in their food, and most will eat
carrion given the chance. Freshwater turtles often start life as
insectivores, finding enough small aquatic larvae and other
small prey to survive but, as they grow, they switch to a diet
consisting mainly of aquatic vegetation. Some marine turtles
eat only seaweed as adults, while others feed on invertebrates,
including jellyfish, sea urchins, and mollusks.

376 TORTOISES AND TURTLES

Carettochelys insculpta Chelodina longicollis Together, the head and neck are often Platemys platycephala
longer than the shell, allowing the turtle
Pig-nosed river Common snake-necked to lunge at passing prey, such as fishes, Twist-necked turtle
turtle turtle tadpoles, and crustaceans. Its long neck
also allows it to “snorkel” while resting Length 51⁄2 – 63⁄4 in
Length 28 – 30 in Length 8 – 10 in on the beds of slow-moving rivers or (14 – 17 cm)
(70 – 75 cm) (20 – 25 cm) streams, or in swamps and lagoons. In Breeding Oviparous
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous summer, it may make extensive overland Habit Semiaquatic
Habit Aquatic Habit Semiaquatic migrations to find water. If disturbed, this Status Not evaluated
Status Vulnerable Status Not evaluated turtle can emit a foul-smelling fluid from
Location E. and S. Australia its musk glands. The female lays 6 – 24 Location N. South
brittle eggs in a nest dug in grassy or America
With its small head and extremely sandy areas at night or after rains.
Location S. New Guinea, long neck, this turtle
N. Australia is one of Australia’s
most distinctive
This unusual Australasian turtle lives freshwater reptiles. eardrums and sensory skin flaps that If threatened, this turtle withdraws into
in fresh water, but has a number of help to detect moving prey. It also has its shell by twisting its head onto its side.
similarities with turtles that live at sea. Chelus fimbriatus a snorkellike nose, which allows it to Also called the flat-headed turtle, this
Its limbs are broad and flipperlike, with breathe without rising to the surface.
relatively few claws, and its gray-green Matamata Female matamatas lay up to 28 eggs little-known species has an extremely
or grayish brown carapace is covered in a single nesting. flat shell that may help it hide under
by a layer of soft skin. The shell has a Length 12 – 18 in rocks and debris. The carapace is
pitted or sculpted surface. Pig-nosed (30 – 45 cm) frills of skin on neck dark or chestnut-brown, or yellow with
turtles are active foragers, feeding on Breeding Oviparous brown patches, with 2 ridges along its
snails, small fishes, and fruit. The piglike Habit Aquatic length. A poor swimmer, the turtle remains
snout gives them their name. They use Status Not evaluated in shallow pools and puddles, or moves
the snout to breathe while submerged. Location N. South America around on the forest floor. It forages for
Females nest in shallow holes on river aquatic insects, worms, snails, and
banks, laying up to 22 thin-shelled eggs. tadpoles. Females lay a single egg in a
shallow scrape or directly on the surface,
and cover it with rotting leaves.

dark brown head
with yellow top

REPTILES Most turtles actively seek out their prey, knobby Eretmochelys imbricata
but the knobby shelled matamata lies carapace
in wait in shallow, muddy water, using Hawksbill turtle
its remarkable camouflage to avoid
being seen. Its eyes—set in a triangular
head—are small, but it has large external

Chelonia mydas small smooth, non- Location Warmer parts of Length 231⁄2 – 32 in
head overlapping, Atlantic, tropical (60 – 80 cm)
Green sea turtle scutes on Indo-Pacific Breeding Oviparous
about 6 – 8 weeks, carapace Habit Aquatic
Length 31⁄4 – 4 ft but before they can Status Critically
(1 – 1.2 m) reach the water, many large, white endangered
Breeding Oviparous are eaten by crabs, gulls, plastron
Habit Aquatic and other seabirds. One of the smallest marine turtles,
Status Endangered limbs modified the hawksbill is easily recognized by
LARGE AND STREAMLINED into flippers its carapace, which has a central
Location Tropical, This large turtle, weighing 145–660lb keel and serrated edges. Seen
subtropical, and temperate (65–300kg), is a superb swimmer, with a closely, its scutes are beautifully
waters worldwide smooth shell and powerful flippers. Adults are
greenish brown to black, sometimes streaked marked—the reason why this species
This graceful, streamlined swimmer with dark brown, red-brown, and yellow. has been so widely hunted. Hawksbills
is one of the world’s most widespread are long-lived animals, and are less
marine turtles found in tropical and CONSERVATION migratory than other marine turtles.
subtropical waters across the globe. They use their narrow beaks to forage
Despite its name, it is not invariably The green sea turtle has been the for sponges, mollusks, and other animals
green, but it always has distinctive, light main quarry of commercial turtle on the seabed and among coral reefs.
edging to the scales on its head and fishing, which has led to its endangered
limbs, and on scutes around the edge status. With the disturbance of many dark carapace strong
of its shield-shaped carapace. The breeding beaches, suitable nesting with light flippers
adults graze on sea grass, mangrove sites are also decreasing. Conservation markings
roots, and leaves, but young green measures for the green sea turtle
sea turtles are more carnivorous, also include legal protection from hunting
eating jellyfish, mollusks, and sponges. and egg harvesting, patrols of nesting
In order to breed, green sea turtles beaches, and artificial incubation of
make their way to isolated, sandy eggs so that hatchlings can be given a
beaches, sometimes traveling across head start, being released into the wild
more than 620 miles (1,000 km) of open once past their most vulnerable stage.
water. After mating in shallow water, the
females crawl ashore after dark, laying
100 – 150 eggs in deep pits above the
high-tide mark. The young hatch in

TORTOISES AND TURTLES 377

Caretta caretta Lepidochelys olivacea Chelydra serpentina Inhabiting fresh and brackish water,
preferably with plenty of plant life, it
Loggerhead turtle Olive ridley turtle Common snapping often lies buried in mud with only the
turtle eyes and nostrils exposed. It sits and
Length 28 – 39 in Length 20 – 30 in waits for prey by day but at night is an
(70 – 100 cm) (50 – 75 cm) Length 10 – 181⁄2 in active forager, lunging with its mouth
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous (25 – 47 cm) open to engulf small mammals, birds,
Habit Aquatic Habit Aquatic Breeding Oviparous fishes, invertebrates, and plants. Mating
Status Vulnerable Status Vulnerable Habit Aquatic may occur without preliminaries, but
Status Least concern rituals in which the male and female
Location Tropical, Location Tropical parts of face each other with necks extended
subtropical, and temperate Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Location E. and C. North have also been seen. Females lay one
waters worldwide oceans America, Central America, clutch of 20 – 30 eggs in a season, in a
N.W. South America flask-shaped nest, often in a muskrat
lodge; they can retain sperm from one
Compared to most other marine turtles, The smallest sea turtle, the olive ridley This large, dark turtle is quick- breeding season to the next.
the loggerhead has a large head and turtle has an unmarked, dark or light tempered, biting ferociously
powerful jaws, capable of crushing olive carapace. An active forager, it when threatened. It has a 3 raised keels
crabs, lobsters, and other hard-bodied takes crustaceans, fishes, and squid. massive head, a small on carapace
prey. In open water, it usually floats near It migrates in large numbers to its plastron, and a rough
the surface, but it stays near the bottom breeding grounds. Once, huge flotillas carapace, sometimes
in estuaries and bays, surfacing only to of turtles would arrive at sandy covered with algae.
breathe. Loggerheads breed only every beaches to nest; human depredation
2 years—or sometimes longer—and lay has put an end to this spectacle.
up to 5 clutches of about 100 eggs.

Macrochelys temminckii equipped with a lure that entices fishes FISH LURE
toward its scissor-sharp jaws. At night,
Alligator snapping it is an active forager. Males spend their During the day, this turtle lies
turtle entire lives at the bottom of lakes or with its jaws open and lures
rivers, but the females leave the water fishes by wiggling a small, pink,
Length 16 – 32 in in spring to lay clutches of 10 – 50 wormlike structure on the floor
(40 – 80 cm) spherical eggs, buried in mud or sand.
Breeding Oviparous of its mouth. The hooked
Habit Aquatic ROUGH AND KEELED upper and lower beaks can REPTILES
Status Vulnerable The alligator snapping turtle has a rough shell, deliver a powerful bite.
with 3 jagged keels, and an extra row of scutes
Location S.E. USA on each side.

rough extra row massive
carapace of scutes head

Emys orbicularis This formidable animal is the world’s
largest freshwater turtle, with
European pond a maximum weight reputed
turtle to be over 220 lb (100 kg).
Like the matamata (see
Length 6 – 8 in opposite), it hunts
(15 – 20 cm), mainly by sitting and
max 12 in (30 cm) waiting, but it is
Breeding Oviparous
Location N. Africa, Habit Semiaquatic Chrysemys picta basks for long periods, especially Clemmys guttata
Europe, W. Asia Status Near threatened in the morning, several individuals
Painted turtle piling up on one another to bask on Spotted turtle
a favorite log. It is omnivorous and
spotted shell Length 6 – 10 in forages actively by day, sleeping on Length 4 – 5 in
(15 – 25 cm) the lake bottom at night. Hunted by (10 – 12.5 cm)
Breeding Oviparous birds, fishes, and racoons, it defends Breeding Oviparous
Habit Aquatic itself by hiding its head inside its shell, Habit Semiaquatic
Status Least concern or by burying itself in mud. The painted Status Endangered
turtle hibernates for variable lengths of
Location North America time, depending on its location. Most Location S.E. Canada,
females lay 2 – 20 eggs in 3 clutches, in E. USA
chambers dug in sandy soil; not all lay
This freshwater turtle is one of the eggs every season.
most widespread in North America,
This olive, brown, or black turtle is found in lakes, ponds, yellow stripes very smooth This small turtle has yellow spots on its
one of just 2 freshwater species that and slow-moving on neck carapace black carapace, head, neck, and limbs.
is native to Europe. Its carapace is streams and rivers An omnivorous active forager, it is itself
smooth, and a hinge toward the front from the eastern hunted by birds and small mammals. In
of the plastron allows it to be raised seaboard to the far summer, the semiaquatic spotted turtle
when the turtle withdraws its head, Midwest. There are estivates in the muddy beds of lakes
although adults cannot close the shell 4 distinct subspecies; and rivers or in muskrat burrows; it may
completely. These turtles spend much all have a flattened, hibernate in similar sites in winter.
of their time basking on stones or logs, smooth carapace, but
but they dive at the first sign of danger. some have red margins
They eat frogs, fishes, and other small to their shells, a red stripe
animals, in water or on land. on the back, or yellow or red
stripes on the neck. This turtle

378 TORTOISES AND TURTLES

Glyptemys insculpta Terrapene carolina BOXED IN Trachemys scripta elegans

Wood turtle Carolina box turtle Red-eared slider

Length 51⁄2 – 71⁄2 in Length 4 – 81⁄2 in Length 8 – 12 in
(14 – 19 cm), (10 – 21 cm) (20 – 30 cm)
max 9 in (23 cm) Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Breeding Oviparous Habit Semiterrestrial Habit Aquatic
Habit Semiaquatic Status Vulnerable Status Near threatened
Status Endangered
Location S.E. Canada, Location E. USA Location S. Central USA
N.E. USA

Besides being an unusually good Known to have lived for as long as 100 The front section of the Carolina yellow-marked red stripe
climber, the wood turtle is a natural years in captivity, in the wild the box turtle’s plastron is hinged, so green shell behind eyes
wanderer, and is often found crossing Carolina box turtle prefers damp that when the turtle withdraws its
fields or roads, particularly after rain. The habitats, such as meadows, floodplains, head into the shell, the front of the
scutes on its carapace have concentric or moist, forested areas. Very active in plastron can be raised, effectively
ridges, and their somber colors provide it the mornings, particularly after rain, this shutting the animal into a
with effective camouflage. Wood turtles omnivore forages for slugs, worms, protective “box.”
are omnivores, eating worms, slugs, mushrooms, or berries. To escape the
insects, and tadpoles, as well as leaves, heat, it retreats into cover or mud at TAN TURTLE Identified by a prominent red stripe
berries, and other plant food. They mate midday and in midsummer, and survives This individual has a tan shell, but some Carolina behind its eyes, this freshwater turtle
in water, and the females lay 7 – 8 eggs a the cold winter months by hibernating. box turtles are mainly orange or yellow, and others is just one subspecies of the many
year in flask-shaped nests. At one time, Females can lay fertile eggs for several may be quite dark, with radiating yellow lines. species that live in lakes, rivers,
the adult turtles were caught in large years following a single mating. The and creeks in North America. Like
numbers for food. adults have few natural predators, domed many of its close relatives, it is fond
but the young turtles fall shell of basking in sunshine, sometimes
prey to mammals forming stacks where basking sites
pyramid-shaped reddish skin on such as raccoons,
scutes neck and legs and birds are in short supply, but it is quick
of prey. to dive into the water if disturbed.

REPTILES As an adult, it lives almost
entirely on plant food, but
its young eat tadpoles and
aquatic invertebrates.

Dermochelys coriacea spines to prevent their CONSERVATION
slippery prey escaping. They usually
Leatherback turtle feed near the surface, but they can Leatherbacks nest on sandy
dive down to 1,300 ft (400 m)—perhaps tropical beaches, providing an
Length 41⁄4 – 6 ft as much as 3,300 ft (1,000 m)—holding opportunity to gauge the total
(1.3 – 1.8 m) their breath for up to half an hour. population at sea. The results are
Breeding Oviparous Although normally found in the open alarming: in the past 2 decades,
Habit Aquatic ocean, leatherbacks gather inshore leatherback numbers have slumped,
Status Vulnerable during the breeding season, when with far fewer coming ashore to lay.
males scramble for females arriving Measures to protect leatherbacks
Location Tropical, to lay their eggs. As with other marine include a complete ban on their
subtropical, and temperate turtles, the females have a strong capture; in addition, their eggs are
waters worldwide homing instinct that guides them to a collected and incubated in safe
particular stretch of beach, and they lay conditions, so that their young
Weighing up to 1,770 lb (800 kg), the eggs on dark, moonless nights to avoid can be released into the sea.
leatherback is by far the largest of being seen. The hatchlings’ shells are
the marine turtles, and one of the animal covered with small, pearly scales, 5 ridges EXCURSION ASHORE
world’s greatest oceanic travelers. which soon disappear. along leathery Emerging from the sea to lay eggs, a female
Tagged individuals have been known carapace leatherback laboriously hauls herself up a
to cross the Atlantic. Leatherbacks also beach. On average, she may spend less
range into cold waters at high latitudes, than 2 hours a year on land.
thanks to a limited ability to generate
body heat. Physically, they differ from large head on short,
other marine turtles not only in size, but thick neck
also in having a narrow, leathery shell,
and flippers without claws. Leatherbacks
feed primarily on jellyfish, and their
throats have backward-pointing

TORTOISES AND TURTLES 379

Dermatemys mawii Cuora flavomarginata Cyclemys dentata feeding on invertebrates and tadpoles,
as well as plants. Very active both on
Central American Yellow-marginated Asian leaf turtle land and in water, it prefers shallow
river turtle box turtle streams in either mountains or lowlands.
Length 6 – 91⁄2 in When danger threatens, it may withdraw
Length 20 – 26 in Length 4 – 43⁄4 in (15 – 24 cm) into its shell or dive to the bottom of the
(50 – 65 cm) (10 – 12 cm) Breeding Oviparous water and hide in the mud. The female
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous Habit Semiaquatic digs a chamber in which she lays up
Habit Aquatic Habit Semiaquatic Status Near threatened to 5 clutches of 2 – 4 relatively large
Status Critically Status Endangered eggs each year; unusually, in this turtle,
endangered Location E. Asia (including Location S.E. Asia the plastron becomes flexible to allow
Taiwan and Ryukyu Islands) eggs to be laid. Hatchlings are more
Location S. Mexico to aquatic than adults and have spines
Central America yellow or points—which disappear with
stripe age—around the edge of the carapace,
The webbed feet and streamlined shell The oval carapace of this turtle has perhaps to deter predators.
The yellow-marginated box turtle a serrated edge near the tail, and is
of this olive-gray turtle are adaptations gets its name from a hinged plastron that colored light to dark brown (sometimes raised keel
allows it to be completely boxed in when mahogany) with faint dark markings. down center
for swimming; it is almost helpless on withdrawn into its shell, and yellow stripes The plastron, which is hinged, is more
that run down its back and from each eye boldly marked with lines radiating from
land. Females have olive tops to their to the neck. It spends much of its time the center of each scute. As with
in rice paddies, ponds, and streams, most turtles, males are smaller
heads (yellowish to reddish brown in but also basks and wanders on land. than females and have longer,
This turtle feeds on fishes, crustaceans, thicker tails. The Asian leaf
males), and very short tails. They lay worms, and fruit. Nesting in soil or sand, turtle is an omnivore,
females may lay several clutches of one
6 – 20 eggs in muddy river banks in or, occasionally, 2 eggs a year. dark brown
carapace
summer and fall, burying them or
light to
covering them with decaying vegetation. reddish
brown legs
While adults are herbivorous, the

juveniles also eat mollusks, crustaceans,

and, probably, fishes. This turtle is

hunted by otters and humans. oval
carapace

reddish REPTILES
brown head

Kinosternon flavescens carapace, and may occasionally bite. Pelomedusa subrufa Pelodiscus sinensis

Yellow mud turtle It has especially powerful jaws for African helmeted Chinese soft-shelled
turtle turtle
crushing its prey, which includes snails,

worms, insects, and tadpoles. Primarily

Length 43⁄4 – 61⁄2 in diurnal, it spends most of its time in
(12 – 16 cm)
Breeding Oviparous shallow, slow-moving bodies of water in
Habit Mainly aquatic
Status Least concern grassland. In midsummer, it shelters from Length 8 – 12½ in Length 6 – 12 in
(20 – 32 cm) (15 – 30 cm)
heat in muskrat dens or by burrowing Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Habit Semiaquatic Habit Aquatic
under leaf litter. It hibernates in the cooler Status Not evaluated Status Vulnerable

Location S. Central USA, parts of its range. smooth,
N. Mexico dark border to rounded shell
scutes
Location Africa (south of Location E. Asia
Sahara)

In addition to withdrawing into its flattened With its long snout and tubelike nostrils,
shell for defense, the yellow mud carapace the Chinese soft-shelled turtle can
turtle can also release foul-smelling
musk from 2 pairs of glands under its “snorkel” in shallow water. It also has
webbed feet for swimming. When
Sternotherus odoratus active by day, but may also hunt at resting, it lies at the bottom, buried
night, and a pair of sensory barbels on in sand or mud, lifting its head to
Stinkpot the chin may help it to find food—mainly breathe or snatch at prey. It forages
insects, mollusks, plant material, or at night, taking crustaceans, mollusks,
Length 31⁄4 – 5 in carrion. It is eaten by bald eagles and The sluggish insects, fishes, and amphibians. If
(8 – 13 cm) red-shouldered hawks, alligators, and African helmeted threatened, it cannot withdraw
Breeding Oviparous fishes such as the largemouth bass. turtle lives in rain completely into its shell, but it can give
Habit Mainly aquatic Females nest under tree stumps or in pools and watering holes in Africa’s a vicious bite.
Status Least concern the walls of muskrat lodges, laying 1 – 5 open country. During the rainy season,
eggs at a time. it wanders from pool to pool foraging for pancakelike carapace
Location S. and E. USA frogs, tadpoles, mollusks, invertebrates, with no scutes
and carrion. It may estivate in dry
As a form of defense, this turtle expels 3 slight keels barbels conditions by burying itself in mud.
a foul odor from its musk glands, hence on carapace on chin If threatened by crocodiles or other
the name “stinkpot.” It can also bite carnivores, it withdraws into its shell,
viciously. Rarely leaving quiet, helped by a hinged plastron, and may
shallow, muddy-bottomed waters, also discharge a strong-smelling musk
it is often covered in algae. It is and the contents of its cloaca.

380 TORTOISES AND TURTLES

Chelonoidis elephantopus saddle-backed shell long neck can stretch up UNMISTAKABLE GIANT
allows greater neck to shrubs and bushes The impressive size of the Galapagos tortoise
Galapagos tortoise movement is probably due to its adaptation to living in
a difficult environment with an unreliable
Length Up to 4 ft food supply—the larger the tortoise,
(1.2 m) the more nourishment it can store.
Breeding Oviparous
Habit Terrestrial
Status Vulnerable

Location Galapagos
Islands

The Galapagos tortoise, the largest living SHELL SHAPE
tortoise, has a huge carapace, massive The shell of the Galapagos tortoise varies and is
limbs, and a long neck. The overall size and linked to feeding habit. A domed shell is common
shell shape can vary depending on which for subspecies that graze on grasses, whereas a
of the Galapagos Islands the tortoise saddle-backed shell is adapted for browsing shrubs.
originates from. They spend most of their
time grazing in small herds and basking in CONSERVATION
pools. During the breeding season, males
become territorial and look for mates, while Since 1965, the Charles Darwin
females create nests in the ground to lay Research Station has been running
their eggs. Despite some individuals living a breeding and repatriation program
well over 100 years, this species remains to boost the dwindling population
vulnerable. The main threat is depredation of Galapagos tortoises. By 2016,
by introduced species such as black rats the program had released
and cats, as well as competition with cattle 4,000 tortoises.
for food. The scientific name Chelonoidis
REPTILES elephantopus is widely used, but this is
not without controversy. Some authorities
have argued that the Galapagos tortoise
should be viewed as up to 15 separate
species and others claim that C. nigra is
the correct name.

GENERALIZED HERBIVORE
The Galapagos tortoise has strong, toothless
jaws well adapted to feeding on whatever type
of vegetation it can find, including tough cacti.

381

MATING

The courtship technique of
the male Galapagos tortoise is
uncompromising. Having located
a suitable female, he rams her into
submission, nipping her legs to
further immobilize her. He then
climbs onto her back to mate.

REPTILES

382 TORTOISES AND TURTLES

Chelonoidis carbonarius legs are marked with splashes of red Gopherus agassizii Homopus signatus
or yellowish orange, and the shell—in
Red-footed tortoise adult males—is unusually elongated, Desert tortoise Speckled padloper
with a constriction in the middle. Like
Length 16 – 20 in most of its relatives, the red-footed Length 10 – 14 in Length 21⁄4 – 31⁄4 in
(40 – 50 cm) tortoise lives mainly on plant food, (25 – 36 cm) (6 – 8 cm)
Breeding Oviparous such as leaves and fallen fruit, but Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Habit Terrestrial it also scavenges animal remains. Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Status Not evaluated Females lay clutches of 2 – 15 nearly Status Vulnerable Status Near threatened
spherical eggs several times a year.
Location Central and Location S.W. USA, Location W. South Africa
South America N.W. Mexico

growth rings reddish or yellow
on scutes blotch on scutes

The genus Chelonoidis includes the This tortoise’s thick, shovel-shaped
forefeet are specially adapted for digging
world’s biggest tortoises, burrows in which to escape the extreme
heat of the desert during the day and the
as well as many smaller cold at night. It shelters individually in
burrows in very hot or drought conditions
species, such as this but may gather in large, communal dens
dug into gravel banks to escape the cold.
one from South reddish edge It lives for at least 50 years, mainly eating
America. Its to forelimb cacti and grasses, but also feeds on
insects. Males have longer projections
Geochelone elegans a whole is strongly domed. The at the front of their plastrons and may This African species is the smallest
Indian starred tortoise needs plenty attack each other on sight in the tortoise in the world, with males being
Indian starred of water, and it is most active during breeding season. particularly tiny. Their small size makes
tortoise the monsoon season. In drier weather, speckled padlopers vulnerable to
it stirs only in the morning and late carnivorous mammals and birds, but
Length Up to 11 in afternoon. Each year, the female sculptured heavily it also enables them to squeeze under
(28 cm) lays several clutches of up to 10 plates built, domed rocks to escape attack, and to shelter
Breeding Oviparous eggs in a flask-shaped chamber 4 – 6 in carapace from the sun. The flattened shell is
Habit Semiaquatic (10 – 15 cm) deep. brown, orange-red, or salmon-pink,
Status Vulnerable with fine black markings. Speckled
scutes rising yellowish brown padlopers live in dry habitats, and
REPTILES Location S. Asia to rounded lines radiating to forage for small, succulent plants.
points edge of scutes

With its star-shaped markings and Kinixys erosa and riverbanks in its forest habitat,
knobby carapace, this Asian species
is one of the world’s most distinctive Serrated hinge-back but when on land, it spends much of
tortoises. Each of its scutes tortoise
rises to a rounded point, the time buried beneath roots and logs.
and the carapace as
It is an omnivorous species, feeding

on plants, fruit, and invertebrates, as

well as carrion. In a breeding season,

Length 10 – 121⁄2 in females lay several clutches of up to
(25 – 32 cm)
Stigmochelys pardalis variety of habitats, from sandy, coastal Breeding Oviparous 4 eggs on the ground, covering them
scrub to grassland and semidesert, Habit Semiterrestrial
Leopard tortoise although it is scarce in very dry deserts. Status Data deficient with leaves.
It may bury itself to hibernate in cool
parts of its range, and to estivate in hinged carapace flared
the hotter parts. The leopard tortoise marginal scutes
is herbivorous, grazing on grasses, fallen
Length 12 – 28 in fruit, fungi, and the leaves of succulents. Location W. to C. Africa
(30 – 70 cm) In the breeding season, the female digs
Breeding Oviparous a flask-shaped pit with her hind feet, A hinge toward the back of the
Habit Terrestrial urinating to soften hard soil, and lays carapace enables this tortoise to
Status Least concern 3 – 6 clutches of 5 – 30 eggs at monthly shut itself in its shell completely. A
intervals. Hatchlings may have to wait in fair swimmer, it seeks out marshes
Location E. to southern the nest chamber for several weeks for
Africa rain to soften the ground before they
can burrow to the surface. The young
The carapace of the leopard tortoise become prey to monitor lizards, storks, Malacochersus tornieri wedge itself in, for safety, by digging in
is yellowish, with scattered dark crows, and small mammals. its foreclaws and rotating the forelimbs,
markings that are bolder, although Pancake tortoise making extraction difficult. It forages,
fewer, in hatchlings. In some growth rings mainly in the mornings, for grasses,
individuals, it can grow to on scutes Length 51⁄2 – 61⁄2 in leaves, and fruit, but never moves far
28 in (70 cm) long. This (14 – 17 cm) from the rocky outcrop in which it
tortoise lives in a scattered dark Breeding Oviparous spends the night. In summer, this
markings Habit Terrestrial tortoise crawls under a flat stone and
domed carapace Status Vulnerable estivates to avoid the heat. Females
with vertical lay several clutches of a single egg
sides Location E. Africa throughout the breeding season.

The carapace of this tortoise is not only elongated, yellow
extremely flat but also very flexible, due to tan carapace
to openings in the underlying bones.
This allows the tortoise to squeeze into
narrow crevices in order to escape
predatory mammals or birds; it can also

TUATARAS 383

Testudo hermanni also eats slugs, snails, and animal Testudo graeca Chersina angulata
remains. It lives in places with dense
Hermann’s tortoise plant cover, forcing its way through Spur-thighed tortoise Angulate tortoise
the vegetation on its short but
Length 6 – 8 in powerful legs. It is not active during Length 8 – 10 in Length 6 – 8 in
(15 – 20 cm) the hottest part of the day in summer, (20 – 25 cm) (15 – 20 cm)
Breeding Oviparous and in the extreme south, it becomes Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Habit Terrestrial dormant. Where winters are cold, it Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Status Near threatened also hibernates for several months Status Vulnerable Status Not evaluated
each year. As with most tortoises, this
Location S.E. Europe, species hisses and grunts, particularly Location S. Europe, S.W. Location Southern Africa
Mediterranean islands during the breeding season. Having and W. Asia, N.W. Africa,
mated, females dig flask-shaped Mediterranean islands
nesting chambers, where they lay up to
Easily confused with the spur-thighed 12 eggs. Like the spur-thighed tortoise, Also known as the bowsprit tortoise, this
tortoise (see right), this tortoise is the this species was once collected in species has a high, domed carapace.
smallest of 3 species that live in southern large numbers for the pet trade, but It eats grasses and succulents—
Europe. It has a domed and slightly is now fully protected. hibernating during the winter—and, in
lumpy carapace, colored yellow, olive, or spite of its armor, provides food for
brown, with a scattering of irregular dark rounded, monitor lizards, carnivorous mammals,
markings. As with most tortoises, the domed and even birds of prey. Unusually, the
males are slightly smaller than the carapace males are slightly larger than the females,
females, and have longer tails and and fight with rivals at the onset of the
concave undersides. Hermann’s Conspicuous spurs on the hindlegs breeding season. Females lay one, or
tortoise is largely a vegetarian, give this tortoise its name, and help rarely, 2 eggs.
feeding on fruit, flowers, distinguish it from Hermann’s tortoise
and leaves, although it black
(see left), which overlaps its range. triangles
Its shell is similar to the Hermann’s
scaly but smoother. It lives in grassy
forelimbs places and sand dunes, and

irregular dark feeds on leaves, fruit, and occasionally REPTILES
markings carrion and mammal dung. The females
lay clutches of up to 12 eggs.

Tuataras Sphenodon punctatus

Tuatara

PHYLUM Chordata The tuatara is the only representative of a group BASKING Length 20 – 231⁄2 in
CLASS Reptilia of reptiles that flourished over 200 million years ago. (50 – 60 cm)
ORDER Rhynchocephalia Found on 2 groups of small islands off the coast of Although usually nocturnal, tuataras may Breeding Oviparous
New Zealand, they look similar to lizards. Tuataras occasionally be seen basking on rocks on Habit Burrowing
sunny days. Due to a low metabolic rate, Status Least concern
they draw breath infrequently, and when
FAMILIES 1 (Sphenodontidae) live in burrows and are largely nocturnal. Compared at rest may take only one breath an hour. Location New Zealand
(coastal islands)

SPECIES 1 to other reptiles, they are remarkably tolerant

of cold, remaining active in temperatures as

low as 50°F (10°C). They grow slowly, breed With its spiny crest and loose, scaly skin,
the tuatara looks deceptively similar to
infrequently, and live to a great age (possibly some iguanas (see pp.414–6). It was once
widespread in New Zealand, but now
over 100 years). survives almost entirely on small, offshore
islands, where it is protected from
Anatomy Feeding introduced mammals. Adult tuataras
feed after dark, with spiders, insects, and
Tuataras have a large head, a long tail, and Tuataras are almost entirely worms making up the bulk of their diet.
well-developed limbs. They have a different insectivorous and feed on the large They grow very slowly, and females do not
skull structure than lizards (see below), and numbers of scavenging beetles breed until they are at least 20 years old.
unlike lizards they have no eardrums, and crickets that are attracted The eggs spend a year developing inside
middle ear, or external male sexual the female’s body, and after being laid,
organ. A “third eye” is situated on the to colonies of seabirds. They they take at least a year to hatch. Recent
top of the head, but there is no also eat other invertebrates, genetic analysis indicated that there
evidence that this is functional. small lizards, and, were two distinct species of tuataras:
occasionally, the eggs S. punctatus and S. guntheri. They are now,
bony arch and chicks of birds however, considered to be insufficiently
whose nest holes different to justify full species status, and
SKULL SHAPE openings in they share. BURROWING so S. guntheri has been reclassified as a
back of head subspecies of S. punctatus.
Tuataras either dig their
There are 2 openings towards the own burrows or inhabit the reduced crest
nest holes excavated by on female
breeding seabirds, such as
back of the tuatara’s skull; most lizards small petrels. They usually
hunt for food just outside the
have only one such opening. The teeth are entrance of the burrow.

not separate structures but serrations along

the edges of both the upper and lower jaws.

384 SNAKES

Snakes

PHYLUM Chordata Snakes are formidable and highly evolved

CLASS Reptilia predators. Although they have no limbs,

ORDER Squamata no eyelids, and no external ears, these

SUBORDER Serpentes versatile animals move with ease and

FAMILIES 27 find their prey using sophisticated senses.

SPECIES About 4,500 All snakes eat other animals, ranging from

CLASSIFICATION NOTE ants to antelopes, some of which they subdue

Snakes are closely related to by constriction or by delivering a venomous
lizards and amphisbaenians.
There is much debate over the bite from specialized fangs. Although snakes
relationships between different
types of snakes, and there cannot chew their food, the bones in their skull
is no universally accepted
system of classification. Most are lightly constructed and loosely connected,
controversy concerns the
number of families. While so that the jaws can be opened wide and the
most authorities recognize 19,
others consider some of these prey swallowed whole. Snakes have established
to be subfamilies and arrive at
a smaller number, combining themselves on all the world’s major landmasses
boas and pythons in a single
family, for example. (except Antarctica) as well as on many oceanic

islands. Only about one in 10 are venomous

and of these only a small proportion represent

a threat to humans. ribs along
body

Anatomy

The shape of a snake’s body usually reflects where it lives: skull

climbing species tend to be long and thin; burrowers are

REPTILES often short and stout with short tails and blunt snouts; and

sea snakes have flattened, paddle-shaped tails. Unlike other vertebrae

reptiles, snakes have a single row of scales on their underside,

the ventral scales, which are usually wide, and smaller scales SKELETON

on the upper surfaces. Some species have large, regular plates on A snake has up to 400
vertebrae that articulate
the head, while others have small, fragmented on each other to give a

scales. Each eye is covered with highly flexible skeleton.
Each vertebra has 2
a transparent scale, the brille or winglike processes to keep the
spine from twisting. Ribs are
spectacle, which is replaced when attached to the vertebrae in the
body but are absent in the tail. Some
PRIMITIVE the snake sheds its skin. All scales species have hind limb girdles, and primitive
SNAKE can be smooth, ridged (keeled), or snakes have vestigial hind limbs in the form of
granular. The internal organs are small spurs, but no snakes have front-limb girdles.
short, modified to fit the elongated body.
heavy jaw

Paired organs are staggered within the no ribs
in tail
body cavity, and only one lung may be

functional, with the other reduced in size.

REAR- FANGED fang Sea snakes have an enlarged lung, part SENSES heat pit between
SNAKE at rear, of which forms a buoyancy chamber. eye and nostril
below eye Snakes have poor eyesight and hearing, HEAT PITS
SKULLS AND TEETH and rely instead on other senses. A well-
developed sense of smell is supplemented
Primitive snakes have a heavy skull with few by the Jacobson’s organ (see p.373), and
active snakes flick their tongue constantly
teeth. Most other snakes have a lighter skull with to sample their surroundings. Pit vipers
and some boas and pythons can detect
loosely connected jawbones that can move apart. small changes in air temperature using
organs on their face known as heat pits.
Teeth are fixed to the upper or lower jaw, or to the tongue extends
through slot in
FRONT- fixed hollow roof of the mouth. Venom-injecting fangs may be at closed upper jaw
FANGED fang the front or rear of the mouth. In some front-fanged FORKED TONGUE
SNAKE snakes, they are hinged to the upper jaw.

SWALLOWING A LIZARD

1 2 3 4

STEALTHY APPROACH THE ATTACK HOLDING ON SHIFTING GRIP
A vine snake slides slowly and carefully along In one swift movement, the snake arches over the Although the gecko falls from its perch, the snake’s Once the gecko is dead, the snake begins to
a branch toward an unsuspecting gecko. gecko and, using its rear fangs, injects its venom. tail is wrapped around a branch and it holds on. maneuver it into position for swallowing.

SNAKES 385

Movement LINEAR PROGRESSION LATERAL UNDULATION CONCERTINA MOVEMENT

Snakes have evolved several ways of moving Heavy snakes and snakes that Using each point of its body in turn When moving through their tunnels,
around (see right) to compensate for not having are moving slowly or stalking to push against irregularities in the burrowing snakes expand one end
legs. The method used involves different uses prey sometimes progress in surface, the snake wiggles from side
of their ribs and the muscles attached to them, a straight line, hooking the to side. This method is also used for of the body to jam it against
but also depends on the snake’s weight, the trailing edges of the ventral swimming and sometimes climbing. the tunnel walls while
speed at which it needs to move, and the type scales over surface the other end is
of surface. Most snakes can use different types irregularities. This occurs in thrust forward.
of locomotion as the need arises. As well as a wavelike sequence, as the
the methods shown here, some vipers use a snake pulls itself forward.
technique called sidewinding when crossing
loose sand (see p.406).

Hunting and feeding

Some snakes are specialized feeders, while others eat a wide range of prey,
including other snakes. Small animals or ones that cannot fight back are
simply grasped and then swallowed; animals that are larger or better able
to defend themselves must be subdued with venom or by constriction before
being eaten. A large meal
may take a long time to
digest, starting in the
mouth with powerful
salivary juices. Venom itself is
a cocktail of modified digestive
juices that usually acts quickly
on the nervous system or blood
tissue of the prey.

SWALLOWING REPTILES

Flexible jaws and highly elastic skin allow
snakes, like this common egg-eater, to eat
prey that is larger than their own head. A
large meal can take several hours to swallow.

CONSTRICTION

A constrictor kills its prey by suffocation. Each
time its victim breathes out, this rock python
tightens its coils until breathing stops.

CLIMBING Reproduction EGGS AND LIVE YOUNG

To enable them to move easily through their habitat, Most snakes lay eggs, but a significant Young snakes, like this monocled cobra,
tree snakes have a thinner, more lightweight body than number give birth to live young. Species break out of their shell using a sharp,
ground-dwelling or burrowing snakes. They have long tails from temperate regions usually mate temporary egg tooth. The snake is often
that can be used to grasp branches, and strong vertebrae in spring, soon after emerging from coiled tightly inside its shell, and may
that help them to cross wide gaps. The pit viper shown hibernation, and produce eggs or young be up to 7 times longer than the egg.
here (Schultze’s pit viper) is a nocturnal hunter that uses in summer. Tropical species may breed in
its large eyes and its heat pits to locate prey. response to rainfall and sometimes have
a long breeding season, laying several
clutches of eggs each year. Males and
females find each other using chemical
scent trails, and courtship is rarely
elaborate. Snakes show little parental
care, although pythons and a few other
species coil around their incubating eggs.

5 6 7 8

SWALLOWING HEAD FIRST EXTENDING THE JAWS MUSCULAR ACTION DIGESTION
The gecko is swallowed head first because The snake opens its highly flexible jaws and uses When most of the prey is in the throat, wavelike muscle Having completely swallowed its prey, the snake
the limbs fold more easily in this direction. its rear fangs to pull the gecko into its mouth. contractions force it into the stomach. searches for a quiet place to digest its food.

386 SNAKES

Boas, pythons, and relatives

PHYLUM Chordata Boas and pythons are powerful (pelvic) girdle and, in most species, CONSERVATION
CLASS Reptilia constricting snakes. They include the the remains of back limbs in the form
ORDER Squamata world’s largest snakes, among them of small claws or spurs. All species Several species of boas and
the anaconda (a boa) and the reticulated, have 2 functioning lungs. Several pythons, especially the largest
SUBORDER Serpentes African, and Indian pythons. Boas and species of boas and pythons have ones, have been adversely affected
SUPERFAMILY Henophidia pythons do not reproduce in the same heat-sensitive pits in the scales by human activities; these large
way. They also have different distributions: bordering their mouths, which predators require extensive areas
FAMILIES 12 pythons are found in Africa, Asia, and they use to locate prey in the dark. of undisturbed land over which to
SPECIES 218 hunt. In addition, many are relatively
Some of the relatives of the conspicuous and sluggish and
Australasia, while boas occur mainly in boas and pythons are smaller but therefore easy targets for hunters,
otherwise outwardly similar. These who kill them for their flesh, their
the Americas with a smaller number of species in Africa, include wood snakes and Round skins, or simply out of prejudice.
Island boas. A few species are However, some species perform
Asia, and on some Pacific islands. The relatives of boas brightly colored and others, such a useful service to humans by
as sunbeam snakes, have scales controlling the populations of
and pythons, most of which are also constrictors, include that are highly iridescent. File (or rodents that are attracted to
wart) snakes are specialized for an towns and villages.
the iridescent sunbeam snakes and the aquatic file snakes. aquatic way of life and are effectively
helpless on land. Their scales are head. It swallows this end first,
REPTILES Anatomy granular and rough to the touch, gradually releasing the rest of the
an adaptation for gripping and body from its coils. Constriction is
The snakes in this group are often constricting the fishes on which most effective for killing birds and
regarded as being relatively primitive. they feed. mammals because, being warm-
Their skulls are heavier and their jaws blooded, they have to breathe
Constriction relatively frequently.
more rigid than those of the more
advanced snakes (the colubrids, Although boas, pythons, and their Reproduction
elapids, and vipers). They relatives are not the only snakes that
have also retained several kill by constriction (some colubrids One of the most significant
anatomical features from also use this method), most of the differences between boas and
the limbed animals constrictors are in this group. When pythons lies in the way they
from which they the snake has selected its prey, it reproduce. Boas (with the possible
are descended. throws one or more coils around the exception of one species) bear live
These include animal’s body. Each time the victim young—as do wood snakes, pipe
a back-limb breathes out, the snake tightens its snakes, file snakes, and shield-tailed
grip. The victim eventually dies by snakes. Pythons, sunbeam snakes,
suffocation, either because it cannot and Round Island boas lay eggs.
draw breath or because its heart Pythons are among the small number
of snakes that show parental care.
cannot pump blood, rather than The female coils around the clutch
by being crushed. Once the of eggs—which can number up to
prey is dead, the snake 100 in large species—throughout
loosens its hold and the 2 – 3 month period of incubation,
searches for the to protect them from predators. One
or 2 species of python are unique
among snakes in that they can
regulate the temperature of their
eggs by producing metabolic heat.

FEEDING

A substantial meal can sustain a snake for several
weeks or even months. Large constrictors, such as
this green anaconda, are capable of killing a variety of
animals, including wading birds, deer, young jaguars,
and even caimans (as shown here). Despite their
great size and weight, anacondas move easily in
water and usually ambush their prey in the shallows.

BOAS, PYTHONS, AND RELATIVES 387

Anilius scytale Xenopeltis unicolor Casarea dussumieri

South American Sunbeam snake Round Island boa
pipe snake
Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft Length 31⁄4 – 5 ft
Length 28 – 35 in (1 – 1.3 m) (1 – 1.5 m)
(70 – 90 cm) Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Breeding Viviparous Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Habit Burrowing Status Least concern Status Endangered
Status Not evaluated
Location N. South America Location S.E. Asia Location Round Island,
in Indian Ocean

mimics that of venomous coral snakes cylindrical wedge- Poorly known and seldom seen, the
from the same region, whose defensive body shaped Round Island boa is one of the world’s
behavior the South American pipe head most rare snakes, with perhaps only
The sole member of the family Aniliidae, snake also imitates. It hunts in burrows, about 1,000 left in the wild. It feeds on
this little-known snake leads a secretive, and its diet is thought to consist of shiny
underground life, its cylindrical body small vertebrates, including scales lizards, and its narrow head and slender
shape adapted to its burrowing habit. snakes. It may be preyed upon body allow it to squeeze between rocks,
The striking red and black coloration by other snakes. uniform, so that it can creep up on its prey. Unlike
dark gray true boas, which bear live young, this
Cylindrophis ruffus occasionally takes to water and color species lays eggs, in crevices where leaf
may be found in rice paddies litter has accumulated. A breeding
Red-tailed and swamps. It actively forages Named after its highly polished, program is currently underway to save
pipe snake for smaller snakes and eels. Hunted iridescent scales, this snake has this snake, but its closest relative,
by larger snakes, birds, and mammals, the typical body adaptations of Bolyeria multicarinata—also from Round
Length 28 – 39 in its defense is to raise its tail and expose a burrowing species. It comes above Island—has not been seen since 1975,
(70 – 100 cm) the red underside, possibly to mimic ground only at night, and eats frogs, and is probably extinct.
Breeding Viviparous venomous species such as the krait, lizards, snakes, and small mammals.
Habit Burrowing or to deflect attack away from its head. Females lay 6 – 9 eggs in undergound dark gray above
Status Least concern nests in soil or leaf litter. The young
red underside of tail smooth, shiny have a distinct white collar that small, keeled
scales disappears after 2 – 3 molts. scales

Location S.E. Asia REPTILES

The underside of this slender Acrantophis dumerili prefers to stay hidden in leaf litter on the
snake’s tail is red, hence its name. floor of dry forest, its coloration allowing
The upper body is black, often with Dumeril’s boa it to blend in almost imperceptibly. This
a red mark behind the head. Living boa ambushes and constricts its prey,
mainly underground, this pipe snake Loxocemus bicolor Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft which includes mammals and birds—
(1.5 – 2 m) although it lacks the heat-
Pseudotyphlops philippinus Mexican burrowing Breeding Viviparous sensitive facial pits that some
snake Habit Terrestrial boas use to detect
Large shield-tailed Status Least concern warm-blooded prey. The
snake young, typically about 6
Location S. and W. or 7, are relatively
Madagascar large at birth.

Length 18 – 20 in Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft Dumeril’s boa is intricately patterned intricate
(45 – 50 cm) (1 – 1.3 m) in shades of brown, with distinctive, brown
Breeding Viviparous Breeding Oviparous glossy black markings around the markings
Habit Burrowing Habit Burrowing mouth. A fairly inactive snake, it
Status Not evaluated Status Least concern

Location Sri Lanka, Location S. Mexico to
below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) Central America

This short, stout, mainly brown snake, This constrictor has the narrow head Calabaria reinhardtii hunts small mammals in their tunnels
with yellow edges to its scales, has a and cylindrical, muscular body of a and nests, and rarely comes above
tail that ends with a single shield or burrowing species. Its body is gray, Calabar ground boa ground. Formerly classified as a python,
caudal plate and looks as though it with irregular patches of white scales it is now considered to be the only
has been chopped off at an oblique that develop with age. This snake eats Length 3 – 31⁄2ft egg-laying species of boa.
angle. The shield, covered with tiny rodents, lizards, and reptile eggs, and is (0.9 – 1.1 m)
spines that are more concentrated hunted by birds and mammals. Females Breeding Oviparous patches of white tail raised to
around the edge, is believed to plug Habit Burrowing scales under tail imitate head
the burrow down which the snake lay 3 – 6 large, thick-shelled Status Not evaluated
moves, keeping it safe from predators. eggs in chambers dug in
Rarely coming to the surface, the snake soil or leaf litter. Location W. and C. Africa
has the cylindrical body, pointed head,
and smooth scales of a burrowing small, This boa has a blunt head and a
species, and feeds on the earthworms shiny scales tail that are hard to tell apart. When
it finds underground. As with other threatened, it coils into a ball and
members of the family Uropeltidae, muscular raises its tail as a “false head” to
little is known about this species’ social, body protect its real head. The scales are
defensive, or reproductive behavior. black or brown, scattered with red or
orange. The Calabar ground boa

REPTILES 388

BOAS, PYTHONS, AND RELATIVES 389

HUNTING BY STEALTH Boa constrictor COMMON BOA SUBSPECIES
The common boa will sit and wait, watching
its prey from a suitable vantage point. Timing its Common boa The many subspecies of the common boa vary considerably in size and color.
strike to perfection, it lunges forward and seizes Dwarf island races, such as the Hog Island boa, may be only 31⁄4 ft (1 m) long,
its victim in its jaws before wrapping itself around Length 31⁄2 – 13 ft while mainland boas are typically 93⁄4 ft (3 m)—although in exceptional cases
it. The snake then asphyxiates its prey by tightly (1 – 4 m) some reach 13 ft (4 m). The color ranges from mainly black (Argentinian boa)
squeezing it—a process that can be so quick Breeding Viviparous or olive-green (Central American boa) to the much lighter, pinkish or silver-gray
that small animals may be killed in seconds. Habit Terrestrial/ specimens (Hog Island boa), often with a markedly contrasting tail. All, however,
Arboreal have distinctive saddle markings.
Location Central America, Status Not evaluated
South America, some ARGENTINIAN BOA
Caribbean islands (JUVENILE)

COMMON BOA FROM
CENTRAL AMERICA

A large snake, with a narrow head and a HOG ISLAND BOA
pointed snout, the common boa varies in
color (see right) but has dark, saddle CONCEALING COLORS characteristic saddle
markings along the back, sometimes The colors and patterns seen in the common markings
becoming dark red toward the tail. There boa serve a valuable purpose—helping to
may be as many as 10 subspecies (see break up the snake’s
right). The common boa is very outline and enabling it dark stripe
adaptable, and uses a huge range of to disappear into its behind each eye
habitats, from tropical forest to dry
savanna. It may also be found in urban surroundings.
areas. It climbs well but may equally hunt
on the ground, especially in some of the sluggish in behavior, it
drier habitats in which it occurs (here, may be active by day or
it may estivate in order to survive the by night, depending on the
worst heat of the summer months). It is climate. It preys on a wide
also an able swimmer and often takes to variety of mammals and birds—
the water voluntarily. Secretive, and fairly suffocating them with its muscular
coils before swallowing them whole.
REPTILES

GIVING BIRTH
Depending on the subspecies (here, a red-tail
boa), common boas may produce 6 – 50 young
in a litter, each 14 – 231⁄2 in (35 – 60 cm) long.
The newborn snakes fend for themselves
immediately after breaking through the soft
membrane that surrounds them at birth.

390 SNAKES

Candoia carinata Charina bottae mammal or bird of prey approaches, Lichanura trivirgata
the snake coils into a ball and raises its
Pacific ground boa Rubber boa tail as a “false head,” with which it may Rosy boa
pretend to strike in order to deflect attack
Length 28 – 39 in Length 14 – 32 in from its real head. However, the rubber Length 231⁄2 – 43 in
(70 – 100 cm) (35 – 80 cm) boa is neither venomous nor aggressive. (60 – 110 cm)
Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous It has the typical body features of a Breeding Viviparous
Habit Terrestrial/ Habit Burrowing burrowing species, and lives a secretive Habit Burrowing
Arboreal Status Least concern life below ground or under debris, Status Least concern
Status Not evaluated hunting for birds, reptiles, and small
Location S.E. Asia, Location S.W. Canada, mammals in burrows and tree holes. Location S.W. USA,
New Guinea, Solomon W. USA When winter comes, it hibernates for N.W. Mexico
Islands long periods. While mating, the male
stimulates the female with his pelvic
flat The common name of this boa derives spurs and coils his tail around hers. This snake usually has a pattern of 3
head from its rubbery feel. The head and Females give birth to 2 – 8 young wide, black, brown, reddish brown, or
orange stripes down its cream, buff, or
tail are both blunt, and may be at a time; these measure about
6 in (15 cm) in length, and gray body; coloration and size vary
hard to tell apart, as with are pinkish or tan. between its several subspecies.
A burrowing snake, it mostly
the Calabar ground blunt remains hidden beneath rocks and
tail in crevices, foraging there for birds,
boa (see p.387). Its reptiles, and small mammals. In the
small, smooth colder parts of its range, it hibernates in
defensive technique scales winter. While mating, the male stimulates
the female with his pelvic spurs as he
is also similar: when crawls along her back;
3 – 5, exceptionally up to
a threatening 12, young are born.

REPTILES Also known as the Pacific boa, this heavy body
variable snake has 2 distinct
subspecies. Shown above is subspecies smooth, shiny
paulsoni, which is thick and short-tailed, scales
ranges in color from red or grayish
brown to off-white, and is completely blunt
terrestrial. Subspecies carinata is more head
slender with a longer tail, is brown or
gray with an off-white patch above the stout body
cloaca, and is known to climb. Both
subspecies feed on lizards, frogs, and
small mammals.

Corallus caninus Corallus hortulanus tree boa may come down to the ground
at night. Coloration varies from brown or
Emerald tree boa Amazon tree boa grayish with bars or blotches along the
back, to plain orange, yellow, or olive.
Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft
(1.5 – 2 m) (1.5 – 2 m) deep,
Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous wide
Habit Arboreal Habit Arboreal head
Status Least concern Status Least concern
the flanks have light-centered spots. This
Location N. South Location N. and C. South snake rests by day, actively foraging for
America America birds, lizards, and small mammals at
night. Only the southern subspecies
JUVENILE COLORATION A flattened body gives this slender, hibernate. The size and number of young
The emerald tree boa gives birth to 3–15 young almost entirely arboreal snake rigidity varies greatly between subspecies.
each season. They are brick-red, orange, bright when reaching out across branches; it
red, or yellow, changing to green after about a year. often hangs down to snatch lizards and
birds from lower branches. The Amazon
Like many members of the boa
family—particularly the green tree Epicrates cenchria
python (see p.392)—this striking
South American snake is fully adapted Rainbow boa
for life off the ground. Its intense green
color blends in with the foliage of the Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft
rain forests it inhabits, concealing it (1 – 2 m)
from predatory birds, while its strong, Breeding Viviparous
prehensile tail anchors it firmly to a Habit Partly arboreal
branch, allowing the boa to lunge Status Not evaluated
out or down to reach a bird or passing
mammal. Its eyes have vertical pupils, Location Central and
which help it to sense movement, and South America
it has deep pits in the scales around
white its mouth, for detecting heat given All subspecies of this boa have smooth,
markings off by its prey. While mating, the male shiny, often highly iridescent scales, with
along back crawls over the female, and their tails colors varying from dark brown to dark
become entwined. orange. The back has black circles, while

READY TO STRIKE
The emerald boa typically drapes itself around a branch in a
series of concentric coils, waiting, with its head hanging down,
ready to strike. This boa feeds on small mammals and birds,
and has long teeth that help it to grasp its prey firmly.

BOAS, PYTHONS, AND RELATIVES 391

Eunectes murinus shallow water, and favors areas with nostrils toward top small eyes with Aspidites melanocephalus
thick waterside vegetation, where it can of head vertical pupils
Green anaconda move around unseen. Green anacondas Black-headed python
hunt mainly after dark. They lie in wait
Length 20 – 33 ft for mammals such as capybaras and Length 5 – 81⁄4 ft
(6 – 10 m) deer, and can even kill fully grown (1.5 – 2.5 m)
Breeding Viviparous caimans; there are also records of Breeding Oviparous
Habit Semiaquatic them attacking people, sometimes Habit Terrestrial
Status Not evaluated with fatal results. Males are smaller Status Not evaluated
than females, but have large pelvic
Location N. South spurs, which they use during courtship. Location N. Australia
America, Trinidad Females produce litters of 4 – 80
young, which take about 6 years to
With a maximum weight approaching reach maturity. Anacondas may have The black-headed python is
550 lb (250 kg), the green anaconda is a lifespan of 25 years or more. slender-bodied and has a jet-black
the world’s heaviest snake. It spends
most of its life partially submerged in relatively head and neck, with irregular brown
small head and cream bars across its body.
ADAPTED TO WATER Not an aggressive snake, it

smooth scales retreats into a burrow or crevice
if a predator threatens—usually a
GIANT mammal or bird of prey. Its diet
CONSTRICTOR consists of small mammals, birds,
The green and reptiles, including venomous
anaconda’s snakes. Females lay up to 18 eggs
powerful body is at a time, under logs or roots, and
strong enough to in chambers underground. Like most
asphyxiate animals pythons, they coil around the eggs
up to the size of to protect them and regulate their
a horse. It often temperature until they hatch.
ambushes its victims
The green anaconda’s eyes and as they arrive to drink. small, REPTILES
nostrils are positioned toward the light-centered
top of its head, enabling the snake markings
to see and breathe while partially on flanks
submerged in water.
oval black
markings on
olive-green
back

Antaresia childreni PARENTAL CARE Morelia spilota DIAMOND PYTHON

Children’s python Carpet python The diamond python, Morelia spilota
spilota, is the most distinctive
Length 30 in (75 cm), Length 61⁄2 ft (2 m), subspecies, with an intricate pattern
max 39 in (100 cm) max 13 ft (4 m) of diamond-shaped blotches from
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous head to tail.
Habit Terrestrial Habit Mostly terrestrial
Status Not evaluated Status Least concern JUNGLE CARPET PYTHON
The jungle carpet python,
Location N. Australia Location S. New Guinea, Morelia spilota cheynei, lives in
Australia Queensland’s rain forests, and
spends most of its time in trees.
Named after the Victorian zoologist Seen here coiled protectively The carpet python is one of Australia’s intricate
J.G. Children, this small Australian around her eggs to regulate their most widespread snakes, found in an markings
python spends much of its time hidden temperature until they hatch, the unusually wide range of habitats.
away in caves and rock crevices. It female Children’s python lays a It is also one of the most variable, large,
specializes in eating lizards, but also clutch of 8 – 10 eggs each year, or with several subspecies, each with heat-sensitive pits
ambushes birds and small mammals, every other year, in a hollow tree a different common name. One
including bats. If attacked, it defends or an underground chamber. feature shared by all subspecies
itself by striking and biting but, like all is a bold pattern of irregular
pythons, it is nonvenomous. Male SMALL SNAKE markings—which can be
Children’s pythons have longer and Very small for a python, brown, gray, reddish brown,
thicker tails than the females. Juveniles this snake is brown or or black—laid over variously
have darker markings than adults. reddish brown, with colored backgrounds.
darker but often Carpet pythons are active
faint dark blotches faint blotches. both by night and by day,
hunting lizards, birds, and small
mammals. Like other pythons,
they are nonvenomous, but they
can inflict a painful bite. Female
carpet pythons lay clutches of
about 50 soft-shelled eggs in
decaying vegetation or hollow
tree trunks, coiling protectively
around them until they hatch.

392 SNAKES

Morelia viridis Python molurus pits along the jaws. Once adult, this Python regius
snake has no predators, but it will
Green tree python Burmese python hiss, strike, or bite if threatened; its Royal python
bite, however, is neither venomous
Length 6 – 73⁄4 ft Length 16 – 23 ft nor dangerous to humans. A powerful Length 21⁄2 – 4 ft
(1.8 – 2.4 m) (5 – 7 m) constrictor, the Burmese python feeds (0.8 – 1.2 m)
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous on mammals and birds, ambushing Breeding Oviparous
Habit Arboreal Habit Terrestrial and constricting prey as large as Habit Terrestrial
Status Least concern Status Vulnerable a deer. It may estivate in the drier Status Least concern
parts of its range. Females, which
Location New Guinea Location S. and S.E. Asia are larger than males, usually lay Location W. to C. Africa
and surrounding islands, 18 – 55 eggs at a time, in tree hollows
extreme N. Australia or scrapes in the ground, and regulate
their temperature until they hatch. By
bright green Also known as the Indian python, trembling its muscles, the Burmese
color this very large snake is afforded python can generate enough heat to
excellent camouflage by the pattern raise its own body temperature while
it incubates its eggs. Population
of interlocking, dark brown blotches numbers have been seriously affected
on its buff or gray skin. The as a result of habitat destruction, and
coloration varies from area to the Burmese python is now a legally
protected species.
area, but the “arrowhead” marking
on the top of the head is constant. cryptic
As with all pythons, there are heat coloring

This bright green python arrowhead The royal python is short and stocky,
has the same adaptations for mark with intricate, dark brown markings
an arboreal lifestyle—slender shape, over a tan or yellowish background, and
REPTILES prehensile tail, and green coloration— conspicuous heat pits around its mouth.
as the emerald tree boa (see p.390). It defends itself against predators such
It also rests and hunts in the same way,
coiled around a branch with its head as mammals and birds by curling up
hanging down ready to strike at prey. into a ball and hiding its head in
All the scales around the mouth have the center. In the dry season, this
prominent heat pits. Females lay 6 – 30 snake may estivate underground.
eggs in a tree hole or among epiphytic Females lay and incubate a clutch
plants. The young—which are bright of 3 – 8 eggs among rocks and
yellow or occasionally red—are in underground chambers.
hunted by birds of prey.

Python reticulatus This python is the world’s longest land than in water, seldom straying Tropidophis morenoi
snake and may weigh up to 440 lb far from its den. The reticulated
Reticulated python (200 kg). It has a yellow or tan python eats birds, mammals and, Zebra dwarf boa
body with black markings, and very rarely, humans. The female lays
Length 20 – 33 ft prominent heat pits along the jaws. It and broods 30 – 50 eggs in hollow Length 12 in
(6 – 10 m) can swim well but spends more time on trees and underground chambers. (30 cm)
Breeding Oviparous This python may live up to 30 years. Breeding Viviparous
Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Status Not evaluated It is widely hunted Status Not evaluated
for its skin and
Location S.E. Asia larger individuals Location Caribbean
are becoming
increasingly rare.

interlocking So-called because of its banded
black marks pattern—formed by fused brown
spots on a buff-colored background—
Tropidophis melanurus mainly on the ground, occasionally smooth scales this species belongs to a group of
climbing into bushes or onto rocks, thick body tropical American dwarf boas (also
Cuban wood snake it defends itself by rolling into a ball called wood snakes), most of which
or releasing a foul-smelling slime from live on the ground. A large number
Length 32 – 39 in its cloaca. It feeds on frogs, lizards, of species have striking color patterns.
(80 – 100 cm) smaller snakes, and rodents. Females They have evolved into a great many
Breeding Viviparous give birth to around 8 species within the Caribbean region
Habit Terrestrial young at a time. and reach their highest diversity on
Status Not evaluated the island of Cuba. Other species
UNUSUAL undoubtedly await discovery. Many—
Location Caribbean COLORATION like the Zebra dwarf boa—may
The lighter orange be at risk of extinction because
This stocky snake is commonly gray, coloration is much
brown, or buff, with darker markings more rare than the of their very restricted island
and a black-tipped tail; it may also be darker morph. This distributions. Dwarf
orange, with a yellow-tipped tail. Living snake is the largest boas stay hidden in
in genus Tropidophis. low vegetation or even
underground during
the day and emerge
under the cover of
night to feed on small
vertebrates—including
other snakes. They give
birth to live young in
typical boa fashion.

COLUBRIDS 393

Colubrids

PHYLUM Chordata Sometimes referred to as typical snakes, because the 2 halves of the lower jaw BURROWING ASPS
CLASS Reptilia colubrids form by far the largest family of are not connected to one another.
ORDER Squamata snakes, accounting for almost two-thirds With a small number of exceptions, The burrowing asps are a group
of all species. Some authorities have colubrids have large, platelike scales of snakes that have been placed
SUBORDER Serpentes argued that this group is really composed covering their head; this differentiates in various families, including the
SUPERFAMILY Colubroidea of several distinct families. Colubrids occur them from boas, pythons, and most Colubridae, sometimes regarded
in all parts of the world except Antarctica. vipers. The arrangement of the head as forming a separate group, the
FAMILY Colubridae Measured in both numbers of species and scales is usually consistent within a Atractaspidae, which consists of
SPECIES About 4,000 species and can therefore be a useful about 62 species. All except one
feature for identification. species are found in Africa. These
individuals, they are the most numerous tunneling snakes feed mainly on
Venom amphisbaenians. Some have unique
snakes on all continents except Australia. Colubrids live in fangs that hinge sideways so that
Some colubrids, notably ratsnakes, the snake can expose them without
habitats ranging from freshwater lakes, coastal marshes, kill prey by constriction. Although opening its mouth, injecting its
most colubrids lack venom, about venom with a sideways strike
and estuarine swamps to rain forest and arid desert. Such a third of all species have a type of of the head.
venom-producing apparatus known
variation in mode of life and habitat means that they have a as Duvernoy’s gland, which delivers in any case, weak. A few species,
venom to the base of enlarged fangs however, notably the boomslang and
wide range of sizes, shapes, and colorations. All the world’s toward the back of the mouth. Most twig snakes, are dangerous and have
venomous colubrids have a single pair caused human fatalities.
rear-fanged venomous snakes are colubrids. of fangs, although others have 2 or 3
pairs. The fangs create a wound, into Reproduction
Anatomy known as the coronoid bone. which the venom runs by capillary
These 3 characteristics separate action. Unlike some front-fanged Colubrids lay eggs or give birth to
Colubrids have several anatomical colubrids from the more primitive snakes, colubrids have solid fangs, live young. In those species that lay
features in common. All species are blind snakes, thread snakes, and although the venom may travel along a eggs, clutch size varies from one to
without a functioning left lung and a boas and pythons. Colubrids also groove that runs the length of the fang. 100 eggs. They are laid in holes or
back-limb (pelvic) girdle. They also differ from these groups in having a Most rear-fanged snakes are of little tunnels or under rotting leaves. The
lack a small bone in the lower jaw danger to humans because their fangs young may be similar to the parents
more flexible skull, with jaws are too far back to be brought into play but some species have distinctive
that can be spread apart unless they chew for a sustained juvenile coloration and markings. REPTILES
to accommodate large period and because their venom is,
items of food. This
is possible

HUNTING

Compared with many front-fanged snakes, the venomous
colubrids have relatively weak venom and inefficient fangs
with which to deliver it. Possibly because of this, some
colubrids, such as the ratsnake, kill their prey by constriction,
causing suffocation. This Everglades ratsnake has caught a
barking treefrog. Once the victim is dead, the ratsnake will
maneuver its body until the frog’s head is in position for
it to be swallowed.

394 SNAKES

Dendrelaphis kopsteini species, described in the year 2007, is Boiga dendrophila the mangrove snake draws back its
also known for the bright, brick-red color flattened head in readiness to strike,
Kopstein’s bronzeback of its neck, which flares when it expands Mangrove snake and flares its yellow lip scales.
snake its neck. It was previously confused with A stealthy nocturnal hunter, this snake
allied species and is known to occur in Length 61⁄2 – 81⁄4 ft preys on lizards, frogs, birds, and
Length 5 ft rain forests throughout Thailand, the (2 – 2.5 m) small mammals. During the day, it
(1.5 m) Malay peninsula, Singapore, and Breeding Oviparous rests in the crook of a tree, or remains
Breeding Oviparous Sumatra. Like many other bronzebacks, Habit Arboreal coiled among foliage. Females lay
Habit Terrestrial/ it mainly preys on tree-dwelling lizards, Status Not evaluated 4 – 15 eggs in leaf litter, rotting
Arboreal such as geckos, and perhaps frogs. stumps, or tree holes.
Status Least concern Location S.E. Asia

Location S.E. Asia ridge down
back
The mangrove snake is mainly glossy
Bronzebacks are arboreal, day-active black, with vibrant yellow markings
snakes, named for the bright iridescent on its lips and flanks—these vivid colors
sheen of their upper body scales. may act as a warning to predators. Its
Thought to be most closely related to body is slightly flattened from side to
the Southeast Asian flying snakes, this side, and a distinct ridge runs down
the center of its back. If threatened,

Bogertophis subocularis distributions overlap, these 2 forms Chrysopelea ornata until the venom takes effect. Although it
has a powerful bite, this rear-fanged
Trans-Pecos ratsnake interbreed. Large, prominent eyes Golden flying snake snake is not particularly harmful to
humans. Females lay 6 – 14 eggs in soil,
indicate that this species is entirely leaf litter, or rotting wood. The young
are 6 – 8 in (15 – 20 cm) long
nocturnal. This secretive snake when they hatch.

Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft shelters in cracks and under slabs Length 31⁄4 – 41⁄4 ft
(1 – 1.3 m) (1 – 1.3 m)
Breeding Oviparous during the day to escape from Breeding Oviparous
Habit Terrestrial Habit Arboreal
Status Least concern excessively high temperatures, Status Not evaluated

and hibernates in winter.

When threatened by

Location S. USA, predatory birds Location S. and S.E. Asia
N.E. Mexico
and mammals,

REPTILES it emits a

North America is home to a number twin foul-smelling Also known as the golden tree
of ratsnake species, all of them stripes start musk and may snake, the golden flying snake
slender-bodied predators that hunt at neck bite. The female can glide among high trees in
after dark. The Trans-Pecos ratsnake tropical forests, parks, and
is typical in having variable patterning: lays 4 – 8 eggs, gardens, by spreading its ribs
one form has large, H-shaped markings, to form a concave underside.
while another—the “blond” form—has which she buries in When threatened—usually by
paler, circular blotches. Where their birds of prey or carnivorous
rotting vegetation, mammals—it may launch itself
from a high perch in order
or under rocks. to escape; if cornered, it will

H-shaped bite. It has a slender body, with
markings farther green, black-tipped scales, and a
down back narrow head with large eyes. The
male has a longer, thicker tail than
Dasypeltis scabra A DIET OF EGGS the female. The golden flying snake slender body
frequently rests in trees, among foliage, grips prey tightly
Common egg- The very flexible skull, mouth, and but always remains alert for possible
eating snake throat enable this snake to eat prey. An active hunter, it grasps and powerful,
eggs. When an egg reaches the holds its victims—generally small venomous bite
Length 28 – 39 in throat, projections of the snake’s mammals, birds, lizards, and frogs— immobilizes prey
(70 – 100 cm) backbone saw through the shell,
Breeding Oviparous which is regurgitated. Hierophis viridiflavus hunting lizards, rodents, and smaller
Habit Terrestrial snakes. When attacked, it is quick
Status Least concern slender, gray European whipsnake to escape into holes and crevices,
Location Africa and W. Asia or reddish and may bite viciously. Several individuals
brown body Length 5 ft (1.5 m), may share a den, resulting in a dense
Many snakes eat soft-shelled reptile rarely 61⁄2 ft (2 m) population. Females lay 6 – 14 eggs
eggs, but this nocturnal African snake Breeding Oviparous in soil, leaf litter, or rotting wood.
specializes in eating the hard-shelled Habit Terrestrial
eggs of birds. It feeds heavily during Status Least concern greenish yellow
the bird breeding season—swallowing body
its food whole—and then fasts for the Location S. Europe broad black
rest of the year. This species and its crossbars
close relatives are the only snakes toward head
that do not have teeth.

MIMICKING THE VIPER rounded Also called the western whipsnake,
This snake mimics the saw-scaled snout this slender, large-eyed snake is
viper (see p.403) by forming a usually greenish yellow, but may be
horseshoe-shaped coil and rubbing dark, angular totally black. The young are more
the strongly keeled scales on its flanks markings brightly colored than the adults.
together, making a rasping sound.
A fast-moving and agile hunter,
it relies largely on sight while

COLUBRIDS 395

Dipsas indica Dispholidus typus Drymarchon couperi

Snail-eating snake Boomslang Eastern indigo snake

Length 231⁄2 – 32 in Length 31⁄4 – 51⁄2 ft Length 7 – 91⁄2 ft
(60 – 80 cm) (1 – 1.7 m) (2.1 – 2.9 m)
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Habit Arboreal Habit Arboreal Habit Terrestrial
Status Not evaluated Status Not evaluated Status Least concern

Location N. South Location Africa (south of Location S.E. USA
America Sahara)

A specialized feeder, this snake has Deriving its name from the Dutch word wide ventral The eastern indigo snake is a glossy,
jaws that are adapted for extracting for tree (“boom”), this is one of Africa’s scales black species found in the southeastern
snails from their shells—it forces its most venomous arboreal snakes. A very slender United States. It feeds on most
lower jaw into the shell, hooks its teeth highly agile climber, it uses its binocular body animal groups—fishes, amphibians,
into the flesh, and pulls it out. It hunts at vision to judge distances as it slips from lizards, other snakes, birds and
night, resting in tree hollows during the one branch to another, and when it greenish black their eggs, and small mammals.
day. The snail-eating snake has a prepares to strike. Boomslangs feed on coloration An opportunistic feeder, it can
slender body, with a distinctive ridge lizards, especially chameleons, and also lunge very quickly at its prey,
running along its back, and a rounded on birds. Their fangs are at the back and sometimes presses it against
head with a blunt snout and large eyes. of their mouths, and they inject their the side of a burrow or a solid
Males tend to be smaller and have venom by chewing their prey. Adult object. Females lay 4 – 12 eggs
proportionately longer tails. boomslangs are highly variable in color: in tree stumps, vegetation,
they may be green, brown, or almost or burrows.
black, with or without contrasting
markings. Males are more colorful glossy
than females. When threatened, usually body
by birds of prey and carnivorous
mammals, they inflate their necks to REPTILES
appear larger, and will bite readily.
Females lay clutches of up to
14 eggs in tree hollows
and dead vegetation.

Pantherophis guttatus snake is extremely variable, with many Pantherophis spiloides Zamenis longissimus
region variants, some of which used to
Corn snake be regarded as separate subspecies. Gray ratsnake Aesculapian snake
In addition, captive-bred corn snakes
Length 31⁄4 – 6 ft include forms that do not occur in the Length 4 – 6 ft Length 31⁄4 – 71⁄4 ft
(1 – 1.8 m) wild, such as the amelanistic one below, (1.2 – 1.8 m) (1 – 2.2 m)
Breeding Oviparous which lacks the black pigment, melanin. Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Habit Mainly terrestrial Mutants such as this can be selectively Habit Terrestrial Habit Terrestrial
Status Least concern bred and crossed, giving rise to an Status Least concern Status Least concern
almost infinite number of color and
Location C. and S.E. USA pattern morphs. Corn snakes are Location S. Canada, Location S. Europe to
primarily nocturnal. They may be found C. and E. USA W. Asia
on the ground, but often climb into trees
The corn snake is one of the most and the roof timbers of houses and barns The gray ratsnake has more subdued
eye-catching of North America’s in search of food. To aid in climbing, their colors than many related species,
ratsnakes, a group that includes the flanks meet their undersides at a sharp which may be yellow or orange. Gray
gray ratsnake (see right ) and the angle, which they use to grip bark and ratsnakes favor rocky hillsides with
Trans-Pecos ratsnake (see opposite). other rough surfaces. They feed mainly open woodland, often near water,
Unlike most of its relatives, the corn on small rodents, and are useful in and are excellent swimmers. They
keeping numbers of pests under control. feed on rodents and birds, which
Females lay 6–12 eggs (occasionally up they kill by constriction. Females The name of this snake derives from
to 25) in a single clutch, placing them in lay 5 – 20 eggs, occasionally up Aesculapius, the Greek god of medicine.
leaf litter or other damp material. to 40, sometimes in communal It is thought to be the snake that,
sites. A ridge along the flanks helps coiled around a staff, forms his motif,
slender, muscular the snake to wedge itself into the bark the caduceus, still used as a symbol
body when climbing trees. of the medical profession today. The
Aesculapian snake is olive or brown,
long head
with rounded occasionally dark gray, with a lighter
snout patch on each side behind the
head. The scales are smooth or
pale orange body narrow strongly keeled
with deep red head ventral scales slightly keeled, giving it a shiny
blotches appearance. An agile swimmer and
climber, this secretive snake inhabits
scrubland, forest edges, and fields, and
hibernates during the cooler months.

396 SNAKES

Zamenis situla Erpeton tentaculatum Gonyosoma oxycephalum birds, bats, and small mammals at
night, its bright green color providing
Leopard snake Tentacled snake Red-tailed racer excellent camouflage in the trees. When
threatened, usually by birds of prey or
Length 28 – 39 in Length 28 – 39 in Length 51⁄4 – 73⁄4 ft mammals, it inflates its throat vertically
(70 – 100 cm) (70 – 100 cm) (1.6 – 2.4 m) and adopts an S-shaped posture, in
Breeding Oviparous Breeding Viviparous Breeding Oviparous readiness to strike. Mating occurs
Habit Terrestrial Habit Aquatic Habit Arboreal in tree branches.
Status Least concern Status Least concern Status Least concern
Location S. and E. Europe, coffin-
W. Asia Location Central S.E. Asia Location S.E. Asia shaped head

The leopard snake is cream or gray, keeled scales The tail of this long, slender not considered dangerous to humans.
with black-edged reddish blotches, form ridge snake may be brown, orange, There are 3 species of hognosed
or 2 wide, longitudinal reddish stripes, or gray, but despite its name it snakes in North America, all of which
edged with black, along its upper side. is never red. An active hunter, search through the soil or sand for
It feeds mainly on rodents, which it the red-tailed racer forages for their prey and use their distinctive,
catches among vegetation or in their upturned snouts for digging and
burrows, then kills by constriction. Heterodon nasicus rooting out burrowing toads and
If threatened, it may flatten its other amphibians. If threatened, all
head and bite. During mating, the Western hognosed hognosed snakes hiss loudly, inflate
male holds onto the female by biting snake their bodies, and may make mock
her head or neck and coiling around her. strikes; if this fails, they
Females lay up to 8 eggs and remain Length 16 – 32 in often play dead.
(40 – 80 cm)
with them for several days. Breeding Oviparous
Habit Terrestrial
black-edged This unusual snake belongs to a Status Least concern
reddish subfamily of colubrids—numbering Location C. USA to Mexico
blotches about 38 species in all—that live in
REPTILES water. It is easily distinguished from
smooth its relatives by the unique pair of soft,
scales fleshy tentacles on its snout, which
probably have a sensory function.
Tentacled snakes are sluggish and With its blotched patterning and dark blotches
nocturnal, and hunt by lying in weed- thick body, this North American snake on cream body
choked water, waiting for prey to looks more like a viper (see p.402)
swim by. Females give birth to 5 – 13 than a member of the colubrid family.
live young underwater. Although its venom is toxic, it is

Lampropeltis californiae and in the evening, and hibernates during A BEWILDERING DIVERSITY
the coldest months. Mating takes place
Californian kingsnake in spring, with the male crawling along Kingsnakes occur in a wide
the female’s back and biting her neck
to hold her still. The female lays 5–12 variety of colors and patterns.
eggs—although it is known to have laid
Length 31⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft up to 25 eggs—in underground chambers, They were all previously
(1 – 2 m) rotting stumps, or leaf litter. The young
Breeding Oviparous hatch after about 70 days and measure considered to be part of the
Habit Terrestrial about 12 – 14 in (30 – 35 cm) in length.
Status Least concern VARIED PATTERNS same species, but are now
The Californian kingsnake is usually black or
dark brown with white or cream bands, although divided into five separate species.
some populations include striped individuals
(see panel, right). To complicate matters further,

Location S.W. USA and cream bands the markings of some
N.W. Mexico
of them, such as the Californian

kingsnake, are highly variable.

The Californian kingsnake is a boldly smooth, BLACK AS NIGHT
marked species. Populations from glossy scales Mexican black kingsnake is simply a very dark form
desert regions are jet black and pure of the Californian kingsnake in which the markings
white, whereas coastal forms tend become obscured as they grow. Hatchlings and
toward brown and cream. In some parts, juveniles (and some adults) often show traces of
the snakes can be striped instead of pale bands.
banded. The Californian kingsnake
is a powerful constrictor that actively yellow spots LAMPROPELTIS
hunts for prey, frequently entering on black SPLENDIDA
rodent burrows. It also feeds body This desert species from
on birds, lizards, frogs, Arizona is only active
and other snakes, for a short period of the
including rattlesnakes, year, when it is neither
to whose bite it is too cold nor too hot.
immune. Although
mainly terrestrial, this LAMPROPELTIS
snake may climb into CALIFORNIAE
low vegetation in search The striped form of the
of nestling birds. If Californian kingsnake
threatened it may strike and occurs in some parts
bite vigorously, but captives soon of the subspecies’ range
become tame. It is active mainly at night alongside the banded
form (left). Both forms
can hatch from the
same clutch of eggs.

COLUBRIDS 397

Lampropeltis triangulum STARTLING DEFENSE Lamprophis fuliginosus

Milksnake The milksnake is not venomous. Brown house snake
It does, however, mimic the
Length 11⁄4 – 61⁄2 ft coloration, markings, and Length 3 – 5 ft
(0.4 – 2 m) even behavior of venomous (0.9 – 1.5 m)
Breeding Oviparous coral snakes and is easily Breeding Oviparous
Habit Terrestrial confused with them in parts Habit Terrestrial
Status Not evaluated of its range. If uncovered from Status Not evaluated
its hiding place, it may thrash
Location North America, around in an attempt to Location Africa (mainly
Central America, N. South startle its prey with its south of Sahara)
America bright colors.

The milksnake is one of the world’s most slender body The brown house snake is a powerful
widely distributed terrestrial snakes, constrictor that actively forages at night
and also one of the most variable. small for its prey—mainly rodents, but also
About 24 subspecies have been head birds and lizards. It may be tan, brown,
identified, with 8 in the United States orange, or black, with a cream stripe
alone. Most are brightly colored, with smooth scales
red, black, and yellow bands; in some on either side of its head. The male
subspecies, the patterning is very BODY MARKINGS is smaller than the female but
similar to that of coral snakes (see The milksnake is usually has a proportionately longer
p.400)—a feature that probably evolved red, black, and white, the tail. Females may lay 2 or more
as a form of defensive mimicry. markings arranged as clutches of 6 – 16 eggs per
Milksnakes are secretive, mainly rings around the body or breeding season. This snake may
nocturnal, and as saddles over the back. bite if provoked by predators,
feed on usually birds of prey or mammals,
invertebrates, but it is not venomous.
amphibians, and small rodents,
as well as other snakes. Although slender, smooth- REPTILES
nonvenomous, they defend scaled body
themselves by biting, and by
discharging a foul-smelling fluid from
the cloaca. Females build nests in
burrows, under rocks, in tree stumps,
or in rotting vegetation, and lay up
to 17 eggs.

Langaha madagascariensis Natrix natrix PLAYING DEAD Nerodia fasciata

Madagascan Grass snake The grass snake ejects a foul-smelling Southern water snake
leaf-nosed snake fluid if handled, and sometimes
Length 4 – 61⁄2 ft reacts to extreme danger by playing Length 11⁄2 – 5 ft
Length 28 – 35 in (1.2 – 2 m) dead. To make the performance (0.5 – 1.5 m)
(70 – 90 cm) Breeding Oviparous as convincing as possible, it turns Breeding Viviparous
Breeding Oviparous Habit Semiaquatic partly upside down, with its mouth Habit Aquatic
Habit Arboreal Status Least concern open and tongue exposed. Status Least concern
Status Least concern
Location Europe to body flipped Location C. and S.E. USA
C. Asia, N.W. Africa onto back,
feigning death
Location Madagascar

This snake is instantly recognizable The grass snake is a semiaquatic gaping Also known as the banded water
because of its extraordinary snout. predator, spending much of its mouth snake, this species has a thickset body
The male has a long, pointed projection time in damp places or in still water. with keeled scales and highly variable
on the snout tip; in the female, the A good swimmer, it can sometimes summers are cool, females often coloration, sometimes with dark bands
appendage is more elaborate and be spotted rippling its way across lay their eggs in compost heaps, the or blotches. Its eyes are situated toward
leaf-shaped. Males are light brown the surface of ponds, in search of warmth of decaying vegetation helping the top of its head, helping it to see while
with a yellow underside, while females frogs and fishes. It is one of the most incubation. The grass snake has a partially submerged. This snake hunts
are gray-brown with small, dark widespread snakes in Europe. Adults lifespan of approximately 15 years for frogs and fishes during the day or
markings. Both sexes have a long, are olive-brown, greenish, or gray, in captivity. night, depending on the temperature.
slender, vinelike body, which provides usually with a contrasting yellow or If attacked, it may smear its captor
excellent camouflage in the vines and white collar just behind the head. Female yellow with the foul-smelling contents of its anal
branches of their forest habitat. Active grass snakes are larger than males, and collar gland. Many males may successfully
during the day and at night, they have longer, thicker tails. After mating, mate with the same female. The female
ambush lizards and frogs. they sometimes lay their eggs at shared gives birth to 2 – 57 live young.
nest sites, where the total egg count can
reach 200 or more. In places where

EGG-LAYING dark bands
Eggs are laid in decaying across body
vegetation, manure or compost
heaps, or other warm locations.
Hatchlings measure 51⁄2 – 81⁄2 in
(14 – 21 cm) long. Males reach
maturity in 3 years, females in 4.

398 SNAKES

Spilotes pullatus side, allows the snake to remain rigid Pituophis melanoleucus Rhinocheilus lecontei
while it bridges gaps between
Tiger ratsnake branches. Active mainly at night, the Pine snake Long-nosed snake
tiger ratsnake stalks lizards, frogs, and
Length 5 – 61⁄2 ft small mammals, then suddenly strikes Length 31⁄4 – 81⁄4ft Length 20 – 39 in
(1.5 – 2 m) out, catching its prey by surprise. When (1 – 2.5 m) (50 – 100 cm)
Breeding Oviparous threatened, this snake flattens the front Breeding Oviparous Breeding Oviparous
Habit Arboreal part of its body and forms an S-shaped Habit Burrowing Habit Burrowing
Status Not evaluated coil; it may also deliver a strong bite. Status Least concern Status Least concern

Location Central America, long, slender, Location S.E. USA Location S. USA,
N. and C. South America triangular body N. Mexico

The tiger ratsnake may be distinct ridge This thickset, powerful constrictor has pointed black bars
yellow with black bands or spots, along back strongly keeled scales and a slightly snout with red in
black with yellow bars, or black pointed snout that is adapted for between
with yellow-centered scales. it typically remains motionless, or moves burrowing. Its coloration is variable,
Its triangular, deep body, slowly through vegetation hunting for ranging from uniformly black or white
which is flattened from side to insects, it is capable of fast movement. to cream or yellowish, with irregular

Opheodrys aestivus The female lays 3 – 13 blotches of dark brown or black down
elongated eggs. the back and flanks. An active forager,
Rough green snake it seeks out small mammals, especially
burrowing species. The female lays
Length 21⁄2 – 51⁄4 ft 3 – 27 eggs in burrows that she often The long-nosed snake lives under
(0.8 – 1.6 m) digs herself, using a loop in the front rocks and logs, and in rodent holes,
Breeding Oviparous part of her body to remove sand or and uses its pointed snout for burrowing.
Habit Terrestrial soil. There are several species of pine It has a markedly underslung jaw—
Status Least concern snakes, one of which (the Louisiana another adaptation that suits it to
pine snake) is endangered. a semisubterranean way of life.
Location S.E. USA Mainly nocturnal, it feeds on small
pointed mammals and birds, as well as lizards
REPTILES Often found among low-growing long, snout and small snakes and their eggs. When
vegetation, especially near water, thin body threatened, the long-nosed snake hides
this snake is bright green with strong
a white or yellowish green green coloration body its head in its coils, vibrates
underside. The scales are aids camouflage its tail, and discharges a
keeled, hence the rough foul-smelling liquid from its
texture of its skin. Although anal gland. Females lay one
clutch, or sometimes 2, of
up to 9 eggs.

Telescopus semiannulatus Thamnophis proximus Thamnophis sirtalis MATING PATTERNS

African tiger snake Western ribbon Common garter Mating systems vary according
snake snake to latitude. In the north of the
Length 31⁄4 – 4 ft range, males scramble to compete
(1 – 1.2 m) Length 20 – 39 in Length 26 – 51 in for females, which they often
Breeding Oviparous (50 – 100 cm) (65 – 130 cm) outnumber greatly, as they emerge
Habit Terrestrial Breeding Viviparous Breeding Viviparous from hibernation dens. Toward the
Status Not evaluated Habit Semiaquatic Habit Semiaquatic south, competition is less frenetic.
Status Least concern Status Least concern
Location Southern Africa Location C. USA to Central red stripes
America along back
Location North America heavily
keeled scales
A nocturnal hunter, the African tiger Like its close relative the common The common garter snake invariably lives
snake has large eyes that help it garter snake (see right), this North close to water, but it has the distinction
see better in the dark. Its slender, American snake is fast-moving and of breeding farther north than any other
smooth-scaled body is yellowish brown, agile, as well as being a good swimmer. snake in the Americas. On the fringes
orange, or pinkish brown, with black It feeds mainly on frogs, toads, tadpoles, of the Arctic, it hibernates en masse,
blotches that extend across the and small fishes, often pursuing its prey creating an extraordinary spectacle
back as far as the flanks. This slow underwater. Western ribbon snakes when large numbers of snakes emerge
mover lives mostly on the ground, give birth to up to 24 live young a in spring. Common garter snakes
but also climbs into shrubs, dead year, and can reach high densities in feed mainly on earthworms, fishes,
trees, and thatched roofs. suitable habitats. and amphibians, and are themselves
attacked by mammals and birds of prey.
slender body
with keeled scales PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
The 11 subspecies of common garter
light stripes snakes vary greatly in coloration. Shown
along body here is the vividly striped subspecies T.s.

infernalis, the San Francisco
garter snake.